S.L. Dixon and Cesare Hall (Auth.) - Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery-Butterworth-Hein

3.
3 Cascade flow characteristics 77
It is useful to define an axial velocity density ratio (AVDR), i.e.,

AVDR 5 ðρ2 cx2 Þ=ðρ1 cx1 Þ 5 H1 =H2 (3.4)
Equation (3.4) can be used in relating flow properties at the different positions along the mean
streamtube. Note that AVDR is the inverse of the contraction coefficient described in the introduc-
tion. In compressors AVDR . 1 due to the thickening boundary layers, but in turbine cascades
AVDR may be less than 1 due to the possible thinning of the boundary layers in accelerating flow.
Cascade performance parameters

For a known AVDR, as just defined, the primary aerodynamic input data for a cascade test are:
i. the inlet flow angle, α1;
ii. the inlet Mach number, M1;
iii. the blade Reynolds number, Re 5 ρ1 c1 l=μ, where l is the blade chord.
The data from cascade traverses are used to provide the following parameters for use in the
design and performance prediction of axial flow compressors and turbines:
i. exit flow angle, α2;
ii. stagnation pressure loss, Yp, or an energy loss coefficient, ζ.
The performance characteristics of a cascade can therefore be expressed by the following func-
tional relationships:
α2 5 fnðM 1 ; α1 ; ReÞ; Yp 5 fnðM 1 ; α1 ; ReÞ; or ζ 5 fnðM 1 ; α1 ; ReÞ
The exit flow angle, α2, is a critical performance parameter because it determines the work
transfer within a turbomachinery stage. If we revisit the Euler work equation from Chapter 1,
Δh0 5 Δ(Ucθ), it is clear that the work input or output from a turbomachine will depend on the
exit flow angles since cθ 5 c sin α.
The stagnation pressure loss coefficient is an overall measure of the aerodynamic losses through
the blade row. Generally, it is defined as
Yp 5 loss of stagnation pressure4reference ðdynamicÞ pressure
The aerodynamic losses in a cascade blade row translate into efficiency losses within a real
turbomachine with the same blade shapes. The sources of losses can include:
i. boundary layers on the blades;
ii. flow separation;
iii. shock waves in the flow.
If no shock waves are present, most of the “loss” due to irreversibility is confined to a narrow
wake downstream of the trailing edge as shown in Figure 3.7.
For compressors, the total pressure loss coefficient is based on reference inlet conditions, i.e.,
Yp 5 ðp01 2 p02 Þ=ðp01 2 p1 Þ (3.5)
78 CHAPTER 3 Two-Dimensional Cascades
h h
p 01 p 02 p 01 p 02
01 02 01 02
p1
1 2
2 c2 p2 2c1
1 2
2c2
1 2 1 2
2c1 1
2s 2
p1 p2
2
1 2s
s1 s2 s s1 s2 s
(a) (b)
FIGURE 3.8
Mollier diagrams for the flow through: (a) a compressor blade cascade and (b) a turbine blade cascade.
A Mollier diagram with the pressures and salient points for a compressor blade cascade is
shown in Figure 3.8(a).
For turbines, the total pressure loss coefficient is based on reference exit conditions, i.e.,
Yp 5 ðp01 2 p02 Þ=ðp01 2 p2 Þ (3.6)
In this case the reference dynamic pressure is the dynamic pressure at exit if the flow were isen-
tropic. Other variations of the turbine loss coefficient are used in the literature and Horlock (1966)
gives a comprehensive list of the definitions possible.
An alternative loss parameter is sometimes used for turbines, called the energy loss coefficient, ζ,
which measures the lost kinetic energy relative to the isentropic exit kinetic energy:
ζ 5 ðc22is 2 c22 Þ=c22is ; where 0:5c22is 5 h01 2 h2s (3.7)
3
Figure 3.8(b) is a Mollier diagram indicating the pressures and enthalpies for the flow through
a turbine cascade blade row.
The two definitions of loss coefficient yield numerical values that are almost identical at low
Mach numbers, but their values rapidly diverge as M2 increases with Yp . ζ.
A primary objective of a compressor blade is to produce a rise in static pressure as well as a
deflection of the flow angle. A relevant performance parameter is, therefore, the static pressure rise
coefficient. For compressible flow this is usually defined as
Cp 5 ðp2 2 p1 Þ=ðp01 2 p1 Þ (3.8a)
and for incompressible flow

1 2
Cp 5 ðp2 2 p1 Þ= ρc1 (3.8b)
2
Flow measurements are made usually across either one or two blade pitches of the varying
values of stagnation and static pressures, p02 and p2, and the values of α2. Mass-averaged values of
3
The enthalpy changes for the turbine and compressor cascades are drawn roughly equal only for expediency. In fact,
the turbine enthalpy drop will be three or four times larger than the enthalpy rise in the compressor blade row.
3.3 Cascade flow characteristics 79
the performance parameters are then derived from these flow measurements. For example, the mass
flow rate is given by
ðs ðs
m_ 5 ρcH cos α dy 5 ρcx H dy (3.9)
0 0
A mean value of the air angle α2 can be found from integrals of tangential and axial momentum
across the pitch:
ðs ðs
tan α2 5 ρcx cy dy= ρc2x dy (3.10)
0 0
Finally, the mass-averaged stagnation pressure loss coefficient is

ðs ðs
Yp 5 fðp01 2 p02 Þ=ðp01 2 p1 Þgρcx dy= ρcx dy (3.11)
0 0
Figure 3.9 shows representative traverse results of Yp and α2 for a compressor cascade together
with the mass-averaged values of these parameters. The odd-looking “kinks” in the plot of α2 are
caused by the variation in the gradient of p02 across the wake and the response of a yaw meter used
in measuring flow direction. Further details are given in a paper by Dixon (1978).
Note: From this point onward, all parameters, e.g., α2, Yp, are taken as having been
mass-averaged according to the formulae just outlined.
p01 – p02
p01 – p1
0.15
0.10
0.05 Mass
Yp
average
0
y/s
0 1
α2 Trailing edge
position
8
4 –
α 2
0
0 1 y/s
FIGURE 3.9
Typical traverse results for a compressor cascade.

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3.

3 Cascade flow characteristics 77

It is useful to define an axial velocity density ratio (AVDR), i.e.,

Cascade performance parameters

Finally, the mass-averaged stagnation pressure loss coefficient is

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