UNIT – 1

 Topic # 1. Experimental Psychology: Nature and scope

Nature of Experimental Psychology
Psychology is the science of behavior. As psychologists, we take a scientific approach to understanding
behavior, and our knowledge about psycho- logical processes is based on scientific evidence
accumulated through research. As scientists, we rely on scientific methods when we conduct
psychological research, such as specifying the conditions under which we make our observations,
observing in a systematic or orderly way, and accepting or rejecting alternative explanations of
behaviors on the basis of what we observe. In short, research about the psychological processes
underlying behavior is known as psychological science.

All areas of psychology rely on scientific research methods. Researchers investigating perception, for
example, collect data in formal laboratory experiments designed to provide the most precise
information. Psychologists interested in understanding attitudes and social behaviors sometimes
gather data under controlled laboratory conditions; at other times, they con- duct surveys in the
community or observe and record people's behavior in natural settings. Psychologists studying human
development might observe young children's reactions under different conditions in the laboratory or
in real-world settings. Clinical psychologists may collect data by administering psychological tests or
by observing personality functioning during sessions with patients. Whether the data come from
laboratory experiments, real- world settings, or therapy sessions, all psychologists use scientific
criteria to evaluate their data.

The study of human behavior and mental processes is a bit complicated task. Fortunately, the scientific
method is perfectly equipped to deal with complexity. If we put these two things together we have
the field of experimental psychology, broadly defined as the scientific study of the behavior and
mental processes.

The word “experimental” in this context means that tests are administered to participants, outcomes
are measured, and comparisons are made.

More formally, this means that a group of participants are exposed to a stimulus (or stimuli), and their
behavior in response is recorded. This behavior is compared to some kind of control condition, which
could be either a neutral stimulus, the absence of a stimulus, or against a control group (who maybe
do nothing at all).

Experimental psychology is concerned with testing theories of human thoughts, feelings, actions, and
beyond – any aspect of being human behavior and mental processes.

Definition and meaning of Experimental Psychology

Experimental psychology is a branch of psychology that use an observation-based experimental
technique to study psychological processes.

 The main objective of experimental psychology is study any topic or issues through empirical
research.
 It ensures the application of science and entails the observation, control, and recording of the
factors that influence a subject of research.
 Experimental psychologists are interested in examining how factors that can be controlled as
well as those that can be influenced by artificial surroundings might affect and influence
behavior.
  Gustav Fechner was one of the forerunners in 1860 when it came to the utilization of
experiments to support the link between physical and sensory magnitudes.
 However, Wilhelm Wundt, who is credited as being one of the current pioneers, established
the first laboratory for experimental psychology in 1879.

Main Features of Experimental Psychology

1) Empiricism
Empiricism refers to gathering data that can support or disprove a theory. Unlike purely
theoretical reasoning, empiricism is concerned with observations that can be tested. It is
based on the idea that all knowledge comes from observations that can be perceived, and the
data that surrounds them can be collected to create experiments.

2) Falsifiability
Falsifiability is a fundamental aspect of all contemporary scientific work. This concept was
formulated by Karl pooper. Otherwise, ridiculous but unprovable claims could be given the
same weight as the most rigorously tested theories.
3) Determinism
Determinism refers to the idea that every event has a cause before it. Applied to mental states,
this means that the brain responds to stimuli and that these responses can ultimately be
predicted, given the right data.

Key Terms to Know

To understand how the experimental method works, it is important to know some key terms.

1) Dependent Variable
The dependent variable is the effect that the experimenter is measuring. If a researcher was
investigating how sleep influences test scores, for example, the test scores would be the
dependent variable.

2) Independent Variable
The independent variable is the variable that the experimenter manipulates. In the previous
example, the amount of sleep an individual gets would be the independent variable.

3) Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a tentative statement or a guess about the possible relationship between two or
more variables. In looking at how sleep influences test scores, the researcher might hypothesize
that people who get more sleep will perform better on a math test the following day. The purpose
of the experiment, then, is to either support or reject this hypothesis.

4) Operational Definitions
Operational definitions are necessary when performing an experiment. When we say that
something is an independent or dependent variable, we must have a very clear and specific
definition of the meaning and scope of that variable.

5) Extraneous Variables
Extraneous variables are other variables that may also affect the outcome of an experiment. Types
of extraneous variables include participant variables, situational variables, demand
 characteristics, and experimenter effects. In some cases, researchers can take steps to control for
extraneous variables.

6) Intervening Variables
Intervening variables are factors that can affect the relationship between two other variables.

7) Confounding Variables
Confounding variables are variables that can affect the dependent variable, but that
experimenters cannot control for. Confounding variables can make it difficult to determine if the
effect was due to changes in the independent variable or if the confounding variable may have
played a role.

Scope of Experimental Psychology

Scope of a field refers to the future a particular career holds, how it is applied, its value and importance
in the society. Scope varies with culture, geography, technological advancements and some other
factors. All in all, scope can be briefly defined as the pulls and pushes related to a field.

Experimental psychology is the most important branch of psychology. The credit for establishing
psychology on a scientific basis goes to experimental method. This method is now being used more
and more in psychological studies.

The scope of Experimental Psychology is widening with the invention of new tools and instruments
for experiments.

 Therefore, experimental psychology constitutes compulsory part of courses of psychology for

the under-graduate and post-graduate students in universities everywhere in the world.
 Experimental Psychology studies external behavior as well as the internal processes of the
different stages of human development. Only those phenomenon fall outside its field which
cannot be studied in controlled situations.
 The most important areas covered by experimental psychology include psycho-physics,
animal psychology, learning psychology, psychology of individual differences, child
psychology, educational psychology, clinical psychology and industrial psychology etc.
 Due to the development of experimental psychology, other branches of psychology have
managed to also develop their breadth of knowledge.

Criticisms of Experimental Psychology

Critical psychologists argue that experimental psychology approaches people as entities independent
of the cultural, economic, and historical contexts in which they exist. These connections of human
mental processes and behavior are neglected according to critical psychologists such as Herbert
Marcuse. Thus, according to critical theorists such as Theodor Adorno and Jurgen Habermas,
experimental psychologists paint an inaccurate portrait of human nature while providing tacit support
to the prevailing social order.

Conclusion
Experimental psychology provides an Idea about the behaviour of people and tries to study that
behaviour using experimental methods. Experimental psychologists can investigate a variety of topics
using many different experimental methods. Each contributes to what we know about the mind and
human behavior.
  Topic # 2. Background of Experimental Psychology
Background of Experimental Psychology
Experimental psychology today is completely different from what the discipline looked like years and
centuries ago. Back then we didn’t have the technology and the infrastructure available to us today.
The question of mind and body was on the lips of many prominent philosophers. Names like Plato and
Aristotle come to mind when the first mentions of the mind-body problem arise. The arguments and
debates over free will and determinism and nature vs. nurture take roots centuries ago. These debates
are still prevalent nowadays. They turn into years long research projects in the fields of experimental
psychology and neuroscience.

Philosophical beginnings: nature vs. nurture & free will vs. determinism
Famous philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, and René Descartes made the first references to
experimental psychology. Plato and Aristotle both contemplated the famous nature vs. nurture
question. They disagreed on the fundamental point of the origin of what makes us human comes from.
Plato argued from the genetic point of view, saying that certain things are a part of our biological
configuration. He believed that everything is set in stone from the very beginning. Aristotle, on the
other hand, put the emphasis on the nurture side of the debate. He preached that humans are sponges
that soak up the information with every new experience and learning opportunity.

Descartes looked at a different question that boggles the minds of scientists and researchers
nowadays. He believed that actions and behaviors of people are predetermined and free will in itself
does not exist. According to Descartes, pineal gland controls every behavior in the brain. His view
formed a very popular belief called the mind-body dualism. The pineal gland being the master gland
for all actions was proven wrong at a later point. The free will vs. determinism debate, however, still
remains open in the 21st century.

Research into decision making has become one of the hottest topics in neuroscience nowadays. We
now have different research studies that show neuronal spiking activity before a decision is made (1).
This sparked a lot of controversy in favor of determinism. Many started proclaiming that if there is
neuronal activity before a behavior, which means, that all actions are predetermined beforehand. All
the philosophical questions are still very present today and experimental psychology tries to answer
the questions with various methods. It does so by looking at the problem in hand from various
perspectives.

First steps to science

The beginning of psychology as a discipline emerged in Leipzig, Germany. In 1879 Wilhelm Wundt built
his first experimental laboratory on the grounds of the University of Leipzig. Wundt governed the
term introspection. Wundt believed that by asking subjects to talk in detail about the experience
during an assigned task, he will be able to develop a guideline for the consciousness elements. That
became the ultimate goal for introspection. Wundt believed that since conscious experiences could
be described by people, there was a possibility to explore and observe these experiences and create
a map of them.

Nowadays, looking back, the approach that Wundt had was a bit naïve. Despite that, it became the
first milestone in creating what is now known as cognitive psychology. Wundt and his colleagues have
discovered that there is a difference in realizing that something is happening or sensing it and
understanding what that something is or, perceiving it. He noted a time difference between this
notion of sensation and perception. Perception seemed to occur later than sensation.
Wundt’s impact on science today
Nowadays, in cognitive psychology, measuring reaction times happening during various mental tasks
is a regular occurrence. Scientists try to show exactly which events happen in the brain first and which
ones occur later. Researchers are attempting to acquire the answer to the origin of consciousness.
They want to unravel where and when the very first series of neuronal spikes occur in the brain with
the introduction of a new stimulus. Researchers trace it back to that same question of free will and
determinism. They are still trying to figure out what happens first, the behavior or the action itself or
a certain event that happens in the brain.

Of course, nowadays, scientists have a lot more advanced tools to measure these time lapses and
series of events. Despite that fact, we seem to not be a lot closer to the truth. We are still trying to
figure out the truth behind the conscious experiences and the external behaviors and actions.

Functionalism: evolutionary psychology

Another branch of experimental psychology went into quite the opposite direction from what Wundt
and his colleagues were doing. It solidified the ground for what later would become behavioral
psychology. Behavioral psychology would dominate the field of the entire discipline for quite some
time.

The functionalists, as they called themselves, tried to understand why humans and
nonhuman animals behaved in the way they do. Functionalism thesis moved onto to what is also
known as evolutionary psychology. It quite heavily operates upon the principles of Darwin’s natural
selection. The notion that the best genetic components survived and the not useful ones have
disappeared over the years. All actions intend to pass our genes on to our descendants with the goal
of keeping our species alive.

Evolutionary psychology is still quite a prominent part of the discipline right now. Despite that it poses
a slight problem in the face of experimental psychology. Experimental psychology values reliable and
valid experiments. Evolutionary psychology experiments are quite difficult to arrange. Because of this,
it is not as popular as some other branches of psychology.

Psychoanalysis: what do you dream of?

After Wundt’s laboratory and the waves of functionalism have died off, a new branch of psychology
developed. It is the branch that the majority of the population associated with psychology nowadays.
Despite the fact that not many practitioners use it nowadays, it is still quite popular.

Sigmund Freud created the psychodynamic approach was created and it focuses a lot on the
unconscious. Id (the unconscious), desires, feelings, memories, and dreams are prime targets for
psychodynamic therapists. Compared to other branches of psychology this one does not have very
reliable results when it comes to proving its theories. Despite that fact, it came as a result of Freud’s
observations of his many patients and their behaviors. Ordinary public associates it with clinical
psychology and the methods of treatments for various psychological disorders up to this day.

Freud focused a lot on experiences that a patient cannot remember that could result in various
disorders and dysfunctions in the adult life. Freud governed concepts like Oedipal complex, ego,
superego, and interpretations of dreams. As mentioned above, not a lot of research went into the
psychodynamic theory. Sometimes experimental psychology doesn’t consider the psychodynamic
approach a part of it. Despite that, the contributions that the psychodynamic approach provided to
the discipline still resonate to this day.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism is one of the prime examples of experimental psychology. Behaviorists believe that the
true way to study the mind is by the actions and behaviors themselves and they attempt to do so in
an objective and a clear way.

Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner are the big names for behaviorism. Their experiments in classical and
operational conditioning are popular in classes to this day. The experiments that they did became the
premise for behaviorism. This approach understands everything as results of things happening in the
environment – stimuli – and the actions that these stimuli produce – responses.

John. B. Watson was one of the famous American behaviorists with his experiments involving fear
stimuli. His experiments were highly unethical and would be quite illegal today, but, despite that, they
were the ones that brought quite a lot of light into the concepts of learning and developed phobias.
Nowadays, the treatment for various phobias comes exclusively from the behaviorist point of view.
Clinicians use exposure therapy to treat phobias and are quite successful in curing the majority of
them.

Revolution of cognition
After behaviorism, the cognitive approach became popular as well. It did so due to the fact that
scientists at that time became more and more interested in the brain and how the brain influences
the behaviors that we do. The development of computers was a big step forward. Researchers saw
the potential of how the brain is similar to a computer and how they can utilize information
technologies in order to measure the brain and see the anatomy and functions and be able to model
different events that happen in the nervous system. Cognitive psychology studies mental processes,
memory, learning, attention, judgment, language and uses a variety of different methods including
eye tracking and both, non-invasive and invasive neuroimaging methods.

Collaboration of all
Overall, the entire field of experimental psychology encompasses many different sub-disciplines and
fields. It developed quite a bit from the first laboratory that Wundt created to hundreds upon
hundreds experimental laboratories around the world today. Modern state-of-the art machinery and
popular technology methods equip these laboratories in an attempt to help objectively study the mind
and the body and the relationship between the two.
  Topic # 3. Experimental Research: Characteristics, Steps, Types
and Relevance
Experimental research is one that obtains data through experimentation and compares them with
constant variables, in order to determine the causes and/or effects of the phenomena under study. It
is also often called the experimental scientific method.

A common example of experimental research is laboratory blood tests to determine the causes of a
patient's health condition. In these tests, the results obtained from the patient's samples are
compared with constant variables, which indicate the range of normal values.

Experimental is a type of quantitative research. It is based on a control protocol, the presence of

variables, the manipulation of said variables, and the observation of quantifiable results.

Experimental research is used when documentary information is not available to explain the object of
study or when the available information must be verified. It is also used when time is decisive to
understand the relationship of cause and effect in a phenomenon.

Examples of experimental research

 Study on the side effects of a new drug. Area: pharmacology. A control group will consume a
placebo. The other group will consume the drug in the experimental phase. None of the
participants will know which group they are assigned to. That way, it can be seen if the effects
are caused by the drug under test.
 Determine the incidence of the substrate on plant growth. Area: natural sciences. As an
experiment, one plant will be planted without substrate and another with the substrate. After
a while, the results will be observed.
 Check if there is a predisposition in adults to perpetuate gender stereotypes. Area: social
sciences. Group 1 is presented with a baby dressed in blue. Group 2 is presented with the
same baby in a pink outfit. Both groups are asked for their impressions without having more
information than the outfit. Answers are recorded and compared.

Characteristics of Experimental Research

Experimental research has specific characteristics derived from its methods of analysis.

1. Dependent variables and independent variables:

All experimental research starts from dependent or fixed variables (which serve as a control
group). These have to be contrasted with the independent variables, which are those that the
researcher manipulates to obtain certain results.
2. Control of experimental elements:
Experimental studies involve the control of experimental elements to isolate the effects of the
independent variable on the dependent variable. This includes controlling for extraneous
variables impacting the results and systematically manipulating the independent variable.
3. Manipulation of variables:
The experiment is introduced or provoked by the researcher, who deliberately manipulates
the independent variables to obtain various results, always under controlled and rigorous
conditions.
4. Observation of the object of study:
The researcher must observe the behavior of the object of study in each of the scenarios built
for it, from which he will be able to obtain more or less conclusive data.
 5. Evidence of causality:
Experimental studies are the most effective way of establishing causality between
independent and dependent variables. Researchers can establish a cause-and-effect
relationship between the independent and dependent variables by manipulating the
independent variable and controlling for extraneous variables.
6. Possibility of replication:
Experimental studies should be designed to allow for replication by other researchers. This
helps to establish the reliability and validity of the results and strengthens confidence in the
conclusions drawn from the study.
7. Randomization:
Participants should be randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group to
ensure no systematic difference between the groups that could impact the results.
8. Manipulation of the independent variable:
The independent variable should be systematically manipulated by the researcher to ensure
that any changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent
variable.
9. Hypothesis testing:
The study should be designed to test a specific hypothesis or research question. The results
should be analyzed using appropriate statistical methods to determine whether the
hypothesis is supported.

Steps in Experimental research

The method of experimental research depends on the area of knowledge and the objective. It is based
on control, manipulation of independent variables, and observation. This must be reflected in the
following methodological sequence:

1. Problem Statement. Prepare the problem statement, specifying the starting variables.
2. Make the statement of the hypothesis from the identified problem.
3. Define variables clearly.
4. Control of the variables. Establish a control protocol for the variables that can alter the results
of the experiment.
5. Select a research design appropriate to the objectives.
6. Population and sample. Delimit the population and sample under observation.
7. Run the procedure and get the data.
8. Statistical data treatment. Analyze the data obtained statistically or mathematically.
9. Project the results obtained on a larger population, if they are reliable.
10. Predict related scenarios that have not yet been studied and their implications.
11. Replicate the experiment with different subjects or samples.
Types of Experimental Research
Experimental research is divided into various types according to the design, which in turn depends on
the objectives set by the researcher. These design types are:

1) Pre-experimental design
In this experimental research design, only one variable is analyzed and it is not manipulated, so a
control group is not necessary.

It is used to establish a first approach to the object of study and when it is not intended to delve
into the cause of the phenomena under study. This means that it is an exploratory design of the
state of the question. Therefore, it also serves to test future more complex experiments.

For example, suppose a person wants to know if training in social networks can generate
knowledge and impact people. A test must be applied to the group before the course and another
at the end. In this way, it will be possible to determine how much they knew about the topic and
if their knowledge actually increased after the course. As we can see, it is a single group and a
single variable.

2) True experimental design

It aims to establish the relationship between causes and effects based on a strict control protocol.
It is based on statistical analysis to prove or refute the hypothesis. That is why it is considered the
most precise type of experimental research.

Some criteria of true experimental design are: establishing a viable control group; establishing
various random sample groups; manipulate and testing a single variable so as not to complicate
the analysis and compromise the results. For example, studies to test a drug.

3) Quasi-experimental design
They are characterized by establishing study groups without random selection. Instead,
convenient criteria are used for certain purposes not necessarily related to the objective but to
facilitate the process. Therefore, quasi-experimental research lacks a control protocol.

This method is used more in the social sciences since it is very useful to determine general trends
in the behavior of the groups studied. However, it is not the best for research in the natural and
applied sciences.

For example, in a certain educational project, the participants can be grouped in alphabetical
order to facilitate the emptying of data.

Relevance of Experimental Research

The experimental method can provide insight into human thoughts and behaviors, Researchers use
experiments to study many aspects of psychology.

 Attention
A 2019 study investigated whether splitting attention between electronic devices and classroom
lectures had an effect on college students' learning abilities. It found that dividing attention
between these two mediums did not affect lecture comprehension. However, it did impact long-
term retention of the lecture information, which affected students' exam performance.
 Cognition
An experiment used participants' eye movements and electroencephalogram (EEG) data to better
understand cognitive processing differences between experts and novices. It found that experts
had higher power in their theta brain waves than novices, suggesting that they also had a higher
cognitive load.

 Emotion
A study looked at whether chatting online with a computer via a chat-bot changed the positive
effects of emotional disclosure often received when talking with an actual human. It found that
the effects were the same in both cases.

 Memory
One experimental study evaluated whether exercise timing impacts information recall. It found
that engaging in exercise prior to performing a memory task helped improve participants' short-
term memory abilities.

 Perception
Sometimes researchers use the experimental method to get a bigger-picture view of psychological
behaviors and impacts. For example, one 2018 study examined several lab experiments to learn
more about the impact of various environmental factors on building occupant perceptions.

 Sensation
A 2020 study set out to determine the role that sensation-seeking plays in political violence. This
research found that sensation-seeking individuals have a higher propensity for engaging in
political violence. It also found that providing access to a more peaceful, yet still exciting political
group helps reduce this effect.