Journal of Computational Design and Engineering, 2023, 10,

1143–1157
DOI: 10.1093/jcde/qwad043
Advance access publication date: 31 May 2023
Review article

Challenges and opportunities in green hydrogen supply

chain through metaheuristic optimization
1,2 ,
Saman A. Gorji *
1
Centre for Smart Power & Energy Research, School of Engineering, Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia
2
Centre for Clean Energy Technologies & Practices, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
∗
Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

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Abstract
A comprehensive analysis of the green hydrogen supply chain is presented in this paper, encompassing production, storage, trans-
portation, and consumption, with a focus on the application of metaheuristic optimization. The challenges associated with each
stage are highlighted, and the potential of metaheuristic optimization methods to address these challenges is discussed. The primary
method of green hydrogen production, water electrolysis through renewable energy, is outlined along with the importance of its opti-
mization. Various storage methods, such as compressed gas, liquid hydrogen, and material-based storage, are covered with an empha-
sis on the need for optimization to improve safety, capacity, and performance. Different transportation options, including pipelines,
trucks, and ships, are explored, and factors influencing the choice of transportation methods in different regions are identified. Var-
ious hydrogen consumption methods and their associated challenges, such as fuel cell performance optimization, hydrogen-based
heating systems design, and energy conversion technology choice, are also discussed. The paper further investigates multi-objective
approaches for the optimization of problems in this domain. The significant potential of metaheuristic optimization techniques is
highlighted as a key to addressing these challenges and improving overall efficiency and sustainability with respect to future trends
in this rapidly advancing area.

Keywords: consumption, green hydrogen, metaheuristic optimization, production, storage, transportation

1. Introduction In this context, the supply chain plays a vital role in ensuring
the efficient transformation of renewable energy into hydrogen,
The Earth’s climate system is rapidly changing, with a global mean
its safe storage and transportation, and its utilization (Gondal,
temperature increase of 0.85◦ C from 1880 to 2012. The Intergov-
2019; Li et al., 2023). However, challenges associated with produc-
ernmental Panel on Climate Change attributes this warming to
tion, storage, transportation, and consumption must be addressed
the unprecedented levels of greenhouse gases, including carbon
to unlock its full potential, with optimization being key. At present,
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O), primar-
no single optimization technique is universally agreed upon as the
ily caused by human activities (Change et al., 2007), expected to
most appropriate for solving all problems across various domains
worsen in the future. To address this issue, countries are focusing
and industries. Each of the existing methodologies has its specific
on sustainable development and low-carbon technologies. How-
challenges. For example, exact methods can be time-consuming
ever, current mitigation strategies are insufficient, and a funda-
and challenging to apply when resolving optimal solutions for is-
mental transformation is needed, with more research on the prac-
sues related to green hydrogen production in the supply chain.
tical implementation of sustainable energy sources.
Moreover, the dynamic nature of energy production and distribu-
Green hydrogen, generated through electrolysis using renew-
tion systems adds complexity to the implementation of these al-
able energy sources, offers a cleaner alternative to grey and blue
gorithms. As a result, the use of exact methods does not guarantee
hydrogen, with the potential to significantly impact the global en-
that the obtained solutions will remain optimal. This complexity
ergy landscape due to its reduced emissions, versatility, and stora-
highlights a need for innovative solutions and ongoing research.
bility (Carmo et al., 2013; Hermesmann & Müller, 2022; Howarth
Among the available methodologies, metaheuristic methods
& Jacobson, 2021; Jacobson et al., 2019; Sharaf & Orhan, 2014).
have demonstrated promising performance in enhancing the ef-
As shown in Table 1, green hydrogen provides key benefits such
ficiency and cost-effectiveness of green hydrogen’s supply chain
as reduced greenhouse gas emissions (Gorji, 2022), energy carrier
(Riera et al., 2023). Applying metaheuristic algorithms to the green
capabilities, and extended storage and transportation. However,
hydrogen supply chain presents various advantages. These flexi-
challenges remain, including higher production costs, intermit-
ble algorithms effectively solve optimization problems, address-
tent renewable energy sources, and the need for efficient storage
ing challenges in production, transportation, and storage of green
and transportation solutions (Ball & Wietschel, 2009; Bertuccioli
hydrogen. They efficiently identify global optimal solutions, cru-
et al., 2014; Sherif et al., 2005).
cial for sustainability and efficiency in the supply chain. Addition-
ally, metaheuristic algorithms are faster and more robust to noise,

Received: March 27, 2023. Revised: May 1, 2023. Accepted: May 3, 2023
© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Computational Design and Engineering. This is an Open Access article
distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits
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1144 | Challenges and Opportunities in Green Hydrogen Supply Chain

Table 1: Benefits and challenges of green hydrogen. The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 explores the role
of metaheuristic algorithms, including their application to the
Benefits Challenges green hydrogen supply chain. Sections 3–6 discuss the produc-
tion, storage, transportation, and consumption of green hydrogen,
Reduced emissions versus Higher production costs versus
blue/grey hydrogen blue/grey hydrogen highlighting the role and impact of metaheuristic optimization
Energy carrier versatility Intermittent renewables in each stage. Section 7 presents multi-objective optimization ap-
Storable and transportable Storage and transport issues proaches. Section 8 concludes the paper and suggests directions
Sustainability contribution Developing infrastructure for future research.
Grid peak shaving Efficiency losses
Electrolyser advancements Electrolyser life-cycle
More energy-dense Less efficient than batteries 2. Leveraging Metaheuristic Algorithms for
Long-range vehicle suitability Longer refuel time than petrol Real-World Optimization Problems: H2
Metaheuristic algorithms are a class of computational techniques
that have gained significant attention due to their ability to solve
complex optimization problems (Cheng et al., 2021; El-Shorbagy &

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errors, and data uncertainty, making them suitable for real-world
El-Refaey, 2022; Tavasoli et al., 2021). Unlike traditional optimiza-
applications like the green hydrogen supply chain. Their adapt-
tion methods, which rely on mathematical models and exact solu-
ability allows customization to meet specific problem require-
tions, metaheuristic algorithms search a large solution space in-
ments, optimizing performance and efficiency. Metaheuristic opti-
telligently to find optimal or near-optimal solutions (Abbaspour
mization methods, such as genetic algorithm (GA), particle swarm
et al., 2022). These algorithms are inspired by natural phenom-
optimization (PSO), simulated annealing (SA), and ant colony op-
ena such as evolution, swarm behaviour, and physical processes,
timization (ACO), have been widely employed in addressing the
and can handle complex and non-linear optimization problems
challenges associated with the production, storage, transporta-
that are difficult to solve using traditional optimization methods
tion, and consumption of green hydrogen (Al-Rashed et al., 2022;
(Hu et al., 2022). Metaheuristics provide several advantages, in-
Safari et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2018).
cluding flexibility, generality, scalability, and robustness, allowing
Given the interdisciplinary nature of green hydrogen, optimiza-
them to be applied to a wide range of problems in various fields
tion techniques from various fields such as power electronics, con-
(Yazdani et al., 2020). They can also be customized and tailored
trol systems, materials science, and computational intelligence
to specific problem domains, providing problem-specific solutions
can be combined to develop innovative solutions for the chal-
(Gharib et al., 2022). Metaheuristic algorithms are increasingly rec-
lenges faced by the green hydrogen supply chain. For example,
ognized as a valuable tool for solving optimization problems, es-
GAs have been employed to optimize the design and sizing of
pecially in emerging research areas like the green hydrogen supply
green hydrogen production systems, while PSO and ACO have
chain. Understanding metaheuristic concepts is crucial for utiliz-
been used to optimize design and sizing as well as energy man-
ing metaheuristic techniques, and following (Wang, 2010) defini-
agement strategies in hydrogen-based microgrids (Abo-Elyousr et
tions offer insightful guidance:
al., 2021; Ding et al., 2020; Mehrjerdi et al., 2022; Mohammadshahi
et al., 2022; Monforti Ferrario et al., 2021).
(i) Definition 1: A heuristic is a problem-solving method that
As the green hydrogen sector continues to evolve, there is an in-
utilizes trial and error to drive the development of a solu-
creasing need for advanced optimization techniques that can ad-
tion.
dress the complex and multi-objective nature of the problems en-
(ii) Definition 2: A metaheuristic is a more general, higher level
countered in this field. The aim of this paper is to offer insight into
type of heuristic that is applied to a wider range of prob-
the contribution of metaheuristic optimization methods towards
lems.
the green hydrogen supply chain. The paper intends to provide a
(iii) Definition 3: Metaheuristic computing is a type of adaptive
comprehensive overview of green hydrogen production, storage,
computing that utilizes general heuristic rules to solve a
transportation, and consumption, thereby providing a valuable
particular category of computational problems.
avenue for further research. By underscoring the importance of
these optimization techniques, the study underscores their capac-
Building upon these definitions, a generic metaheuristic frame-
ity to tackle the obstacles that arise in green hydrogen systems.
work for solving optimization problems is defined as follows,
The main contributions of this paper are as follows:
adopted from Crainic and Toulouse (2003):
A comprehensive framework, depicted in Fig. 1 and adapted
(i) An investigation into how to leverage metaheuristic algo- from Osaba et al. (2021), has been employed to tackle the complex
rithms for real-world optimization problems and how they optimization challenges associated with the green hydrogen sup-
can contribute to the green hydrogen supply chain. ply chain. This adapted framework comprises two distinct envi-
(ii) A discussion of the challenges and opportunities in green ronments, the lab environment and the application environment,
hydrogen production, storage, transportation, and con- each encompassing specific stages that facilitate the systematic
sumption, considering the interdisciplinary nature of the and effective resolution of the optimization problem.
field. Within the lab environment, the process is initiated with the
(iii) An exploration of the potential for advanced optimization identification of a pertinent problem in the green hydrogen sup-
techniques to address complex and multi-objective prob- ply chain. Following this, stage 1, i.e., the problem statement stage
lems, particularly in the context of hydrogen-based micro- is conducted, in which functional requirements are meticulously
grids. defined and non-functional requirements are thoroughly anal-
(iv) Suggestions for future research directions in the green hy- ysed. Additionally, in this environment, stage 3 or the modelling
drogen field, emphasizing the development and application and assessment stage ensues, which encompasses the develop-
of innovative optimization techniques. ment of a mathematical model, the meticulous design of algorith-
 Journal of Computational Design and Engineering, 2023, 10(3), 1143–1157 | 1145

Figure 1: A general framework for solving optimization problems with metaheuristic algorithms in green hydrogen supply chain. Adapted from Osaba

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et al. (2021).

Algorithm 1 A Generic Metaheuristic Framework 3.1. Overview of green hydrogen production:

Require: SP, GP, RP, UP, TP, N(≥ 1), μ(≤ N), λ, ρ(≤ N) challenges and comparison of different
1: Set iteration counter t = 0 methods
2: Initialize N solutions St randomly Green hydrogen production primarily involves the electrolysis of
3: Evaluate each member of St water using renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, and
4: Mark the best solution of St as x∗ hydropower. This process breaks down water into its constituent
5: repeat elements, hydrogen and oxygen, through the use of an electric
6: Choose μ sol. ( Pt ) from St using a selection plan (SP) current. There are several electrolysis technologies available for
7: Generate λ new sol. ( Ct ) from Pt by a generation plan (GP) green hydrogen production, including alkaline electrolysis, pro-
8: Choose ρ sol. (set Rt ) from St using a replacement plan (RP) ton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysis, solid oxide electrol-
9: Update St , by replacing Rt ; using ρ solutions from any com- ysis, and anion exchange membrane (AEM) electrolysis. Each of
bination of max three sets Pt , Ct , & Rt , by an updated plan (UP) these methods has its advantages and limitations, as summarized
10: Evaluate each member of St in Table 2. Despite the promise of green hydrogen, there are sev-
11: Identify the best solution of St and update xt∗ eral challenges associated with its production:
12: t ←t+1
13: until (a termination plan (TP) is satisfied)
14: Declare the near-optimal solution as x∗

(i) Efficiency: Different electrolysers have varying efficiency

levels, which impact the overall energy consumption and
mic techniques, and the comprehensive assessment of the solu- cost of hydrogen production.
tion’s performance. In the application environment, stage 2, or the (ii) Operating conditions: Electrolysis technologies have dif-
algorithmic verification and testing stage is undertaken, focusing ferent operating temperature ranges, pressure require-
on real-world verification and necessary parameter adjustments. ments, and response times, which can influence the choice
As demonstrated in Fig. 1, the interconnectivity of the stages of technology for specific applications and energy systems.
and the iterative nature of the optimization process are crucial (iii) Cost and investment: Capital costs, maintenance costs,
elements of the framework. Decision diamonds have been incor- and required investments for different electrolysis tech-
porated to evaluate the compliance of the proposed solution, the nologies vary, affecting the overall cost of green hydrogen
emergence of new constraints, the fulfilment of objectives, and production.
the requirement for supplementary testing. Based on the out- (iv) Durability: The durability of different electrolysis tech-
comes of these assessments, the process reverts to the pertinent nologies impacts the long-term viability and cost-
stages, ultimately striving to devise a solution that satisfies the effectiveness of green hydrogen production.
established criteria and can be efficiently implemented in real- (v) Gas purity: The purity of hydrogen produced by different
world scenarios. electrolysis methods may impact its suitability for specific
applications and the need for additional purification steps.
(vi) Infrastructure development: The deployment of green hy-
3. Production of Green Hydrogen drogen production facilities requires significant invest-
Green hydrogen production is crucial for a sustainable energy fu- ments in renewable energy infrastructure and electroly-
ture, and various methods have been developed to enhance effi- sis equipment, as well as the integration of these systems
ciency and reduce costs. This section explores the challenges and with existing energy infrastructure.
opportunities in green hydrogen production, focusing on the role (vii) Technology maturity: Different electrolysers have varying
of metaheuristic optimization and advanced power electronics degrees of maturity, with alkaline and PEM [e.g., NEL (nel,
and microgrid technologies. The discussion covers different pro- 2023) and ITM (itm, 2023)] being more established than
duction methods, the impact of optimization techniques, and the solid oxide [e.g., Bloom (blo, 2023)] and AEM [e.g., Enapter
advancements and applications of these techniques in the con- (ena, 2023)]. Maturity affects factors such as cost, perfor-
text of green hydrogen production. mance, and availability.
1146 | Challenges and Opportunities in Green Hydrogen Supply Chain

Table 2: Comparison of green hydrogen production methods.

Method Alkaline PEM Solid oxide AEM

Efficiency 60–80% 70–85% 70–80% 65–82%

Operating 60–80◦ C 50–80◦ C 700–1000◦ C 20–90◦ C
temperature
Response time Slow Fast Slow Fast
Energy input Low Low High Low
Pressure Low to medium Medium to high High Low to medium
Current density Low High High Medium
Gas purity Medium High High High
Durability High Medium Medium Medium to high
Investment $ Low Medium High Medium
Maintenance $ Low Medium High Low
Technology Mature Mature Emerging Emerging
maturity

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To address these challenges and enable the widespread adop- 3.3. Applications of metaheuristic optimization
tion of green hydrogen, it is essential to develop innovative solu- techniques for green hydrogen production
tions that improve the efficiency and cost-effectiveness. Metaheuristic optimization techniques have gained significant at-
tention in recent years due to their ability to solve complex, large-
3.2. The need, role, and impact of metaheuristic scale, and highly constrained problems. Green hydrogen produc-
optimization in improving green hydrogen tion systems, especially hydrogen microgrids, present a series of
production challenges that require efficient, scalable, and flexible optimiza-
tion methods. As discussed in the introduction, the complexity
As discussed in the introduction, metaheuristic optimization
and non-linearity of these systems demand advanced optimiza-
techniques play a crucial role in improving the efficiency and per-
tion techniques to achieve optimal performance.
formance of green hydrogen production systems. Figure 2 illus-
In a metaheuristic optimization problem, there are three main
trates a green hydrogen production microgrid, highlighting the
components: an objective function, constraints, and a search
key aspects where metaheuristic optimization techniques can be
space. The objective function represents the goal of the optimiza-
applied to address the challenges:
tion, which is typically to minimize or maximize a certain value.
Constraints are the limitations or requirements that must be sat-
isfied by a feasible solution, while the search space is the set of all
possible solutions to the problem.
Several well-known metaheuristic methods, such as GA, PSO,
SA, ACO, and differential evolution, have been widely used to
(i) System design and sizing: Optimal sizing and design of
tackle various optimization problems. These methods share a
electrolyser systems, renewable energy sources, and energy
general structure but differ in specific variation operators and
storage systems can significantly enhance the overall ef-
selection processes. General pseudo-code for metaheuristic opti-
ficiency and cost-effectiveness of green hydrogen produc-
mization is presented, where steps 1, 2, 3, 4(9), and 10 are com-
tion.
mon to most metaheuristic methods, while steps 5, 6, 7, and 8
(ii) Electrolyser dynamic response: By optimizing the dynamic
vary depending on the specific technique used. For instance, GA
response of electrolysers to variable renewable energy in-
employs crossover and mutation operators in step 6 to generate
put, metaheuristic techniques can improve system reliabil-
new solutions, evaluates their fitness in step 7, and uses a selec-
ity and stability.
tion mechanism like tournament or roulette wheel selection in
(iii) Energy resource allocation: Effective allocation of renew-
step 5 to update the population in step 8. On the other hand, PSO
able energy resources and energy storage in microgrids
updates particle positions based on their velocities and the best-
can maximize green hydrogen production while minimiz-
known positions in step 6, evaluates the fitness of the new posi-
ing costs and environmental impact.
tions in step 7, and updates the population in step 8 by replacing
(iv) Waste heat recovery: Optimizing waste heat recovery pro-
the previous positions with the new ones. PSO uses the personal
cesses can enhance overall system efficiency and reduce
and global best positions as guidance for the search in step 5, in-
energy demand. During the electrolysis process, a consid-
fluencing the particles’ movement towards promising regions of
erable amount of heat is generated as a by-product. This
the search space.
waste heat, if not managed properly, can lead to energy
Hence, the objective function, constraints, and other compo-
losses. By implementing waste heat recovery techniques,
nents in the pseudo-code can be tailored to address each green
the captured thermal energy can be utilized for various
hydrogen production challenge. By doing so, metaheuristic tech-
purposes, such as pre-heating the feedwater, space heat-
niques can be applied to various aspects of green hydrogen pro-
ing, or even generating electricity through thermoelectric
duction:
generators.
(v) Water consumption optimization: Metaheuristic tech-
niques can help minimize water consumption in green hy- (i) System design and sizing: The objective function can
drogen production, reducing its environmental footprint be formulated to minimize the total cost of the system,
and resource requirements. including the capital, operating, and maintenance costs,
 Journal of Computational Design and Engineering, 2023, 10(3), 1143–1157 | 1147

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Figure 2: Schematic representation of a green hydrogen production microgrid, highlighting key aspects for metaheuristic optimization.

while satisfying constraints on energy production, storage the main hydrogen storage methods will be provided which dis-
capacity, and system reliability. cusses their associated challenges and presents a comparison of
(ii) Electrolyser dynamic response: The objective function can their key characteristics in Table 3. Additionally, a schematic rep-
aim to minimize the deviation between the desired and ac- resentation of a hydrogen storage system (see Fig. 3) is presented,
tual output of the electrolyser, subject to constraints on the which highlights the key aspects of metaheuristic optimization.
input power and electrolyser operating limits. The main challenges in hydrogen storage include storage facil-
(iii) Energy resource allocation: The objective function can be ity layout, hydrogen compression and liquefaction, temperature
designed to maximize green hydrogen production or mini- and pressure control, and optimal storage material selection. In
mize energy costs while adhering to constraints on renew- the next subsection, we will explore the need, role, and impact of
able energy availability, storage capacity, and load demand. metaheuristic optimization techniques in addressing these chal-
(iv) Waste heat recovery: The objective function may target lenges and improving hydrogen storage.
maximizing the waste heat recovery efficiency, constrained
by the heat exchanger limits and the available waste heat. 4.2. The need, role, and impact of metaheuristic
(v) Water consumption optimization: The objective function optimization in improving hydrogen storage
can focus on minimizing water consumption in the green As the demand for green hydrogen increases, it becomes crucial
hydrogen production process, considering constraints on to address the challenges associated with its storage to ensure
water availability, water quality requirements, and electrol- its efficient use in various applications. Metaheuristic optimiza-
yser limits. tion techniques have emerged as powerful tools for tackling com-
plex optimization problems, particularly when traditional meth-
By applying metaheuristic optimization techniques to these ods fail to provide satisfactory solutions. In the context of hydro-
green hydrogen production challenges, it is possible to improve gen storage, metaheuristic optimization can play a vital role in
the overall efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability of hy- overcoming challenges and maximizing system performance in
drogen microgrids. Further research and practical applications several ways:
can continue to advance the state of the art in this area.
(i) Storage facility layout optimization: Metaheuristic tech-
niques can be employed to design efficient storage facil-
4. Storage of Hydrogen
ity layouts that maximize the utilization of available space
In this section, the challenges and methods associated with hy- while ensuring safety and operational efficiency. This can
drogen storage will be discussed, emphasizing the role of meta- help minimize capital and operational costs and reduce en-
heuristic optimization techniques in addressing these challenges ergy consumption during storage and retrieval processes.
and improving storage efficiency. (ii) Hydrogen compression and liquefaction optimization:
The compression and liquefaction processes for hydrogen
4.1. Overview of hydrogen storage: challenges storage are energy-intensive and can benefit from opti-
and comparison of different methods mization. Metaheuristic algorithms can be used to opti-
Hydrogen storage is a critical aspect of the green hydrogen supply mize compression and liquefaction processes by minimiz-
chain, as it ensures the availability of hydrogen for end-use appli- ing energy consumption, maximizing throughput, and en-
cations while maintaining safety and efficiency. There are various suring optimal operating conditions.
methods for storing hydrogen, each with its own set of challenges (iii) Temperature and pressure control optimization: Effective
and optimization opportunities. In this subsection, an overview of control of temperature and pressure is essential for safe
1148 | Challenges and Opportunities in Green Hydrogen Supply Chain

Table 3: Comparison of hydrogen storage methods.

Storage method Advantages Disadvantages Opportunities

Physical (e.g., compressed gas) High storage density, mature technology High energy consumed, safety concerns A, B, C
Chemical (e.g., metal hydrides) High density, low leakage High cost & weight, high complexity A, C, D
Material-based (e.g., porous material) Moderate density, low leakage High cost, low volumetric density A, B, D

Note. For optimization opportunities A, B, C, and D, see Fig. 3.

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Figure 3: Schematic representation of hydrogen storage system highlighting key aspects for metaheuristic optimization.

and efficient hydrogen storage. Metaheuristic techniques (iii) Temperature and pressure control optimization: The ob-
can optimize temperature and pressure control strategies, jective function can be designed to ensure the stability
ensuring the stability of stored hydrogen and minimizing of stored hydrogen, minimize energy losses due to leak-
energy losses due to leakage or evaporation. age or evaporation, and minimize energy consumption for
(iv) Optimal storage material selection: Choosing the right temperature and pressure control, while adhering to con-
storage material is crucial for maximizing storage capac- straints on temperature and pressure ranges, equipment
ity and minimizing costs. Metaheuristic optimization can specifications, and safety requirements.
be employed to identify optimal storage materials based on (iv) Optimal storage material selection: The objective func-
various criteria such as storage capacity, cost, weight, and tion can focus on maximizing storage capacity, minimizing
safety considerations. costs, minimizing weight, and ensuring safety, considering
constraints on material availability, material compatibility
4.3. Applications of metaheuristic optimization with hydrogen, and performance requirements.
techniques for hydrogen storage
In this section, we focus on the applications of metaheuristic op- In conclusion, applying metaheuristic optimization techniques
timization techniques for hydrogen storage, specifically for the for hydrogen storage can lead to significant improvements in sys-
identified challenges. We refer back to the general pseudo-code tem performance, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability. As the
and metaheuristic optimization techniques discussed in the pre- demand for green hydrogen continues to grow, researchers and
vious section and concentrate on the objective functions and con- practitioners can explore new ways to leverage these techniques
straints for each challenge. to develop more advanced and efficient hydrogen storage solu-
tions. Potential future research directions include investigating
(i) Storage facility layout optimization: The objective func- the applicability of emerging metaheuristic algorithms, develop-
tion can be formulated to minimize capital and operational ing hybrid approaches that combine the strengths of different
costs, maximize space utilization, and minimize energy techniques, and exploring the integration of machine learning
consumption during storage and retrieval processes, while methods to further enhance optimization performance.
satisfying constraints on safety regulations, storage capac-
ity requirements, and facility dimensions.
(ii) Hydrogen compression and liquefaction optimization:
5. Transportation of Hydrogen
The objective function can aim to minimize energy con- Hydrogen transportation plays a crucial role in the green hydro-
sumption, maximize throughput, and optimize operating gen supply chain, connecting production facilities to end-users.
conditions, subject to constraints on pressure and temper- Ensuring the efficient and safe transportation of hydrogen is es-
ature limits, equipment specifications, and safety require- sential to enable the widespread adoption of green hydrogen as
ments. an energy carrier. This section will discuss the challenges associ-
 Journal of Computational Design and Engineering, 2023, 10(3), 1143–1157 | 1149

ated with hydrogen transportation, compare different transporta- border agreements and regulations, may further influence the se-
tion methods, and illustrate its potential in addressing the unique lection of hydrogen transportation methods. As a result, it is cru-
challenges associated with transporting hydrogen. cial for decision-makers to evaluate these factors when choos-
ing the most suitable transportation method for their specific re-
5.1. Overview of hydrogen transportation: gion. The regional suitability of hydrogen transportation methods
challenges and comparison of different is presented in Table 5.
methods As the hydrogen economy grows, it is essential to develop effi-
Safe, efficient, and cost-effective transportation methods are es- cient and cost-effective transportation methods that can cater to
sential for the large-scale deployment of hydrogen as an en- different regions and their specific requirements. Future develop-
ergy carrier. The main challenges associated with hydrogen trans- ments may include the expansion of pipeline networks, advance-
portation include high costs, safety concerns, energy losses, and ments in truck and ship transportation technologies, and the ex-
the need for specialized infrastructure. Additionally, the physical ploration of novel transportation methods like chemical carriers
properties of hydrogen, such as its low density, high flammability, or porous material carriers.
and potential for embrittlement, further complicate transporta-
tion. The common hydrogen transportation methods include: 5.2. The need, role, and impact of metaheuristic

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optimization in improving hydrogen
(i) Pipeline: Hydrogen can be transported through pipelines transportation
similar to natural gas. However, due to its low density and Hydrogen transportation is a critical aspect of the hydrogen econ-
high flammability, hydrogen pipelines require specific ma- omy, and it requires efficient solutions to overcome various chal-
terials and safety measures. Pipeline transportation is gen- lenges associated with different transportation methods. Meta-
erally suited for long distances and large volumes but has heuristic optimization techniques can play a significant role in
high initial infrastructure costs. addressing these challenges and enhancing the overall efficiency
(ii) Compressed gas trucks: Compressed hydrogen gas can and cost-effectiveness of hydrogen transportation. Some of the
be transported in high-pressure tanks mounted on trucks. key challenges in hydrogen transportation that can benefit from
This method is flexible and suitable for short to medium the application of metaheuristic optimization techniques include:
distances but has high compression losses and costs.
(iii) Liquid hydrogen trucks: Liquid hydrogen can be trans-
ported in cryogenic tanks on trucks. This method is more (i) Refuelling station location planning: Choosing optimal lo-
energy-dense than compressed gas trucks but requires ad- cations for hydrogen refuelling stations is crucial to en-
ditional energy for liquefaction and has higher costs. sure adequate coverage, minimize transportation costs,
(iv) Liquefied hydrogen ships: Liquefied hydrogen can be and maximize the utilization of hydrogen infrastructure.
transported in large quantities over long distances us- Metaheuristic optimization techniques can help in identi-
ing specialized ships with cryogenic storage tanks. This fying the most appropriate locations for refuelling stations
method is suitable for intercontinental transportation but based on factors such as demand, accessibility, and exist-
has high initial costs and infrastructure requirements. ing infrastructure.
(v) Chemical carriers: Hydrogen can be transported in the (ii) Multi-modal transportation optimization: Integrating dif-
form of chemical carriers, such as ammonia or methanol. ferent transportation methods, such as pipelines, trucks,
These carriers can be converted back to hydrogen at the and ships, can provide a more efficient and cost-effective
destination. This method offers flexibility and high energy solution for hydrogen transportation. Metaheuristic opti-
density but may have higher costs and additional complex- mization techniques can be employed to find the best com-
ity. bination of transportation modes while considering factors
(vi) Material carriers: Hydrogen can be stored and transported like cost, distance, and infrastructure availability.
in porous materials, such as metal-organic frameworks, (iii) Hydrogen supply scheduling: Efficiently scheduling the
which adsorb hydrogen at high pressure and release it at supply of hydrogen to different end-users is essential to en-
lower pressure. This method can offer high storage capac- sure reliable service and minimize operational costs. Meta-
ity and safety but may require further costs and research. heuristic optimization techniques can be utilized to opti-
mize supply schedules by taking into account factors like
Table 4 presents a comparison of the different hydrogen trans- demand, transportation constraints, and storage capaci-
portation methods in terms of cost, safety, energy loss, infras- ties.
tructure requirements, flexibility, and transport distance. Each (iv) Hydrogen pipeline network design: Designing an optimal
method has its advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of pipeline network for hydrogen transportation involves con-
the most appropriate transportation method depends on various sidering multiple factors such as pipeline routes, materi-
factors, such as the scale of the hydrogen supply chain, the dis- als, safety, and cost. Metaheuristic optimization techniques
tance between production and consumption sites, and the avail- can aid in the design of efficient pipeline networks by opti-
ability of existing infrastructure. mizing these factors and identifying the most suitable so-
Factors influencing the choice of transportation method for dif- lutions.
ferent regions include distance, infrastructure, geographical and
political constraints, and the available transportation methods.
For example, regions with an extensive pipeline network may pre- Addressing these challenges through the application of meta-
fer using pipelines, while regions with limited infrastructure may heuristic optimization techniques can lead to significant improve-
rely on trucks or ships. Geographical constraints, such as the pres- ments in the efficiency, reliability, and cost-effectiveness of hydro-
ence of mountains or water bodies, may also dictate the choice gen transportation systems. This, in turn, can contribute to the
of transportation method. Political considerations, such as cross- overall growth and success of the hydrogen economy.
1150 | Challenges and Opportunities in Green Hydrogen Supply Chain

Table 4: Comparison of hydrogen transportation methods.

Compressed Liquid Liquefied Chemical Material

Method Pipeline H2 trucks H2 trucks H2 ships carrier carrier

Efficiency High Medium Medium High Medium Medium

Safety High Medium Medium High Medium High
Infrastructure Low Medium Medium High Medium Medium
Flexibility Low High High Medium High High
Cost Medium High High Medium High Medium

Table 5: Regional suitability of hydrogen transportation methods.

Compressed Liquid Liquefied Chemical Material

Region Pipeline H2 trucks H2 trucks H2 ships carrier carrier

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North America Preferred Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable Limited
Europe Preferred Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable Limited
Asia Suitable Suitable Suitable Preferred Suitable Limited
Africa Limited Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable Limited
South America Limited Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable Limited
Oceania Limited Suitable Suitable Preferred Suitable Limited

5.3. Applications of metaheuristic optimization elling stations while ensuring adequate coverage and ac-
techniques for hydrogen transportation cessibility. Constraints can include the number of stations,
Metaheuristic optimization techniques have been successfully their capacities, and geographical restrictions. By applying
applied to various aspects of hydrogen transportation, helping to metaheuristic optimization techniques, optimal locations
address the challenges mentioned in the previous subsection. In for refuelling stations can be determined that satisfy the
this section, we discuss the application of metaheuristic optimiza- constraints and minimize costs.
tion techniques to the following aspects of hydrogen transporta-
tion:
Figure 4 illustrates the transportation of green hydrogen across
the world, highlighting the key aspects where metaheuristic opti-
(i) Multi-modal transportation optimization: The objective
mization techniques can be applied to address the challenges. In
function for multi-modal transportation optimization fo-
summary, metaheuristic optimization techniques can play a cru-
cuses on minimizing the total cost of hydrogen transporta-
cial role in improving the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of hy-
tion, including the costs associated with different trans-
drogen transportation systems. By addressing various challenges
portation modes and infrastructure. Constraints may in-
in transportation planning, scheduling, and design, these tech-
clude transportation capacities, distances, and the avail-
niques contribute to the development of robust and reliable hy-
ability of different transportation modes. By applying meta-
drogen transportation networks.
heuristic optimization techniques, an optimal combination
of transportation methods can be identified that meets the
required demand while minimizing costs. 6. Consumption of Hydrogen
(ii) Hydrogen supply scheduling: The objective function for
hydrogen supply scheduling aims to minimize the total Hydrogen consumption is a critical aspect of the hydrogen econ-
operational costs, which may include transportation, stor- omy, as it involves using hydrogen as an energy carrier in various
age, and production costs, while meeting the hydrogen de- applications such as transportation, heating, and industrial pro-
mand of end-users. Constraints in this context can involve cesses. In this section, we will discuss the different methods of
transportation and storage capacities, as well as demand hydrogen consumption, the challenges associated with them, and
and supply variations over time. Metaheuristic optimiza- the role of metaheuristic optimization in addressing these chal-
tion techniques can be used to find efficient supply sched- lenges.
ules that satisfy the constraints and minimize operational
costs. 6.1. Overview of hydrogen consumption:
(iii) Hydrogen pipeline network design: In the case of hydro- challenges and comparison of different
gen pipeline network design, the objective function focuses methods
on minimizing the total cost of the network, including cap- Hydrogen consumption methods encompass a variety of tech-
ital, operational, and maintenance costs. Constraints may nologies that convert hydrogen into useful forms of energy. These
involve pipeline route restrictions, safety regulations, and methods include fuel cells, hydrogen combustion turbines, hydro-
material requirements. Metaheuristic optimization tech- gen internal combustion engines, H2-based heating systems, and
niques can help identify optimal pipeline network designs chemical processes such as ammonia and methanol production.
that meet the constraints and minimize overall costs. The challenges associated with hydrogen consumption are di-
(iv) Refuelling station location planning: The objective func- verse, ranging from technological limitations to integration issues
tion for refuelling station location planning seeks to min- with existing energy systems. These challenges have been listed
imize the total cost of establishing and maintaining refu- in Table 6 and are summarized as follows:
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Figure 4: Schematic representation of a green hydrogen production microgrid, highlighting key aspects for metaheuristic optimization.

Table 6: Comparison of hydrogen consumption methods.

Method Efficiency Cost Emission Compatibility Versatility Applications

Fuel cells Medium- High Low Good High Transportation, stationary power
high
H2 combustion turbines Medium- Medium Low Fair Medium Power generation, industrial
high
H2 internal combustion Medium Low Medium- Good High Transportation, stationary power
engines high
H2 -based heating Medium Medium Low Fair Medium Residential, industrial
systems
Chemical processes Varies Varies Varies Good High Ammonia, methanol, & other chemicals

(i) Fuel cell performance optimization: Fuel cells are devices ronmental performance of hydrogen-based chemical pro-
that convert the chemical energy stored in hydrogen di- cesses, such as ammonia and methanol production.
rectly into electricity through an electrochemical reaction.
Optimizing fuel cell performance involves improving their 6.2. The need, role, and impact of metaheuristic
efficiency, durability, and cost, as well as addressing issues optimization in improving hydrogen
related to hydrogen purity and operating conditions. consumption
(ii) H2-based heating systems design: Hydrogen can be used After investigating the challenges associated with hydrogen con-
for heating purposes in residential, commercial, and in- sumption, it is essential to investigate the comparison of different
dustrial settings. Designing H2-based heating systems in- hydrogen consumption methods further:
volves optimizing the system’s efficiency, safety, and relia-
bility while minimizing costs and environmental impacts.
(i) Fuel cells: Fuel cells convert hydrogen into electricity di-
(iii) Energy conversion technology choice (including combus-
rectly through an electrochemical reaction. They are highly
tion process optimization): The choice of energy conver-
efficient, have low emissions, and are suitable for a wide
sion technology, such as hydrogen combustion turbines
range of applications, including transportation, stationary
or internal combustion engines, depends on factors such
power generation, and portable power devices. Fuel cells
as efficiency, cost, and environmental impact. Combustion
come in various types, such as proton exchange membrane
process optimization involves improving the performance,
fuel cells (PEMFCs), solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), alkaline
efficiency, and emissions of hydrogen combustion tech-
fuel cells, and molten carbonate fuel cells, each with its
nologies.
own advantages and limitations. PEMFCs, e.g., have a low
(iv) H2 Integration in multi-energy systems (including chemi-
operating temperature and quick start-up, making them
cal process optimization): Integrating hydrogen into multi-
suitable for transportation applications. In contrast, SOFCs
energy systems requires careful planning and coordina-
operate at high temperatures and are more suitable for sta-
tion, taking into account the interactions between different
tionary power generation with high efficiency and fuel flex-
energy carriers and infrastructures. Chemical process opti-
ibility. However, fuel cells can be expensive and sensitive to
mization involves improving the efficiency, cost, and envi-
impurities in hydrogen fuel, which may require additional
1152 | Challenges and Opportunities in Green Hydrogen Supply Chain

purification steps or more robust fuel cell designs to ensure design of individual components like the membrane, cat-
long-term performance and durability. alyst, and electrodes. Constraints include material proper-
(ii) Hydrogen combustion turbines: Hydrogen combustion ties, durability, and safety requirements.
turbines burn hydrogen to generate electricity, offering a (ii) H2-based heating systems design: The goal is to de-
cleaner alternative for large-scale power generation. They sign efficient, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly
have the potential for high efficiency and low emissions hydrogen-based heating systems. Optimization techniques
due to their ability to operate at higher temperatures and can be employed to determine the optimal size, configu-
pressures. However, they may require modifications to ex- ration, and control strategies for these systems, consider-
isting natural gas turbines and face challenges related to ing factors such as heat demand, energy prices, and green-
hydrogen’s low energy density and high flame speed. Ad- house gas emissions. Constraints may include available
ditionally, the scalability of hydrogen combustion turbines space, budget, and regulatory requirements.
can be limited by their complexity and higher capital costs (iii) Energy conversion technology choice (including combus-
compared to internal combustion engines. tion process optimization): Selecting the most suitable
(iii) Hydrogen internal combustion engines: Hydrogen can be energy conversion technology for a specific application is
used as a fuel in internal combustion engines, either by critical for maximizing efficiency and minimizing costs

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replacing or blending with conventional fuels like gaso- and emissions. Metaheuristic optimization methods can be
line. These engines have the advantage of leveraging ex- used to compare and select the best technology based on
isting infrastructure and technology, making them more various criteria such as efficiency, capital cost, operating
easily scalable and cost-effective. However, they generally cost, and environmental impact. Constraints include tech-
have lower efficiency and higher emissions compared to nical feasibility, available infrastructure, and regulatory re-
fuel cells and hydrogen combustion turbines, mainly due strictions.
to incomplete combustion and lower thermodynamic effi- (iv) H2 Integration in multi-energy systems (including chem-
ciency. ical process optimization): In this area, the objective is to
(iv) H2-based heating systems: Hydrogen can be used for heat- optimally integrate hydrogen into multi-energy systems,
ing purposes in residential, commercial, and industrial set- such as microgrids and industrial processes, to maximize
tings. These systems can provide low-emission heating so- system efficiency and flexibility while minimizing costs
lutions but may require modifications to existing natu- and environmental impacts. Metaheuristic optimization
ral gas infrastructure and the development of hydrogen- techniques can help in determining the optimal schedul-
specific appliances. ing, control, and design of hydrogen production, stor-
(v) Chemical processes (e.g., ammonia production and age, and consumption components, as well as the opti-
methanol production): Hydrogen is a crucial component in mal use of hydrogen in chemical processes like ammonia
the production of chemicals like ammonia and methanol, and methanol production. Constraints may include energy
which can be used as fuels or feedstocks for other in- demand, resource availability, and environmental regula-
dustrial processes. These processes can help create value- tions.
added products from hydrogen and contribute to the over-
all hydrogen economy. However, they may involve energy-
In summary, metaheuristic optimization techniques offer sig-
intensive processes and environmental concerns related to
nificant potential for improving the performance, efficiency, and
their production and use.
environmental impact of hydrogen consumption technologies. As
these technologies continue to develop and mature, the applica-
As explained, each method has its advantages and limitations,
tion of optimization methods will play a crucial role in realizing
and the choice of a suitable method depends on various factors,
the full potential of hydrogen as a clean and sustainable energy
including efficiency, cost, environmental impact, and compatibil-
carrier.
ity with existing infrastructure. As the hydrogen economy contin-
ues to develop, it is likely that a combination of these methods
will be employed, and advances in technology and optimization 7. Multi-objective Metaheuristic
techniques will help address their respective challenges and lim-
Optimization for Green Hydrogen
itations.
Multi-objective optimization plays a crucial role in solving com-
6.3. Applications of metaheuristic optimization plex problems that involve multiple conflicting objectives. Domi-
techniques in hydrogen consumption nant solutions, also known as Pareto-optimal solutions, represent
the optimal trade-offs among these objectives. In the context of
In this subsection, the applications of metaheuristic optimiza-
green hydrogen supply chains, multi-objective optimization can
tion techniques in hydrogen consumption are discussed, focusing
help address the challenges and improve efficiency, cost, perfor-
on the four main areas for optimization identified in Fig. 5: fuel
mance, and safety (Alirahmi et al., 2021; Sharafi & ELMekkawy,
cell performance optimization, H2-based heating systems design,
2014; Xu et al., 2020). In the following subsections, two detailed ex-
energy conversion technology choice (including combustion pro-
amples of multi-objective optimization problems are presented,
cess optimization), and H2 integration in multi-energy systems
focusing on various stages of the supply chain, emphasizing an
(including chemical process optimization).
algorithm-agnostic approach.
(i) Fuel cell performance optimization: The objective here is
to maximize the efficiency and lifetime of fuel cells while 7.1. Example 1: production and transportation
minimizing their cost. Metaheuristic optimization tech- Here, the focus is optimizing the green hydrogen production and
niques can be used to optimize parameters such as oper- transportation stages using a multi-objective approach. The ob-
ating temperature, pressure, and flow rates, as well as the jectives for this optimization problem are:
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Figure 5: Schematic representation of hydrogen consumption methods, highlighting key aspects for metaheuristic optimization.

(i) minimizing the total cost of hydrogen production (C1); The optimization problem can be formulated as follows:
(ii) minimizing the total cost of hydrogen transportation (C2);
(iii) maximizing the efficiency of hydrogen production (E1); and minimize: C3 + C4
(iv) maximizing the safety of hydrogen transportation (E2).
maximize: E3

The optimization problem can be formulated as follows: maximize: E4

Subject to constraints related to green hydrogen storage (such

as storage capacity, pressure and temperature control, and stor-
minimize: C1 + C2 age materials) and consumption (such as fuel cell performance,
maximize: E1 H2-based heating systems design, and energy conversion tech-
nology choice), a Pareto-based multi-objective optimization tech-
maximize: E2 nique can be used to tackle this problem, according to algorithm 2.
In this example, dominant solution optimization focuses on find-
Subject to constraints related to green hydrogen production ing the Pareto-optimal solutions that represent the best trade-
(such as electrolyser capacity, renewable energy availability, and offs between minimizing costs (C3 and C4) and maximizing ef-
water consumption) and transportation (such as pipeline capac- ficiencies (E3 and E4). Identifying these solutions allows decision-
ity, refuelling station location, and transportation mode availabil- makers to make informed choices on hydrogen storage and con-
ity), a Pareto-based multi-objective optimization technique can sumption strategies while optimizing economic and efficiency as-
be used to tackle this problem, according to algorithm 2. In this pects.
example, dominant solution optimization aims to identify the
best trade-off between the conflicting objectives. By finding the 8. Conclusions and Future Trends
Pareto-optimal solutions, decision-makers can efficiently allocate
resources and make informed decisions on the production and This section presents a recap of the main points covered in the
transportation of green hydrogen while balancing the economic, paper, followed by state-of-the-art research and development in
environmental, and safety aspects. the optimization of the hydrogen supply chain.

7.2. Example 2: storage and consumption 8.1. Summary

In this paper, a comprehensive overview of the hydrogen supply
In this example, the focus is on optimizing the green hydro-
chain was provided, highlighting the challenges associated with
gen storage and consumption stages using a multi-objective ap-
each stage and discussing the opportunities for metaheuristic op-
proach. The objectives for this optimization problem are:
timization techniques.
For green hydrogen production, the primary method, i.e., wa-
(i) minimizing the total cost of hydrogen storage (C3); ter electrolysis through renewable energy, was outlined, and the
(ii) minimizing the total cost of hydrogen consumption (C4); importance of optimizing these methods to maximize efficiency
(iii) maximizing the storage system efficiency (E3); and and minimize costs and environmental impacts was discussed.
(iv) maximizing the energy conversion efficiency (E4). In terms of storage, the primary methods such as compressed
1154 | Challenges and Opportunities in Green Hydrogen Supply Chain

Algorithm 2 Generic Metaheuristic Algorithm for Examples 1-2 (ii) Advanced water electrolysis technologies (waste heat re-
1: Initialize a population of solutions S0
covery and solid-state electrolysers; Saufi Sulaiman et al.,
2: Evaluate the fitness of each solution in S0 according to the
2019);
objective functions and constraints (C1(C3), C2(C4), E1(E2), (iii) Renewable energy sources (solar and wind; Patel et al.,
E3(E4)) 2021);
3: while termination criteria not met do (iv) DC microgrid (efficient interconnection of PV, battery, and
4: Apply selection, crossover, and mutation operations to cre- electrolyser; Moradi et al., 2022); and
ate a new population Snew (v) Advanced materials for power conversion (GaN or super-
5: Evaluate the fitness of each solution in Snew according to conductors; Shahbazi et al., 2021).
the objective functions (C1(C3), C2(C4), E1(E2), E3(E4)) and con-
8.2.2. Storage
straints
6: Combine S0 and Snew , then update the population S0 by se- For hydrogen storage, research is focusing on the development of
lecting the best solutions based on fitness values and con- advanced storage materials such as metal-organic frameworks,
straints nano-structured materials, and solid-state materials, which can
end while offer improved storage capacities, safety, and efficiency. Cryogenic

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7:
8: return the Pareto-optimal solutions storage improvements and high-pressure vessels will contribute
to enhanced safety and storage capacities. Additionally, as these
advanced materials and technologies are accepted more widely,
economies of scale and technology advancements will lead to
gas, liquid hydrogen, and material-based storage were covered,
lower costs associated with hydrogen storage. These trends are
emphasizing the need for optimization to improve safety, capac-
summarized as below:
ity, and performance. Regarding hydrogen transportation, differ-
ent options were explored, including pipelines, trucks, and ships,
(i) Development of advanced storage materials (metal-
and factors that influence the choice of transportation methods
organic frameworks, nano-structured materials, and solid
in different regions were identified. Additionally, various hydrogen
oxide research; Srivastava et al., 2022);
consumption methods were discussed along with their associated
(ii) Improved safety and storage capacities (cryogenic storage
challenges, such as fuel cell performance optimization, H2-based
improvements and high-pressure vessels); and
heating systems design, and energy conversion technology choice.
(iii) Lower costs (economies of scale and technology advance-
Throughout the paper, the significant potential of metaheuris-
ments).
tic optimization techniques was highlighted as a key to addressing
these challenges and improving the overall efficiency and sustain- 8.2.3. Transportation
ability of hydrogen-based energy systems.
An expansion of hydrogen infrastructure, including pipelines,
trucks, and ships, is expected to facilitate the distribution of hy-
8.2. Future trends and research drogen more effectively. The number of hydrogen refuelling sta-
recommendations tions will also increase, with modular designs and faster refuelling
This subsection presents an overview of the upcoming trends in technologies improving the accessibility of hydrogen fuel for end-
the hydrogen supply chain, with a focus on the key aspects of users. Advanced transportation systems, such as autonomous ve-
production, storage, transportation, and consumption. As illus- hicles and digital logistics platforms, will further optimize the
trated in Fig. 6a, the diagram demonstrates the potential losses transportation process, as listed below:
associated with each stage, emphasizing the importance of opti-
mization and innovative approaches in the green hydrogen supply (i) Expansion of hydrogen infrastructure (pipelines, trucks,
chain. Figure 6b also highlights the future trends and opportuni- and ships);
ties, which are investigated in more detail as follows: (ii) Increased hydrogen refuelling stations (modular designs
and faster refuelling); and
8.2.1. Production (iii) Advanced transportation systems (autonomous vehicles
For green hydrogen production, advanced water electrolysis tech- and digital logistics platforms).
nologies, such as waste heat recovery and solid-state electroly-
sers, are being developed to improve efficiency and lower costs. 8.2.4. Consumption
Additionally, the design and optimization of the electrolyser sys- As for consumption, integration into existing energy systems,
tems, including the development of more efficient and durable such as hybrid systems and smart energy management, will be
catalysts and membranes, as well as the thermal management crucial to optimize energy utilization. Advances in fuel cell tech-
of the system. Integrating these production methods with Direct nology, including improvements in efficiency, durability, and cost
Current (DC) microgrids can further enhance efficiency, as Photo- reduction. Additionally, the development of more efficient and
Voltaic (PV) panels, batteries, and electrolysers are all DC sources scalable hydrogen-based power generation technologies, such as
and loads from an electrical perspective. In terms of power con- advanced hydrogen turbines and internal combustion engines, is
version, utilizing more efficient materials such as gallium nitride essential for the broader adoption and integration of hydrogen
(GaN) and superconductive materials can significantly increase into various industrial and transportation sectors. These trends
the efficiency of power conversion processes, further contribut- are summarized below:
ing to the reduction of energy losses and improving overall sys-
tem performance. These trends are summarized as the following (i) Integration of hydrogen into existing energy systems (hy-
items: brid systems and smart energy management);
(ii) Advances in fuel cell technology (efficiency, durability, cost
(i) Increased focus on green hydrogen; reduction, PEMFCs, and SOFCs; Suresh et al., 2022); and
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Figure 6: Green hydrogen supply chain and metaheuristic optimization: (a) Indicative losses in each stage, and (b) future research directions.

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Received: March 27, 2023. Revised: May 1, 2023. Accepted: May 3, 2023
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