PHYLUM NEMATODA (THE TRUE ROUNDWORMS)

✓ The nematodes include numerous free living and parasitic species.

✓ There are about 500,000 species of nematodes and 10,000 of these have been described.
✓ The free-living forms are widely distributed in water and SOIL, while the parasitic species
live in plants, mollusk, annelids, arthropod and vertebrates.

Morphology and General Characteristics

• The adult nematode is unsegmented, elongated, cylindrical worm.
• The species parasitic in human range in length, from 2mm to more than a meter.
• The sexes are separate (dioecious).
• The MALE IS SMALLER THAN FEMALE, and the posterior portion of male is curved or
coiled.

The supporting body wall consists of the following:

1. An outer, hyaline, non-cellular cuticle with three main layers:
(a) cortical layer, which is the outermost layer composed of collagen and cuticulin;
(b) homogenous matrix, the middle layer and;
(c) the fibrous layer
2. a subcuticular epithelium or hypodermis which is responsible for secretion of the cuticle
3. layer of muscle cell or somatic musculature, wherein there are two types of muscle cells
(a) platymyarian muscle cells and;
(b) coelomyarian muscle cells

✓ All of the viscera including the digestive system, excretory system and the reproductive
system are suspended in a body cavity known as PSEUDOCELE or PSEUDOCOELUM.
✓ This body cavity is lined with a delicate connective tissue and a single layer of muscle cells.
The fluid of PSEUDOCELE known as HEMOLYMPH contains hemoglobin, glucose, proteins,
salts and vitamins and fulfills the function of the blood.
✓ The body wall and the hemolymph serve as HYDROSKELETON of nematodes which
maintains body shape, aids in locomotion and in some nematodes maintains its position in
the host.

Digestive System
The adult worm has a complete digestive tract. It is a simple tube extending from the mouth to the
anus, which opens on the ventral surface and a short distance from the posterior extremity.

1. Mouth – located at the anterior end; maybe equipped with hooks, teeth, plates and other
structures for the purpose of abrasion, attachment and sensory response
2. Buccal cavity – tubular or funnel-shaped, which in some species is expanded for sucking
purposes

3. Esophagus – a muscular tube that pumps food posteriorly into the intestine; characteristically
varies in size, shape and structures which are useful for species identification

Types of Esophagi:
a. FILARIFORM – simple, long and slender; seen in Strongyloides
b. RHABDITIFORM – divided into distal corpus, an isthmus and an esophageal bulb;
seen in Enterobius
c. SPIRUROID – anterior portion muscular, posterior glandular; seen in Filarial worms
d. STRONGYLIFORM – short, muscular with a waist, seen in Ancylostoma
e. STICHOSOMA – long, thin, capillary-like lined with esophageal gland cells known
as stichocytes or stichosomes seen in Trichuris, Capillaria and Trichinella

4. Intestine/Midgut – a flattened tube with a wide lumen that follows a straight course from the
esophagus to the rectum; wall is lined with a single layer of columnar cells with microvilli. This
absorbs nutrients and probably plays a role in the excretion of nitrogenous waste products.

5. Rectum – In female, the intestine leads into a short rectum lined with cuticle; in male it joins
with the genital duct to form a common cloaca, which opens through the anus. Around the
anal orifice are papillae, the number and pattern of which aid in the identification of the specie.
Defecation occurs when the anus is dilated and the pseudocele pressure forces the feces
out.
Nervous System
The nervous system consists of a dorsal, a ventral and four lateral longitudinal trunks with transverse
commissures. The most important commissure is the CIRCUM-ESOPHAGEAL RING

COMMISSURE, which constitutes the nerve center. Nerve endings terminate in all of the important
organs and in the integument, especially in sensory papillae. Sensory organs like papillae, amphids
and phasmids maybe present.

PAPILLAE are minute inflations of the cuticle, which function as tactile receptors. The paired
minute chemoreceptor organs located in the cephalic or cervical region of all nematodes
are known as AMPHIDS.

On the other hand, a pair of minute lateral post anal or caudal chemoreceptor organ
present in some species of nematodes without caudal glands is known as PHASMIDS.

Excretory System
The excretory system consists of two lateral canals that lie in the lateral longitudinal cords of
hypodermis. Near the anterior end of the body, the lateral canals join in a bridge from which the
terminal ducts lead to a ventral pore in the region of the esophagus.

Reproductive System
✓ The MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS are situated in the POSTERIOR THIRD OF THE
BODY as a single coiled or convoluted tube, the various parts of which are differentiated as
testis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle and ejaculatory duct. Accessory copulatory apparatus
consists of one OR TWO UNSHEATHED COPULATORY SPICULES which are
SCLEROTIZATIONS of the cuticle arising from the dorsal wall of cloaca. This spicule maybe
short or long and use for attachment of the male to the female during copulation. In some
species, a wing like appendage or copulatory bursa/bursa copulatrix may be present.
Nematodes spermatozoa are stored in the seminal vesicle.

✓ The FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM may either be a single or bifurcated tube,

differentiated into ovary, oviduct, seminal receptacle, uterus, ovijector, vagina and a vulva
that opens to the exterior. The ovum passes from the ovary into the oviduct (fallopian tube)
where it is fertilized.

✓ The female adult maybe classified into:

(a) OVIPAROUS, in which eggs are oviposited and the embryo develops outside the maternal
body as in Ascaris, Trichuris; lays egg in unsegmented stage (unembryonated).

(b) VIVIPAROUS or LARVIPAROUS, where the adult female gives birth to a larva as in
Trichinella spiralis and Filarial worms (LARVA ONLY);

(c) OVIVIPAROUS or OVOVIVIPAROUS, lays egg in segmented stage (embryonated) as

in Enterobius.

(d) PARTHENOGENETIC where the female can produce viable eggs without being fertilized
by the male worms as in Strongyloides stercoralis.

Ovum
• The daily output of a gravid female may range from 20 to 200,000 eggs.
• The egg consists of a multinucleated mass of protoplasm usually containing yolk granules.
• The egg shell may consist of three layers:

1. VITELLINE MEMBRANE (fertilization membrane) – formed immediately after sperm

penetration; waxy, colorless and lipoidal in nature
2. CHORIONIC OR TRUE SHELL – a secretory product of the egg; chitinous in nature and
synthesized from glycogen and ovarian nitrogen
3. ALBUMINOUS LAYER – outermost layer; has a tanning action
 GENERAL MORPHOLOGY OF NEMATODE ADULT

Development of Nematodes (Life Cycle)

Parasitic nematodes pass through simple or complex life cycle both within and outside the body of a
host.

Nematodes have five successive fundamental stages, FOUR (4) LARVAL STAGES AND THE
ADULT, with growth and a molt of cuticle (ecdysis) between two stages.

There are two types of life cycle observed in nematodes:

1. DIRECT (HOMOGONIC) – it requires a DEFINITIVE HOST BUT DOES NOT
REQUIRE AN INTERMEDIATE HOST; from the egg stage it develop into the
infective stage. Nematodes with only one host are HOMOXENOUS
2. INDIRECT (HETEROGENIC) – it requires BOTH A DEFINITIVE HOST AND ONE
OR TWO INTERMEDIATE HOSTS for the development into infective stage.
Nematodes with more than one host are HETEROXENOUS

Transmission to a new host depends upon the INGESTION of the infective stage, SKIN
PENETRATION of the infective larval stage, the BITE of infected arthropod or INHALATION of the
infective stage. The location or habitat of the adult parasite in the host, to a large extent, governs the
escape of the eggs and the character of the life cycle. When the habitat of the parasites is in the
intestinal tract, the eggs or larvae leave the host via the feces. When its habitat is elsewhere in the
body, there are other avenues of escape like in urine, sputum, blood and tissue. Lymph or tissue fluids.

Life span
The life span of nematodes varies wherein some has a life span of one month, some may live for 12
months and there are also some which survive for at least 14 years. Nematodes, with few
exceptions do not multiply in humans, thus differentiating them from many other pathogenic
organisms.

Pathogenicity
The effect of parasitic nematodes upon the host depends upon the species and location of the
parasite. Since nematodes rarely multiply in humans, the number of parasites present, or the intensity
of infection is a critical factor in determining the amount of damage to the host. The local reactions
to adult worms in the intestine are generally minimal; there may be some local irritation, some degree
of invasion of the intestinal wall or mucosal damage from blood sucking.
The signs and symptoms of roundworm infection include the following: passage of worm by
mouth, rectum, or with certain species (particularly dracunculosis), through skin ulcers; worm
eggs may also be passed in feces, abdominal cramps, loss of appetite, diarrhea or
constipation, flatulence, weight loss, anemia, cough, chest pain, or difficulty breathing,
nausea and vomiting, fever, skin lesions, rashes, hives, itching, muscle aches, swelling of
lymph nodes, visual impairment with certain species (particularly onchocerciasis)

The risk factors for roundworm infection include: living in or visiting a warm, tropical climate;
poor sanitation, poor personal hygiene, crowded conditions, such as day care or institutional
settings, compromised immune system, malnutrition, eating undercooked meat from
carnivorous animals, eating dirt or clay (children and especially boys tend to become infected
this way), contact with animal feces and multiple insect bites

Diagnosis
Diagnosing roundworm infection involves identifying the species of worm causing the
infection. If a worm passes through the mouth or rectum, it should be brought to the physician
for analysis and identification. Other steps in diagnosis may include:
1. Physical exam, Stool and urine samples – identify microorganisms in the stool and urine
2. Blood tests – detect infection in the blood
3. Muscle and/or skin biopsy – reveals infections that affect the muscle and/or skin
4. Ultrasound – reveals worms in lymph nodes
5. X ray – reveals large worms in abdominal region
6. Sampling of contents of small intestine may reveal presence of roundworms
7. Tape test – used particularly for pinworm infections; physician applies cellulose
acetate tape to the skin around the anal region, removes the tape, and then examines
it for pinworm under a microscope.

CLASSIFICATION OF MEDICALLY SIGNIFICANT NEMATODES

Based on the presence or absence of caudal chemoreceptor organ
A. CLASS ENOPLEA (CLASS ADENOPHOREA; CLASS APHASMIDEA)
- APHASMIDS: without caudal chemoreceptor organ (phasmids)
- provided with caudal glands
1. Trichuris trichiura
2. Trichinella spiralis
3. Capillaria philippinensis

B. CLASS RHABDITEA (CLASS SECERNENTIA; CLASS PHASMIDEA)

- PHASMID: with caudal chemoreceptor organ(phasmids)
- without caudal glands
1. Ascaris lumbricoides
2. Strongyloides stercoralis
3. Enterobius vermicularis
4. Angiostrongylus cantonensis
5. Filarial worms
6. Hookworms
7. Dracunculus medinensis

Based on Habitat
A. Intestinal nematodes
Those that inhabit the small intestine
a. Ascaris lumbricoides
b. Capillaria philippinensis
c. Hookworms
d. Strongyloides
 Those that inhabit the
large intestine
a. Trichuris trichiura
b. Enterobius vermicularis

B. Extra-Intestinal Nematodes
1. Trichinella spiralis – Muscles
2. Filarial worms – Lymphatic, Tissue
3. Dracunculus medinensis – Tissue
4. Angiostrongylus cantonensis – Brain