Sts Modern Ages

GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN

MODERN AGES
Overview this marked the

beginning of
The Modern Age, or modernity, is the post massive changes
medieval era, a wide span of time marked in the world.
in part by technological innovations,
urbanization, scienti c discoveries, and Though less
globalization. The Modern Age is generally political, the
split into two parts: the early and the late Industrial
Overview
modern periods. Revolution had
Objectives
equally far-
The early modern period began with reaching
Gutenberg’s invention of the movable type consequences. It
printing press in the late 15th century and did not merely Renaissance
ended in the late 18th century. Thanks to change the way
Gutenberg’s press, the European goods were
population of the early modern period saw produced—it also The Medici
rising literacy rates, which led to Family
fundamentally
educational reform. Gutenberg’s machine changed the
also greatly enabled the spread of economic, social,
knowledge and, in turn, spurred the and cultural Renaissance
Humanism
Renaissance and the Protestant framework of its
Reformation. During the early modern time. The
Francesco
period, transportation improved, politics Industrial Petrarch
became more secularized, capitalism Revolution
spread, nation-states grew more powerful, doesn’t have clear Giovanni
and information became more widely start or end dates. Boccaccio
accessible. Enlightenment ideals of reason, However, during
rationalism, and faith in scienti c inquiry the 19th century, Renaissance Art
slowly began to replace the previously several crucial
dominant authorities of king and church. inventions—the Leonardo da
internal Vinci
Huge political, social, and economic combustion
changes marked the end of the 18th engine, steam- Michelangelo
century and the beginning of the late powered ships,
modern period. During the late modern and railways, Donatello
period, the Industrial Revolution began in among others—
England at around 1759 and combined led to innovations Raphael
with the American Revolution in 1776 and in various
the French Revolution in 1789. Eventually, industries.
For SLSU use only 23

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Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able Brahe, Kepler, Galileo and Newton
to about the motion of the planets and
other heavenly bodies.
➡ outline the key events that occurred
during the early and late modern ➡ understand the impact of Industrial
ages. Revolution in the current situation of
our society.
➡ discuss the scienti c ideas of some
early scientists such as Copernicus, ➡ describe the technological inventions
during the Industrial Revolution.
Lecture Notes
Early Modern Ages. It also referred to as modern science during the early modern
the post-medieval period, is the period period, when developments in
of European history between the end of mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology
the Middle Ages and the beginning of (including human anatomy) and chemistry
the Industrial Revolution, roughly the late transformed the views of society about
15th century to the late 18th century. The nature.
beginning and end of the early modern
period are marked by important changes It is a
in ideas, society, religion, economics and drastic
politics. change in
scienti c
During the early modern period, which thought
included what some have labeled the that took
Scienti c Revolution, the social and place
intellectual barriers that divided the during the
mechanical arts from what was sometimes 16th and
being labeled science continued to be 17th centuries. A new view of nature
overcome. Building on inventions, such as emerged during the Scienti c Revolution,
the printing press, gunpowder, and new replacing the Greek view that had
navigational techniques that had dominated science for almost 2,000 years.
originated in the late Middle Ages, the Science became an autonomous
early modern period saw a dramatic discipline, distinct from both philosophy
expansion of world trade and commercial and technology, and it came to be
activity that some have labeled a regarded as having utilitarian goals. By the
commercial revolution. end of this period, it may not be too much
to say that science had replaced
Christianity as the focal point of European
Scienti c Revolution. It was a series of
civilization.
events that marked the emergence of

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The change to the medieval idea of 1543 is a good beginning point for the
science occurred for the following Scienti c Revolution. Throughout the
reasons: West, modern science began to take
shape in many ways.
1. Seventeenth century scientists and
philosophers were able to collaborate Nicholaus Copernicus (1473-1543). He
with members of the mathematical and was born on February 19, 1473 in Torun, a
astronomical communities to effect city in north-
advances in all elds. central Poland .
Copernicus was
2. Scientists realized the inadequacy of born into a family
medieval experimental methods for of well- to-do
their work and so felt the need to merchants, and
devise new methods (some of which after his father’s
we use today). death, his uncle–
soon to be a
3. Academics had access to a legacy of bishop–took the boy under his wing. He
European, Greek, and Middle Eastern was given the best education of the day
scienti c philosophy that they could and bred for a career in canon (church)
use as a starting point (either by law. At the University of Krakow, he studied
disproving or building on the liberal arts, including astronomy and
theorems). astrology, and then, he was sent to Italy to
study medicine and law. Copernicus later
studied at the University of Padua and in
Among the formally educated, if not
1503 received a doctorate in canon law
among the general population, traditional
from the University of Ferrara. He returned
science was transformed by the new
to Poland, where he became a church
heliocentric, mechanistic, and
administrator and doctor. In his free time,
mathematical conceptions of Copernicus,
he dedicated himself to scholarly pursuits,
Kepler, Galileo, and Newton. Historians of
which sometimes included astronomical
science are increasingly reluctant to
work.
describe these changes as a revolution,
since this implies too sudden and
complete an overthrow of the earlier Toward the close of 1542, Copernicus was
model. Aristotle’s authority gave way very seized with apoplexy and paralysis. He was
slowly, and only the rst of the great presented with the nal printed pages of
scientists mentioned above did his work in his De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium
the period under consideration. Still, the (On the Revolutions of the Celestial
Renaissance made some important Spheres) on the very day that he died,
contributions toward the process allowing him to take farewell of his life's
of paradigm shift, as the 20th-century work. He is reputed to have awoken from a
historian of science Thomas Kuhn called stroke-induced coma, looked at his book,
major innovations in science. Publication and then died peacefully, at the age of 70,
of Copernicus’s heliocentric theory in in 1543.

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Copernican Theory. Sometime between accounts for the precession of the

1508 and 1514, Nicolaus Copernicus equinoxes. Major aws in the work include
wrote a short astronomical treatise his concept of the sun as the center of the
commonly called the Commentariolus, or whole universe, not just the solar system,
“Little Commentary,” which laid the basis and his failure to grasp the reality of
for his heliocentric (sun-centered) system. elliptical orbits, which forced him to
The work was not published in his lifetime. incorporate numerous epicycles into his
In the treatise, he correctly postulated the system, as did Ptolemy. With no concept of
order of the known planets, including gravity, Earth and the planets still revolved
Earth, from the sun, and estimated their around the sun on giant transparent
orbital periods relatively accurately. spheres.
For Copernicus, his heliocentric theory Copernicus remained loyal to the

was by no means a watershed, for it Ptolemaic tools and used the spheres in
created as many problems as it solved. For order to explain the movements of the
instance, heavy objects were always stars. He also thought that the movements
assumed to fall to the ground because of the planets are composed of a number
Earth was the center of the universe. Why of uniform circular movements, which
would they do so in a sun-centered eventually create a non-circular path.
system? He retained the ancient belief that Copernicus was obliged to abandon the
circles governed the heavens, but his idea that the planets are made of a special
evidence showed that even in a sun- material, ether, because for him the earth
centered universe the planets and stars itself is a planet and is obviously not made
did not revolve around the sun in circular of ether. He claimed that the movements
orbits. Because of these problems and of the planets are uniform and circular
others, Copernicus delayed publication of because of their spherical shape.
his major astronomical work, De
Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium Libri In 1514, Copernicus distributed a
VI, or “Six Books Concerning the handwritten book to his friends that set out
Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs,” nearly his view of the universe. In it, he proposed
all his life. that the center of the universe was not
Earth, but that the sun lay near it. He also
According to suggested that Earth's rotation accounted
Copernicus’ for the rise and setting of the sun, the
heliocentric movement of the stars, and that the cycle
theory, the Earth of seasons was caused by Earth's
and the planets revolutions around it. Finally, he (correctly)
revolve around proposed that Earth's motion through
the sun and while space caused the retrograde motion of the
revolving around planets across the night sky (planets
the sun, Earth, he sometimes move in the same directions as
argued, spins on its axis daily. Earth takes stars, slowly across the sky from night to
one year to orbit the sun and during this night, but sometimes they move in the
time wobbles gradually on its axis, which opposite, or retrograde, direction).

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In 1539, the Protestant leader Martin

Luther denounced the new theory. The
Catholic Church disregarded Copernicus'
book until 1616, when it was included in
the "Index": A list of prohibited books. The
Catholic church even used Copernicus'
book to correct the calendar (which we still
use today). The Church did not object to
the theory so long as the book was treated
as no more than a mathematical
explanation. Which does not really claim Tycho’s father was Otte Brahe, a member
that the earth rotates around the sun. This of the Royal Court. His mother was Beate
explanation also allowed Protestant Bille, also an important aristocrat. Tycho
astronomers to use the theory. However, was the second of the couple’s 12
there were other objections to the theory children. Although we usually refer to
that were not religious in nature. Most scientists by their surnames, in some cases
astronomers and natural philosophers of we use their rst names – Galileo, for
that period claimed that Copernicus' example. This is also the case with Tycho
theory was scienti cally implausible and Brahe, who is usually referred to simply as
raised many counter claims. Tycho, pronounced ‘Teeko.’ Tycho Brahe
died aged 54 on October 24, 1601 in
1. Copernicus wrote a book that Prague. His premature death was probably
summarizes his lifetime of caused by either a burst bladder or kidney
observation on planets and stars, failure
published just before his death. it
was called ____. (A) the sun goes Something remarkable happened to Tycho
around the earth (B) on the in his second year of life – he was
revolutions of celestial spheres (C) kidnapped by his uncle and aunt, Jorgen
heliocentric universe (D) why the sun Brahe and Inger Oxe, when his parents
is the center were away from home. Tycho’s uncle and
aunt were childless, and they believed that
2. The theory Copernicus developed of Jorgen was entitled to a lawful son and
the cosmos, that the planets revolve heir to his estates. Tycho’s natural parents
around the sun is called the ____ eventually agreed to this, so Tycho was
theory. (A) geocentric (B) heliocentric raised by his uncle and aunt as if he were
(C) cosmocentric (D) homocentric their own son. When his uncle died, Brahe
inherited his wealth. Similarly, he inherited
his biological father’s wealth when he
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601). Tycho Ottesen
died. This was quite a tidy amount.
Brahe was born into a highly aristocratic,
Research estimates that combined, this
very wealthy family on December 14,
wealth would be 1% of all of Denmark’s
1546. He was born in his parents’ large
entire wealth- not shabby at all for one
manor house at Knutstorp, in the Danish
person!
region of Scarnia, which is now in Sweden.

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In April 1566, could not inherit Tycho’s estates or his coat

aged 19, Tycho of arms.
arrived back in
On October 13, 1601, Tycho attended a
Germany. On a
banquet in Prague. As usual, he had plenty
December
to drink, but the meal carried on for a long
evening he got
time. Although desperate to urinate, he
into argument
did not leave the table – it would have
with another
been very impolite to leave the table
Danish student
before the meal was formally over.
who, like him, was studying at the
University of Rostock. The cause of the Brahe was long thought to have died from
argument is not known. Sometimes it’s a bladder infection after politeness kept
claimed they were arguing about which of him from excusing himself to use the
them was the better mathematician, but bathroom during a royal banquet in
this is probably a myth. No doubt alcohol October 1601, causing his bladder to
played a part in the dispute – Tycho rupture. However, scientists who opened
enjoyed dining and drinking heartily. After Brahe's grave in 1901 to mark the 300th
further disagreements, the two students anniversary of his death claimed to nd
fought a duel with swords, which resulted mercury in his remains, fueling rumors that
in Tycho losing the front of his nose and the astronomer was poisoned. Some even
picking up a permanent scar on his accused a jealous Kepler of the crime.
forehead. A year later, he returned to
Denmark, where he began experimenting Separately, tests revealed that Brahe's
with metal ttings to disguise his nose’s famously "silver" prosthetic nose was
dis gurement. He wore a skin-colored actually made out of brass.
metal prosthetic for the rest of his life.
Important natural events turned Tycho
At the age of 25, Tycho committed a from law to astronomy. Tycho’s interest in
serious social offense; he took a woman astronomy began with the solar eclipse of
who was not born an aristocrat as his August 21, 1560. In Copenhagen this
partner. It was illegal for the young couple eclipse was barely noticeable – less than
to marry in the usual way. However, half of the sun was covered. The eclipse
provided they lived together for three inspired Tycho not because it was
years, their partnership would be spectacular, but because astronomers had
recognized as a legal marriage. They did predicted exactly when it would happen.
this and became husband and wife. Tycho was fascinated, and wanted to learn
Tycho’s wife was Kirsten Hansen, daughter how he too could make predictions like
of a Lutheran minister. Tycho and Kirsten this. He built his own observatory on an
had eight children, six of whom survived to island (the King of Denmark gave him the
adulthood. The form of marriage between island and some additional money just for
the couple meant their children were that purpose). Tycho named his island
commoners, not entitled to enjoy any of observatory Uraniburg-Urania after the
the privileges of the nobility. Also, they muse of astronomy.

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Tycho’s System. universe while the other planets within the

He established a solar system revolve around the sun. In
theoretical model order to help prove that geocentrism was
of the solar correct, Brahe extended an offer to
system known to German astronomer Johannes Kepler to
us nowadays as join him In his island. This offer may have
Tychonic System cost Brahe his life.
or Tychonian
Model Of The Solar System, which
1. Where did Tycho Brahe carry out his
basically combined the mathematical
astronomical observation?
bene ts of the Copernican System
(A) On a mountain (B) On an island
(Heliocentrism) with the philosophical
(C) In a cave (D) In a desert
bene ts of Aristotelian-Ptolemaic System
(Geocentrism).
2. Tycho Brahe believed that: (A) The
In 1575, Brahe built an enormous Earth revolved around the moon but
observatory in an island offered to him by all the other planets around the sun.
King Frederick II, where he kept (B) The sun revolved around the
meticulous observations of the heavens. Earth but all the other planets around
While most astronomers only focused on the moon. (C) The moon revolved
observing heavenly bodies at speci c, around the Earth but all the other
unusual points in their orbits, Brahe planets around the moon. (D) The
intently tracked them in their entire visible sun revolved around the Earth but all
orbit across the sky, creating the most the other planets around the sun.
precise observations made at the time.
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630). He was
Brahe was extremely limited in his view of
born on December
the universe, and his observations relied
27, 1571 in n Weil
on what he could see with the naked eye.
der Stadt,
However, Brahe was able to construct
Wurttemberg, in the
instruments which aided these
Holy Roman Empire
observations. The armillary spheres (also
of German
known as a spherical astrolabe) were able
Nationality. He was
to physically represent a model of the sky,
a sickly child and his
enabling him to develop celestial maps of
parents were poor.
planetary movement. He made the most
But his evident
accurate measurements of planetary
intelligence earned
positions, which is especially admirable him a scholarship to the University of Tubingen
given that it was made before the advent to study for the Lutheran ministry. There he was
of the telescope. introduced to the ideas of Copernicus and
delighted in them. In 1596, while a
In Tycho's Model of solar system, the idea
mathematics teacher in Graz, he wrote the rst
of geocentrism and heliocentrism were
outspoken defense of the Copernican system,
combined; that is, Earth is the center of the the Mysterium Cosmographicum.

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As a university student, he studied the Three Laws of Planetary Motion. Kepler

Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus’ obtained Brahe's data after his death
theories of planetary ordering. Copernicus despite the attempts by Brahe's family to
(1473-1543) believed that the sun, not the keep the data from him in the hope of
earth, was the center of the solar system, a monetary gain. There is some evidence
theory that contradicted the prevailing that Kepler obtained the data by less than
view of the era that the sun revolved legal means; it is fortunate for the
around the earth. development of modern astronomy that
he was successful. Utilizing the voluminous
In 1600, Kepler went to Prague to work for
and precise data of Brahe, Kepler was
Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe because
eventually able to develop the rst two
he realized that Tycho's work could settle
laws of planetary motion in 1609 and the
the question one way or the other. Tycho
third law a decade after.His planetary laws
assigned Kepler the task of understanding
can be stated as follows;
the orbit of the planet Mars, the
movement of which t problematically into The Law of Ellipses. All planets move
the universe as described by Aristotle and about the Sun in elliptical orbits, with the
Ptolemy. It is believed that part of the center of the sun being located at one
motivation for giving the Mars problem to focus.
Kepler was Brahe's hope that its dif culty
would occupy Kepler while Brahe worked
to perfect his own theory of the solar
system
As Tycho’s assistant, they fought

continuously, because Tycho refused to
Kepler's First Law is illustrated in the image
share his meticulous observations with
shown above. The Sun is not at the center
Kepler. These were observations which
of the ellipse, but is instead at one focus
Kepler desperately needed for his
(generally there is nothing at the other
continuing quest to establish the true
focus of the ellipse). The planet then
orbital motions of the planets. Tycho Brahe
follows the ellipse in its orbit, which means
and Johannes Kepler had totally disparate
that the Earth-Sun distance is constantly
backgrounds and temperaments. In spite
changing as the planet goes around its
of this, Tycho's painstaking and detailed
orbit. For purpose of illustration we have
observational data of the planet Mars,
shown the orbit as rather eccentric;
combined with Kepler's mathematical
remember that the actual orbits are much
genius, allowed Kepler to derive the Three
less eccentric than this.
Laws of Planetary Motion. Both Tycho and
Kepler made signi cant contributions to The Law of Equal Areas. States that the
the change in the prevailing world view of imaginary line joining the planet to the
a geocentric universe. It was the beginning Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times
of a systematic study that transformed as the planet travels around the ellipse. It
Medieval thinking – alchemy became describes the speed at which any given
chemistry and astrology led to astronomy. planet will move while orbiting the sun.

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Kepler's T 12 R13
=
second T 22 R23
law is
illustrated As an illustration, consider the orbital
in the period and average distance from sun
gure at (orbital radius) for Earth and Mars as given
the right. The line joining the Sun and in the table. Observe that the T2/R3 ratio is
planet sweeps out equal areas in equal the same for Earth as it is for Mars. In fact,
times, so the planet moves faster when it is if the same T2/R3 ratio is computed for the
nearer the Sun. Thus, a planet executes other planets, it can be found that this
elliptical motion with constantly changing ratio is nearly the same value for all the
angular speed as it moves about its orbit. planets (see table). Amazingly, every
The point of nearest approach of the planet has the same T2/R3 ratio.
planet to the Sun is termed perihelion; the
point of greatest separation is Average T2
Period
termed aphelion. Hence, by Kepler's Planet Distance R3
(yr)
second law, the planet moves fastest (the (au) (yr2/au3)
orbital velocity increases) when it is near Mercury 0.241 0.39 0.98
perihelion and slowest (the orbital velocity
decreases) when it is near aphelion. Venus 0.615 0.72 1.01
The Law of Harmonies. The law states that Earth 1.00 1.00 1.00
the square of the orbital period (T2) is Mars 1.88 1.52 1.01
directly proportional to the cube of the
distance (R3) of the planet from the sun. In Jupiter 11.8 5.20 0.99
symbols, Saturn 29.5 9.54 1.00
T 2α R3 Uranus 84.0 19.18 1.00
If two quantities are proportional, we can Neptune 165 30.06 1.00

insert a proportionality constant, k, which
Pluto 248 39.44 1.00
depends on the units adopted for P and a,
and get an equation:
Using the third law, let us solve the
T 2 = k R3 following problems;
yr 2
where: k = 1 Mercury is 0.39 au away from the Sun. How
a u3 long will it take (in yrs) to complete 1
This law compares the orbital period and revolution around the sun?
radius of orbit of a planet to those of other
Given: R = 0.39 au
planets. This means to say that the ratio of
the squares of the periods of any two Required: T in yr
planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of
their average distances from the sun. In
symbols,

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Solution: T 2 = k R3 Now, try to solve these problems;
1. An asteroid is found and its orbital

yr 2
( au )
T = k R3 = 1 3 (0.39a u)3 semi-major axis around the Sun is
measured to be 4 A.U. What is the
period of its orbit round the Sun?
T = 0.24yr
2. An unknown planet has an average
Answer: T = 0.24yr distance away from the sun of 3.2 au.
(a) Determine the time needed (in
Here is another problem;
years) to complete one revolution
It takes 0.615 year for planet Venus to T2
around the sun. (b) Find the ratio 3 .
revolve around the sun. (a) Determine the R
average distance of Venus away from the
T2 Galileo Galilei (1564-1642). He was an
sun. (b) Determine the value of 3
R Italian physicist
Given: T = 0.615 yr and astronomer
who was born in
T2 Pisa on February
Required: (a) R (b)
R3 15, 1564 and died
Solution: on the 8th of
January 1642.
T2
(a) from the equation = k, Galileo enrolled
R3
to do a medical
T2 degree at the
R3 = , then University of Pisa
k
but never nished, instead choosing to
study mathematics.
3 T2 (0.615yr)2
R= = Galileo was very close with a beautiful
k 3 yr 2
1 woman from Venice named Marina
au 3
Gamba; together, they had two daughters
R = 0.72a u and a son. And yet, they never married,
nor even shared a home. Why not? As
T 2 (0.615yr)2 yr 2 Dava Sobel notes, it was traditional for
(b) = = 1.0
R3 (0.72a u)3 a u3 scholars in those days to remain single;
perceived class difference may also have
Answers:
played a role.
(a) R = 0.72a u
He helped open the eyes of the world to a
2 2
T yr new way of thinking about the workings of
(b) = 1.0 3
R 3 au our solar system and astronomy in
general. Galileo also introduced
experimentation into science, laying the
foundation of science as we know today.

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And his detailed study of motion and his

method of expressing natural events
mathematically opened the way to
Newton’s discovery of universal gravitation.
When Galileo heard about the invention of

the spyglass, a device which made distant
objects appear closer, in 1609, he used his
knowledge in mathematics and technical
skills to improve upon the spyglass and Four moons of Jupiter. https://www.reddit.com/r/space/
comments/jdfp5i/jupiter_and_the_galilean_moons/
build a telescope. Later that same year, he
Galileo's rst refracting telescope (1609), which has

an aperture of 1.5 cm, and is currently housed at the
Museo Galileo in Florence,Italy. https://
www.astronomytrek.com/top-10-in uential-optical-
telescopes-in-astronomy/ Phase of Venus. https://faculty.uca.edu/njaustin/
PHYS1401/Laboratory/venus.html
became the rst person to look at the

Moon through a telescope and make his all other planets revolve around the sun.
rst astronomy discovery. He found that the Most people in Galileo's time believed that
Moon was not smooth, but mountainous the Earth was the center of the universe
and rough - just like the Earth! He and that the Sun and planets revolved
subsequently used his newly invented around it. His abrasive and outspoken
telescope in observing the skies in ways criticism of Aristotelian philosophy and his
previously not achieved. And in1610 he obvious acceptance of the Copernican
made observations of four objects worldview, particularly in his dialogue
surrounding Jupiter that behaved unlike concerning the Two Chief World Systems,
stars, these turned out to be Jupiter’s four led him into serious trouble with the Roman
largest satellite moons: Io, Callisto, Europa Catholic Church, which placed him under
and Ganymede. They were later renamed house arrest for the last eight years of his
the Galilean satellites in honor of Galileo life.
himself. Using his telescope, he was also The Catholic Church, which was very
able to study Saturn, observe the phases of powerful and in uential in Galileo's day,
Venus, and study the sunspots on the Sun. strongly supported the theory of a
Galileo's observations strengthened his geocentric, or Earth-centered, universe.
belief in Copernicus' theory that Earth and After Galileo began publishing papers

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about his astronomy discoveries and his In 1992, under Pope John Paul II, the
belief in a heliocentric, or Sun-centered, Vatican issued an of cial statement
Universe, he was called to Rome to answer admitting that it was wrong to have
charges brought against him by the persecuted Galileo. But the statement
Inquisition (the legal body of the Catholic seemed to place most of the blame on the
Church). Early in 1616, Galileo was accused clerks and theological advisers who worked
of being a heretic, a person who opposed on Galileo’s case—and not on Pope Urban
Church teachings. Heresy was a crime for VIII, who presided over the trial. Nor was
which people were sometimes sentenced the charge of heresy overturned.
to death. Galileo was cleared of charges of
heresy, but was told that he should no
longer publicly state his belief that Earth
moved around the Sun. Galileo continued
his study of astronomy and became more
and more convinced that all planets
revolved around the Sun. In 1632, he
published a book that stated, among other
things, that the heliocentric theory of
Copernicus was correct. Galileo was once
again called before the Inquisition and this
time was found guilty of heresy. Galileo
Galileo on trial was forced to renounce his beliefs in

copernican theory and the motion of the earth. https:// Newspaper article about Pope John Paul II granting
designapplause.com/news/galileo-guilty-of-heresy- forgiveness to Galileo in 1992. https://www. ickr.com/
copernican-theory/212007/ photos/objectproject/5562877845
was sentenced to life imprisonment in

1633. Because of his age and poor health,
he was allowed to serve his imprisonment
under house arrest. Galileo died on
January 8, 1642. Galileo, buried between
Michelangelo and Machiavelli, is said to
have had his gravestone inscribed with the
words “But the Earth does move.” It’s not
true.

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Isaac Newton (1642-1727). Newton was physical laws that are observed on Earth.
born prematurely and barely survived on This meant there must be an unseen force
Christmas day 1642, the same year Galileo acting on them. He knew from experiment
that, in the absence of an applied force, a
moving object will continue in a straight
line forever. The planets, on the other hand,
were moving in elliptical orbits. Newton
asked himself what sort of force would
make them do this. In a stroke of genius, he
realized that the answer was gravity -- the
very same force that causes an apple to fall
to the ground on Earth. Newton developed
a mathematical formulation of gravity that
explained both the motion of a falling
apple and that of the planets.
Law of Universal Gravitation. The law states

that every object in the Universe attracts
Photo: Painting by Godfrey Kneller, [Public Domain], via every other object with a force which is
Wikimedia Commons. https://www.biography.com/
scientist/isaac-newton
directly proportional to the product of the
masses and inversely proportional to the
died. Newton’s birthplace was his mother’s square of the distance between them. In
farm house in Woolsthorpe England. His symbols,
father (Isaac Newton) died several months
m1m 2
before his birth. When he was 3 years old, Fg α
r2
his mother, Hannah Ayscough, remarried a
well-to-do minister, Barnabas Smith, and or
went to live with him, leaving young
Newton with his maternal grandmother. At m1m 2
Fg = G
age 12, Newton was reunited with his r2
mother after her second husband died. She
brought along her three small children from where: Fg = gravitational force
her second marriage. m1 = mass of object 1
m2 = mass of object 2
G = gravitational constant
By the 17th century, however, astronomers
= 6.7 x 1011 N-m2/kg2
had realized that the Earth itself was a
planet and that -- rather than being the
xed center of the universe -- it revolves With such a force and the laws of motion,
around the sun like any other planet. Newton was able to show mathematically
Armed with this new understanding, that the only orbits permitted were exactly
Newton developed an explanation of those described by Kepler’s laws. The
planetary motion using the same physical attractive force between all masses, is what
laws that apply on Earth. Newton was keeps the planets in orbit. In other words,
convinced the planets must obey the same the Earth (and other planets) orbits the Sun
because the Sun attracts the Earth with
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a large gravitational force, but the Earth (centripetal force) pulls them toward it. The
moves so quickly on a perpendicular path force of gravity causes the moving planets
to the Sun that it "escapes" from falling into to travel in elliptical orbits around the sun.
the Sun. However, the Earth does not move They have been circling the sun for billions
of years because other forces have been
fast enough to escape the Sun's pull
too weak to change the orbits in any
completely, so it orbits at a distance relative
signi cant way.
to the magnitude of the gravitational force
and velocity it moves at.
Kepler’s laws and Newton’s laws taken

together imply that the force that holds the
planets in their orbits by continuously
changing the planet’s velocity so that it
follows an elliptical path is directed toward
the Sun from the planet, and it is
proportional to the product of masses for
the Sun and planet, and it is inversely
proportional to the square of the planet-
Sun separation or distance.
The Sun's inward pull of gravity on a planet competes

Laws of Motion. These are set of three laws
with the planet's tendency to continue moving in a
that describe the motion of an object and straight line. These two effects combine, causing the
its relationship with the force that is acting planet to move smoothly along an intermediate path,
on it. These three laws of motion were which continuously "falls around" the Sun. This unending
tug-of-war between the Sun's gravity and the planet's
introduced by Isaac Newton in 1687. He
inertia results in a stable orbit. (Fig. 1.24, Chaisson &
used these laws for the explanation and McMillan, Copyright Prentice Hall, 2004). https://
investigation of the motion of many web.njit.edu/~gary/202/Lecture4.html
physical objects and systems including the
pantry motion. Law of Acceleration. States that the
acceleration (caused by the net force) of an
Law of Inertia. States that an object at rest object is directly proportional to the net
remains at rest and an object in motion force and inversely proportional to the
continues to move at a constant velocity mass of an object. In symbols,
unless it is acted upon by an external force.
ΣF
aα
Any moving object in space has a tendency m
to travel in a straight line at the same speed
forever, planets included. The planets or
would be moving in straight lines due to
the centrifugal force acting upon them ΣF
a= and ΣF = m a
which tends to pull them outside their m
orbit, but the sun’s gravitational force

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In planetary motion, the net force that will the sun’s motion, although it affects the
cause the planet to accelerate while planet in a major way.
revolving in an elliptical orbit is the
gravitational force exerted by the Sun. Both
the acceleration and the net force are
directed towards the Sun-one of the foci of
the ellipse. This net force continually alters
a planet’s path, bending it towards the sun
although never directly at it. Furthermore,
the net force can cause the planet to either
speed up or slow down in addition to Industrial Revolution
changing directions. Eventually, the motion
The Industrial Revolution which began in the
of the planet in elliptical orbit is
late 1700s and continued to the 1800s,
characterized by changing velocity.
changed the world. It represents the time when
home production of goods began to be
transferred to factories powered by steam and
electricity, fueled by coal and oil producing
things in mass quantities and transporting
goods faster over long distances through the
cleverness of men and women. Their creativity,
expanding of their minds, the Industrial
Elliptical Orbit of a Planet. Even moving in elliptical

Revolution showed that they could take the
motion, there is a tangential velocity and an inward resources that this earth had to offer and
acceleration and force. In this case, both the acceleration provide for the necessities of people around
and force are directed towards the central body. https://
the world. The birthplace of this revolution took
www.physicsclassroom.com/class/circles/Lesson-4/
Circular-Motion-Principles-for-Satellites place in Great Britain where there were many
more resources such as iron ore and coal
Law of Interaction. The law states that when needed to power the machines inside the
the rst object exerts a force on a second factories and industrial plants.
object, the second will exert the same force

on the rst but in the opposite direction. In Great Britain was sending and selling many of
their products to the people of the United
other words, for every action there is an
States. However, this came to a halt due mostly
equal but opposite reaction. For example, a
to the Embargo Act of 1807, which ended the
cat sitting on a chair exerts a downward
export and import of products from other
force on the chair from her weight; the
countries. In addition, the war of 1812 when the
chair also exerts a force on the cat, holding U.S. went to war against Great Britain forced
her up. In the same manner, the force America to seek ways to become more
exerted on a planet by the sun is also “felt” independent and not rely on other countries for
by the sun; however, because the sun is products that they needed. The Embargo Act
hundreds of times more massive than the and the war led to the expansion of
planets, the force has barely any effect on transportation. The ef cient and additional
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electricity and industrial processes that The Industrial Revolution inspired many
increase the production of goods in other great inventions during the rest of the
America. The Industrial Revolution brought 19th century including telephone by
many important events and inventions. The Alexander Graham Bell in 1877, light bulb
timeline of some inventions during this by Thomas Edison in 1878 and the rst
period are listed below; gasoline-powered automobile by Karl Benz
in 1885. The Industrial Revolution made
Year Inventions Inventor real the dreams of what was and is
possible. Today everything we enjoyed and
Steamboat where
need, came to the great developers and
the engine was Robert
1793 inventors of the Industrial Revolution.
obtained from and Fulton
Automobiles, airplanes, cellphones and
built by James Watt.
even air conditioning and things to help us
Cotton gin live healthy long lives, better foods,
increased the speed medical advances, ways to ght disease, all
Eli
1794 of separating the
Whitney of these developments we enjoy today is
cotton seeds from
because of struggles and challenges of the
the ber.
great men and women of the Industrial
Reaper allowing Revolution.
Cyrus
1831 harvesting of grain to McCormick
be faster and cheaper.
In conclusion, the Scienti c Revolution in
Steel plow used in the Modern Ages revealed new discoveries
faster and more John and ideas from the giants of scienti c world
1837
ef cient planting and Deere
that changed the beliefs of the society; it
growing of crops.
marked a major shift on how people
Sewing machine used thought about the natural world. On the
Elias
1846 for fast production of
Howe other hand, the Industrial Revolution
clothing.
brought scienti c innovations and
Velocipede is the rst technological improvements that
commercially
contribute to the advancement in
successful two- Karl Von
1860 agriculture, industry, shipping and trading
wheeled steerable Drais
human powered and to the expansion of economy.
device.
Telegraph allowed
-END OF THE LESSON-
communication by
wire using electricity
and sending pulses of Samuel
1869
dots and dashes to Morse
communicate from
East coast to the
Mississippi.

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GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN MODERN AGES

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN

Overview this marked the

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Copernican Theory. Sometime between accounts for the precession of the

For Copernicus, his heliocentric theory Copernicus remained loyal to the

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In 1539, the Protestant leader Martin

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In April 1566, could not inherit Tycho’s estates or his coat

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Tycho’s System. universe while the other planets within the

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As a university student, he studied the Three Laws of Planetary Motion. Kepler

As Tycho’s assistant, they fought

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If two quantities are proportional, we can Neptune 165 30.06 1.00

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Solution: T 2 = k R3 Now, try to solve these problems;

1. An asteroid is found and its orbital

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And his detailed study of motion and his

When Galileo heard about the invention of

Galileo's rst refracting telescope (1609), which has

became the rst person to look at the

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Galileo on trial was forced to renounce his beliefs in

was sentenced to life imprisonment in

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Law of Universal Gravitation. The law states

Kepler’s laws and Newton’s laws taken

The Sun's inward pull of gravity on a planet competes

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Elliptical Orbit of a Planet. Even moving in elliptical

object, the second will exert the same force

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