SURVEYING THE DIVERSITY OF PLANT SPECIES

AT JUAN R. LIWAG MEMORIAL HIGH SCHOOL

A Qualitative Research Proposal

Presented to the Faculty of the Senior High School Department,
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
Juan R. Liwag Memorial High School,
Gapan City, Nueva Ecija, Philippines

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Subject

Practical Research I

Juan R. Liwag Memorial High School

Bayanihan, Gapan City, Nueva Ecija

Shantelle Raine O. Angeles

Ezequiel C. Centeno
Jonalyn DC. Cuizon
Mikaela Jane J. Legaspi
Christienne Milei B. Linsangan
John Nello G. Meneses
Irish May T. Sabordo
Varon P. Villareal

MRS. MARIA ANA CORDERO

Practical Research I Adviser

JUNE 2023
 CERTIFICATE OF PROOFREADING

This is to certify that the research study entitled "SURVEYING THE

DIVERSITY OF PLANT SPECIES AT JUAN R. LIWAG MEMORIAL HIGH
SCHOOL" has been reviewed and evaluated grammatically.

This certification is issued to Shantelle Raine O. Angeles, Ezequiel C. Centeno,

Jonalyn DC. Cuizon, Mikaela Jane J. Legaspi, Christienne Milei B. Linsangan,
John Nello G. Meneses, Irish May T. Sabordo, and Varon P. Villareal in
compliance with the completion of their study for the subject Practical
Research 1.

Given this _ day of June, 2023

MRS. MARIA ANA CORDERO

Research Adviser
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page ………………………………………………………………………………………………i

Certificate of Proofreading ………………………………………………………………………ii
Table of Contents ………………………………………………………………………………iii-iv
List of Figure ………………………………………………………………………………….……..v
List of Tables …………………………………………………………………………………….…..v
List of Abbreviations …………………………………………………………………..……...…vi
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study ……………………………………………………………1-3
Rationale of the Study………………………………………………..………………4-6
Review of Related Literature …………………………………………………....7-27
Conceptual Framework
Conceptual Paradigm ………………………………………………………..28
Assumption of the Study ………………………………………………29-30
Statement of the Problem ……………………………………………………………30
Definition of Keywords ………………………………………………….…………….31
Significance of the Study …………………………………………….………….32-33
CHAPTER 2. METHODOLOGY
Research Design …………….………………………………………………………….34
Research Locale……………………………………………….…………………….34-35
Research Instruments …………………………………………….………………..…35
Data Gathering Procedures ………………………………………….…………35-36
Challenges in Surveying Plant Species Diversity.………………..………..…36
Data Management and Analysis ……………………………………………….….37
Scope and Delimitation ……………………………………………………………… 37
Ethics of Research …………………………………………………………………37-38
Appendices ……………………………………………………………………………39-44
Reference List …………………………………………………………………….…45-63
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Research Paradigm …………………………………………………….

…………..28
Figure 2. Map of Juan R Liwag Memorial High school ………………………………35

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Plant Taxonomy ……………………………………………………………….………
39
Table 2. Classification of plants according to Growth…………………………………
40
Table 3. Frequency of Plants found in the area…………………………………………
41
Table 4. Use and Role of Plants in the
community…………………………………….42
Table 5. Specific plant species that are particularly common or
rare in the study area………………………………………….……………………43
Table 6. invasive or non-native plant species present in the study area………44

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AMPs Antimicrobial Peptides

BSRs Biodiversity-Structure Relationships
IAS Invasive Alien Species
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
NEON National Ecological Observatory Network
PA Protected Area
QPL Quezon Protected Landscape
REPs Rare and Endangered Plant species
SD Species Distribution
SOC Soil Organic Carbon
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides an overview of the study. It discusses the

background, significance and rationale of the study, review of related
literature, conceptual framework, and definition of keywords.
Background of the Study

Throughout human and natural history, many efforts have been made
to study the world composed of faunas and floras around us (Janovská, D.,
Kubíková, K. & Kokoska,L., 2018). Molanai, S. and Arman, S. (2018) found
that one of the organisms that we normally find or perch on is plants. Plants
are everywhere, even in schools dominated by technology and modern
ideology. According to Garcia, B., Malabrigo, L., and Gevaña, D.T. (2017), the
Philippines has a very rich biodiversity. There were approximately 14,000
plant species found here in the Philippines (National Museum. n.d., 2023).
Additionally, it is regarded as one of the few nations in the world with the
highest biodiversity because of its geographic isolation, diversity of habitats,
and prevalence of endemic species (Garcia, B., Malabrigo, L., and Gevaña
T. ., 2017). This diversity of plants in the country has resulted from
generations of natural and anthropogenic disturbances (Sharma, S., et al.,
2017).
Barnett, D.T., & Stohlgren, T.J. (2019) stated that there are reasons towards
plants and natural diversity, some of them are that natural landscapes are
under threat from land-use change, exotic species invasion,
and a lack of basic information. A deep understanding of both the processes
that threaten the landscape and the resulting resource pattern and condition
is critical to successful stewardship of such landscapes (Barnett, D.T., &
Stohlgren, T.J., 2019). According to Garces, J. J. C., Bayron, Z. N. J., &
Español, J. M. J. (2022), The Philippines is one of the countries that has many
rare plant species. In Cebu, the plant's diversity was most likely spreading in
urban parks with rare lands and environments. Thus, (Barnett, D.T., &
Stohlgren, T.J., 2019) stated that assessing and determining the plants
propagated in these urban parks is necessary for better future planning and
the development of effective management strategies in the Philippines' urban
green spaces. College of Agricultural Sciences - Department of Horticulture
(2023) stated that Identifying a landscape or garden plant requires
recognizing the plant by one or more characteristics, including size, form, leaf
shape, flower color, odor, etc., and linking that recognition with a name,
either a common or so-called scientific name. College of Agricultural Sciences
- Department of Horticulture (2023) found out that accurate identification of a
cultivated plant can be very helpful in knowing how it grows (e.g., size,
shape, texture, etc.) as well as how to care and protect it from pests and
diseases.
There are so many plants that need to be checked and to be classified, some
of them are poisonous, rare, endangered, and even invasive that may affect
the entire specific environment (Lee, S. H., Chan, C. S., Mayo, S. J., &
Remagnino, P., 2017). Identification of these plant species including their
population in a certain area would help inform the community of plants that
could potentially be significant in drug discovery and therapeutics, are
harmful to other organisms, and are subject for rehabilitation (Trotter, R. T.,
& Logan, M. H., 2019). For example, a massive population of invasive species
in one area can be detrimental to native species and may further result in
their endangerment and destruction of certain habitats (USDC NOAA, 2019).
According to J.Nakano, M. (2020), the ability to identify plants and
their requirements has always been an essential skill for horticulturists who
manage plant growth and health. However, J.Nakano, M. (2020) found out
that with more than 300,000 known species in the world, the plant kingdom –
Plantae, is both diverse and complex. In addition, Fei, J., et al., (2022) said
that plant mapping is an absolute help not only for botanists but also for
people to identify new species and genes of other plants. Mapping plants also
helps us identify their population in a certain environment or land (Fei, J., et
al., 2022). Rai, P. K., & Singh, J. S. (2020) stated that in the different
lifestyles of every plant, they have different kinds of function to our
enviroment, some of them help their neighbor plants and some of them are
invasive that could destroy their neighbor plants. That’s why it is important to
survey plants in our environment to know its deep components, population,
level of danger, and also their safeness (Rai, P. K., & Singh, J. S., 2020).

Rationale of the Study

The 21st century presents unique challenges for biodiversity conservation,

making it a top priority today. To tackle these obstacles, taxonomic
knowledge is essential. It is of utmost importance for comprehending
biodiversity and ecosystem functioning because it gives us the information we
need to investigate and characterize biodiversity using scientific methods. For
example, several surveys were conducted from December 2017 to May 2018
in India. In total, 231 plant species, distributed among 195 genera and 76
families, were identified during the course of the inquiry, with the bulk of
them being herbs and trees. The current study offers fundamental
knowledge on India's floristic composition, which can help in managing and
conserving the region's rich plant diversity. Plants are enlisted with scientific
name, local name, family and habit of each species (Savina et al., 2018).
According to Lopatin, J., Fassnacht, F.E., Kattenborn, T., &
Schmidtlein, S. (2017), every plant has a unique species; some cannot thrive
in suitable environments. It is also believed that some of the uncommon
plants thrive best in remote areas. There are numerous plants that need to be
examined and categorized; some of them may be poisonous, rare,
endangered, or even invasive and may have an impact on the overall
environment. Examining the diversity of plant species is relevant locally
because it helps identify the plants that are unique to the area and can be
used for medicinal or other purposes. It is relevant globally because it helps
identify the plants that are endangered or threatened, and can help with
conservation efforts.
Monitoring plant diversity is crucial for the sustainable use and
protection of biological resources, as well as for plant conservation and policy
making. The surveying of the diversity of plant species is a really important
task in ecology and conservation. This important backdrop focuses on the
significance of surveying the variety of plant species in the context of JRLMHS
(Juan R. Liwag Memorial High School), illuminating the advantages,
approaches, and difficulties involved in such surveys. The JRLMHS plant
species diversity survey has a number of uses. Firstly, it provides valuable
insights into the local ecosystem, helping identify and monitor native,
invasive, rare, and endangered plant species. Second, it supports educational
programs by enhancing students' knowledge of regional flora, raising
awareness of the environment, and fostering conservation efforts. The
documentation of plant variety in Juan R Liwag Memorial High School can also
help with ecological restoration efforts and advance the area of botanical
science.
No full accounts are available of the plant diversity of Bayanihan,
Gapan. Therefore, It is crucial to carry out and start a small-scale inventory
and survey of plant species in the said area to gather information on plant
diversity and status for the preservation and sustainability of the surviving
biodiversity. Specifically, this study aimed to evaluate plant species
composition through observation, identification and classification of different
plant types in one of the schools in Gapan, JRLMHS; determine the
conservation and taxonomic status of species of plants; and identify current
threats therein.
The phrase "Megadiverse Countries'' is used to describe the nations
with the greatest biodiversity. In the entire world, just 17 nations can make
that assertion. Despite the country's environmental devastation, the
Philippines continue to be one of the world's megadiverse nations (Limos
2021). The Philippines is home to thousands of both known and
undocumented species of plants & animals (Medecilo & Lagat, 2017).
However, the nation's biodiversity could be destroyed as a result of its
inappropriate usage and management. The country has been identified as a
major priority for conservation and as one of the world's biodiversity hotspots
(Rintelen et al., 2017). According to Foundation Philippines Environment
(2023) this implies that a significant portion of Philippine plant and wildlife
species are being exterminated at an alarming rate as a result of a number of
factors, such as habitat loss, overexploitation, invasive alien species (IAS),
human activities, and climate change. Several areas in the Philippines have
undergone plant diversity assessment like the plant diversity found in Quezon
(Paclibar et al., 2020), Las Pinas-Parañaque, Metro Manila (NA Alba, 2017)
and assessment of diversity of plants present in ecotone ecosystem found in
Sitio Bulac, Barangay General Luna, Carranglan, Nueva Ecija (Paz-Alberto,
2018). However, no research study about plant diversity is found in
Bayanihan, Gapan City. So, our study aims to catalog the variety of plant
species that can be found at Juan R. Liwag Memorial High School.
Review of Related Literature

Biodiversity encompasses a variety of life dorms on earth, including a

variety of genes, species, ecosystems, and ecological processes (Rathoure
and Patel 2020). Another definition of biodiversity is provided in the study of
Van Weelie and Boersma (2018) considering biodiversity as a natural
resource, as nature or environment, and as an index of measurement
summarizing it as variability in biological objects in space and time. It has
three levels - ecosystem, species, and genetic diversity (Kumar & Mina,
2018). Unfortunately, both of the world’s forests and biodiversity are
generally decreasing at an unpleasant rate that dictates the call for immediate
conservation and protection of these resources (Coracero & Malabrigo, 2020).
Plant diversity refers to the variety of plant species that are found in a
particular area. In a home garden, plant diversity refers to the number of
species that cover your total plot. It’s easy to maintain plant diversity,
regardless of the size of your garden, by adding different varieties of plants,
shrubs, trees and ground covers (Keerthi & David, 2023).
In previous research, the assessment of plant diversity was the main
topic (Huang et al. 2017; Figueroa et al. 2018; Yeshitela et al. 2020); as well
as the planning and creation of plant diversity protection (Li et al. 2019;
Chang et al. 2021). According to several studies ( Dong et al. 2019; Liu et al.
2019; Wang and Zhao 2020), the amount of plant diversity in urban parks
depends on the park's size, type, age, and external environment. The age of
the park is calculated as the quadrat survey year (2018) minus the year the
park was first established.
According to Goetz-Lab (2021) Plant biodiversity is one of the key
indicators of ecosystem health and productivity. It is also challenging to
estimate at large extents. Forest structure has increasingly been recognized
as a way to approximate large-scale patterns in the distribution of
biodiversity. A new study by Drs. Christopher. Hakkenberg and Scott J. Goetz,
(2021) recently published in Global Ecology and Biogeography, uses lidar and
field observations from the NEON program to explore how climate mediates
biodiversity-structure relationships (BSRs) across the United States.
Their findings could help improve biodiversity maps created with
remote sensing data and better predict the impact of habitat degradation and
climate change on biodiversity across disparate regions. Based on Barnett, D.
et al (2019) the National Ecological Observatory Network (NEON) is a
comprehensive initiative designed to enhance our understanding of how
environmental changes affect ecological systems. It achieves this by collecting
and analyzing data on plant diversity, which serves as a valuable indicator of
climate variations, disturbances, and land use impacts.
Numerous microhabitats, each with its own collection of species, result
in high biodiversity (Kiew et al., 2021). High biodiversity value sites were
advised to be protected immediately, while low biodiversity value places were
advised to have replanting programs utilizing species of high significance
value (Aureo et al., 2020).
Urbanization had a big impact on plant diversity. A study investigated
the impact of urbanization on plant diversity in Shanghai. The researchers
examined 134 sample sites along two transects spanning the urban center
and analyzed the distribution patterns of plant species along the urban-rural
gradient. It measured the relationship between plant diversity and degree of
urbanization using land use data from aerial photos. It is found that
urbanization had a significant influence on plant diversity, with certain types
of plants showing positive relationships with urbanization degree (such as
plants, woody plants, & perennial herbs), while others exhibited negative
relationships (including annual herbs, Shannon-Wiener diversity, and Heip
evenness). Findings contribute to understanding of the effects of
urbanization on plant diversity and can inform conservation efforts in urban
areas (Wang M., et al, 2020). Urban grasslands play a crucial role in urban
biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, highlighting their significance for
human well-being (Guler, 2020).
Protected areas have become a vital component of the global
biodiversity conservation strategy due to the increasing extinction and
vulnerability of different species in the 21st century. The International Union
for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) emphasizes the need to harness all
available resources and models, including collaborative and indigenous forest
conservation practices, to ensure holistic global biodiversity conservation
strategies (Opuni-Frimpong, et al., 2021) Besides serving as home of bio-
resources that provide vital goods and services for the society and other living
organism. Protected areas include Forest, Biosphere Reserves, Sacred Groves,
Wildlife Sanctuaries, National Parks, and Botanical Gardens (Adom, 2018).
Understanding patterns of global biodiversity, and the underlying
processes, will continue to be a major priority as issues such as global climate
change, conservation, and sustainable resource-use increase in importance
worldwide. The global patterns of biodiversity and the main factors
determining species richness has also increased with the need to understand
how biodiversity might change under different scenarios of global climate
change, as well as to inform conservation and sustainable resource use
efforts (Kumar, Pathak, Tripathi, Shukla, S. Dubey, 2021). A study examines
the current understanding of global patterns of plant diversity and compares
them with knowledge of vertebrate taxonomic groups. It aims to identify
areas of high diversity and endemism for vascular plants and suggests ways
to improve conservation prioritization based on these patterns. The study
analyzes data from three different sources with varying levels of geographic
and ecological detail and finds that the results align with areas of high
diversity and endemism for terrestrial vertebrate species (Brummitt, N. et al.
2020).
Earthquakes may lead to species extinction and alterations in plant
communities, lowering alpine grassland production. They also mentioned that
the species composition around the seismo-fault shifted from sedges to
forbes. Furthermore, in comparison to the control, the diversity and
aboveground biomass around the seismo-fault were severely reduced (Zuo et
al, 2022). On top of that, earthquakes facilitated the transition of natural
grassland plants to weeds in agricultural regions as well as on roadsides by
modifying soil qualities. However, the same turnover was enhanced by
mowing frequency, indicating that extensive rather than intensive mowing
may reduce the negative legacy effects and maintain grassland species
(Tsuzuki et al, 2020).
Forests are essential for global environmental well-being due to its abundance
of ecosystem services and regulating mechanisms. Climate change, resource
extraction, and anthropogenic disturbances are all putting strain on the
globe's forests (Kacic & Kuenzer, 2022). In addition, climate and changes in
land use have a significant impact on plant species distribution (SD) and
composition, and the repercussions of both factors is expected to escalate in
the coming years (Chang et al, 2021). As a result, habitats are declining at an
alarming rate, and species diversity is deteriorating (Kacic & Kuenzer, 2022).
Climate change affects forest ecosystem processes and related services as
temperatures rise and major drought events become more common. This
impact can be direct, as in influencing the physiological responses of trees, or
indirect, as in influencing relationships between trees and hence changing the
composition of communities. Such alterations may have a significant impact
on ecosystem functioning, particularly productivity (Jordan et al, 2020). Forest
ecosystems are crucial for reducing greenhouse gas emissions by
sequestering carbon. Climate change, on the other hand, has had an impact
on forest ecosystem functioning in both positive and negative ways, resulting
in alterations in species/functional diversity and losses in plant species
variation, which may limit the beneficial effects of diversity on ecosystem
functioning. Through the beneficial link between diversity and ecosystem
functioning, biodiversity may attenuate climate change impacts on (I)
biodiversity itself, as more diversified systems may be more resilient to the
effects of climate change, and (II) ecosystem functioning (Hisano et al,
2018).
The study of the evolution of metabolism has become increasingly
popular in the past decade after lagging behind the study of the evolution of
development. This is likely due to a greater understanding of the complexity
of metabolic pathways and the important role that metabolism plays in the
evolution of organisms. Scientists are now investigating how metabolic
pathways have evolved over time and how these changes have contributed to
the diversity of life on Earth. Croplands, rangelands and pastures, and
production and multi use forests are areas of land that are used for various
human activities such as agriculture and forestry. Together, these areas cover
approximately 55% of the Earth's ice-free land surface. These areas provide
humans with a variety of resources such as food, feed for livestock, fibers for
textiles, fuel, and wood products. They are essential for meeting the basic
needs of human societies and supporting the global economy (Isbell, Adler,
Eisenhauer, et al., 2017).
According to Xie & Shen (2021) Hubei Shennongjia, is home to a
complete ecosystem and the biggest primary forests in central China. Hubei
Shennongjia has been a refuge for wild animals and plants since the
Quaternary era glaciers, and is home to a variety of ancient relic, rare,
endangered, and endemic species due to its unique habitats. The refuge that
Hubei Shennongjia has provided for wild animals and plants since the
Quaternary era glaciers has contributed to the area's diversity of species,
which includes ancient relics, rare, endangered, and endemic species. Plants
produce a vast range of metabolites, more than most other organisms (Fang,
Fernie, Luo, 2019).
Cataloging the vascular plants of the Americas has been going on for
centuries, but it's only in recent decades that it has become possible to have
an overview of the entire flora. This is likely due to advances in technology
and the ability to collect and analyze data on a larger scale. This information
can be used to identify areas of high plant diversity, as well as to track
changes in plant diversity over time (Ulloa, Rodríguez, Jorgensen, et al.,
2017). Plant identification is not exclusively the job of botanists and plant
ecologists. Anyone can learn the basics of plant identification and contribute
to scientific research on plant diversity. This is important because it allows for
a larger and more diverse group of people to participate in scientific research,
which can lead to a greater understanding of plant diversity and the
ecosystem as a whole. (Wäldchen, Rzanny, Seeland, et al., 2018).
Species knowledge is essential for protecting biodiversity because it
allows us to identify and understand the different types of plants and animals
that exist in an ecosystem (Wäldchen & Mäder, 2018). This knowledge is
necessary for developing effective conservation strategies that can help
protect and preserve these species. Without a good understanding of the
different species that exist in an ecosystem, it is difficult to identify which
ones are at risk and what factors are contributing to their decline. Efforts to
catalog and understand plant diversity will benefit plant breeding in the
future. By understanding the different types of plants that exist and how they
are genetically related, plant breeders can develop new plant varieties that
are better suited to specific environmental conditions or that have improved
traits, such as higher yields or disease resistance. Plants produce a vast range
of metabolites, more than most other organisms, which is crucial for
understanding plant diversity and the roles that plants play in ecosystems.
(Hanelt, 2018).
Analysis of Variance was used to compare diversity and site conditions,
showing that Erliweid and Hofstetterweid, primarily belonging to the Molinion
caeruleae alliance, had significantly higher species richness (Philipp Schmid,
2022). Soil organic carbon (SOC) plays a critical role in mitigating climate
change and ensuring food production. However, the impact of plant diversity
on SOC remains uncertain due to conflicting factors: increased plant diversity
enhances SOC through higher productivity and litter inputs but also stimulates
microbial respiration, leading to SOC reduction. (Chen, X. et al. 2019).
However, the increasing similarity of plant communities poses a threat to their
ecological and agronomic functions. To address this, a study conducted over
20 years in northwestern France examined the drivers of plant diversity in
field margins for conservation and restoration purposes (S. Boinot., A.
Alignier., 2023).
Nestedness is primarily influenced by historical connectivity to the
original species pool, while spatial turnover is driven by different mechanisms
in nutrient-rich and nutrient-poor landscapes. The findings emphasize the
importance of understanding community assembly mechanisms for
conservation and habitat restoration in human-transformed landscapes, and
highlight the need for considering the land-use history of sites for a
comprehensive understanding of beta diversity (T Conradi, 2017).
Urbanization had a significant influence on plant diversity, with certain
types of plants showing positive relationships with urbanization degree (such
as all plants, woody plants, and perennial herbs), while others exhibited
negative relationships (including annual herbs, Shannon-Wiener diversity, and
Heip evenness). The findings contribute to our understanding of the effects of
urbanization on plant diversity and can inform conservation efforts in urban
areas (Wang M., et al, 2020). This study focuses on the Quezon Protected
Landscape (QPL), a tropical rainforest in the southern Sierra Madre mountain
range. It aims to describe the plant diversity and assess the ecological and
conservation status of the area. The study identifies various vegetation types
and quantifies the number of species present. It also highlights the threats
posed by human activities, such as illegal extraction of natural resources,
encroachment, and the presence of invasive alien species. The findings
emphasize the need for conservation efforts, including protection measures
and awareness campaigns, to ensure the sustainability of the QPL (GCB
Paclibar, 2020).
According to NF Wan (2020), increasing plant diversity promotes
beneficial interactions between insects and plants, ultimately contributing to
improved ecosystem services. The study reviews the advantages and
limitations of conserving plant diversity through living collections and seed
banks, and discusses the need for additional research and conservation
measures. It emphasizes the importance of networks, data sharing, and the
integration of in situ and ex situ conservation efforts. The study provides case
studies demonstrating how botanic gardens and seed banks contribute to
integrated conservation, research for agriculture and food security,
restoration and reforestation, and local livelihood support (E Breman, 2021).
The introduction of woody plants contributes to increased species diversity,
while alien species are limited in their spread due to the challenging
environmental conditions. The study also analyzes changes in the flora of one
town over time, observing a 20% increase in plant diversity across functional
zones, with some species not being recorded in recent years (Koptseva,
2021). Contrary to expectations, urban roadsides had the lowest species
richness and diversity, while vacant lots and peri-urban grasslands had higher
levels. The study found that disturbance levels strongly affected biodiversity
in urban areas but did not lead to significant biotic homogenization (B Guler,
2020).
Plant performance is determined by functional features, which have the
capacity to influence and forecast species distributions along environmental
gradients (Maharjan et al, 2022). This study, focuses on the Himalayan
elevation gradient in Nepal because 1) it is one of the longest and steepest
elevational gradients in the world, 2) it is a global hotspot of biodiversity. 3)
global warming is forcing numerous treeline species along this gradient to
move upward at a rate as high as 26 m per decade (Chhetri et al. Chhetri,
Gaddis and Cairns, 2018) and 4) the distribution of species along an
elevational gradient according to Rapoport’s elevational rule can be tested
along this gradient.
According to G.Simpson, M., J.Undersander, D. (2019), Most grasses
and legumes are easy to identify in a hay production system or when they are
allowed to go to seed ripening and the floral structures are present. They also
stated that the trick and challenge comes in trying to identify grasses and
legumes in plants that are heavily or frequently grazed, where there are no
floral structures.
 Long before Ernst Haeckel coined the term “ecology” in 1866, nature
explorers, such as Alexander von Humboldt, observed that vegetation
composition changes with climate. However, it still remains unclear what
determines the local composition and species richness of vegetation.
Understanding the roles of belowground invertebrates and microbes is
particularly challenging (Wim H. van der Putten, 2017.
Fire regime is a primary factor explaining plant diversity around the
globe, even after accounting for productivity. Fires delay competitive
exclusion, increase landscape heterogeneity and generate new niches; thus,
they provide opportunities for a large variety of species (Juli G. Pausas, Eloi
Ribeiro, 2017).
The diversity of plant species in an ecosystem is closely linked to the
diversity of terpenoid metabolites present in that ecosystem. Terpenoid
metabolites are chemical compounds produced by plants, and different plant
species have distinct biosynthetic pathways that result in the production of
specific terpenoids. Therefore, an increase in plant species diversity within an
ecosystem leads to a greater variety of terpenoid metabolites. This
relationship was highlighted in a study by Zhou and Pichersky (2020),
emphasizing the importance of plant species diversity for the chemical
diversity within ecosystems.
Plant diversity, encompassing the variety of plant species in an area, is
a fundamental aspect of ecological diversity. It influences various ecological
processes and interactions within an ecosystem. The assortment and
composition of woodland habitat categories are influenced by factors such as
soil conditions, climate, topography, and historical factors. These factors
shape the availability of suitable habitats for different plant species, resulting
in variations in plant diversity among different habitat categories.
Understanding plant diversity is crucial because plants act as primary
producers in ecosystems, playing a fundamental role in ecosystem
functioning. Higher plant diversity generally leads to increased ecosystem
stability, productivity, and resilience (Lillo, Fernando, Lillo, 2019).
 Assessing the environmental and preservation conditions of plant
communities involves studying the ecological factors and habitat
characteristics that influence the growth and survival of plant species. This
assessment includes analyzing soil properties, water availability, light
conditions, climatic factors, and any human-induced impacts on the
environment that may affect plant diversity. The investigation conducted by
Paclibar and Tadiosa (2020) aimed to understand the status and dynamics of
plant diversity in a specific location by depicting plant variety, evaluating
environmental and preservation conditions, and recognizing contemporary
human-induced hazards. The findings of this investigation are valuable for
conservation efforts, ecosystem management, and the preservation of plant
species.
In another study by Burrascano, Ripullone, Bernardo, et al. (2017),
researchers focused on understanding the variation in diversity of vascular
plants. They achieved this by comparing uncontrolled stands with controlled
stands that share similar environmental circumstances. This targeted
investigation contributes to our understanding of the factors that shape plant
species diversity and the effects of human intervention on plant communities.
By identifying environmental variables and ecological interactions that
influence plant communities, the study provides insights into the factors that
contribute to plant diversity. It also examines the impacts of management
practices or interventions on plant species diversity, shedding light on the
effects of human intervention.
Furthermore, the study conducted by Ebeling, Rzanny, Lange, et al.
(2017) explores how the number of plant species in an ecosystem affects the
diversity of higher trophic levels, such as herbivores, predators, and
decomposers. A higher diversity of plant species promotes a more complex
food web and trophic interactions, enhancing ecosystem stability,
productivity, and nutrient cycling. This study highlights the cascading effects
of plant species diversity on higher trophic levels and ecosystem processes ( C
Müller et al., 2022).
 The importance of medicinal plants in the global economy was greatly
appreciated in the study of Zahra, Walia et al. (2019) they mentioned that
medicinal plants can be used to improve the economy of low-income
countries in Asia and create livelihoods for its people. In addition, the study
by Pandiangan, Dingse et al. (2019) shows the diversity of medicinal plants
and their uses in North Sulawesi, Indonesia and found out that 118 species of
medicinal plants can be used to treat 39 different types of diseases. The
impact of invasive alien plants on Rangelands in South Africa, a study by
O’Connor et al. (2020) states that invasive alien plants have the ability to
spread in response to disturbances, of which grazing and fire are the two
most essential for South African rangelands.
The research by Mucina, Ladislav (2018) provides insights on how to
conduct a forest vegetation survey under specific circumstances determined
by objectives, customs, and regional circumstances.
The important plant DNA sequences and molecular approaches for
plant taxonomy are summarized in the chapter of a research by Besse,
Pascale (2020).
A study by Yemshanov, Denys et al. (2022) takes into account two-
level hierarchical planning of survey of dangerous invasive pests, which
includes regional governments worried about the potential threat of an
outbreak and a government agency with a mission to report the spatial extent
of an invasion. According to a study of Eiswerth, Mark E. et al. (2018)
ecosystem degradation, increased native species extinction and population
decline risk, as well as significant global economic losses, can all result from
the introduction of invasive non-native species.
It is difficult to handle invasive alien species without taking into
account how ecological and economic factors are interwoven. In order to
improve cost estimation, interpretation, selection, and uptake when
developing IAS management strategies or raising public awareness of their
hazards, this study of Vaissière, Anne-Charlotte et al. (2022) fosters a shared
understanding of IAS costs across disciplines. The stability of ecosystems and
the communities that rely on them for their services is still under danger due
to biological incursions, from the study of Haubrock, Philip Joschka et al.
(2021) states the reports that the ecological effects of invading alien species
have been widely disseminated recently, there is still a dearth of data on
those species’ economic effects.
Background Biological invasions impair ecosystem services and result in
significant financial costs. These consequences endanger biodiversity, human
well-being, and ecosystem health, Henry, Morgane et al. (2023) wants
improved cost reporting to highlight the economic effects that should raise
the most alarm, together with coordinated international action to stop amd
lessen the effects of invasive alien species in the European Union and around
the world.
According to VI International Scientific Conference (2021) Invasive
alien species are plants that accidentally or demonstratively enter the natural
environment, where they are not usually found, with a significant negative
impact on the new environment. A previous study aims to analyze the impact
of alien plant species on forest regeneration, which we consider to be one of
the key stages in tree ecology for the survival of forest ecosystems in the
future. The focus of the study is directly relevant to practitioners, forest
managers and the conservation management of forests. With this systematic
review, we aim to provide an overview of 48 research studies reporting on the
impact and management of IAS in European temperate forests. (Magdalena
Langmaier and Katharina Lapin, 2020) In addition, biological invasions have
negative socio-economic and human health impacts. In addition, biological
invasions have negative socio-economic and human health impacts.
(Shackleton et al., 2018; Potgieter et al., 2019; Roy et al., 2019). The rapid
spread of few IAS in forests was mediated by the positive socio-economic
effects of potentially invasive plant species in urban and rural areas (Vaz et
al., 2017; Vaz et al., 2018; Castro-Díez et al., 2019). Therefore, several
policies, risk assessments and legislations are now in place to regulate the
spread of IAS in forest ecosystems (Pötzelsberger et al., 2020).The threats
caused by IAS in forest ecosystems include hybridization, transmission of
diseases and species competition (Medvecká et al., 2018). The establishment
and spread of alien plants in temperate forest ecosystems have not been
widely considered until recently (Wagner et al., 2017)
In plant ecology, extreme environments are those that pose
physiological or other limitations to plant growth, especially for non-adapted
taxa. In these environments, the severity of climate conditions and/or the
limitations imposed by particular soil substrates represent major selective
pressures for plants, leading to the evolution of a wide array of functional
traits, specific strategies and adapted taxa. The study showed a collection of
papers that focuses on plants in various extreme environments, including the
Arctic and Antarctic, regions with serpentine and gypsum soils, high mountain
areas and deserts. It gives pointers to how plant communities might respond
to living in increasingly challenging environments resulting from
unprecedented land-use changes and climate warming at the present time
and in the future (’F. Xavier Picó, R. J. Abbott et al., 2023).
According to R Perea et. al (2022), the understory harbored a diverse
and phylogenetically distinct plant community, dominated by aroids and ferns.
The inclusion of the understory stratum significantly increased both species
richness and phylogenetic diversity. Interestingly, unlike temperate forests,
the understory community in this tropical rainforest was less diverse
compared to the overstory. This study sheds light on the often overlooked
patterns of floristic diversity in the understory of tropical rainforests.
This study aims to emphasize the importance of considering regional
variations, farmland management systems, and landscape complexities in
future methodological studies (A Wietzke, 2020). In this study, plant
communities in urban parks and road greening in Karachi are examined, along
with the effects of various greening methods on the urban environment.
According to the research, road greening forms with bigger vertical projection
areas have a substantial impact on lowering air temperature, raising relative
humidity, and reducing light intensity, all of which contribute to a more
comfortable and healthier urban environment (A Fahim, 2022).
In this study, the researchers collected vascular plants from different
vegetation types over a period of ten years and examined existing literature
and herbarium specimens. They compiled a checklist of 913 vascular plant
taxa, including newly discovered species. The study also assessed the
conservation status of the plant species and identified 19 endemic plants and
96 threatened species. The most diverse hotspot area in the region was found
to be the Baitag Bogd Mountain area (S Baasanmunkh, 2021).
Rare and endangered plant species (REPs) are facing high danger of
extinction, yet a comprehensive and up-to-date review on their conservation
in China is still lacking. This paper systematically collected studies and
achievements on REPs conservation, including species surveys and
monitoring, cause of endangerment, in situ conservation, ex situ
conservation, reintroduction, propagation, conservation legislation, public
participation, progress in conservation of wild plant with extremely small
populations, and progress in China’s implementation of the Convention on
Biological Diversity. (Yue Xu, Zangl, 2021)
The Mediterranean regions are climate change hotspots, with the
predicted loss in water resources threatening the sustainability of shrublands
on their arid edges. (Shoshany, M., Mozhaeva, S., 2023) In addition, the need
for an early warning system for drought encompassing the entire
Mediterranean basin is highlighted by the significant control of drought on
vegetation seen for Mediterranean Dry and Desertic vegetation types located
over areas with high negative values of water balance. (Gouveia et al., 2021)
A study provides a more realistic and clear phytosociological
characterization of this peculiar and archaic vegetation type, which is
exclusive to the high mountains of the north-eastern Mediterranean. The new
arrangement is mainly based on the phytogeographical role of the orophytes
featuring this very specialized vegetation, which is essentially represented by
endemics or rare species belonging to the ancient Mediterranean Tertiary
flora. In addition, taxonomic research on the orophilous flora occurring in
these plant communities allowed them to identify six species new to science.
(Musarella, C.M.; Brullo, S.; Giusso del Galdo, G, 2020)
Climate change implications are especially concerning in tiny mountain
ranges where cold-adapted plant species thrive in the upper bioclimatic belts.
This is typical in Mediterranean highlands, which frequently harbor a high
number of endemic species, increasing the risk of biodiversity loss.
(Lamprecht et al, 2022) Mendoza-Fernandez and colleagues also added that
the Mediterranean high-mountain endemic species are particularly sensitive to
temperature, precipitation, and snow-cover dynamics. Sierra Nevada (Spain)
is a biodiversity hotspot in the western Mediterranean, with a large number of
indigenous plant species. (Mendoza-Fernandez et al,, 2021) Ecological niche
models have been extensively researched as a tool in biodiversity
conservation and area evaluation for creating protected natural area systems,
including forecasts of probable distributions under future conditions. The
cloud forest is Mexico's most threatened habitat, yet it also has a high level of
diversity and endemism. (Jiménez‐García & Peterson, 2022)
Background Altitudinal variation in vascular plant richness and
endemism is crucial for the conservation of biodiversity. Territories featured
by a high species richness may have a low number of endemic species, but
not necessarily in a coherent pattern. (Sciandrello et al, 2020)
Despite the growing popularity of nature tourism, we have limited
systemic knowledge of how it affects nature, from both an abiotic and biotic
perspective, and what these effects are in different regions, habitats or trail
types. A study proposed a coordinated global experiment framework – GetDiv
– for a comprehensive understanding of the effects of visitor’s load on the
vegetation of nature trails. For preliminary analysis, they selected 20 trails in
Estonia, and we show that plant diversity along the trails is negatively
affected by visitoŕs load in both forest and open habitat. (Laanisto et al.,
2023)
Biodiversity protection is the main issue of the 21st century and there
is a need to build capacity to support a diversity of conservation approaches
that are adapted to the changing local conditions and priorities of diverse
human societies. (Sayer, J.; Margules et al, 2021)
To promote sustainability in urban green spaces, it is necessary to
know the diversity of spontaneous species in these spaces. (Illie, and
Cosmulescu, 2023) Spontaneous plants can respond quickly to the urban
environment, given their strong vitality. (Li, X.P et al., 2019) The advantages
of using native spontaneous flora species in green spaces are numerous: low
establishment and maintenance costs, long term chromaticity, high variability,
wide ecological range in urban or peri urban green spaces, etc. There is a
great interest in the identification and conservation of ornamental plant
species from the spontaneous flora, even if very little research has been
carried out in this direction. (Cosmulescu, S.; Stanciu, A.B et al.,2020) Among
many environmental factors that affect the development and implicitly of
plant phenology, temperature is probably the most important in the case of
the budding, budding and flowering in the temperate climate ( Birsanu &
Cosmulescu, 2017)
According to Yang, Zhang (2021) Topography and soil factors are
known to play crucial roles in the species composition of plant communities in
subtropical evergreen-deciduous broadleaved mixed forests. The spatial
heterogeneity of plant communities is controlled by several factors, both
biotic and abiotic, including topography and soil nutrients (Li et al., 2017;
Liang and Chan, 2017) These factors also influence spatiotemporal
distributions of vegetation ( Peringer et al., 2017) Determining the scope and
distribution of environmental elements is therefore necessary for evaluating
species composition and diversity in various plant communities. However, due
to regional and temporal variance, it is challenging to evaluate the impact of
environmental elements (Kersti et al., 2020).

Conceptual Framework
Input Process Output
 Figure 1. Research Paradigm
The figure above shows the conceptual framework and process in
investigating plant diversity inside the campus (Juan R Liwag Memorial High
School). To complete the survey on the diversity of plants within the campus,
the researchers indicated the variables and factors that are needed to
complete the study. This includes the classification; The Taxonomic
Identification; Their Natural history/characteristics. Throughout the study,
researchers will collect data and confirm information by using the classified
app "Picture This" and verified sites (including almanac and library) to
complete the survey of the diversity of plants within the campus.

Assumption of the Study

The study focuses on recording/surveying the diversity of plants in

JRLMHS. The following assumptions were made:

1.

The research study is assumed to be timely relevant and will produce

an outcome that will provide the knowledge needed to answer the
query.

2.
3.

Researchers will make sure not to adhere to any biases and

manipulation in the findings but instead, researchers will use
triangulation to ensure that the results are correct and truthful.

4.
5.

Plant species diversity varies across different geographical regions:

One qualitative assumption about surveying the diversity of plant
 species is that the distribution and abundance of plant species will
differ from one region to another. This assumption suggests that
certain plant species may be more prevalent in specific climates, soil
types, or ecosystems, while others may be more limited in their range.

6.
7.

Plant species diversity is influenced by environmental factors: Another

assumption is that the diversity of plant species is influenced by
various environmental factors such as temperature, precipitation,
sunlight, and soil composition. Different plants have specific
requirements for survival and reproduction, and these factors play a
crucial role in determining the range and distribution of plant species
within a given area.

8.
9.

Plant species diversity correlates with habitat coplexity: A third

assumption is that areas with greater habitat complexity, such as
diverse topography, vegetation structure, and microhabitats, are likely
to support higher plant species diversity. This assumption suggests
that ecosystems with a wide range of niches and ecological conditions
offer more opportunities for different plant species to thrive, resulting
in increased diversity compared to simpler or less varied habitats.

10.

Statement of the Problem

This study aims to survey and document the diversity of plants inside
Juan R Liwag Memorial High School.
 Specifically, this study is sought to answer the following:

1.

What is the Taxonomic Identification (plant taxonomy) of the plants?

(Specifying their: species, genus, family, order, class, phylum)

2.
3.

What is the classification of plant(s) according to their growth?

4.
5.

How frequent each species of plants is present in the survey area?

6.
7.

What is their use and role in the community?

8.
9.

What specific plant species that are particularly common or rare in the
study area? How frequent are they identified?

10.
11.

How may the invasive or non-native plant species present in the

research area impact the diversity of native plant species?

12.

Definition of Keywords
Biodiversity refers to all the variety of life you’ll find in one area and their
interactions. biodiversity provides functioning ecosystems that supply oxygen,
clean air and water, pollination of plants, pest control, wastewater treatment
and many ecosystem services. Biodiversity changes over time as extinction
occurs and new species evolve.

Plant Taxonomy is the science of classifying and naming plants. It is a

branch of what is known as systematics, which is the science of determining
how different biological organisms are related to each other. Taxonomy
classifies plants and other organisms into different taxonomic levels.

Invasive species are organisms that are not indigenous to or endemic to a

specific location. The new location may suffer severe economic and
environmental damage as a result of invasive species.

Native species is indigenous to a particular place or environment if its

presence there is the consequence of purely local natural evolution through
time.

Endangered species is an organism that faces extinction. The two main

factors that cause a species to become endangered are habitat loss and
genetic diversity loss.
Significance of the Study

This study focuses on surveying the diversity of plants in JRLMHS. It

will display the scientific classification, use, characteristics, habitat, and
population of certain plants, flowers, and trees in kingdom plantae that is
existing within the campus. Findings on this study can be used to know which
ones should be kept and removed. It may benefit the students, teachers,
environmental organization/s and the future researchers.
Students
 As a student, we can use this study to determine whether plants are
rare, dangerous, or endangered. Since there are plants that are poisonous
and must be eliminated, it will assist us in determining which plants should be
kept. We could also use this study to know what are the plants that have the
potential to have medicinal use that can be promoted. It will provide students
a global vision of the different organisms of the plant world. Furthermore, it
will contribute to a deeper understanding of our relationship with nature and
have a long-lasting behavioral impact on future generations.
Teachers
Findings from this study will serve as educational tools for them to be
able to raise awareness about plant diversity among students and the general
public.

Environmental Organization/s
The results of this study will provide environmental organizations with
knowledge they may apply to promote concern, environmental awareness and
esteem.
Government
The findings of the study will be of big help in policy making to protect any
identified endangered plants, to ensure safety in the community especially the
students, and to discover and preserve any new species.
Future Researcher/s
This study will leave future researchers with information that they can
use in their study about diversity of plant species. Future researchers on this
subject will be aware of the diversity of plant species that have been
observed. This study can be used to support their study.

CHAPTER 2
 METHODOLOGY

This chapter will explain the research methods used in this study. It
includes the Research Design, Research Locale and Sampling Procedure,
Research Instrument, Data Gathering Procedures, Data Management and
Analysis, Scope and Delimitation, and Appendices.

Research Design

The research study aims to catalog the variety of plant species that can be
found at Juan R. Liwag Memorial High School. To perform this study, the
researchers will make use of descriptive qualitative research to gather
information. This research will use observation as the data collection method
with the help of a plant identifier app, Picture This (Glority LLC limited.,
2022), to make interpretations about the diversity of plant species in Juan R
Liwag Memorial High School.

Research Locale

The setting of where this study will be conducted is limited. The study
will take place in the vicinity of the STEM building at Juan R. Liwag Memorial
High School. It is a secondary public school located in Barangay Bayanihan,
Gapan City, Nueva Ecija, Philippines.

Figure 2. Map of Juan R Liwag Memorial High School

Research Instrument

In order to satisfy the purpose of this study, an observational method

will be used to gather information. Observation is one of the most essential
and versatile research methods in the social sciences, the choice of this
method depends on the research topic and the surrounding environment
(Ciesielska et al., 2018). When using the observation method, we will make
use of a plant identifier app, Picture This to study the diversity of plant
species found in Juan R. Liwag Memorial High School. It involves surveying/
recording the results of our observations.

Data Gathering Procedure

Various methodologies can be employed to survey plant species

diversity in Juan R Liwag Memorial High School. These may include:

a.

Transect Sampling: Transects involve systematically walking through

designated areas, noting and recording all plant species encountered
along the way. This method allows for a broad assessment of plant
diversity, enabling the identification of both common and rare species.

b.
c.

Specimen Collection: Collecting plant specimens for identification and

documentation is another common method. This involves carefully
selecting representative samples, preserving them, and later consulting
botanical experts or references for accurate identification.

d.

Challenges in Surveying Plant Species Diversity

 Surveying plant species diversity in JRLMHS may face certain
challenges, including:

a.

Taxonomic Expertise: Accurate identification of plant species requires

taxonomic expertise, which may be limited within the school
community. Collaborating with local botanical experts, universities, or
online platforms can help overcome this challenge.

b.
c.

Resource Limitations: Adequate resources, such as field guides,

scientific equipment, and transportation, may be limited within the
school setting. Identifying and securing necessary resources is crucial
for conducting comprehensive surveys.

d.
e.

Time Constraints: Conducting a thorough survey of plant species

diversity can be time-consuming, especially within a school
environment where other academic obligations exist. Planning and
allocating sufficient time for surveying activities is important to ensure
data accuracy and completeness. Following the collection of the data,
the researchers will do data management and analysis.

f.

Data Management and Analysis

Proper data management and analysis are essential for meaningful

results. Collecting accurate plant species data, including information on
location, abundance, and ecological relationships, is crucial. Organizing and
analyzing the data using appropriate statistical methods can provide insights
into community composition, species richness, and potential ecological trends.

Scope and Delimitation

Our study focuses on observing/surveying the diversity of plants in

Juan R. Liwag Memorial High School. The study like this embraces all areas
but the researchers cannot cover all the scope therefore, the study will be
limited only. It will be conducted in the vicinity of the STEM Building which
has an area of 4493 square meters. The researchers ang expecting the study
to be complete after 1 or 2 months.

Ethics of the Research

Doing research needs a lot of things to consider in order to avoid any

discrepancies that may occur/arise along the process. The researchers will
take into account the ethical considerations that we should follow in
conducting our study. Before going through with the observation, safety must
be first to be considered. Respecting local regulations, obtaining necessary
permissions, and ensuring minimal disturbance to the environment are critical
aspects of ethical plant species surveying. In addition to it, the researchers
need to be thoroughly informed about the benefits, dangers, and potential
outcomes, purpose and benefits upon the conduct of study.

Appendices

1.
What is the Taxonomic Identification (plant taxonomy) of the plants?

2.

Famil Clas
Plant Name Species Genus Order Phylum
y s

1.

What is the classification of plant(s) according to growth?

2.

Plant Vin
Herb Tree Shrub Creeper Climber
Name e
 Plant Vin
Herb Tree Shrub Creeper Climber
Name e

1.

How frequent each species of plants is present in the survey area?

2.

Plant
Frequency
Name
 1.

What is their use and role in the community?

2.

Industria
Plant Name Commercial Medicinal Traditional
l

1.

What specific plant species that are particularly common or rare in the
study area? How frequent are they identified?

2.

Rare
Plant Name Common
Local National Global
 1.

How may the invasive or non-native plant species present in the

research area impact the diversity of native plant species?

2.

Invasive
Plant Name Non-invasive
Origin Damage it causes
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