Focus on Grammar through Discourse

Introduction

This chapter discusses the use of discourse in language teaching. Unlike other approaches that
focus solely on grammar forms, a discourse-based pedagogy considers the meaning and use of
these forms within a larger context. Traditionally, language teaching emphasized grammar alone,
but recent approaches have become more context-based, focusing on the form-meaning
relationships of language. A discourse-based approach to teaching grammar also looks at how
grammar functions in conveying meaning, including speech act functions, grammatical categories,
textual cohesion, and information structure.
This text emphasizes the importance of grammar in its pragmatic meaning within a specific
context. It discusses the components of understanding discourse, such as the form of the text, the
proposition being conveyed, and the speaker/writer's intent. The chapter explores how these
principles can be applied to teaching grammar, particularly in the context of language instruction.
It also discusses the emergence of discourse-based language teaching, the use of corpus linguistics
and classroom discourse analysis, and the differences between spoken and written discourse. The
text concludes by presenting sample classroom activities for integrating discourse-based form-
focused instruction.

What Are Discourse and Discourse Competence?

A discourse-based pedagogy focuses on integrating grammar forms into larger interactive contexts,
rather than isolating them at the sentence level. The aim of this approach is to develop discourse
competence, which is the ability to process and create coherent discourse. This requires analyzing
language as unified discourse rather than just analyzing individual sentences. Grammar is viewed
functionally and is seen as a tool to achieve communicative goals and express particular meanings
based on the context. Halliday's theory of systematic functional grammar is a major framework
within this meaning-based discourse view of grammar. According to this approach, grammar
involves making context-based choices and considering social and psychological factors. Isolated
grammar rules and sentence-level examples are considered insufficient for effectively teaching
second language grammar. Teachers need to consider language as a whole and develop students'
discourse competence.

Sentence-Level Versus Discourse-Level Grammar

The discourse view of language emphasizes the interaction of linguistic forms and pragmatic
conditions, suggesting that language instruction should include repeated use of target forms in
natural input. It distinguishes between grammar as syntax (the rules of word arrangement) and
grammar as language use (the ability to use grammar in communication). This view underlines the
importance of comprehension in communication, where the literal syntax might not convey the
actual meaning. Hence, grammar must be presented as a flexible tool for achieving communicative
goals. This is crucial for today's language learners as most examinations now include discourse
level questions, requiring learners to synthesize both written and spoken items in their responses.
Focus on Grammar through Discourse

The Need for a Discourse-Based Focus on Grammar Teaching

The text discusses four possible positions on the relationship between grammar structure and
function in L2 pedagogy. It argues that L2 grammar instruction should take place in extended
contexts, with meaningful input and output, in order to achieve target-like accuracy. The
importance of learner exposure to a target item is highlighted, emphasizing the need for repeated
encounters in discourse-level contexts. The text also mentions the renewed interest in formal
grammar instruction, different from traditional approaches, and challenges the tendency to ignore
the importance of frequency in L2 acquisition. The importance of frequency of exposure to target
items in second language acquisition has been established through corpus research. Learners need
to acquire chunks of speech, formulaic utterances, and frequently occurring collocations through
communicative usage. Learner attitudes also support a discourse-based approach, where learners
prefer pedagogical grammar explanations and real-life examples. Studies have shown that studying
grammar in isolation is less effective than combining instruction with multiple exposures to
meaningful contexts. As a result, there has been a rise in discourse-level, meaning-based
approaches to second language instruction that advocate for teaching grammar through listening,
speaking, reading, and writing activities.
Many pedagogical grammars now include functional introductions to grammar points,
emphasizing the use of target forms in communication. While traditional structural approaches are
still common in classroom materials, there is criticism for their lack of innovation. However,
popular ESL/EFL grammar textbooks often present new material based on function, linking form
and function in chapter titles. Current multi-dimensional ESL/EFL textbooks organize their
syllabus by communicative functions and topics, but still include sections with explicit rule-based
grammar instruction and conversation practice opportunities in each lesson.

Corpus Linguistics and a Focus on Grammar

Corpus linguistics is the study of language as expressed in large bodies of text, known as corpora.
It involves analyzing the patterns of language use in natural texts using both quantitative and
qualitative techniques. In the past, analyzing text-based language was a time-consuming process,
but with the development of computers, linguists were able to create corpora for analysis. The first
electronic corpus, the million-word Brown Corpus of Standard American English, was developed
in the 1960s. Corporas have been utilized for a long while to compile vocabulary lists and study
target language usage patterns and their frequencies in natural discourse. Numerous elements, such
as vocabulary, collocations, syntax, cohesion, and more, are examined. Corpus searches can help
learners understand and use lexical items in communication more effectively, given that lexical
errors are a common barrier in effective communication. Corpus linguistics holds significant
implications for L2 instruction in syllabus design, materials development, and classroom activities,
supporting a method known as data-driven learning (DDL). DDL involves using computer-
generated concordances in classrooms to help students understand language patterns, and then
developing activities based on concordance output. The field of corpus linguistics has important
implications for teaching second language (L2) instruction. It can be applied in syllabus design,
Focus on Grammar through Discourse

materials development, and classroom activities. Data-driven learning (DDL) is a teaching

approach supported by corpus linguistics, which involves using computer-generated concordances
to help students explore patterns in the target language. DDL promotes discovery learning and
critical thinking, as learners can generate grammar rules from examples found in the corpus. It also
helps address the mismatch between authentic language usage and what is commonly presented in
L2 textbooks. For example, corpus analysis reveals that the simple present tense is less commonly
used for habitual actions than textbooks suggest. This text discusses a 10-year study on the English
verb system, which is based on authentic texts and includes frequency counts. The study aims to
develop a pedagogical grammar for advanced second language learners. The grammar
recommends new categories derived from corpus analysis and emphasizes the importance of
studying grammatical variation. It suggests that many practitioners ignore variation when teaching
grammar and highlights the need to consider functional considerations and pragmatic competence
in language learning.
The text discusses two corpus-based approaches to second language (L2) grammar teaching. The
first approach uses learner corpora to identify common difficulties, comparing the language used
by L2 learners to native speakers. An example is the use of the Longman Learner Corpus to identify
common learner errors which were then incorporated into teaching materials. The second approach
uses corpus analysis of word clusters (words that usually follow each other) to create lists of
academic phrases for L2 writing instruction.
Discourse Analysis and Grammar
Discourse analysis is the study of the relationship between language forms and their context. It
involves identifying structural patterns in sentences and understanding their meaning in
communication. The function and participants in communication are important considerations.
While discourse analysis can be used to study grammar, it is often used to investigate social
interaction and language use within specific communities. Many publications on English discourse
focus on sociocultural concerns and pragmatic purposes.
Discourse analysis studies have important implications for a communicative focus on grammar.
One implication is the examination of connected speech or discourse-length utterances to study
pronunciation, stress, and intonation. Connected speech refers to a continuous sequence of spoken
language. Many teachers believe that understanding aspects of speech like pronunciation and
intonation cannot be achieved at the sentence level and should be taught through form-focused
discourse. Functional approaches to language teaching also highlight the teaching of grammar for
specific communicative functions, such as ordering in a restaurant or talking on the telephone. This
type of material is commonly found in textbooks.

The Grammar of Oral Versus Written Discourse

From a discourse-based perspective, there are significant differences between spoken and written
grammar. This requires that target forms be presented in a meaning-focused way in both modalities
in order to clarify the relationship between structure and meaning. These differences have
Focus on Grammar through Discourse

important implications for teaching language forms through discourse. Corpus linguistics has
provided valuable insights into the differences between speech and writing. For example, corpus
analysis has identified ten criteria for creating a spoken pedagogical grammar, including the parts
of a spoken grammar, phrasal complexity, the location of elements in a clause, and patterns in
extended discourse. The Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English extensively
analyzes the grammar of spoken English and identifies the most frequent grammar structures in
speech.
Differences between Spoken and Written Language
Spoken
1 In spoken language, speakers usually take turns, so the length of each turn is relatively short.
2 Most speech lacks formal discourse markers since the relationship between current and past
speech often depends on the context of the talk.
3 Speech has a simplified grammar and vocabulary.
4 Speech vocabulary is often simplified, referring to previously discussed topics or shared
information, and is characterized by ellipsis and anaphora.
5 Speech is often accompanied by paralinguistic information such as body language, gestures,
facial expression, etc.
6 Speech usually has considerable repetition and redundancy.
7 Speech uses multiple registers, sometimes within the same discourse.

Written
1 Written language generally consists of unbroken discourse.
2 Written language builds coherence by use of formal connecting forms such as “however” or
“therefore,” which show the relationship between different parts.
3 Written language is usually in a standard and consistent form.
4 Written vocabulary is often more complex, and is often characterized by complex morphological
structures.
5 Paralinguistic information is absent in written discourse.
6 Written discourse rarely contains repetition and redundancy.
7 Written discourse is more uniform in terms of register and standards of usage.

The text discusses various aspects of grammar in spoken English, such as the use of "do" as a pro-
verb, wh-words for information questions, contractions, present tense verbs, speech fillers, stative
verbs, and negatives formed by adding "n't" to the auxiliary. It also mentions that the frequencies
of these forms differ between spoken and written English. The third edition of A Communicative
Grammar of English places a strong emphasis on the grammar of the spoken language to achieve
a better balance between written and spoken forms. Additionally, further research explores the
differences between speech and writing by analyzing key words in different types of text, including
spoken English conversation, spoken academic English, written fiction, and written academic
English, to demonstrate the significant lexical, syntactic, and semantic differences between written
and spoken texts of various genres, as well as between informal and academic language usage.

Effective Use of Discourse-Based Activities in a Classroom Focus on Grammar

Focus on Grammar through Discourse

The text discusses the need for a more effective approach to teaching grammar in second language
(L2) instruction. It highlights the importance of considering the characteristics of both spoken and
written language in teaching materials. It critiques the over-reliance on written English structures
in most ESL/EFL pedagogical grammars, even in dialog-based activities, despite the significant
differences between spoken and written English. The author suggests the use of discourse-level
examples over sentence-level ones, as non-sentences frequently occur in natural language. The
text concludes with the idea that grammar teaching needs to revise its structural descriptions to
reflect actual language use better.

The text emphasizes the importance of incorporating discourse-level examples in grammar

teaching across the four major language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. It explains
that word order choices, tense-aspect choices, and the use of special grammatical constructions are
context-dependent and require learners to comprehend and apply grammar rules at the discourse
level. The text also mentions that newer ESL/EFL textbooks are increasingly using form-focused
discourse to teach these skills. It then provides four examples of teaching the four language skills
through discourse: reading extended texts, listening to extended speech and completing related
tasks, writing essays, and engaging in speaking activities such as giving speeches or answering
questions.

Classroom Activities

The text discusses activities for teachers and learners to focus on grammar in L2 classrooms. These
activities combine instruction with naturalistic input, allowing learners to repeatedly use target
forms. Producing target forms in discourse-level output is also important for noticing and acquiring
the target structures.

Activity 1. Teachers Exploring Authentic and Non-authentic Language Use

The text discusses the gap between textbook language learning and real-world language use,
suggesting the use of authentic materials like newspapers, fiction, and TV dialogues for learning.
However, it also identifies the challenges of using such material, particularly for beginners. The
text suggests that an increasingly accepted alternative is to simplify authentic texts to match the
learners' proficiency. Even though some educators might object to this lack of authenticity, they
argue for content tailored to communicate at a comprehensible level. The text asserts that learners
should receive a mix of authentic and simplified material to explore grammatical relationships,
emphasizing a balanced approach to language learning.

Directions for the Students

The text asks the reader to analyze two extracts: one is a real conversation, and the other is from a
language teaching textbook. The reader is required to determine which extract is which and
identify the differences between them. Additionally, they are prompted to guess the language being
taught in the non-authentic conversation and identify the necessary grammar to participate in the
genuine conversation.
Focus on Grammar through Discourse

Activity 2. Teachers Using Discourse-level Input and Output

Researchers suggest using discourse-level oral and written output, not just sentence level output,
to evaluate learners' pragmatic skills and oral proficiency. Standardized test questions are now
designed to assess this through essay writing or speaking. Grammar is critical for creating
discourse, requiring attention to the lexico-grammatical features and their roles in maintaining text
cohesion. The author emphasizes developing learners' receptive and productive skills at the
discourse level. Activities recommended for enhancing these skills include activating knowledge
structures, foregrounding contextually relevant shared knowledge, promoting top-down and
bottom-up processing, and focusing on meta-discoursal signaling devices.
The text provides several suggestions for enhancing productive roles in communication. Here are
the suggestions in detail:

1. Pay attention to the salient features of the context, such as the setting, scene, and the predicted
state of knowledge and expectations of the reader or listener.
2. Project oneself as a certain kind of person in different circumstances to establish a desired
identity.
3. Consider the communicative goals or functions of the speech or writing, as it is socially situated
and helps to constitute an activity.
4. Use appropriate instrumentalities, such as features of register and genre, to effectively convey
the intended message.
5. Develop communication strategies that are appropriate to the mode of communication being
used.

In addition to these suggestions, teachers can promote discourse-length output by incorporating

communicative tasks into the classroom. For example, using e-mail exchange tasks or requiring
weekly submissions of daily life written journals can provide learners with opportunities for
Focus on Grammar through Discourse

meaningful discourse-level output. The use of the internet can also support these
recommendations, as it offers various resources for listening, reading, writing, and speaking
practice in the target language.

Activity 3. Having Students Write Discourse for Authentic Purposes

In order to increase the number of words produced by intermediate to advanced L2 students,

teachers can request weekly e-mail exchanges among classmates on daily activities or similar
themes. This regular communicative output opportunity has been shown to be effective in
increasing writing output. Teachers can also request weekly journals from students for extensive
writing practice, focusing on content rather than correction.

Activity 4. Using Discourse-based Activity Templates

The pedagogical method proposed by Celce-Murcia, which combines deductive and inductive
approaches for discourse-level contexts, is important and can be used not only for teacher
trainees but also for high intermediate or advanced-level learners.

Activity 5. An Activity Template

To solve a usage problem in the L2 language, follow these ten steps:

1. Identify the usage problem.
2. Review what grammar texts and researchers have said about the problem.
3. Examine natural written/spoken discourse of native speakers for uses of the target form,
considering the context and the reason for the choice of the form.
4. Develop a hypothesis about why the form was used.
5. Test the hypothesis with discourse analysis and/or elicitation techniques.
6. Consult language corpora to examine further examples of usage.
7. Look for grammatical relationships with other forms, collocations, and items that precede or
follow the target form.
8. Examine the role of the target item in discourse; e.g., does it initiate or terminate episodes?
Does it contribute to cohesion and coherence? Where does it occur in natural discourse?
9. Examine whether the target form reflects affective or social interactional features of the
discourse.
10. Develop an activity that presents the usage in natural communication followed or preceded
by a formal mini-lesson on the grammar structure
Focus on Grammar through Discourse

Sample Student Activity Based on a Template

It describes an activity for learners at the discourse level. The activity involves reading a text from a
charity brochure that appeals for donations. The text talks about the benefits of giving a widowed
mother a goat, such as milk production, manure for crops, and the ability to sell more crops. The
activity includes various steps, such as:

1 A warm-up session consisting of instructions which the learners must act

out, similar to Total Physical Response.
2 Schemata activation, in which the teacher asks the learners what the most
useful thing would be to give a widowed mother in Africa, then asks the
learners to discuss this in groups.
3 The first reading of the text, where the learners read the text silently using
their dictionaries.
4 Learner response to text by establishing the discourse function of the text
and discussing the idea.
5 Questions from the teacher requiring learner scanning of the text.
6 Reconstructing the text by completing a text-based cloze activity.
7 A language focus section in which the learners are made aware of target
structures in the text, such as articles and verb forms, through cloze
activities and substitution exercises.
8 Learner pair work to write their own text. This and similar activities can
be modified according to the level of the learners.

Activity 6. Discourse-based Comprehension Activities

Widdowson's doctoral dissertation in 1973 introduced a discourse-based comprehension

approach. This approach emphasizes the use of extended discourse to help learners develop
formal knowledge about the target structure and how it is used. It also provides opportunities for
learners to notice the target structure in meaningful contexts and remain aware of it. Widdowson
presents an exercise on rephrasing in which students replace expressions in a discourse passage
with ones that have the same meaning. The goal is to draw attention to the relationship between
meanings and the discourse in which they are used. (Widdowson, 1973, p. 232)

Activity 7. Using Corpora to Encourage Learners to Focus on Grammar

It explains that a corpus is a computerized database of authentic texts and transcripts, usually
with parts of speech tagged. It can be searched using a concordancer, which is a software
program that analyzes corpora for specific words or phrases. The results are displayed in a
concordance, which shows instances of the target structure centered and bolded on separate lines.
The text also mentions an example of using concordances to help learners understand the correct
use of lexical items. The recommended number of examples is at least 12 to provide a variety of
usages.
Instruction
Focus on Grammar through Discourse

The teacher assigns the class into three groups and provides each group with a different set of concordance
lines. The groups are instructed to analyze the lines and identify two patterns. If they struggle, they can look
at the verb form following the word in the central column of the lines to identify any differences. Ideally, they
should be able to create a grammar rule based on their findings.

Activity 8. Teachers Conducting Discourse Analysis of Their Own Output

Discourse analysis is frequently suggested as a valuable tool in the L2 classroom for exploring cultural and
pragmatic variations in language usage and functions. It can also be utilized to enhance grammar instruction.
One possible activity for the teacher is to assess how their classroom discourse affects student participation
and language use.

Activity 9. Videotaping and Analyzing a Lesson

This activity involves videotaping and analyzing a lesson to observe the impact of their questions and
classroom dialogue on learner participation.

It provides instructions for teachers to analyze their questioning style and its impact on students' responses
in order to improve language learning opportunities. The stages are as follows:

1. Videotape a complete lesson, including questions and student responses.

2. Watch the videotape and identify recurring patterns in questioning style.

3. Transcribe questions and other parts of the lesson for easier analysis.

4. Analyze the videotape and transcript to understand the purpose and effectiveness of each question asked.
Determine if it was open-ended or closed-ended. Assess the impact of the questions on teaching and learning
goals and the students' opportunities to practice the target language. Evaluate how students responded to
different types of questions and identify the questions that generated the most discussion. Additionally,
consider if the students asked any questions themselves.
Focus on Grammar through Discourse

By following these steps and focusing on classroom interaction, teachers can make changes to their teaching
style that will provide students with more opportunities to practice a wider variety of discourse types.

Activity 10. Using Discourse-based Input Activities to Build a Sense of Cohesion and Coherence in Written and
Spoken Text

Discourse analysis in L2 learning often focuses on studying cohesion, or the links between
sentences and clauses in speech or writing. Teachers may use authentic text to teach how
grammar creates those links. Students are guided to identify patterns of word usage. An
additional focus is examining coherence through top-down planning and organization in written
discourse. A method for this is having students analyze multiple uses of a target form, like 'the',
in a text and make generalizations about use and context.