HL Calculus 1 Notes 1

HL Calculus 1
Introduction
Calculus is the Latin word for "little pebble". In ancient times, the Romans used these "little
pebbles" to gamble with. Centuries later the word "calculare" became the verb that meant to
compute, to reckon or to figure out.

The discovery of calculus (now a branch of mathematics in its own right) was attributed to Sir Isaac
Newton (1642-1727) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716).

To the engineer and mathematician today, calculus is the branch of mathematics that takes in
elementary algebra and geometry, and adds one more ingredient, the limit process (see notes on
page 2).

Calculus begins where elementary mathematics leaves off. It takes ideas from elementary
mathematics (e.g. the slope of a straight line or volume of a cuboid) and extends them to a much
more general situation (e.g. the slope of a curve or the volume of a solid with a curved boundary).

Calculus has many applications in the real world; statistics, engineering, physical sciences,
economics, to name but a few.

1 Prior Knowledge - Coordinate Geometry

1.1 The Gradient Formula
The gradient, m, of the line that passes through
the points A = ( x1 , y 1 ) and B = ( x 2 , y 2) ,
is given by:

y2 − y1
m=
x2 − x1

1.2 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

Definition 1: Two lines, L1 and L2 , with gradients m1 and m2 respectively, are said to be
parallel if they have the same gradient. In other words,

m1 = m2

Definition 2: Two lines, L1 and L2 ,with gradients m1 and m2 respectively, are said to be
perpendicular if the product of their gradients equals − 1 . In other words,

1
m1 × m2 = − 1 or m 2 = − .
m1

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HL Calculus 1 Notes 2

1.3 Finding the equation of a line

To find the equation of a line we need to know:

• Either, its gradient and one point on the line.

• Or, two points on the line.

If a straight line has gradient m and passes through the point ( x 1 , y 1) ,

then its equation is given by:

y − y 1 = m( x − x 1 ) .

2 The Limit Process

2
x −4
Consider the problem of graphing the function y = . We note that we have a
x−2
0
problem at x = 2, since y = for this value of x . We say that y is undefined when x = 2.
0

However, we can also say that:

x2 − 4
y =
x −2
( x − 2)(x + 2)
=
(x − 2)
= x+2  where x ≠ 2 .

x2 − 4
If we look at the graph of y = , we can see that
x−2
as x gets closer and closer to 2 from both above and
below, y gets closer and closer to 4 .

We say, therefore, as x approaches 2 , y approaches 4

or, more formally:
2
x −4
The limit of y = as x approaches 2 , is 4 .
x−2

x2 − 4
We write: lim =4 .
x→ 2 x−2

Note: Substituting the value of the limit (i.e. x = 2) into  above gives the value 4 .

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HL Calculus 1 Notes 3

3 Differentiation
3.1 Vocabulary / Notation
• The process of finding the gradient function is call differentiation.

• The gradient function is also called the derived function or the derivative.
dy
• The notation for the gradient function is f ' ( x) or y ' or .
dx

3.2 The Gradient of a Curve

Definition: The gradient of a curve at a point

P on the curve, is the gradient of the tangent
to the curve at this same point.

Note: The gradient of the curve changes with respect to x .

3.3 The Gradient Function f ' ( x)

Definition: For some function y = f ( x) , the
gradient at any point, P( x , f ( x)) is given by:

f ( x + h) − f ( x)
f ' ( x) = lim .
h →0 h

y2 − y1
Note 1: Compare this with m = .
x2 − x1

Note 2: We use the gradient function to find the gradient of the tangent at any point
(x 1 , y 1 ) on the curve. This, therefore, gives us the gradient of the curve at this point.

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HL Calculus 1 Notes 4

3.4 Finding the Gradient Function using First Principles

Example: Differentiate f ( x ) = 3 x 2 − 1 using first principles.

3( x + h)2 − 1 − (3 x 2 − 1) Substitute (x + h) into f(x) and then use

f ' ( x) = lim the gradient formula.
h →0 h
3 x 2 + 6 x h + 3 h2 − 1 − 3 x 2 + 1
= lim Expand the brackets.
h →0 h
6 x h + 3 h2
= lim Simplify the expression.
h →0 h
h (6 x + 3 h)
= lim Factorise the numerator.
h →0 h
h(6 x + 3 h)
= lim Cancel the common factor h .
h →0 h
= lim 6 x + 3h
h →0

= 6 x + 3(0) Substitute h = 0 .
∴ f ' ( x) = 6 x

4 Differentiation of Polynomials
n n−1
Definition: Given that f (x) = a x , then f ' (x) = a n x .

4.1 Rules for Differentiation

1. The derivative of the x-term is the coefficient of that x-term.

Example: Differentiate y = 19 x .

y = 19 x
= 19 x 1

y ' = (1) × 19 x 1 − 1
= 19 x 0
= 19 × 1
This means that the gradient of y is constant. This makes
= 19 sense since y = 19 x is a straight line and has the same
gradient at every point on the line.

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HL Calculus 1 Notes 5

2. The derivative of a constant term is zero.

Example: Differentiate y = 7 .

y = 7
= 7×1
= 7 × x0

y ' = (0) × 7 × x 0 − 1
This value for the gradient of y makes sense because y = 7 is a
= 0 horizontal line.

3. A polynomial can be differentiated term by term.

3 1
Example: Differentiate f (x ) = 5 x + 3 x + − 20 .
x2

3 1
f (x ) = 5 x + 3 x + − 20
x2
= 5 x 3 + 3 x + x− 2 − 20

f ' ( x) = (3) × 5 x 3 − 1 + 3 + (− 2) × 1 x− 2 − 1
= 15 x 2 + 3 + − 2 x− 3
2 2
= 15 x + 3 − This is the gradient function for f ( x) .
x3

4. Before attempting other strategies for differentiation, use your algebra skills to
simplify or rearrange expressions whenever possible.
4
Example: Differentiate f (x ) = .
√x
4
f (x ) =
√x
1
= 4 x− 2

( )
3
1 −
f ' ( x) = − 4x 2
2
2
= − This is the gradient function for f ( x) .
√ x3

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HL Calculus 1 Notes 6

4.2 The Chain Rule

We use the chain rule to differentiate composite functions.

d y dy du
Definition: If y = g(u) and u = f ( x) , then = × .
dx du dx

dy
Remember: If y = f ( x) , then = f ' (x ) .
dx

Note: It sometimes helps to interpret the chain rule like this:

n dy
If y = [ f ( x)] , then = n[ f (x )]
n−1
× f ' (x ) .
dx

Example: Differentiate y = √ 2 x 3 + x

y = √ 2 x3 + x
1
= (2 x 3 + x ) 2 Write in index form.

Let u = 2 x3 + x
du
∴ = 6 x2 + 1 Differentiate with respect to x .
dx
1
And y = u2 Write y in terms of u .

1
dy 1 −2
∴ = u Differentiate with respect to u .
du 2
1 3
Substituting u = 2 x + x back into the
=
2 √ 2 x 3+x expression and tidying up the negative index.

dy dy du
= × The chain rule
dx du dx
1
× (6 x + 1) Substitute dy and du into the chain rule.
2
=
2 √ 2 x +x
3 du dx

dy 6 x2 + 1
∴ = Tidying up the right hand side.
dx 2 √ 2 x 3+x

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HL Calculus 1 Notes 7

4.3 The Product Rule

Definition: If u( x) and v (x) are two functions of x and y = u v then:

dy dv du
=u +v .
dx dx dx

Example: Differentiate y = (3 x + 7)5 (5 x 2 − 4)

Let u = (3 x + 7)5
du
∴ = 5(3 x + 7) 4 × 3 Using the Chain Rule.
dx
= 15(3 x + 7) 4

Let v = 5 x 2 − 4
dv
∴ = 10 x
dx

dy dv du
= u +v
dx dx dx
= (3 x + 7)5 × 10 x + (5 x 2 − 4) × 15 (3 x + 7) 4 Using the Product Rule.
dy
∴ = 10 x (3 x + 7)5 + 15 (5 x 2 − 4)(3 x + 7)4 Tidying up the right hand side.
dx

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HL Calculus 1 Notes 8

4.4 The Quotient Rule

Definition: If u( x) and v (x) are two functions of x and then:

du dv
v −u
dy dx dx .
=
dx v2

2x+1
Example: Differentiate y = 3
.
x −2

Let u = 2 x + 1
du
∴ = 2
dx

Let v = x 3 − 2
dv
∴ = 3 x2
dx

du dv
dy v −u
= dx dx
dx 2
v
( x 3 − 2) × 2 − (2 x + 1) × 3 x 2
= 3 2 Using the Quotient Rule.
( x − 2)
dy 2 ( x 3 − 2) − 3 x 2 (2 x + 1)
∴ = Tidying up the right hand side.
dx ( x 3 − 2)2

4.5 Higher Derivatives

3
Examples: If f (x ) = 2 x , find f ' ' ' ( x) .

Newton's Notation Leibniz' Notation

f (x ) = 2 x 3
y = 2 x3
dy
f ' ( x) = 6 x 2 = 6 x2
dx
d2 y
f ' ' (x ) = 12 x = 12 x
d x2
d3 y
f ' ' ' ( x) = 12 = 12
d x3

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HL Calculus 1 Notes 9

5 Applications
5.1 Finding gradients or equations of tangents and normals
Note 1: The gradient function allows us to find the gradient of tangents and normals at a
particular point on a curve.

Remember: Tangents and normals are perpendicular to one another.

Note 2: We use y − y 1 = f ' ( x 1)(x − x 1) to find the equations of tangents and normals.

Example 1: Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve f (x ) = 5 x 2 + 3 x + 17

when x = 1 .

f (x ) = 5 x 2 + 3 x + 17
∴ f ' ( x) Differentiate f(x) to get the gradient
= 10 x + 3 function.
f ' (1) = 10(1) + 3 Substitute x = 1 .

= 13 The gradient of the tangent when x = 1

Example 2: Given that f (x ) = 4 x 2 − 6 x + 2 , find the coordinates of the point where

the tangent to the curve is 10.

f (x ) = 4 x 2 − 6 x + 2
∴ f ' ( x) = 8x −6 Differentiate f(x) to get the gradient function.

When 8 x − 6 = 10 Equate the gradient function to 10 and solve for x .

x = 2 This is the x-coordinate.

f (2) = 4 (2)2 − 6(2) + 2 Find the y-coordinate.

= 6

Therefore, (2 , 6) is the point on the curve where the gradient is 10.

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HL Calculus 1 Notes 10

Example 3: Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = x 2 − 2 x + 1 at the point
(3 , 4).

f (x ) = x 2 − 2 x + 1
f ' ( x) = 2 x − 2 Differentiate f(x) to get the gradient function.

f ' (3) = 2(3) − 2 Substitute x = 3 into the gradient function .

m1 = 4 This is the gradient of the tangent when x = 3.

1
m2 = − This is the gradient of the normal when x = 3.
4

1 Using y − y 1 = f ' ( x 1)( x − x1 ) where y 1 = 4 ,

y−4 = − (x − 3) 1
4 x1 = 3 and f ' ( x 1) = − .
4
4 y − 16 = − 1( x − 3) Multiplying both sides by 4
4 y − 16 = − x + 3
4 y + x − 19 = 0

2
Therefore, 4 y + x − 19 = 0 is the equation of the normal to the curve y = x − 2 x + 1
at the point (3 , 4).

5.2 Increasing and decreasing functions

Definition:

• f (x) is increasing over an interval if f ' ( x) > 0 for that same

interval.

• f (x ) is decreasing over an interval if f ' ( x) < 0 for that same

interval.

• When f ' ( x 1) = 0 , the point (x 1 , f ( x 1)) is a turning point

(or vertex or stationary point) for the graph of f (x) .

See graph on the following page

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HL Calculus 1 Notes 11

For the diagram below showing the graph of y = f ( x) :

• f (x ) is increasing when x < a and x > b .

• f (x ) is decreasing when a < x < b .

Example: Find intervals for which f ( x ) = x3 − 6 x 2 is increasing or decreasing.

Solution:

f (x ) = x 3 − 6 x 2
f ' ( x) = 3 x 2 − 12 x Differentiate f ( x) to get the gradient function.

2
3 x − 12 x = 0 To find x-coordinates of the turning points, make f ' ( x) = 0 and solve for x.
3 x (x − 4) = 0
To find the y-coordinates, we would substitute these x values into f ( x) and get
x = 0 or 4 the coordinates of the turning points (0 , 0) and (4 , − 32) respectively.

Making a table of values gives:

Value of x −1 0 1 4 5
Sign of f ' ( x) + 0 − 0 +

Graph of f (x )

Therefore, the function is increasing when x < 0 and x > 4 , and it is decreasing when
0< x <4 .

Note: From this table of values, we can also see that a local maximum occurs when x = 0
and a local minimum occurs when x = 4 ; i.e. at the points (0 , 0) and (4 , − 32) .

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HL Calculus 1 Notes 12

5.3 Sketching f (x ) , f ' (x) and f ' ' ( x)

Example: Given that the graph of y = f ( x) is shown below, sketch the graphs of
f ' ( x) and f ' ' (x ) .

Solutions:

Note: If f ( x) = x 2 − 4 x + 5 , then f ' (x ) = 2 x − 4 and f ' ' ( x ) = 2 .

CdK - OFS HS - March 2015