TACTICAL DATA LINKS, AIR TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT, AND

SOFTWARE PROGRAMMABLE RADIOS*

B. E. White, The MITRE Corporation, Bedford, MA

(AC2ISRC) was: Why can’t civil aviation data

Abstract link (CADL) requirements be satisfied by Link
Background on Link 16, global air 16? Another question is whether a single
traffic management (GATM), and the joint CADL can satisfy Air Force GATM needs.
tactical radio system (JTRS) is provided. An objective of this paper is to answer
Information addressing the ability of: 1) Link these questions. Section 2 briefly introduces
16 to handle evolving civil aviation data link the Link 16 program. CADLs and implications
(CADL) waveforms; 2) a single data link to for DOD are discussed in Section 3. Section 4
satisfy Air Force GATM requirements; and 3) highlights difficulties of integrating Link 16
JTRS to incorporate data links of interest to and CADLs waveforms, and relying on a single
aviation is offered. Relationships with layered data link to satisfy CNS/ATM data link
communication architectures, the Global Grid, requirements. Section 5 discusses SPRs and
and software programmable radios (SPRs) are the JTRS. Section 6 has concluding remarks
also discussed. and suggested actions.

1. Introduction 2. Link 16
In October 1994 Link 16 was Link 16 is NATO terminology for an
designated as the DOD’s primary tactical data anti-jam (AJ), secure, data and voice system,
link for all military service and defense agency with standard waveforms and messages to
command, control and intelligence (C2I) promote interoperability, supported by the Joint
systems [1]. The Air Combat Command Tactical Information Distribution System
(ACC) has already incorporated Link 16 into its (JTIDS) and Multifunctional Information
C2 and sensor systems and is now planning on Distribution System (MIDS) terminals.
installing Link-16 in its fighters and bombers.
This commitment entails an expenditure of Figure 1 shows how the number of
billions of dollars. platforms to receive Link 16 rapidly rises
starting in FY00, and the significant changes in
However, there are other data link the increases from FY03 through FY15, based
requirements competing for DOD resources, on various planning data [2].
notably those of the International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO) for
communications, navigation and surveillance/ 3. Civil Aviation Data Links
air traffic management (CNS/ATM). In 1997 CADLs are primarily associated with
the Air Force created a global air traffic ATM systems, and include fixed message sets
management (GATM) function in a new built into upgraded but standard
system program office (SPO) at Hanscom Air communication procedures to reduce pilot and
Force Base (AFB) to include the certification of controller workload and lead to quieter cockpits
avionics capabilities from a GATM and airwaves. Also, CADLs on military
perspective. A question asked by the aircraft could be used as a resource for C2.
commander of the Aerospace C2 Intelligence, ICAO’s CNS/ATM concept relies on data links
Surveillance, and Reconnaissance Center
_______________ to be the primary means of routine
* This work was sponsored by the Electronic Systems Center (AFMC), Hanscom Air Force Base, Massachusetts.
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communications for air traffic services (ATS) does not yet require dual redundant satellite
[3]. Controller-pilot data link communications communication systems for ATC but probably
(CPDLC) is the first comprehensive ATS data will. Many potential users, particularly the
link application to be implemented. airlines, have advocated HF data link (HFDL)
for over the ocean ATC instead of a second
Line of Sight (LOS) Data Links satellite system because HFDL is less
expensive to install. The author expects a
The FAA is advocating a new digital
SATCOM/HFDL configuration to become
voice and data time division multiple access
acceptable for ATC after some further FAA
(TDMA) waveform for their next-generation
effort to validate HFDL for this application.
air-ground communications (NEXCOM)
system. This waveform is known as Mode 3 of It is noted that Inmarsat’s geostationary
the VHF digital link (VDL-3). In 1995 ICAO satellites do not provide polar coverage, a
endorsed VDL-3 as the long-term solution to desirable feature for military applications.
worldwide spectrum congestion in the VHF However, the narrowband ICO system will
aeronautical band. VDL-3 operates at a 25- provide global coverage. Although there has
kHz channel data rate of 31.5 kb/s. The VDL-3 been interest in providing aeronautical service
end-to-end delay is no more than about 250 ms, with ICO, this capability is not yet realized.
a latency suitable for ATS. HFDL may also support global coverage.
Another future CADL, VDL-2, uses the
same modulation scheme as VDL-3 but Implications for DOD
employs carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) DOD must comply with civil standards
instead of TDMA. VDL-2 is attractive to being developed by ICAO. With the assistance
airlines for aeronautical operational control of Hanscom’s GATM SPO, the Air Mobility
(AOC) where latency requirements for data are Command (AMC) is planning to integrate
not so stringent, as compared to ATS. ADS-A, Aero-I, and HFDL, into its operational
airlift capabilities.
Any of the time-critical functions of
CPDLC are more in the bailiwick of ATS, not ACC has been concerned about
AOC, and at VHF should be handled by VDL- equipping all their aircraft with avionics
3, not VDL-2. However, VDL-2 could be equipment that would make them compliant
around for a long time, and additional ATS with the emerging civil aviation standards. The
uses for VDL-2 that do not require near-real- “heavy special use aircraft” that routinely fly as
time latency performance could be attractive. general aviation traffic (GAT) aircraft, viz., the
E-3 (Airborne Warning and Control System
Automatic dependent surveillance
[AWACS]), E-4 (command post aircraft), E-8
broadcast (ADS-B), a CADL system critical to
(Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System
“free flight”, is devoted to the LOS broadcast
[JSTARS]), and the OC/RC/TC-135
of position, velocity, and intent information.
(reconnaissance and tanker aircraft) would be
Potential solutions to ADS-B are the Extended
fully equipped. However, it was questionable
Squitter, Self-Organizing TDMA (S-TDMA)
whether it would be necessary to equip fighters,
(also known as VDL-4), and the Universal
Access Transceiver (UAT). bombers, and EC/HC-130s (transport aircraft).
Overall, considerable progress has been
Beyond Line of Sight (BLOS) Data Links made in the last two years. The number of
GATM communications (comm) functional
Inmarsat aeronautical (Aero) satellite
units planned for various aircraft between 1999
communications (SATCOM) is certifiable for
and 2016 are shown in Figure 2. CMU stands
BLOS air traffic control (ATC) use. ICAO
for communications management unit.

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4. Integration of Link 16 and CADLs resides in the JTIDS/MIDS terminal. A given
Section 1 questions are now addressed. Link 16 platform's host computer contains the
required databases, various controls, message
processing, interface, input/output, and other
Layered Communication Architecture functions. Thus, if a hardware or software
A "layered" communication system change outside the terminal becomes necessary,
architecture is advocated as a tool for analyzing all the host platforms must be modified.
the integration problem. Ideas of a MITRE
Although layering implies modularity,
colleague, Mike Butler, are freely used. He has
the reverse is not necessarily true. However,
elaborated on several key attributes of layered
two or more adjacent layers can be combined in
architectures: 1) technology neutrality; 2)
some situations to save space. One just has to
functional encapsulation; 3) interface
be careful that when layers are combined,
standardization; 4) independent resources; and
future flexibility is not precluded.
5) extensible systems. Layering facilitates
performance vs. flexibility tradeoffs as Contrasts Among Link 16 and CADL
technology and system needs change. This Waveforms
helps ensure the architecture accommodates
system evolution over a long period. As an exercise in preparing this paper,
the author allocated some basic functions of
An example of a general, layered Link 16 and VDL-3 to the ISO layers. In doing
communication architecture is the 7-layer this, it became apparent that Link 16 and
model of the International Standards CADLs of interest have many fundamental
Organization (ISO). This model is well known differences. Link 16 employs an L-Band, 3
and has been applied successfully. MHz-bandwidth, fast-frequency-hopping, AJ-
A tenet of layering is to partition the coded, multi-pulse waveform with encrypted
implementation of functions so that each self- messages. VDL-3 is a VHF, 25 kHz-channel,
contained physical entity within a system non-hopping, non-AJ, multi-mode, waveform
realizes only functions within the same layer of with un-encrypted messages. The time slot and
the architecture. An example is when a radio coding structures of the two schemes are very
contains only the hardware and software different. Furthermore, the ground
necessary for performing modulation/ infrastructure for interconnecting the two
demodulation and coding/decoding associated systems does not exist. This does not bode
with the physical layer and data link layer, well if Link 16 is to accomplish all the
respectively, of the OSI model. The functionality of the CADLs becoming required
JTIDS/MIDS radios (which are contained in by the FAA and civil aviation authorities
the terminals) already follow that precept in (CAAs). There are too many practical hurdles
part. to overcome that hinder the cost-effective
integration of these waveforms. This answers
However, in general, the Link 16 the first question of Section 1.
system does not have a full layered architecture
because the tenet of layering stated above is not
always followed. First, portions of the network A Potentially Attractive Approach to
and cryptographic management functions Accommodating Link 16 and CADLs
reside within the message signal processor of Instead of attempting to have Link 16
the “radio”. The rest of these two functions accommodate CADL waveforms, a better
reside in the network interface computer of the approach may arise from asking: What can be
terminal outside the radio. Furthermore, not done to protect the investment in Link 16
everything required by the Link 16 system

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radios while providing a more affordable way radios. An aircraft platform might be
of handling CADLs? configured more easily to suit particular
missions.
First the military’s “Global Grid” is
mentioned as being relevant to the architectural However, the author adds some words
discussion. The Global Grid vision – any user of caution: Before abandoning the present
communicating with any other user – is derived system configurations, the possibilities
from DOD’s Joint Vision 2010. Because of the promised by this approach should be explored
increasing demand for more bandwidth to in detail to be assured that all essential system
accommodate higher data rates, the means for functions are preserved and acceptable
attaining this goal is based primarily on performance requirements are met.
wideband capabilities promised by SATCOM,
One way of thinking about this problem
microwave, and fiber optic communications
is depicted in Figure 3. Each “slice” represents
media.
a distinct viewpoint within the ISO-model
It is important to distinguish what is – layer, data link system, or performance/
from what is not – part of the Global Grid. The flexibility parameter plane. Just a few systems
Global Grid encompasses only the bottom four and parameters are illustrated; there may be
layers, the physical, link, network, and many more of importance. Within each
transport layers of the OSI model. The session, parameter there can be various aspects
presentation, and application layers are on the corresponding to different layers of the model.
users’ side of the architecture. The Global Grid Several of these are shown for vulnerability
“merely” transports already-composed and latency.
messages as reliably and speedily as possible.
One idea concerning Figure 3 is as
If done thoroughly the functions of Link 16
follows. The goal of integrating different data
will probably map to all levels of a layered
links from the point of view of the layered
architecture, and therefore from the outset,
model may be facilitated by “scrubbing”
Link 16 is not compatible with the Global Grid
performance-flexibility tradeoffs among
bottom-four-layers concept.
systems. The benefit of greater flexibility in
What about isolating the radio functions applying commercial standards and technology
from the application functions in both the Link- may be worth giving up some performance.
16 system and the CADLs? In this approach
the data link “essence” of Link 16 and the Comparisons/Contrasts Among Civil Aviation
CADLs would not have anything to do with the Data Links
networking (or above) layer(s). One would Now the second question, whether the
have “plug-in” “Link-16 ” and “CADL” PC- Air Force should employ only one CADL is
like cards that could provide the physical and considered. Various CADLs have distinctive
data link layer functions. All upper-layer characteristics. Important features and
functions would be provided by a standard limitations of Aero C, H, I, and L data links,
protocol stack. HFDL, VDL- 2, 3, and 4, UAT, Extended
If only the true physical and data link Squitter, and Mode S data link are summarized
layer functions resided in the JTIDS/MIDS in Table 1.
radios, it may be possible to build them smaller Essential characteristics of these
and cheaper; and similarly for CADL radios. CADLs are arranged in Table 1 with respect to
Also, one might be able to choose the messages attributes of considerable interest for civil
and the media independently making possible aviation communications. Some attributes
the passing of Link 16 messages over CADL relate to the application being addressed; others
radios, and aeronautical messages over Link 16

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refer to desired performance within a given instead of hardware; greater flexibility and cost
application; and others refer to schedule and/or effectiveness might be achieved.
costs associated with implementation. In the
This has led to the concept of SPRs or
interest of brevity this table is primarily
software defined radios (SDRs) [5]. In turn this
qualitative. The value judgments indicated by
has spawned a joint service program for
the “colors” are the sole responsibility of the
acquiring future radios with a new
author.
evolutionary, open-system, JTRS architecture.
Based on material developed for
One of the first examples of a military
Section 3 and the entries of Table 1, the author
SPR was SPEAKeasy, a prototype
concludes that the Air Force cannot expect to
development conducted jointly by the Army
satisfy all its CADL needs with a single CADL.
and Air Force, and later under the auspices of
Every CADL has at least one “red” (R) entry in
DARPA. Another such effort is the Air Force’s
a critical row. For example, in just considering
Airborne Information Terminal (AIT). The
ATS and ADS-B, applications necessary for
Army and Navy also have other candidate radio
flying in terminal airspace and free flight,
programs heading in this direction.
respectively, no CADL can readily accomplish
both functions. The JTRS modes and capabilities are
based on the JTRS operational requirements
Given this conclusion, what should the
document (ORD) [6] for handheld, dismounted,
Air Force do? The author recommends that the
vehicular, maritime/fixed, and airborne
Air Force plan to acquire VDL-2 radios that
operational domains.
have the assured capability of being upgraded
to VDL-3. Several vendors have developed The author notes that radio capabilities
suitable VDL-2 radios, and prototype VDL-3 for ATC, i.e., HFDL, 8.33 kHz, and the VDL
radios have been successfully demonstrated. If are included. HFDL and VDL are not required
VDL-3 does not materialize by 2007, as for the JTRS until FY03. Also, there is some
expected, at least the Air Force would have a concern in noting that SATURN, the NATO
good CADL capability for C2 operations, version of the fast-frequency-hopping upgrade
albeit, VDL-2 is non-real-time and not to Have Quick II, is scheduled for airborne
appropriate for time-critical ATS messages. operations as late as FY04. One would hope
Regarding ADS-B, the author recommends the that SATURN would be implemented earlier to
Air Force analyze the results of last summer’s better test the capabilities of the JTRS
Safe Flight 21 tests and plan for the best single architecture. It is also noted that UHF DAMA,
ADS-B data link implementation. and other AIT capabilities are included in the
ORD. Several L-Band waveforms are
Also, the Air Force might benefit by
included, notably, Link 16 and Mode S Level 4,
continuing to plan for HFDL and Aero-I, and
but there is no mention of the Extended
waiting a little longer before reassessing and
Squitter, the UAT, or S-TDMA.
deciding whether any of the emerging
commercial satellite systems would provide The author wonders whether too many
adequate alternative data link capability. JTRS waveforms are being contemplated. A
late 1998 Defense Science Board (DSB)
recommendation suggested that the JTRS
5. Software Programmable Radios
program concentrate on new data link and
Commercial radio technology has networking capabilities, and implement only a
progressed to where more waveform processing small subset of the waveforms in the ORD.
functions can be accomplished with software

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 Because Link 16 has been selected as the Contributors and decision-makers
tactical C2 data link of choice for all of DOD, should work on the concept of relaxing
and is being implemented on thousands of Air requirements and increasing architectural
Force platforms, this system will be around for a flexibility where possible.
long time. Therefore, a Link 16 capable
waveform should be included in the JTRS.
According to the JTRS implementation plan,
References
Link 16 is to be realized within a JTRS SPR by [1] June 1996, Joint Tactical Data Link
FY03. The author thinks this is good but would Management Plan, Command, Control,
like to see Link 16 accommodated sooner. Communications, Computers, and Intelligence
(C4I), Department of Defense, USA

6. Conclusions [2] 29 October 1998, Air Force Link 16 Master

Plan, AC2A/CC, AF/XOR, AF/AQI, prepared
The Link 16 system cannot satisfy the by Electronic Systems Center Link 16 System
emerging CADL requirements in a cost-
Integration Office (ESC/DIAJ) in cooperation
effective manner. with AC2A/C2GN
No single data link will satisfy the Air [3] October 1998, “Controller Pilot Data Link
Force’s CADL needs. Communication (CPDLC) Technology White
Although none of the CADLs are Paper,” ESC/GAT Engineering, item on
required before 2003, VDL-2 will likely be Electronic Systems Center (ESC/GAT) website
implemented before then. VDL-3 is to be [4] December 1996, Air Mobility Command
implemented starting in 2007. A CADL for CNS/ATM Study: CNS/ATM Interoperability
ADS-B may be implemented sooner than Requirements Report, Air Traffic Control and
expected. The Air Force should acquire VDL- Landing Systems Program Office, Electronic
2 radios that have the assured capability of Systems Center, Hanscom AFB, MA (Rev. 1)
being upgraded to VDL-3, plan for ADS-B, and
continue to follow but await further [5] March 1999, Architecture and Elements of
commercial SATCOM developments. Software Defined Radio Systems as Related to
Standards, SDRF Technical Report 2.0,
There is high-level commitment to Link Software Defined Radio Forum (SDRF)
16 as the tactical data link of choice for DOD
C2I systems. Large expenditures of U.S. [6] 23 March 1998, Operational Requirements
taxpayer dollars are planned for the phased Document (ORD) for Joint Tactical Radio
implementation of this system on-board (JTR)
thousands of aircraft critical to the national
defense and warfighting capability of the U.S. Acknowledgment
Hence, Link 16 should be accommodated by The author is grateful to several MITRE
the Global Grid and JTRS programs. colleagues for reviewing work leading to this
The JTRS program should emphasize paper, and providing many beneficial
Link 16, arguably the most challenging and comments. Special thanks go to Mike Butler,
most important wideband waveform of the Cliff Danielson, Mary Girard, Chuck Marley,
foreseeable future. One suggestion might be to Darrell Trasko, and Warren Wilson.
include a task for detailing the relationship
between Link 16 and the OSI model as part of
both the Link 16 and JTRS technological
roadmap efforts.

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 Number
3500

3000

2500

2000
20-N ov-97
1500 29-Oct-98
14-M ay-99
1000

500

0
1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

2014
Fiscal Year
Figure 1. Number of Air Force Data Link Platforms Programmed for Link 16
Number of Units
2000
1800
1600 (Total No. Aircraft)
1400 Airlifters (1044)
1200
Tankers (649)
1000
OSA* (285)
800
SM A** (50)
600
* Operational support aircraft
400
** Surveillance monitoring aircraft
200
0
8.33 kHz

ADS-A

Data Link
HFDL

CMU

ON/OFF
SATCOM

SATCOM

Comm Function
Voice

Figure 2. Planned Communications Functions for Various Air Force Platforms

(Through 2016)
ter
a rame
ity P
le xibil Latency
ce/F Electromagnetic Compatibility
r fo rm an Availability
Pe Vulnerability
V D L Mode 3

Application
Set-up Delay
Cryptographic Security
ADS - B
Link 16

Presentation

Session
Queuing Delay
Message Error Rate
Layer of ISO Model Transport End-to-End Delay

Network

Data Link
Anti-Jam Protection
Physical

Data Link System

Figure 3. One View of Integrated Data Link Solution Space

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 Table 1. Civil Aviation Data Link Characteristics
Civil Aviation Data Link
Application, Aero C Aero H Aero I Aero L HFDL VDL – 2 VDL – 3 VDL – 4 UAT Extended Mode S
Performance, or Squitter
Schedule/Cost
Attribute
Primary Oceanic Oceanic Oceanic Oceanic Oceanic Over Land: Over Land: Over Land Over Land Over Land Over Land:
Operational Areas Over Land Over Land Over Land Over Land Over Land Ground sites Ground sites Oceanic Oceanic Oceanic Ground
–B –B –B –B –B –Y –Y –B –B –B sites
–Y
Coverage BLOS: BLOS: BLOS: BLOS: BLOS: LOS LOS LOS LOS LOS LOS:
≤70 o N/S ≤ 70 o N/S ≤ 70 o N/S ≤ 70 o N/S Propagation –G –G –G –G –G ≥ 15 kft
anomalies
latitude latitude latitude latitude –Y
–G
–Y –Y –Y –Y
Terrestrial Design Long Long Long Long Long 200 nmi 200 nmi No info 100 nmi 100 nmi 100 nmi
Range (based on –B –B –B –B –B –G –G –G –Y –Y –Y
link budgets)
ATS No Yes Yes Yes Possibly Only for Yes No No No No
–R –G –G –G –Y Non-Time –G –R –R –R –R
Critical
–Y
AOC No Possibly Possibly Possibly Possibly Yes Yes No No No No
–R –Y –Y –Y –Y –G –G –R –R –R –R
ADS-A No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No Possibly
(two way) –R –G –G –G –G –G –G –R –R –R –Y
ADS-B No No No No No No No Yes Yes Yes No
(one way) –R –R –R –R –R –R –R –G –G –G –R
Frequency Band L-Band L-Band L-Band L-Band HF: VHF: VHF: VHF: L-Band: 966 L-Band: L-Band:
(color indicates –G –G –G –G 3–30 MHz 118–137 118–137 120–150 MHz (could 1030 MHz 1030 MHz
propagation –R MHz MHz MHz move) up; 1090 up; 1090
effects, e.g., –Y –Y [4, p. 52] –G MHz down MHz down
external noise, –Y –G –G
multipath, etc.)
Channel 5–10 kHz 5–10 kHz 5–10 kHz 5–10 kHz 3 kHz 25 kHz 25 kHz 25 kHz ≈2 MHz ≈8 MHz ≈2 MHz
Bandwidth –R –G –Y –R –R –Y –Y –Y –G –G –G
Information Facsimile Data Voice Data Voice Data Data Data Data Data Data Data Data
Service(s) E-mail –B –B –G –G –G Voice –G –G –G –G
–Y –B
User Data Rate 600 b/s 9.6 or 64 2.4 or 4.8 600 b/s 2.4 kb/s ≤ 31.5 kb/s ≤ 19.2 kb/s: 19.2 kb/s 1 Mb/s 1 Mb/s 1 Mb/s
–R kb/s kb/s –R (typical) –G –B –B –B
No system Up to 4
–G –Y –Y
management TDMA data
–G time slots @
≤ 4.8 kb/s
each
–G
Latency Includes Includes Includes Includes Includes Non-Real Near-Real
≥ 250 ms ≥ 250 ms ≥ 250 ms ≥ 250 ms media Time: Time: ≤ 1s –G –G –G –G
round trip round trip round trip round trip delays Packet end-to-end
–Y overlaps
delay delay delay delay for 90+ %
–R –R –R –R –Y –G
System Available Available Available Available 2000 + 2000 + 2007 + 2003 + 2003 + 2003 + Available
Availability –B –B –B –B –G –G –R –Y –Y –Y –B
Schedule
Airborne Terminal Low High Medium Medium Low Medium Medium Medium Low High (if no High (if no
Costs (B-kit) –G –R –Y –Y –G –Y –Y –Y –G Mode S Mode S
already) already)
–R –R
Airborne Terminal Low High Medium Medium Low Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium
Costs (A-kit) –G –R –Y –Y –G –Y –Y –Y –Y –Y –Y
Service Provider Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Low Low Low Low Low
and/or Other Costs –Y –Y –Y –Y –Y –Y –G –G –G –G –G

Relative Qualitative Definitions: Color Description for Intended Application

Blue (– B) Exemplary; Needed; Inexpensive; etc.
Green (– G) Good; Desirable; Affordable; etc.
Yellow (– Y) Satisfactory; Possibly; “Pricey”; etc.
Red (– R) Deficient; Undesired; Expensive; etc.

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