Sociology in Action: A Canadian Perspective Third Edition Chapter 4

04 CHAPTER
Socialization: The Self

and Social Identity
“ ”
Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock
I know you are, but what am I?

(Paul Reubens, as Pee-Wee Herman)1
NEL
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES LO1 IDENTIFYING
& OUTCOMES OURSELVES AND
After reading this chapter, students IDENTIFYING OTHERS
should be able to do the following: The opening quotation was often used by a 1980s
children’s TV and film character, Pee-Wee Herman. He
would use it as a child-like retort whenever another
LO1 Explain how our own unique sense character called him an unpleasant name; the phrase
of “self” includes traits that fall may even bring back schoolyard memories of your own
along a personal–social identity childhood. But those words also reveal a more basic
continuum. aspect of social life—the fact that we are in a constant
process of both identifying ourselves and being identi-
LO2 Define “self” and explain its con- fied by others. Countless characteristics are integrated
nection to socialization and social
into this process, ranging from physical attributes
(e.g., 59 100, brown-haired, green-eyed) and ascribed
interaction.
characteristics (e.g., Indigenous, male) to abilities
(e.g., visual-spatial, athletic), likes/dislikes (e.g., rock
LO3 Describe the continuum of nature versus country music), preferences (e.g., vegetarian,
versus nurture assumptions. taking the bus to work), and group affiliations (e.g.,
church member, full-time student, chess club). When
LO4 Describe Mead’s stages of develop- integrated into your own sense of self, those traits fall
ment of the self and differentiate along a personal–social identity continuum (Tajfel &
between the “I” and the “me.” Turner, 1986). The personal–social identity continuum
refers to the range of traits you possess that emphasize
the way you see yourself as a unique individual on one
LO5 Identify the ways in which the per-
end and those that underscore your membership in a
ceptions of others affect our indi- group on the other end. Precisely which traits stand
vidual identities. out the most to you at any given time can vary across
contexts. “Lousy dancer” may become more dominant
LO6 Identify primary agents of sociali- when you are at a wedding, “Canadian citizen” when
zation and describe their main you are crossing an international border, and “father”
contributions to the development when you are attending a parent–teacher interview at
of the self and/or social identity. a school. Identities are always in flux as we change
throughout our lives, developing new interests and
LO7 Outline the basic components of
abandoning some old ones, getting a new job, meeting
new people, having children, aging, and accumulating
social structure.
life experiences that influence our view of the world
and ourselves.
LO8 Explain how social institutions Among the myriad characteristics that contribute
contribute to social structure and to our individual sense of self, some constitute master
assess the merits of Weber’s ideal statuses (defined and described in more detail later
type of bureaucracy in modern on), ones that are so fundamental to who we are that
society. they shape almost every aspect of our lives and take
precedence over other characteristics. Sex and gender
and race and ethnicity
(addressed in later chap- Personal–social
ters) are some of these identity continuum:
characteristics; you may The range of traits you
possess that emphasize
view them as essential to the manner in which you
your identity, but even if see yourself as a unique
you don’t, they are still individual on one end and
those that underscore your
central to how others cate- membership in a group on
gorize you, and they affect the other end.
your life in a multitude
NEL CHAPTER 4 Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 67
of ways. And even if the way that others identify you “responsible,” “directionally challenged,” “clever,”
corresponds to the way you identify yourself, there and “physically active”). The crux of the self-concept
can still be divergent views about the auxiliary traits is also social because it is only through our inter-
that are presumed to accompany that master status. actions with others that we come to develop the
Auxiliary traits refer to other characteristics that a meanings, shared understandings, and bases of com-
person associates with a particular master status. parison that ultimately create our subjective selves
For example, you might associate “parenthood” with (Charmaz, 2007). For example, the same author
qualities such as nurturance and patience; someone perceives herself to be generous largely because
else, though, might associate that same master status others have pointed this out (e.g., students and col-
with discipline and authority. Similarly, the interests, leagues express their appreciation for help obtained,
skills, and abilities that one person associates with friends and family tease her for being “too generous”
being “female” might be quite different from those with gifts). Similarly, you might consider yourself to
that another person associates with being “female.” be “attractive” or “talented” based on the amount
and kind of attention you have received from others
in various social environments. Self-understanding,
LO2 THE SUBJECTIVE AND then, is an individual’s sense of who he or she “is” at
a given time, based on perceived similarities to and
SOCIAL NATURE OF THE SELF differences from others. It is formed through sociali-
Although our identities undergo a multitude of zation, the lifelong process through which people
changes over time, we still think of our core self as learn about themselves and their various roles within
somewhat “stable” and “knowable” (O’Brien, 2011). society and in relation to one another. Socialization
Sociologists use the term “self” to refer to our knowl- includes learning the norms, values, and language
edge of ourselves as enti- of a shared culture, as well as the knowledge, under-
ties separate and distinct standings, and experiences that help shape our social
Auxiliary traits:
Characteristics presumed from others and the term identities (who we are in terms of the social groups
to accompany a specific self-concept to refer to the we consider ourselves to be a part of) and our per-
master status. totality of various traits, sonal identities (the ways we consider ourselves to
Self-concept: An feelings, and values that be unique individuals). From a sociological perspec-
individual’s sense of underlie our own unique tive, this learning is contingent on other people—that
who he or she is based
on perceived similarities
personalities and prefer- is, it is a function of social interaction. This chapter
to and differences from ences (Schieman, 2007). explores how our personal and social identities form,
others. We recognize where our develop, grow, and change over time and how we, in
Socialization: The abilities and some of our turn, have socializing effects on others.
lifelong process through challenges lie, and we
which people learn about can also identify ways
themselves and their
various roles in society and in which we compare LO3 NATURE AND NURTURE:
to others and “fit in” or
in relation to one another.
“stand out from” our fam-
MAJOR INFLUENCES ON THE
Social identity: The
portion of an individual’s ilies, circle of friends, and DEVELOPING SELF
sense of self derived from others in society. From Early philosophers questioned whether a newborn
membership in social
groups.
a social psychological possesses inborn (biological) influences that predeter-
perspective, this sense of mine who he or she will eventually become or whether
Personal identity: The self is both “subjective”
portion of an individual’s a newborn is a “blank slate” on which society imposes
sense of self that renders
and “social” (Charmaz, its influence. Traditionally, this consideration was
him or her unique from 2007). Our self-concept labelled the nature versus nurture debate, implying
others. is subjective because that identity is wholly the result of one or the other.
Biological each of us has our own
determinism: The belief perception of the unique
that human behaviour is collection of traits, tal- BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES
controlled by genetics.
ents, and experiences On the extreme end of “nature,” evolutionary theo-
Sociobiology: The we possess (e.g., one of rists advocate biological determinism, the belief that
belief that social behaviour
evolved from the need to
the authors perceives all human behaviour is controlled by our genetic
reproduce and survive. herself to be “friendly,” makeup. Biological determinism underlies a con-
“impatient,” “generous,” troversial concept called sociobiology, which claims
68 PART 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL
an evolutionary origin for people’s social behaviour Bandura’s early research on aggression led him to
based on a species’ need to reproduce and survive conclude that a lot of learning takes place in the
(Wilson, 1975). To explain differences in mate selec- absence of immediate or obvious consequences,
tion strategies, for example, sociobiology points out where people simply observe and then imitate
how it is advantageous for males to have multiple the actions of others (Bandura, 1962; Bandura &
partners and to seek out young, attractive potential Walters, 1959).
partners who symbolize fertility, whereas it is more Today, most academics (including sociologists)
advantageous for females to select a male on the recognize the interrelationships between nature
basis of power and resources (Bailey et al., 1994). (biology) and nurture (socialization and social inter-
Whereas sociobiology has been widely criticized for action) as important for influencing people’s lives and
its dependence on ultimate causes rooted in natural their developing selves. Although children inherit
selection processes, other biosociological theo- particular genes from their parents, their families of
ries based on more proximal causes, such as genes, origin also provide a context within which socializa-
enzymes, or hormones, continue to show merit tion takes place. The interaction between biological
for explaining social behaviour (Machalek, 2007). factors (e.g., hereditary predispositions) and the envi-
For example, researchers in Toronto have identified ronment (e.g., interactions with others) helps a child
the presence of certain enzymes in children with clin- reach his or her potential. As discussed in the earlier
ically diagnosed aggression (Beitchman et al., 2004). chapter on culture, language is the primary means by
Prison studies find high levels of testosterone in which we interact with one another, experience life,
males who commit violent and sexual crimes (Dabbs and convey meaning. Case studies of lost or aban-
et al., 1995). Twin studies also find more congruence doned children who have been raised in isolation and
in the criminality of identical twins compared to lack human contact teach us that in the absence of
nonidentical twins (Raine, 1993). Of course, based socialization processes, humans fail to develop social
on similarity in looks, parents and significant others behaviours we consider fundamental to being human,
might treat identical twins more alike than fraternal such as communicating with language (see Sociology
ones to create this outcome. However, the Minnesota in the News). Similarly, children born with genetically
Twin Study examined the influence of genetics in inherited disabilities may develop only limited social
twins who were raised apart and found that biology functioning even with high levels of social engage-
helped explain similarities in their personalities and ment. Thus, both nature and nurture are necessary for
behaviours (Segal, 2012). human development, growth, and potential and are
equally important.
SOCIETAL INFLUENCES
The other side of the debate is typified by behav- AGENCY AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
iourism , a school of thought centred on external Furthermore, individuals actively shape their own
influences and attributed to psychologist John environments over time. This view is best captured
B. Watson, who claimed that all behaviour was by the bio-ecological theory of human development,
the result of learning: “Give me a dozen healthy which stresses the impor-
infants, well-formed, and my own specified world tance of human agency
to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any and considers human Behaviourism:
A school of thought
one at random and train him to become any type development to be an that denies free will,
of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, ongoing, evolving, emphasizes observable
merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, and reciprocal process phenomena, and claims
that all behaviour is learned
regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abil- between individuals and from the environment.
ities, vocations, and race of his ancestors” (Watson, their wider structural
1924, p. 82). B.F. Skinner (1938) later developed environments. Many Bio-ecological theory
of human
“radical behaviourism” (also known as “behaviour layers of influence and development:
analysis”), which similarly downplayed the impor- reciprocal interaction A theory that views
human development as
tance of biology but also emphasized how learning help shape (or, conversely, a dynamic process of
is a function of the consequences that follow behav- hinder) human poten- reciprocal interaction in
iour. Specifically, reinforcement in the form of posi- tial, including micro- which individuals play an
important role in shaping
tive consequences strengthens the likelihood of level influences, such as the environment in which
future responses, whereas negative consequences parents, teachers, and they develop.
decrease them. However, social psychologist Albert peers, as well as larger,
more removed forces (e.g., the economy, social ser- SOCIALIZATION AND GENETIC
vices, political ideology) (Bronfenbrenner, 2001).
INFLUENCES
Moreover, these forces operate on individuals who
are themselves active agents. Children may resist or Lastly, research suggests that socialization itself is
embrace the attempts made by their parents, teachers, influenced by a complex interplay between genetic
and friends to teach them life lessons. Adolescents preconditions and environmental factors. Avinun and
make choices about who they wish to spend time Knafo-Noam (2015) explain how a child’s genotype
with, and those choices help shape the experiences can affect his or her temperament to impact the type
that unfold from there. Young adults associate with of parenting received, which ultimately influences
particular groups, date certain individuals, and work how that child experiences the world. For example,
for specific employers. Within the ensuing interac- fearful children (as indicated by various neurological
tions, existing ideas and meanings are brought to and endocrine responses) are at risk for negative par-
light, new meanings develop, traits are shaped, and enting, which can lead to long-term negative outcomes
various characteristics are adopted to create the in children exposed to negative parenting that can still
identities that comprise the self. Bronfenbrenner be present by the time they reach adulthood. Some
(2005) summarizes this process as follows: “Human reactions from early caregivers are now believed to
beings create environments that shape the course change how genes are expressed in offspring via epi-
of human development. Their actions influence the genetic processes, blurring earlier distinctions made
multiple physical and cultural tiers of the ecology between nature and nature and working to shape
that shapes them, and this agency makes humans— the developing self. Epigenetics, originally coined by
for better or worse—active producers of their own Waddington (1942), refers to the study of the mecha-
development” (p. xxvii). nisms that bring about changes in gene expression.
SOCIOLOGY IN THE NEWS
FERAL CHILD: THE CASE OF NG CHHAIDY

In 2012, the world discovered a “feral child” named as having adjusted to her new life remarkably well and
Ng Chhaidy, who was reunited with her family after is full of emotion, demanding regular “impromptu
38 years of separation, during which she spent much hugs and kisses” from those close to her (Dixit, 2015).
of her life living in isolation in an Indian forest. Ng
Chhaidy went missing from her village in Saiha in
the southernmost district of Mizoram, which borders
Myanmar, when she was only four years old (Edwards,
2012). Chhaidy and her cousin Beiraku, who was also
four at the time, disappeared while playing in a field
shortly before a heavy rainstorm. Although Beiraku
was later found beside a stream, there was no sign
of Chhaidy (Edwards, 2012). Over the years, there
were a few purported sightings of “a jungle girl,” but
her father was unable to find her. After a visitor from
Myanmar told Chhaidy’s father that he resembled a
woman she had adopted after finding her “naked
and half dead” in the village cemetery, he raised the
money to travel to Aru to see if this might be his long-
SALIL BERA/THE WEEK
lost child. As it turned out, she was (Edwards, 2012).

Since her reunion with her family in 2012, Chhaidy,
now in her late 40s, has received no professional help
and remains an untapped goldmine of scientific dis-
covery. Although she is still childlike and unable to use
language in a conventional sense, Chhaidy is described Chhaidy with her mother.
into a mouth. In this preparatory stage, babies do little
TIME TO REVIEW
more than imitate others. For example, an infant will
• What is the personal–social identity wave “bye-bye” in response to someone else waving
continuum, and how do master statuses “bye-bye.” In the next stage, called the play stage,
and auxiliary traits fit into it? children start to take on the role of others. Here, a
child begins to see that people exist in relation to one
• What is included in one’s self-concept? another. A common form of play at this stage is to
• In what ways is the self both subjective play “house,” where the child takes on the role of one
and social? other person in a household, such as pretending to
• What is the main assumption underlying be “the mommy.” Or a child might listen to some-
biological determinism? one’s heart with a toy stethoscope, pretending to be
a “doctor,” or place items in a toy basket, pretending
• Which school of thought best typifies to be a “shopper,” or place fake food in a little pot,
the nurture side of the development pretending to “cook supper,” in response to visits to
debate? the family physician, going on trips to the grocery
store, and/or observing parents prepare meals. During
this phase, a child can only focus on one role or per-
spective at a time (e.g., “I am the doctor” or “I am
YOUR SOCIOLOGICAL TOOLKIT the mommy”). However, the child can switch back
SOCIOLOGY IN THEORY and forth between roles and demonstrate an under-
standing of temporal order (e.g., a child pretends to
DEVELOPMENT OF THE SELF be a cook to make a meal and then, when the meal
is ready, pretends to be the person at the table eating
An emphasis on meanings and subjective understand- the meal) (Angus, 2007). It is not until the game stage
ings is at the foundation of the symbolic interactionist that a child is able to take into account several dif-
perspective. According to Blumer (1969, p. 2), that ferent roles simultaneously.
perspective rests on three assumptions: Mead (1934) used the analogy of a baseball game
1. Human beings act toward things (such as other to explain how the actor in the game stage must be
humans or objects) on the basis of the meanings the able to understand different roles and perspectives
things have for them. and be able to think about them simultaneously
2. The meaning of things is derived from social before making a move. For example, a pitcher will
interactions. need to consider the score, the inning, and the various
3. These meanings are handled and modified through players and their relative positions (e.g., on the bases)
an interpretive process. before making a decision about where to throw a ball
retrieved while in play (see Figure 4.1). The ability to
For Mead (1934), the uniquely human capacity engage in role taking and account for multiple per-
for acting and reacting in relation to others on the spectives at once is what Mead meant by the socialized
basis of shared meanings is the essence of the devel- self or the “generalized other.”
opment of the social self. This “reflexive” self can take Mead further distinguished between two parts of
into account itself (as an object), itself in relation to the self: the “I” and the “me” (see Figure 4.2). The
others (as a subject), and the views of wider society “I” is the relatively uninhibited and spontaneous self
(i.e., the generalized other). Mead (1934) pointed that is unique to the person (i.e., the constellation of
out that we are not born with a self; rather, the self one’s personality traits that form the basis of the self-
develops within and through our interactions with concept, along with subconscious desires and crea-
others. This is especially evident in children’s play and tive potential). In contrast, the “me” represents the
games. socialized self that acts in accordance with societal
expectations. For example, one of the authors notes
LO4 I, ME, AND THE that her spontaneous “I” who is in a hurry to get to
class might desire to join a colleague she recognizes
GENERALIZED OTHER at the front of a long lineup at Tim Hortons, but the
Shortly after birth, an infant is able to recognize sig- more socialized “me” is either going to wait at the
nificant others. A baby also begins to see himself or end of the lineup for the appropriate turn to purchase
herself as an object—an entity that exists with fin- coffee or forgo a coffee purchase altogether in order
gers and toes that can be moved around and even put to reach class early.
FIGURE 4.1
Mead’s Stages in the Development of the Self
Source: dragon_fang/Shutterstock; iko/Shutterstock; Michael Pettigrew/

Game stage
Play stage
Shutterstock
Preparatory stage
FIGURE 4.2
Mead’s Representation of the Self: The “I” and the “Me”
The Self
Source: GoodMood Photo/Shutterstock; ImageFlow/Shutterstock

Internalized
Spontaneous norms
and values
Generalized
Impulsive Uninhibited Socialized
other
“I” “Me”
Objective
Unique
self
LO5 SELF-PERCEPTION: THE insults, such as name calling. When this happens,
parents and teachers often tell children that what
LOOKING-GLASS SELF others think of them shouldn’t matter—that “sticks
Note that not everything we learn about ourselves and stones may break my bones, but names will never
from others is positive or even accurate, yet these hurt me.” In fact, what others think of you does matter
views still have an impact on the developing self. and can have significant implications. Interactionist
Inevitably, children get into disagreements with their theories explain how the way that others identify
peers that sometimes culminate in an exchange of and label us affects our self-perception. An important
FIGURE 4.3
Cooley’s Looking-Glass Self
Source: Aaron Amat/Shutterstock; Brand X Pictures/Getty

Images; monkeybusinessimages/Thinkstock
We incorporate
We imagine
We imagine the perceived
how we are
how we appear judgments of
judged by
to others. others into our
others.
sense of self.
concept within the interactionist perspective is the

looking-glass self. The looking-glass self refers to
the sense of ourselves that we develop based on
our perceptions of how others view us. Charles
Horton Cooley (1864–1929) proposed that people
in our lives serve as a “looking glass” (a historical
term for mirror) (Cooley, 1902). When we interact
with them, we “see” ourselves reflected back. There
are three core components to the looking-glass self
(Yeung & Martin, 2003). First, we imagine how we
appear to others. Second, we imagine how they judge
that appearance. Third, we incorporate the perceived
judgments of others into our own sense of self (see
Figure 4.3).
For instance, if we think our parents consider us
Farris, Joseph, jfa1521, Cartoonstock.com

intelligent, capable, and attractive, we will come to
see ourselves in the same way; similarly, if we think
they perceive us as incompetent and unattractive, we
begin to see ourselves that way as well. Note that it
is the perceived judgment of others that is significant.
Hence, we may incorrectly believe that our parents
consider us incompetent, and this will still become
incorporated into our looking-glass self. In addition,
when others identify us on the basis of master sta-
tuses such as sex or ethnicity, which they then asso-
ciate with certain auxiliary traits, our own identities
may be affected by the assumed accompanying auxil- than those of more distant people in our lives (e.g.,
iary traits. For example, if parents continuously act in coworkers) or the generalized other (Cooley, 1902;
an overly protective manner toward a daughter who Gamble & Yu, 2008; Yeung & Martin, 2003). Second,
is “vulnerable” and “needs protection,” that daughter there are individual differences in the extent to which
may come to view herself as vulnerable and in need the looking-glass self is utilized (Hartner, 1999;
of protection. Hartner & Whitesell,
The influence of others on our personal and group 2003). That is, some Looking-glass self:
identity is neither direct nor certain. First, the extent people have more of a The sense of ourselves that
we develop based on our
of influence may depend on how important those looking-glass self-orien- perceptions of how others
others are to us. The perceptions of significant others tation (LGSO), whereas view us.
(e.g., family members) may have more of an impact others have more of a
“core” self-orientation. A person with more of a LGSO
TIME TO REVIEW
is more dependent on others’ perceptions for his or
her sense of self. A stronger LGSO is associated with • According to Mead, what three stages
less stability in one’s identity, as well as a greater likeli- make up the development of the social
hood of problematic symptoms, such as depression or self?
anxiety (Gamble & Yu, 2008). Maruna and colleagues
(2004) paint a picture of even more significant poten- • Which part of Mead’s representation of
tial implications of the looking-glass self, pointing to the self includes the generalized other?
the subtle (and sometimes not so subtle) ways that drug • How do other people influence our
counsellors may communicate a lack of confidence in identities, according to interactionist
convicted drug users’ ability to really change—which theorists?
may then affect the likelihood of recidivism (i.e., reof- • Do others influence everyone equally?
fending). Although there may be individual variations
in the implications of the looking-glass self, there is
no doubt that the way in which at least some other
people see you has an impact on how you, in turn, People learn, grow, and change over time with
see yourself and, in turn, age, through new experiences, and in response to
how you present yourself, others. Thus, socialization takes many different
Recidivism: Committing including your virtual self forms and is enacted in various ways throughout the
further crimes after having
been convicted of a crime. (see Critical Thinking in life course. Sociologists use the term primary sociali-
Action). zation to refer to the earliest form of socialization,
YOUR SOCIOLOGICAL TOOLKIT
CRITICAL THINKING IN ACTION
SELF-TRACKING AND THE CREATION OF A VIRTUAL SELF

Have you ever kept track of how much weight you lost
or how much progress you made in the gym over time?
In The Virtual Self: How Our Digital Lives Are Altering
the World Around Us, Nora Young (2012) describes the
culture of “self-tracking,” wherein we create digital © Eugenio Marongiu/Getty Images
records of ourselves. For example, people keep track of

how fit and healthy they are by recording their dietary
intake, energy expenditure, and weight gains and
losses using Internet-based programs such as Weight
Watchers® online, mobile apps (e.g., MyFitnessPal,
SparkPeople Mobile), and gadgets such as the Fitbit
Blaze or Withings Go. The act of monitoring ourselves
is not new. But as Young (2012) points out, we are
now creating data about ourselves in volumes that What image is conveyed in your digital self?
never existed before, and we are sharing this infor-
mation as part of our “digital reality.” Think about we’ve been, and even compilations of our personal
what you share with others using social media such as
achievements and our connections to others.
Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn. Our digital selves can
include postings about our daily thoughts and moods, Think Outside the Box: In what ways has your virtual
our likes and dislikes, our current job and relation- self changed over time? How does your virtual self
ship statuses, the events we plan to attend, the places illustrate what sociologists refer to as “agency”?
which begins the moment an individual is born societal expectations regarding how to behave. Many
into a culture and experiences socialization “for the of the lessons learned are based on observations
first time” (Wasson, 2007). Primary caregivers in a made during family routines and rituals. Society
newborn’s family are the central socializing forces places the responsibility for children in the hands of
and continue to play an important role throughout their parents, who also have the authority to make
childhood. decisions on their behalf and who are expected to
maintain long-term relationships with them. From a
functionalist perspective, the family’s role is to pro-
LO6 AGENTS OF vide support (e.g., love, protection, economic well-
being) and guidance along the path to becoming
SOCIALIZATION productive and responsible adult members of society.
Much of the information we receive about ourselves Effective parenting enhances child attachment and
comes from agents of socialization. Agents of sociali- improves child outcomes; by contrast, dysfunctional
zation are the groups, social institutions, and/or social parenting impedes socialization and causes inse-
settings that have the greatest amount of influence on cure attachment in children (Swenson, 2004). For
the developing self. Principal agents of socialization resources on effective parenting, refer to Sociology in
include the family, the school, the peer group, and My Community.
the mass media. Other important agents of sociali- Duff and Peace (2013) explain that children
zation can include parenthood, the workplace, reli- learn two important attitudes through their early
gion, sports, marriage, and correctional services (e.g., interactions with primary caregivers. First, through
prison, probation, and parole). the emotional reactions they receive from their par-
ents, children develop
self-esteem. Since self-
THE FAMILY esteem is an evalua- Agents of
socialization: The
In every society without exception, the family is the tion of one’s self-worth, groups, social institutions,
first and often the most important agent of sociali- parents who engage in and/or social settings
zation. Children are the offspring of parents, and favourable interactions that have the greatest
amount of influence on the
this family unit is part of a biosocial system that is with their children (e.g., developing self.
designed to love, protect, and care for them (Grusec smile at them, encourage
& Davidov, 2007). Families also provide most aspects them, show approval) Self-esteem: An
evaluation of one’s own
of early socialization, from language acquisition to help instill high self- self-worth.
what and how to eat, personal grooming, and wider esteem in their offspring.
SOCIOLOGY IN MY COMMUNITY
PARENTS MATTER
The Canadian Association of Family Resource Programs Education Savings Program), information on positive
(FRP Canada) is a national organization that promotes discipline, brochures from the Centre of Excellence for
the well-being of families by providing consultation Early Childhood Development on a range of topics,
and resources to caregivers. For example, parents such as aggressive behaviours, breastfeeding, and
can access downloadable resource sheets in a variety parent–child attachment, as well as access to ency-
of languages (e.g., Arabic, Chinese, Hindi, Punjabi, clopedias and handbooks on child development (FRP
Somali, Tagalog, Urdu) on building active habits, Canada, 2017).
singing through the day, developing family routines,
and connecting through stories. Other resources Think Outside the Box: What resources would you
include links to financial information (e.g., the Canada like to see made available for Canadian parents?
Conversely, parents who often show indifference important source of support, but at the same time,
or behave in disparaging ways (e.g., ignore or con- sibling conflict and poor-quality relationships are
stantly criticize their children) are likely to instill a associated with negative developmental outcomes
sense of low self-worth, making their children feel (Dunn, 2007; Rathus, 2018). Children also find
unloved or unlovable (Duff & Peace, 2013). Parents themselves in conflict with their parents, especially
also play a central role in helping an infant develop during adolescence, when a teenager prefers the com-
interpersonal trust. This attitude also affects self- pany of friends to that of family members. The main
worth as it involves the perception that one can trust thrust of this phase is a quest for independence as
and rely upon others who have his or her best interests teens begin to acknowledge their individuality apart
at heart. Children who have low self-esteem and low from the family unit. It might seem to a teen that it is
interpersonal trust have later problems developing his or her “right” to talk to friends until 2 a.m. and to
secure attachments in adulthood. As adults, they tend stay out late, but such actions may not be acceptable
to adopt fearful and avoidant interaction styles that to parents, who feel it is their duty to constrain the
inhibit the development of meaningful close relation- impulses of a teen until he or she has demonstrated
ships (Aronson et al., 2017). a capacity to assume greater responsibility and make
Although no two families are exactly alike, the sensible choices.
feminist perspective points out the many ways in Parents may be able to exert control and authority
which traditional families re-create existing pat- over their children (e.g., by implementing “time-
terns in society. For example, females are expected outs,” or taking away privileges for breaking rules);
to become primary caregivers who look after chil- however, as the interactionist perspective reminds
dren and elderly parents, whereas males are expected us, children are just as likely to influence their par-
to become primary breadwinners in the economic ents. This highlights the importance of human agency
sphere. The differential treatment of males and females and the bidirectional nature of socialization within
is also evident in the treatment of boys and girls by families (Kuczynski & Parkin, 2007). The child is an
their parents, wherein girls learn about caring and the active agent with intellect, purpose, feelings, and a
need to be cared for, whereas boys learn the impor- host of traits that constantly influence the parents as
tance of problem solving and becoming independent. they act and react in novel ways in different situations
Clearfield and Nelson (2006) found that mothers of over time. Thus, the decision of whether or not a par-
daughters spoke to and interacted with their infants ticular child gets to stay out late on a particular night
more overall than did mothers of sons. Even while the will depend on many factors, most of which originate
children were playing independently or exploring the within unique and dynamic parent–child contexts
room, mothers of daughters were more likely to talk (see also Kuczynski, 2003).
to them and offer them comfort if they became upset. Given the myriad family forms and dynamics, it
With three- and four-year-olds, fathers were found to is difficult to identify exactly what would constitute
stand closer to their daughters during a risk-taking a “normal” versus an “abnormal” family environ-
activity (i.e., traversing a small obstacle course), and ment. Instead, a family is usually assessed in terms
both mothers and fathers offered more help to daugh- of how well that family performs functions and how
ters when they reached an especially difficult part of well that family communicates with its individual
the obstacle course—in this case, girls needed to be members (Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2016). From this
“rescued,” or helped through the activity, whereas perspective, a “healthy” family is one that provides a
boys were encouraged to do it themselves. Differential high level of support for its individual members (e.g.,
experiences in the family, education, and employment material and emotional support) and has good com-
for males and females are discussed in greater deal in munication skills (e.g., conflicts are resolved through
a later chapter on gender. consultation and rational decision-making) (Zastrow
For a conflict theorist, the family is a hub of & Kirst-Ashman, 2016). Unhealthy family environ-
disagreement where there are ongoing struggles that ments, in contrast, fail to adequately support group
demonstrate power differences among individual members and are characterized by poor parenting
members. Many children have at least one sibling skills that foster child maltreatment, including child
(i.e., a brother or a sister), abuse (i.e., injuries to a child) and child neglect (e.g.,
Interpersonal trust: and siblings contribute to improper health care, lack of supervision, poor nutri-
A perception that another socialization independent tion) (Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2016). In extreme
person can be relied upon
and has your best interests
of parent–child inter- cases, child welfare services may intervene and even
at heart. actions. Relationships remove children from dysfunctional families (see
with siblings can be an Sociology in Practice).
SOCIOLOGY IN PRACTICE
CHILDREN’S RIGHTS AND CHILD WELFARE

IN CANADA
Children’s rights are a subject of debate and discussion.
Dir. Melisa Brittain, 2017, Vtape.org;

Although parents maintain the primary responsibility for
their children, citizens and government representatives
Painting: Blue by Tyler Blackface

(including parents) have determined that all Canadian
children have certain basic rights, such as the right to
protection from physical and emotional harm. “Child wel-
fare” refers to a system of government and private ser-
vices aimed at protecting children from abuse and neglect
(Canadian Child Welfare Research Portal, 2017). Child
welfare agencies throughout the provinces and territories
investigate alleged cases of child abuse and neglect and, This 2016 documentary highlights the voices of
where necessary, make temporary and permanent alter- Indigenous youth who have had negative experi-
nate care arrangements for children (e.g., placing a child ences with child welfare in Canada.
in a relative’s home, foster care, or a permanent adoptive
agents believe caregivers pose a “potential risk of harm”
home). In 2013, an estimated 62,428 Canadian children
to children (e.g., via caregiver substance abuse and a lack
(or about 8.5 per 1,000 in the population) were removed
of social supports) (Sinha et al., 2011).
from their families of origin (Jones, Sinha, & Trocmé,
2015). Indigenous children are disproportionately repre- Think Outside the Box: How might higher rates of
sented among those in child protective services. In many Indigenous children in foster care reflect broader struc-
of these cases, children are removed because welfare tural disadvantages that place Indigenous families at risk?
THE SCHOOL as a positive school climate (e.g., students feel safe and
supported, teachers and the principal work together
When apart from their families, children spend much collaboratively), the promotion of high standards (e.g.,
of their time in school, where they learn to read and challenging academic work and appropriate curricu-
write, along with various other lessons based on pro- lums), and clear classroom management objectives
cesses of socialization. For example, within the class (e.g., clearly stated expectations and consequences for
environment, students learn from their teachers and rule violations) (Rathus, 2014; Shaffer & Kipp, 2013).
classmates about personal management (e.g., how to
cooperate with others, respect the rights of others,
assume personal responsibility, and work indepen- THE PEER GROUP
dently). Social interactions with teachers and peers Another primary agent of socialization is the peer
play a central role in the transmission of cultural group—a group of individuals who share particular
values and norms that are deemed important. Because characteristics, such as grade level at school, age, and
schools tend to reinforce existing structures, processes, extracurricular activities (e.g., sports). Peers enact var-
and practices in society, they also help maintain the ious socializing functions, teaching us to share, to think
differential treatment of particular social groups based about the well-being of others, and to be a good sport even
on gender, socioeconomic status, and ethnicity (see when we lose a game. We
later chapters). This is, in part, achieved by teachers’ learn through our interac- Social comparison:
prior expectations about their students’ abilities and tions with peers what it Refers to how individuals
their subsequent behaviours toward students as a func- feels like to be accepted evaluate themselves in
terms of appearance, merit,
tion of these expectations (Wentzel & Looney, 2007). or rejected. Also, the peer and abilities based on how
Positive socialization experiences stem from “effec- group is a principal source they compare to others.
tive” school environments that include elements such of social comparison, in
SOCIOLOGY ON SCREEN
MODERN FAMILY
Postmodern perspectives point out how diverse and com- who is married to Gloria Delgado-Pritchett, his second
plex families are. Modern Family, a popular ABC comedy wife, her son (Manny) from a previous marriage, and
that debuted in 2009, provides a glimpse into the their son (Joe). From Claire and Mitchell’s lingering child-
complex relationships within families sharing the same hood rivalry to Jay’s reconstruction of marriage, parent-
dwelling, as well as between family members related by hood, and grandparenthood to Mitchell and Cameron’s
blood and marriage. The series’ characters include Phil journey into married life and parenthood, the series
and Claire Dunphy and their three children (Haley, Alex, depicts an endless array of challenges that require the
and Luke) and Claire’s brother Mitchell Pritchett, his hus- characters to learn, rethink, and transition through var-
band Cameron Tucker, and their adopted daughter Lily. A ious roles and stages in a complicated web of interrelated
third family unit consists of Claire’s father (Jay Pritchett), and reciprocal relationships.
Bob D'Amico/ABC via Getty Images

ABC’s Modern Family is all about socialization.
that individuals evaluate their own appearance, merit, peer groups witness acts of bullying. About 40 percent
and abilities in comparison with others (Festinger, of Canadian youth are likely both to be bullied (i.e., as
1954). For example, based on the class average for a victims) and to bully others (i.e., as aggressors) (Craig
mid-term exam, you can determine whether you are & McCuaig Edge, 2012). Bullying takes a variety of
below average, average, or above average in your ability forms, including verbal bullying (e.g., name calling,
to demonstrate your knowledge of sociology relative spreading rumours, making negative references to one’s
to your peer group. Similarly, comparisons with peer culture), social bullying (e.g., excluding others from a
groups inform us whether we are “good-looking,” “fat,” group, humiliating others with public gestures), phys-
“smart,” “short,” or “athletic.” The peer group also ical bullying (e.g., hitting, shoving, destroying another’s
exerts a great deal of influence over individuals, who are belongings), and electronic bullying (also called cyber-
pressured to conform to group expectations regarding bullying) (Bullying Canada, 2017).
appearance, activities, and views of others; sometimes As shown in Figure 4.4, electronic bullying (i.e.,
this culminates in inappropriate forms of exclusion and being threatened, embarrassed, gossiped about, or
aggression, including bullying. Salmivalli and Peets made to look bad online) is more prevalent among
(2009) note that bullies and victims are often in the older youth, and boys are slightly more likely than
same school classroom and that bullies gain status when girls to fall prey to it (Li & Craig, 2015). Whether
FIGURE 4.4
Experiences of Being Electronically Bullied, by Age and Gender
100%
Female Male Overall
80%
Proportion bullied at least once
60%
51%
47% 45%
44% 43%
40% 40% 41%
40% 36% 37% 38%
33%
20%
0%
12–14 15–16 17–18 All ages
Age in years
Source: © 2017 MediaSmarts and PREVNet, Ontario, Canada, Young Canadians’ Experiences with Electronic Bullying, http://www.mediasmarts.ca. Quoted with
permission. Found at http://mediasmarts.ca/sites/mediasmarts/files/publication-report/full/young-canadians-electronic-bullying.pdf, p. 10.
electronic bullying is substantively different from lives (e.g., see Bereska, 2018; Jhally & Katz, 2013).
other forms of bullying continues to be a point of Canadians spend more time on the Internet than
debate; however, the Internet does amplify the vis- anyone else in the world (about 37 hours per month)
ibility of bullying, which can worsen bullying if others (Canadian Internet Registration Authority, 2016).
join in, or it can lessen bullying because this also While on the Internet, they engage in any number
increases the chances of intervention (Boyd, 2014). of activities: watching television, viewing YouTube
All forms of bullying have the potential to produce videos, using social media (Facebook, Twitter), texting
negative outcomes for both bullies and their victims, and emailing others, listening to the news, shopping,
including changes in thought patterns (e.g., they are banking, playing games, and possibly even committing
more likely to become depressed and think about com- criminal activities—all of which are socializing influ-
mitting suicide) and an increase in health issues (e.g., ences. The media are often highly beneficial because
they experience sleep problems and anxiety) (Zastrow they connect us with others, help maintain social rela-
& Kirst-Ashman, 2016). tions, inform us about important local and international
events, and provide us with entertainment. However,
as you will learn more about in Chapter 6, the media
MEDIA are not neutral—media companies are profit-based and
Media are communications formats that target mass construct reality and shape our perceptions in particular
audiences in print (e.g., newspapers, magazines, and ways so that we come to believe certain messages (e.g.,
books) or electronic format using audio and/or images about politics, gender, vio-
(e.g., movies, radio, television, the Internet). Some con- lence, and consumerism), Media: Communications
sider the media to be the most influential socialization often with negative impli- that target large audiences
in print or in electronic
agent of our time, trumping even the family, given that cations and outcomes format using audio and/or
they now permeate all aspects of our lives (including for both individuals and images.
families) and will continue to do so throughout our society as a whole.
TIME TO REVIEW with expensive houses and fancy cars. These forms
of status have to do with social classes, which are dis-
• How do interactions in the family cussed in the chapter on social inequality. This chapter
influence the development of one’s self- is concerned with status as it relates to any recognized
esteem and interpersonal trust? social position held by an individual in society, a posi-
tion that exists over time regardless of which individual
• How does a conflict perspective view the
people happen to occupy that position at any given
family?
moment. Statuses include student, professor, care-
• In what ways do peers serve as a basis of taker, mother, machinist, prime minister, and brother.
social comparison? A status is a social position in that it exists in relation to
• Other than family, which agent of others (e.g., a person is a mother because she has a son
socialization is considered to be the most or daughter, a person is a friend because of his or her
influential? Explain why. bond to another individual), not because it has some
kind of prestige or title attached to it.
A role is the behavioural component of a status. For
example, a person with the status “professor” will per-
form the accompanying role; the behaviours expected
LO7 THE BASIC COMPONENTS here relate to teaching (e.g., preparing notes), research
(e.g., contributing to the discipline via publications),
OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE and service (e.g., participating on university commit-
Socializing forces act on us within a broader social con- tees). Similarly, the status “student” entails behaviours
text known as social structure. Social structure is the such as attending class and completing assignments
framework of cultural elements and social patterns in on time. We hold statuses, but we enact roles. Statuses
which social interactions take place. Without social and their accompanying roles are essential elements
structure, you would arrive at your school and have no of our identities; they provide us with purpose, fulfill-
idea what comes next. There are structural guidelines ment, and meaning. At the same time, our statuses can
operating in postsecondary institutions. These interac- create problems and even damage our sense of self.
tions include norms (e.g., students attend classes, stu- In interviews Minaker (2012) conducted with women
dents are expected to take notes), values (e.g., getting about what parenthood meant to them, one mother
an education is important), and social patterns (e.g., the noted: “Being a mom is love, amazing, and rewarding”
professor creates a course outline, teaches course con- (p. 130), whereas another admitted: “Being a mom is
tent, and evaluates students, who in turn are expected exhausting and challenging” (p. 132).
to attend class, complete assignments, and obtain any Parenthood is rewarding in infinite ways, but it is
needed additional help during scheduled office hours). also an extremely stressful period of adjustment for
Like cultural elements, many parents. Few individuals contemplating par-
social patterns help us enthood have an accurate notion of the time and the
Social structure: The make sense of social situ- financial and emotional demands their children will
framework of cultural
elements and social
ations. Patterned social place on them, and most would benefit from anticipa-
patterns in which social arrangements exist within tory socialization. Through anticipatory socialization,
interactions take place. three main areas of social individuals learn about the roles associated with a par-
Status: A recognized structure: statuses and ticular status before taking on that status. Controlling
social position that exists roles, social groups, and for existing social supports, prior life experiences, and
independently of any social institutions. other factors, such as health, education, and income,
given individual who may
occupy it.
Gage and Christensen (2001) found that anticipa-
tory socialization gained from a variety of sources—
Role: The behavioural
component of a given
STATUSES AND participating in child care, observing others engaged
in child care, taking parenting classes, talking with
status.
ROLES others about child care (e.g., doctors, nurses, friends,
Anticipatory Usually, when you think spouses), speaking to parents and relatives, caring for
socialization:
The process by which of “status,” you consider pets—was associated with positive outcomes for males
individuals learn about things such as titles (e.g., and females making the transition to parenthood.
the roles associated with
a particular status before
president, chief), which We are born with some statuses (i.e., son or daughter),
taking on that status. denote power or authority, acquire other statuses over time (e.g., aunt, mother, or
or the prestige associated grandmother), work to achieve certain statuses (e.g., BA
graduate, sociologist, and master electrician), inadvert- black could be considered a master status, as could
ently end up with some statuses through our actions one’s professional standing. He noted that when two
(e.g., impaired driver, and prison inmate), lose statuses powerful statuses coincided, as in the case of a black
(e.g., widow and unemployed person), and exit some of physician, it posed a dilemma for white Americans,
our statuses (e.g., through divorce or retirement). The who found themselves having to choose whether to
sum total of all of the statuses a person holds at any given treat “him as a Negro or as a member of his profes-
time is called a status set. sion” (p. 357). Note that individuals can have more
than one master status at a time (e.g., race/ethnicity,
ACHIEVED AND ASCRIBED STATUSES occupation, age) and that those statuses can operate
simultaneously (e.g., “male teenager with prior DUI
Sociologists also distinguish between statuses that conviction” or “elderly female with heart condition”)
are ascribed and statuses that are achieved. Ascribed and that those statuses may be relevant only in par-
statuses are social positions that people inherit at
ticular situations (e.g., when trying to qualify for
birth or acquire involuntarily over the life course (e.g., vehicle or medical insurance) or may be salient across
male, son, brother, and widower). Achieved statuses most situations (e.g., dangerous offender). A master
are social positions that people obtain through per- status has exceptional importance for a person’s iden-
sonal actions (e.g., husband, graduate, lawyer, and tity and life experiences. Consider how your life and
criminal). Although the term “status” is neutral when the various identities that make up your self-concept
it refers to a social position, particular statuses are would change tomorrow if you suddenly acquired the
not neutral in the sense that some are more impor- master status of single parent, Canadian prime min-
tant than others. Being a devout Latter-day Saint (i.e., ister, multimillion-dollar lottery winner, dangerous
Mormon), for example, may necessitate behavioural offender, or patient with
guidelines, such as going on a mission at age 19 (if you a terminal illness (see
are a male), that take precedence over other expecta- Sociology in My Life). Status set: The sum
tions afforded by concurrently held statuses such as total of all of the statuses
those related to friendships, school, or employment. held by a person at a given
time.
A master status is the most influential of all of ROLE CONFLICT
the statuses in a person’s status set. Sociologist Everett Ascribed statuses: A
AND ROLE social position conferred
Cherrington Hughes (1945) first used the term “master at birth.
status” to refer to a status that “tends to overpower, in STRAIN
most crucial situations, any other characteristics which Sometimes the competing Achieved statuses:
A social position obtained
may run counter to it” (p. 357). A master status affects demands of different sta- through personal actions.
both the individual and his or her choices relative to tuses pose challenges for
that status, as well as how others accept and interact individuals. Think about Master status: The
most influential status in an
with that person. As an African American raised in what might happen to individual’s status set.
the early 20th century, Hughes discussed how being Taylor (a fellow student),
SOCIOLOGY IN MY LIFE
WHAT COMPRISES YOUR STATUS SET?

Try to write down 10 statuses you currently hold. To Do you play any sports? Are you employed? Are you
assist you, consider your relationship relative to people part of any social groups?).
in your family (e.g., Do you have a brother or sister?
Are you a niece or nephew?). Also think about some Think Outside the Box: Of the statuses you listed,
of the activities you currently engage in or member- which one would you consider to be your master
ships you hold (e.g., Do you attend school full-time? status? Explain why this is the case.
who has a final exam scheduled at a time when she is various positions in retail sales work (e.g., sales asso-
supposed to work her regularly scheduled shift at her ciate, assistant manager, manager). Each status corre-
job. Role conflict refers to a situation in which incom- sponds to various rules, expectations, and obligations.
patible role demands exist as a result of two (or more) As a part-time sales associate, you might be expected
statuses held at the same time. In this case, Taylor is to help customers, report to an assistant manager, and
both a student and an employee (i.e., the two statuses); take breaks only at times designed by a manager, and
the roles associated with these statuses require her to you may not be entitled to any vacation pay or sick
be in two different places at the same time. Hopefully, leave benefits. Note that roles always exist in relation to
she can find a replacement to work her job on short other roles to which they are oriented (Turner, 1962).
notice, or her university’s policies consider work obli- A sales associate cannot perform his or her job in the
gations to be a valid excuse for missing an exam. Role absence of customers. Similarly, an assistant manager’s
conflict is often experienced by students who are also duties exist because there is a corresponding manager
parents (e.g., a child may get sick and require care on role. Social groups and the individuals who comprise
the same day as a final exam) and students who are them are sometimes linked together through social
athletes (for whom competitions, playoff games, and networks. A social network is a system of social rela-
matches may require travel away from classes and/or tionships of varying purpose, relevance, intimacy, and
otherwise interfere with study time). importance. If you use social media such as Facebook,
Sometimes conflicts even occur between role Twitter, or LinkedIn, you are already part of a social
requirements of a single status. Role strain refers to network that brings you into contact with family mem-
a situation in which incompatible role demands exist bers, close friends, coworkers, acquaintances, and
within one status. For example, as a student, you will other social groups, such as professional associations
likely experience role strain in the last few weeks of and charitable organizations.
class: the “typical” student
may be required to com- POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE
Role conflict: A situation plete a research project,
in which incompatible role prepare for a class pres- GROUP INFLUENCES
demands exist between
two or more commonly
entation, write a paper for Besides teaching us about statuses, roles, and their
held statuses. one or more courses, and accompanying norms, social groups have profound
study for final exams. effects, positive and negative, on individual group mem-
Role strain: A situation
in which incompatible role bers. For example, in the presence of others, an individ-
demands exist within a SOCIAL ual’s performance on a task that is well learned or fairly
single status. easy to begin with will be enhanced. Social facilitation
GROUPS is the “tendency for people to do better on simple tasks,
Social group: Two or
more people who share Social groups are another but worse on complex tasks, when they are in the pres-
relevant cultural elements part of the broader social ence of others and their individual performance can be
and interact with regular
frequency. structure from which we evaluated” (Aronson et al., 2017, p. 221). According to
create social identities. A Robert Zajonc’s (1965) early drive theory of arousal, the
Social network: An
interrelated system of
social group consists of presence of others arouses us, and this brings out our
social relationships of two or more people who dominant responses. To the extent that a skill is new or
varying purpose, relevance, share relevant cultural ele- a task is difficult, the most dominant responses are likely
intimacy, and importance.
ments and interact with to include errors. This helps explain why an ice skater
Social facilitation: regular frequency. Social can complete a complicated jump during some of his
The tendency for people groups you might identify or her training sessions but falters during an Olympic
to do better on simple
tasks, but worse on with include coworkers, skate in the presence of thousands. The presence of
complex tasks, when they your family, teammates in others can also lead to reduced effort, as is often the case
are in the presence of a sport, your peer group in group presentations. Social loafing is the tendency
others and their individual
performance can be at school, members of to put in minimal effort on simple group tasks when
evaluated. your church, and people individual performance cannot be evaluated (Aronson
Social loafing: The
in clubs you are associ- et al., 2017). To prevent this, you need to find ways to
tendency to put in minimal ated with. Social groups motivate your group mate (e.g., by explaining that he or
effort on simple group contribute to the social she has unique talents that the group is relying on) or
tasks when individual
performance cannot be
structure by delineating to make each individual’s contribution apparent (e.g.,
evaluated. various statuses and roles. assign clear and distinct tasks so it will be evident who
For example, there are is and is not contributing).
Sometimes individuals follow group norms or give and rational decision making, producing poor and
in to group pressure in order to fit into a group or to even disastrous outcomes. Janis (1972) identified
not stand out as different. Conformity is a form of social many historical examples of groupthink in American
influence in which individuals change their behaviour political decision making, including the U.S. gov-
in order to adhere to group norms. In one of a series ernment’s failure to anticipate the Japanese attack
of classic experiments, Solomon Asch (1956) demon- on Pearl Harbor and the botched Bay of Pigs inva-
strated how group pressure could be used to persuade sion, a U.S.-backed attempt by Cuban exiles to over-
students to give incorrect answers on a simple line test throw the Cuban dictator Fidel Castro. Strategies for
(see Figure 4.5). Based on eyesight alone, the correct avoiding the pitfalls of groupthink include having a
answer on the second card could be readily discerned. nondirective leader (i.e., someone who doesn’t state
However, the participants were asked to provide an his or her view at the onset), inviting out-group indi-
answer after the rest of the members of the group gave viduals with expertise on the subject matter to provide
their response. The group members were actually “con- alternative and challenging viewpoints, and having
federates” (i.e., research assistants pretending to be the leader assign the role of “critical evaluator” to
other participants). For the first few trials, the confeder- each member of the group to encourage discussion
ates gave the correct answer and so did the participants, and debate (Janis, 1972).
who were always seated next to last. However, on the
third trial, the confederates gave an incorrect response.
Much to the confusion of the participants, confederates
continued to give incorrect responses on 12 of the 18 LO8 SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
trials. Of the 123 actual participants in the study, 27 Thus far, we have mainly discussed patterns of inter-
percent gave incorrect responses along with the group action at the micro level. Established social patterns
most of the time! About 50 percent gave in to group also exist at the macro level of institutions. Social
pressure some of the time. Only 24 percent answered institutions are relatively permanent societal struc-
error-free, as a minority of one against the unanimous tures that govern the behaviour of groups and promote
majority (Asch, 1956). social order. Some examples of social institutions are
The tendency to want to maintain agreement the family, religious institutions, schools, the political
while in a group can pose special problems for deci- system, the economy, and the media. Each institution
sion making. Irving Janis (1972) coined the term serves a main purpose (i.e., the family provides sup-
groupthink for the process in which members of a port and is the primary
group come to favour consensus over critical thinking agent of socialization,
Conformity: A form of
education is a mechanism social influence in which
for transmitting impor- individuals change their
tant cultural beliefs). To behaviour in order to
adhere to group norms.
FIGURE 4.5 accomplish these pur-
poses, social institutions Groupthink: A process
Asch’s (1956) Experiment on Group are composed of various in which members of a
group favour consensus
Conformity structures, processes, over rational decision
and rules that exert con- making, producing poor
trol over individuals and even disastrous
outcomes.
and come to shape their
identities. Social institutions:
Relatively permanent
A highly struc- societal structures that
tured social institution govern the behaviour of
is referred to as a formal groups and promote social
order.
organization owing to the
presence of a specific type
A B C of organizational struc- Bureaucracy: A formal
organization model
ture known as a bureau- consisting of an explicit
Card 1 Card 2
cracy. A bureaucracy is chain of authority and a
a formal organization set of procedures and
protocols that guide the
model consisting of an relationships and processes
Source: Adapted from Asch, S. E. (1956). Studies of independence and
conformity: A minority of one against a unanimous majority. Psychological explicit chain of authority that exist within it.
Monographs, 70(9),1–70. and a set of procedures
and protocols that guide the relationships and pro- are arranged according to levels of responsibility and
cesses that exist within it. power. In a university, a faculty member is supervised
by a department chair, who is under the supervi-
YOUR SOCIOLOGICAL TOOLKIT sion of a dean, who is under the authority of a vice
SOCIOLOGY IN THEORY president (academic), who is under the authority of
the president. All academic institutions include rules
MAX WEBER’S IDEAL TYPE and regulations that govern the behaviour of staff, fac-
ulty, and students, as you already know from student
OF BUREAUCRACY codes of conduct, course outlines, and procedures for
Sociologist Max Weber developed an ideal-type model borrowing resources, paying tuition, registering in
to illustrate the key features of bureaucracy. An ideal courses, and even graduating. Displays of emotion and
type is an analytical construct that depicts all the special considerations are discouraged. Impersonality
main features of some social phenomenon but is not means that all people working within bureaucracies
found in reality (Weber, 1903–1917/1949). Thus, an are supposed to perform their duties as a matter of
ideal type is the perfect example from which we can principle (e.g., a sympathetic professor should not
compare real-life cases to see how well they fit the give a certain student an extension on a term paper but
model (or don’t). Weber’s ideal type of bureaucracy instead should consistently apply the deductions for
includes a division of labour, a hierarchy of authority, lateness that are listed in the course outline). Finally,
written rules and regulations, impersonality in deci- all people employed in a bureaucracy are hired on the
sion making, and employment based on qualifications basis of qualifications. Hence, faculty members with
(Murray, Linden, & Kendall, 2017, pp. 191–194). the highest or most specialized degrees (e.g., a PhD)
A division of labour entails people carrying out dif- are typically hired over those with a master’s degree.
ferent sorts of tasks. In a university, there are people Bureaucracies have many advantages, including
who work as faculty, efficiency, which translates into things getting done
staff, or administrators through various delegated divisions of labour.
Ideal type: An analytical in separate areas, such as
construct that clearly
Hierarchies of authority help establish where someone
depicts all of the main facilities, finance, and the goes first to resolve an issue (e.g., a student must first
features of some social department of sociology. see his or her instructor about a class before going to
phenomenon but is not an
entity that can be found in
A hierarchy of authority the department chair). Similarly, clear rules indicate
reality. refers to a “chain of com- precisely what is or is not allowed (e.g., a student may
mand” where positions be granted a deferred exam for a religious holiday but
not for a personal vacation or a relative’s wedding).
Impersonality and employment based on technical
qualifications can result in opportunities for indi-
viduals who work hard and continue to upgrade their
skills, as opposed to systems that enable people to
advance based on connections, as in “who you know.”
The bureaucratic model has proven to be a
highly successful approach to business. Ritzer (2015)
explains how four main features of bureaucracy are
exemplified by McDonald’s, the world’s most suc-
cessful franchise. First, self-service increases the effi-
ciency or speed with which a consumer can satisfy a
craving for a Big Mac, as evidenced by the popularity
of drive-thru windows. Second, calculability “empha-
© Fran, forn 696, www.cartoonstock.com
sizes the quantitative aspects of products sold (por-

tion, size, and cost) and services offered (time it takes
to get the product)” (p. 14). Consumers readily per-
ceive that the “extra value” meal is a relatively inex-
pensive way to obtain a sandwich, fries, and drink
in only a few minutes. Third, predictability refers to
the “assurance that products and services will be the
same over time and in all locales” (p. 15). Fourth, part
of the success of McDonald’s can be attributed to its
control over customers. As Ritzer puts it, “lines, lim- employment in order to retire, raise a family, or care
ited menus, few options, and uncomfortable seats all for elderly parents. This process can also be involun-
lead diners to do what management wishes them to tary if the individuals involved have little choice but to
do—eat quickly and leave” (p. 15). undergo resocialization. For example, someone might
Ritzer (2015) argues that these four princi- end up divorced after leaving an unfaithful partner,
ples now represent values operating in contem- whereas another individual may end up a widower
porary society more generally, which he refers to after the death of a loved one. Involuntary forms of
as the McDonaldization of society. We see the via- resocialization also take place in settings referred to as
bility of these principles in the sheer number of “total institutions.”
McDonald’s restaurants—there are 1,400 in Canada A total institution is an isolated social system in
and more than 33,000 worldwide in 119 countries which certain individuals are housed, looked after,
(McDonald’s Restaurants of Canada Limited, 2017); and socialized apart from the wider society. In a collec-
we also see them in the adoption of the same doc- tion of essays called Asylums, Erving Goffman (1961)
trine by competitor franchises (e.g., Burger King, described a total institution as “a place of residence
Wendy’s), successful variant franchises (e.g., Tim and work where a large number of like-situated indi-
Hortons in Canada), and even casual dining fran- viduals, cut off from the wider society for an appreci-
chises (e.g., Red Lobster, Olive Garden). The core able period of time, together lead an enclosed, formally
features of efficiency, calculability, predictability, administered round of life” (p. xiii). An example of a
and control can now be seen in a wide range of suc- total institution in Canada is any prison in the fed-
cessful businesses (e.g., IKEA, Walmart, PetSmart); eral correctional system (e.g., Edmonton Institution,
they have even come to govern the exotic dancing Willow Cree Healing Centre). A prison is designed to
industry (Deshotels, Tinney, & Forsyth, 2012). reform and rehabilitate inmates to become law-abiding
Bureaucratic principles serve the business sector citizens while protecting
well, but they also tend to have shortcomings that the rest of society from
are especially apparent to individuals. If you have the potential harm they Resocialization: A
ever tried to change classes or obtain a tuition pose. Goffman (1961) process that involves
refund, you can probably relate to “the slowness, notes that the inmates radically altering one’s
identity by giving up an
the ponderousness, the routine, the complication in a total institution are existing status in exchange
of procedures and the maladapted responses of the closely supervised at all for a new one.
bureaucratic organization to the needs which they times (e.g., by staff mem- Total institution: An
should satisfy” (Crozier, 1964, p. 3). Bureaucratic bers and surveillance isolated social system in
processes take a lot of time and require many steps systems), that they are which certain individuals
are housed, looked after,
to completion. Not only that, but also in most subject to strict sched- and socialized apart from
bureaucracies, the rules, hierarchy of authority, and ules and standardized the wider society.
division of labour are not as clear-cut as implied by procedures (e.g., meals
Weber’s ideal type. This is why in academic insti-
tutions, students are not sure whether they should
go to an instructor or the department chair first to
handle a class matter and why some employees,
such as “instructional assistants,” may carry out
functions, such as providing administrative support
to department chairs, that bear little or no resem-
blance to their stated job titles.
© Correctional Service Canada
RESOCIALIZATION: MORE THAN

STARTING OVER
Just as socialization can occur at any stage in the life
process, an individual may undergo resocialization.
Resocialization involves a person radically altering
his or her identity by giving up an existing status in Millhaven is a maximum security prison in Bath, Ontario,
exchange for a new one. Resocialization can be volun- that houses dangerous offenders, including Canadian serial
tary, such as when a person decides to leave a place of killer and rapist Paul Bernardo.
take place at a certain time, only a certain amount of
TIME TO REVIEW
time is allotted for exercise, and cells are searched on
a regular basis), and that they operate as bureaucracies • What are the three main elements that
(e.g., they have explicit chains of authority and proto- make up social structure?
cols). Given the strict control, it is next to impossible
for inmates to maintain their former personal or social • What is the difference between role
identities, which rely on meaningful interactions and conflict and role strain?
agency. Instead, the self is stifled by the processes • What is groupthink, and what can be
that remove individuality and diminish self-worth. done to prevent it?
Although the intent is usually to help individuals • What are some advantages and
learn new values, ideas, and identities, high rates of disadvantages of Weber’s ideal type
reincarceration (return) after release from correctional of bureaucracy for businesses and
facilities suggest that the new, more compliant identi- individuals?
ties formed in the absence of meaningful interactions
are not likely to endure outside of the institutional • What is a total institution? Provide an
structures that created them. example of one.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
LO1 Explain how our own unique sense importance of biology and socialization in the devel-
opment of the social self. For example, the bioeco-
of “self” includes traits that fall along logical theory of human development stresses the
a personal–social identity continuum. importance of human agency and the reciprocal
The personal–social identity continuum is the range of nature of social influences. Finally, on the extreme
traits you possess that emphasize the extent to which nurture side, the school of behaviourism posits that
you view yourself as “unique” (e.g., I am driven, I am behaviour is the end result of learning, especially
clumsy, I am happy) versus part of a social group (e.g., through the use of rewards and punishment.
I am a student, I am a daughter, I am a Christian).
LO4 Describe Mead’s stages of develop-
LO2 Define “self” and explain its con- ment of the self and differentiate
nection to socialization and social between the “I” and the “me.”
interaction. Mead explained how the self develops through
The self is an individual’s reflexive sense of her or his stages evident in children’s play. In the preparatory
own particular identity, constituted vis-à-vis others stage, the focus is on motor skill mastery and imita-
in terms of similarity and difference, without which tion; in the play stage, children begin to take on the
she or he wouldn’t know who they are and hence role of others, one at a time; in the game stage, the
wouldn’t be able to act. Through the process of actor must be able to understand different roles and
socialization, people learn about themselves and perspectives and be able to think about them simul-
their various roles within a particular culture. Most taneously, demonstrating the generalized other.
of the learning takes place during social interactions Mead also described two parts of the self: the “I”
with others. and the “me.” The “I” is the spontaneous self that
is unique to the person, whereas the “me” is the
LO3 Describe the continuum of nature portion of the self that responds during interactions
versus nurture assumptions. based on cultural norms (i.e., the generalized other).
On the extreme nature side, theorists advocate LO5 Identify the ways in which the per-
biological determinism, that is, the view that behav-
iour is the end result of genetics. Sociobiology
ceptions of others affect our indi-
points to evolutionary origins for social behaviour vidual identities.
(i.e., the need to reproduce). Moving toward the We are constantly identifying ourselves, being
centre of the continuum, sociologists highlight the identified by others, and identifying others.
Master statuses may be essential to your identity,
but even if they aren’t, they are still central to
LO7 Outline the basic components of
how others identify you. Through the looking-
social structure.
glass self, we imagine how we appear to others, Social structure consists of statuses and roles, social
imagine how they judge that appearance, and groups (e.g., peer groups, coworkers), and social
then incorporate those perceived judgments into institutions (e.g., the family, the school) that provide a
our own sense of self. framework within which social interactions take place.
LO6 Identify primary agents of socializa- LO8 Explain how social institutions con-
tion and describe their main contri- tribute to social structure and assess
butions to the development of the the merits of Weber’s ideal type of
self and/or social identity. bureaucracy in modern society.
Primary agents of socialization include the family, Social institutions are relatively permanent societal
the school, the peer group, and the mass media. structures that govern the behaviour of groups and
The family is a source of social support and encour- promote social order, as in the case of the family as
agement, structure and discipline, imbalances in the primary agent of socialization or religion as an
power, and conflict. Similarly, the school is a highly institution that provides people with a sense of pur-
supportive mechanism for teaching skills, norms, pose. According to Weber, an ideal type of bureau-
and values, and it is also a foundation for perpetu- cracy includes a specialized division of labour, a clear
ating social inequalities. The peer group is a pow- hierarchy of authority, written rules and regulations,
erful source of social support, social comparison, impersonality in dealings, and employment based
and social pressure, with positive and negative out- on technical qualifications. A bureaucracy can be
comes for one’s self-identity. Finally, the mass media highly successful, largely because of its efficiency,
inform us, entertain us, and teach us a multitude of objectivity, and clear directives, but it can also lead
lessons, with positive and negative implications for to very time-consuming, inefficient processes that
individuals and society as a whole. become ends in themselves.
RECOMMENDED RESOURCES
1. For a comprehensive look at the ecology of sociali- 3. For a critical look at Canada’s child welfare system,
zation agents and socialization outcomes, refer we recommend (Dis)placed: Indigenous Youth and the
to R.M. Berns, Child, Family, School, Community: Child Welfare System, a 2016 documentary directed by
Socialization and Support, 10th ed. (Belmont, CA: Melisa Brittain. Go to http://www.kingcripproductions
Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2016). .com/displaced.html.
2. To learn more about self-identification, categoriza- 4. For downloadable parenting resources, visit the
tion of others, and communal identity, we recom- Canadian Association of Family Resource Programs
mend R. Jenkins, Social Identity, 4th ed. (New York, at http:www.parentsmatter.ca.
NY: Routledge, 2014).
FOR FURTHER REFLECTION

1. Do you have a virtual self? What sorts of informa- 3. Would the diagnosis of a terminal illness such as
tion could a stranger obtain about you from Internet cancer be considered a master status? Explain your
searches? answer.
2. Which agent of socialization do you consider the 4. Does your university or college fit Weber’s notion of
most influential? an ideal bureaucracy? Why or why not?
ENDNOTE
1 Retrieved March 26, 2017, from thinkexist.com.

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04 CHAPTER

Socialization: The Self

I know you are, but what am I?

NEL CHAPTER 4 Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 67

68 PART 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

NEL CHAPTER 4 Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 69

SOCIOLOGY IN THE NEWS

FERAL CHILD: THE CASE OF NG CHHAIDY

lost child. As it turned out, she was (Edwards, 2012).

70 PART 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

NEL CHAPTER 4 Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 71

Source: dragon_fang/Shutterstock; iko/Shutterstock; Michael Pettigrew/

Source: GoodMood Photo/Shutterstock; ImageFlow/Shutterstock

72 PART 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

Source: Aaron Amat/Shutterstock; Brand X Pictures/Getty

concept within the interactionist perspective is the

Farris, Joseph, jfa1521, Cartoonstock.com

NEL CHAPTER 4 Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 73

YOUR SOCIOLOGICAL TOOLKIT

CRITICAL THINKING IN ACTION

SELF-TRACKING AND THE CREATION OF A VIRTUAL SELF

records of ourselves. For example, people keep track of

74 PART 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

YOUR SOCIOLOGICAL TOOLKIT

NEL CHAPTER 4 Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 75

76 PART 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

CHILDREN’S RIGHTS AND CHILD WELFARE

Dir. Melisa Brittain, 2017, Vtape.org;

Painting: Blue by Tyler Blackface

NEL CHAPTER 4 Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 77

Bob D'Amico/ABC via Getty Images

78 PART 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

NEL CHAPTER 4 Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 79

80 PART 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

YOUR SOCIOLOGICAL TOOLKIT

WHAT COMPRISES YOUR STATUS SET?

NEL CHAPTER 4 Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 81

82 PART 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

NEL CHAPTER 4 Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 83

sizes the quantitative aspects of products sold (por-

84 PART 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

RESOCIALIZATION: MORE THAN

NEL CHAPTER 4 Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 85

86 PART 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

FOR FURTHER REFLECTION

NEL CHAPTER 4 Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 87

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