QUANTUM DOT PBS SOLAR

CELL’S (PHOTOVOLTAIC)
Dr Fozia Z. Haque*, Dr Vasudev Thakre* Nitin Paliwal*

Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal [M.P]

Department of Physics [M.Sc.]
QUANTUM DOT PBS SOLAR CELL’S (PHOTOVOLTAIC)
Dr Fozia Z. Haque*, Dr Vasudev Thakre* Nitin Paliwal*

*Department of physics, Maulana Azad National institute of technology, Bhopal

ABSTRACT

Colloidal quantum dots (CQDs) are of great interest for photovoltaic (PV) technologies as
they possess the benefits of solution-processability, size-tunability, and roll-to-roll
manufacturability, as well as unique capabilities to harvest near-infrared (NIR) radiation.
During the last decade, lab scale CQD solar cells have achieved rapid improvement in the
power conversion efficiency (PCE) from ~1% to 18%, which will potentially exceed 20% in
the next few years and approach the performance of other PV technologies, such as
perovskite solar cells and organic solar cells. In the meanwhile, CQD solar cells exhibit long
lifetimes either under shelf storage or continuous operation, making them highly attractive to
industry. However, in order to meet the industrial requirements, mass production techniques
are necessary to scale up the fabrication of those lab devices into large-area PV modules,
such as roll-to-toll coating. This paper reviews the recent developments of large-area CQD
solar cells with a focus on various fabrication methods and their principles. It covers the
progress of typical large-area coating techniques, including spray coating, blade coating, dip
coating, and slot-die coating. It also discusses next steps and new strategies to accomplish the
ultimate goal of the low-cost large-area fabrication of CQD solar cells and emphasizes how
artificial intelligence or machine learning could facilitate the developments of CQD solar cell
research.

1. Introduction is causing climate change and

Energy is directly linked to the well- environmental crisis, which has
being and prosperity of all countries attracted universal attention. One
and is a determinant for the solution to this issue is to develop
industrialization and quality of human renewable energy technologies, such as
life. However, traditional energy wind, solar, as well as geothermal and
sources, like coal, oil, and natural gas, tidal energy-based solutions. Amongst,
are non-renewable, and their unstable solar energy [1] is especially attractive,
prices usually cause disturbance because it possesses numerous
globally. In the meanwhile, the heavy advantages including clean, free,
dependence on non-renewable energy abundance, and more uniform
 distribution around the globe compared
with other renewable energy and it can
be accessed from the space as well [2].
ABOUT QUANTUM DOT Unlike ordinary bulk semiconductors,
which are generally macroscopic objects,
quantum dots are extremely small, on the
Quantum dots are semiconducting particles
order of few nanometres. They are very
that have been reduced below the size of
nearly zero-dimensional.
the Exciton Bohr radius.

Quantum dots have been referred to as TYPES OF SOLAR CELL’S

"artificial atoms". These energy levels are As we know Solar panels are the device
tuneable by changing their size, which in which absorb sun rays to generate
turn defines the bandgap. The dots can be electricity. The basic unit of a solar panel
grown over a range of sizes, allowing them is Solar cell which is made up of by
to express a variety of bandgaps without semiconductor mostly silicon. Many of
changing the underlying material or solar cells are connected together to form
construction techniques. solar panels. Basically, there are three
types of solar panels available in the
Bohr excitation radius for Si is little less market. Depending on the crystal
than 5 nm, so Si nano particle is embedded structure it is of two type:-
in the high band diagram dielectric
material (SiC, SiO2, Si3N4) for possible 1. MONO-CRYSTALLINE SOLAR
change in band gap CELL
2. POLY-CRYSTALLINE SOLAR
As size of nano particle < bohr exciton CELL
radius , Ec & Ev split and move away from 3. THIN-FILM SOLAR CELL
each other, means effective band gap
increases.
Mono-Crystalline Solar Cell
Change in electrical and optical properties
is known as Quantum confinement of
carriers. The small Si nanocrystals First of all, why it is called as mono-
showing the increased band gap due to crystalline because it is made up of a single
quantum confinement are called Quantum crystal of pure silicon. It is the oldest type
Dots.(QDs) of solar panel. These cells are made from a
cylindrical silicon ingot that has been cut
By turning the size of Si-QDs, the band into thin wafers. Monocrystalline cells are
gap as high as 2.7 eV can be obtained more efficient than other types of solar
cells, and thus monocrystalline panels are
Quantum dots are semiconductor Nano
often used in residential and
crystals.
commercial solar energy systems. Because
They are made of the same materials as monocrystalline solar cells are made out of
ordinary semiconductors (mainly a single crystal of silicon, electrons can
combinations of transition metals and /or flow easier through the cell, which makes
metalloids).
the PV cell efficiency higher than other
types
of solar panels. They are made by growing a single crystal of silicon in a laboratory and it is
very expensive. These cells appear black due to the interaction between sunlight and pure
silicon. These are used in a variety of applications, such as spacecraft, handheld calculators,
and solar-powered homes.
shaping and placement of each
crystal and
POLY-crystalline solar cell
As it is made up of several crystals
of silicon, it named as poly-
crystalline solar panel. These
panels are most popular panel
among all the
most of the silicon is utilized during
solar panels.
production. So, very less waste is
Fragments
produced. The acceptable maximum
of silicon
temperature of polycrystalline solar panels
crystals
is 85 °C while the acceptable minimum
are
temperature is -40 °C. Polycrystalline solar
melted and then cut
panels are less expensive to produce than
into wafers to make these panels.
monocrystalline solar panels, but they are
Polycrystalline solar panels are
also less efficient. They are less efficient
more eco-friendly than
because the grain boundaries between the
monocrystalline solar panels as
crystals act as barriers to the flow of
they do not require individual
electrons.

Advantages Disadvantages

1. Among all solar panel types, 1. These are most expensive.

monocrystalline cells have the highest 2. Most monocrystalline solar cells have a
efficiency typically in the 15-20% range. temperature coefficient of around -0.3%C
2. As this solar panel is more efficient so it to -0.5%C. So when the temperature rises,
produces more power. the monocrystalline solar cell will
3. These are having greater heat resistance. temporarily lose 0.3% to 0.5% of its
4. In case of low level of sunlight, it can make efficiency.
power. 3. There is a lot of waste material when the
5. Manufacturers state that this form of solar silicon is cut during manufacture.
cell lasts the longest, it gives 25-year
warranty.
6. monocrystalline solar cells can be recycled.
As it is made of 3 main components i.e.
monocrystalline cells, Glass and Metal.
These are all can recycle.
 Advantages Disadvantages
1. The manufacturing process of these panels are 1. These are less efficient between 13%-
cheaper and easier than the monocrystalline 16%.
cells. 2. It has lower output rate.
2. These panels have high power density. 3. It needs more roof space for installation.
3. During its manufacturing process, it avoids 4. They damage easily when exposed to high
silicon wastes and requires very few fossil fuels. temperatures.
4. These are more eco-friendly than
monocrystalline solar panels.

These solar panels are used in a variety of For these panels there is no any predictable
applications, including consumer crystal structure. These are very thin so it
electronics, solar thermal power, and is lightweight and flexible. There are
photovoltaic power generation. several types of thin-film solar panels:
amorphous silicon (a-Si), cadmium
telluride (CdTe), and copper indium
gallium selenide (CIGS) or gallium-free
THIN-FILM SOLAR CELL
CIS.
A thin-film solar
panel is made of In the world of solar panels, there
thin films of are three main types:
semiconductors monocrystalline and polycrystalline,
deposited on glass, plastic or metal. These and thin film solar panel. All have
are cheaper alternatives to single or multi their own advantages and
crystalline cells. Their main drawbacks are disadvantages. So, which type of
that they have low efficiency and they solar panel is right for you? It
degrade in outdoor applications. They depends on your needs and budget.
perform best when used indoors with Read on to learn more about the
diffused or indoor lights. Thus, they are differences between monocrystalline,
ideally suited in applications such as polycrystalline and thin-film solar
pocket calculators, electronic watches, panels.
small radio receivers and low power hand-
held electronic instruments. COATING TECHNIQUES:-
There are various coating methods for
Advantages Disadvantages liquid films, which have been extensively
1. It is very 1) As they up a
used in industry fields, however, only a
flexible and lot of space so
can be it is not good few of them are capable of producing
applicable to a for domestic high-quality semiconductor thin films. In
range of use. this section, we will review these coating
situations and 2) It has low methods which are frequently used to
building types. efficiency . produce semiconductor films from
2. Large no of 3) It has shorter precursor solutions or inks, including spin
producting is lifespan and so
coating, spray coating, blade coating, dip
easy to shoter
achieve, warranty coating, and slot-die coating. For CQD
making them periods. solar cells, spin coating is the most widely
potentially used coating method, followed by spray
cheaper to
produce then
crystalline
solar cells.
3. It can install in
shadow area.
coating and then blade coating. However, process have been examined numerically
regarding to slot-die coating, there have and verified experimentally. In general, the
been no reports, thus we will introduce the final film thickness (h) is found to vary
principles and examples from other solar with the angular velocity (Ω) according to
cell technologies to exhibit its potential in h¼Ω 1=2 ,
large-area CQD solar cells. and also depends on the solution viscosity
and diffusivity. In addition, by controlling
SPIN COATING the substrate temperature, solvent mixture,
Spin coating is the first choice for CQD or surrounding atmosphere, it is possible to
solar cell research. The best-performed further adjust the film properties,
CQD solar cells [42,44] are fabricated with especially the film morphology, which is
this method and a few important concepts vital for high-quality solar cells. Thus,
[41,52,70] are being developed. Though optimizing the ink or solution properties
the film formation mechanism of spin and spin-coating protocols, including the
coating is different from that of other spinning speed, acceleration, spinning
large-area deposition methods, it provides steps, and heating, is a potential avenue to
a reliable platform for exploring materials achieve a good film.
science and device physics. This
For example, the final film thickness
subsection mainly discusses the underlying
could be affected by the solvent
principles of spin coating and emphasizes
remarkably. With a low boiling point
its difference from other deposition
solvent, such as BTA, a PbS CQD ink with
techniques. Spin coating is a fluid flow
a concentration of 200 mg/mL led to a PbS
process [71–76] and is governed by the
CQD film with the thickness of ~350 nm
combined effects of convection and
at a spin-coating speed of 2500 rpm .
diffusion. As shown in Fig. 7, during the
While with a high boiling point solvent,
spin-coating process, inks or solutions are
such as DMF, the film thickness was ~250
dispensed on a substrate which is mounted
nm at a lower spin-coating speed of 2000
on a rotating disk. As the disk starts to
rpm, even though under the same CQD
accelerate, the inks or solutions spread, the
concentration . It indicates that a lower
solvents evaporate, and thus the solutes or
boiling point solvent results in a thicker
suspensions are left, finally forming a
film. As for the same solvent, the thickness
uniform film. Several theoretical studies
on spin coating of colloidal could be effectively tuned by changing the
spin speed or concentration. In Ref. Ma’s
suspensions have been
group further investigated how the
reported .
concentration of a DMF solvent based PbS
CQD ink affects the CQD film thickness.
As shown in Fig. 8, the thickness varies
The approximately linearly with the ink
effects of the angular velocity, initial
solvent weight fraction, solvent property,
and spin-coating protocol on the evolution
of temperature and concentration profiles
in the liquid film during the spin-coating
 substrates and difficult to obtain large-area
films with good uniformity and a sufficient
thickness. As an alternative method, spray
coating could precisely control the
thickness and uniformity of CQDs films
and is an ideal way for mass production.

Shows a typical spray-coating process

where small droplets dispersed in the
concentration. This is similar to that found carrier gas are collected by the substrate
in other types of solution-processed thin [80]. It is a multi-step process, including
films, such as the ZnO sol-gel [78] or the atomization of liquid solutions or
polymer [79]. The highest PCE value in mixtures, droplet flight and evaporation,
PbS CQD solar cells was recently reported
by Sun et al. which was fabricated by spin
coating with the SPLE- based PbS CQD
ink [44]. In this work, the authors
proposed a post-treatment method (see Fig.
9) to improve the electrical transport of the
CQD film, and demonstrated that the post-
treatment of the spin-coated CQD film
with a perovskite-type precursor solution
could induce surface chemistry that
converts the less conductive materials
(also named as matrix) surrounding CQDs droplet impact on the substrate, droplet
into a high conductive matrix, thus diffusion, retreat, recoil, drying, solute
improving the carrier transport and leading adhesion, and self-bonding with the
to better device performance. substrate [81]. To obtain high-quality
sprayed films, all of these steps must be
SPRAY COATING well understood and precisely controlled.
Although various
deposition methods based In the spray-coating process, the liquid
on spin coating have been precursor is atomized and sprayed by the
successfully developed, pressurized gas in the spray gun, the tiny
most of them were carried liquids drop onto the substrate (usually
out on small lab-scale being heated), the solvent evaporates
rapidly, and thus the solute deposits on the
substrate to form a thin film. The whole is feasible to prepare uniform coatings and
process can be done under atmospheric fill the pores of porous materials.
environmental conditions. Uniform thin
films can be achieved by simply
controlling gas pressure via injecting the
SPRAY COATING OF PBS CQD
high-pressure gas into the nozzle, and the
SOLAR CELLS WITH LBL SSE.
thickness is controllable and determined
In 2015, Kramer et al. demonstrated a PbS
by spraying cycles. Compared with spin
coating, spray coating is a very effective
and expandable method for depositing thin
films on both hard and flexible substrates.
Besides, it also exhibits several advantages
in the field of CQD solar cells: First, the
utilization rate of precursor solutions or
inks in the spraying process is ~100%,
contributing to the reduction in the
CQD solar cell fabricated by spray coating
production cost; second, spray coating is
for the first time [63]. They used oleate-
applicable to almost all surfaces, making it
suitable for flexible substrates based CQD capped PbS in octane as the CQD solution.
With low-concentration PbS CQDs (3.33
solar cells, wearable devices, automobile
mg/mL), they showed that a monolayer-
surfaces, or urban infrastructure. These
thick PbS CQD film was precisely formed.
enable spray coating widely used in
various CQD solar cell studies. By developing an automated spraying-
based LbL setup, they fabricated PbS CQD
SPRAY COATING OF CDSE CQD solar cells with a depletion-heterojunction
DYE SENSITIZED SOLAR CELLS. structure [70] and achieved average PCE
In 2010, I’m et al. demonstrated a CQD of 6.5% with champion PCE of 8.1%,
sensitized solar cell with spray-coated comparable to the average PCE value
CdSe CQDs having a ZnS glue layer [82]. (6.7%) of spin-coated devices (see Fig.
They showed that with spray coating, 11). Further, they also fabricated PbS
CdSe CQDs can penetrate into the bottom CQD solar cells on flexible substrates,
most TiO2 layer, achieving uniform such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET),
coverage of mesoporous TiO2 (mp-TiO2) and achieved PCE of 7.2% [83]. These
films. With annealing at 450 C for 5 min, studies indicate that spray coating has
CQDs were in close contact with the mp-
great potential to make solar cells on
TiO2 layer, which is advantageous to the
arbitrary substrates.
photocarrier transfer process within the
solar cell. As a result, this CQD sensitized SPRAY COATING OF PBS CQD
solar cell realized Voc of 0.57 V, Jsc of SOLAR CELLS WITH ONE-STEP
11.2 mA/cm2 , and FF of 0.35, SSE
corresponding to PCE of 2.2%. Although Later in 2016, Park et al. also employed
they did not investigate the impact of spray coating to fabricate PbS CQD solar
spraying parameters on the film properties, cells but with a different coating recipe
this study demonstrated that spray coating [64]. Instead of multiple LbL cycles, a
one-step SSE method was applied. As shows a schematic of blade coating, in
shown in Fig. 13, the PbS CQD octane which the blade is usually mounted on a
solution with a much higher concentration moveable track. As the blade travels along
of 50 mg/mL was adopted, and thus a thick the plane parallel to the substrate, the CQD
PbS layer was sprayed. The sprayed film ink is extended over the substrate. The
was dipped into a precursor solution for thickness of the CQD film can be
SSE, where the solution was composed of controlled easily by adjusting the distance
mixed tetrabutylammonium iodide (TBAI) between the blade edge and the substrate
and EDT ligands with a specific surface, and the film properties could be
TBAI/EDT ratio of 15:4. With an tuned by other processing parameters, such
optimized SSE time, the prepared solar as substrate heating and the surrounding
cells achieved PCE of 4%, Voc of 0.57 V, environment. Since the substrate is usually
Jsc of 11.79 mA/cm2, and FF of 0.60. The fixed, an active drying process might be
current density versus voltage curves for necessary in the blade-coating method.
the devices with different ligand exchange However, blade coating is still superior to
times are shown in Fig. 14. It shows that spin coating in terms of the consumption
with an exchange time of 50 s, the device of both time and cost. For example, the
performed best, indicating that a moderate utilization rate of CQD inks in blade-
interval of soaking could achieve a good coating methods is extremely high, and
ligand exchange result. Although due to its usually, only a small amount of 5% is
thinner active layer of 140 nm, inferior wasted. Here we will further introduce
performance with much lower Jsc was recent studies focused on CQD solar cells
resulted, compared with the devices (>200 prepared by blade coating. Blade coating
nm) made by Kramer et al. [63], the has the advantage of easily forming thick
fabrication time of the CQD layer was CQD active layers. Compared with spin
greatly reduced. Because only one ligand coating, the thickness of the bladecoated
exchange cycle was conducted in this film can be controlled easily by tuning the
method while more than 10 exchange blade edge height and the coating speed.
cycles are required in the common LbL The additional control makes it easier to
process. It can be expected that the achieve a thicker film with the same
performance will be improved by further solution concentration, allowing for more
optimizing the device structure and layer device engineering methods. In 2020, Fan
thickness. et al. demonstrated an advanced blade-
coated PbS CQD solar cell by combining
BLADE COATING new ligand exchange, solvent engineering,
Blade coating is another widely used large- and the bladecoating strategy [23]. With
area thin film fabrication method for CQD blade coating, smooth micron-thick CQD
solar cells, which is fast, simple, and active layers were achieved, which are
straight forward. Table 2 compares the very difficult for spin coating. However,
time consumption for the fabrication of a this is not enough to get high-performance
1-inch-by-1-inch film with CQD inks. solar cells, as thicker active layers require
Obviously, blade coating offers the fastest better exciton diffusion, which is exactly
manufacturing speed, which only takes ~1 one of the major bottlenecks to achieve
s to make such a high-quality film. Fig. 19 higher efficiency. However, the SPLE
protocol developed for smaller CQDs was However, due to its difficulty in
found to be not applicable for larger simultaneous control of solution spreading
CQDs. Because with traditional SPLE, the and evaporation, the viscous flow
dispersivity of larger CQDs is poor. Fan et dynamics and evaporation should be
al. developed new SPLE methods by carefully addressed. To do so, coating
introducing an additional resolvation step parameters and other factors, such as the
after the initial SPLE to improve the withdrawal speed, temperature, airflow,
dispersivity. Furthermore, they found the and cleanliness, must be closely monitored
widely used solvent for redispersing CQDs during the coating process, which requires
would cause the film cracked, once the much deep understanding and skilled
thickness exceeds 1 μm. Thus they also coating experience. As a matter of fact, for
updated the solvent system with a mixture the CQD solar cell field, dip coating is less
of DMF, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), used in practice. It was only developed for
BTA, and phenethylamine. With all these the LbL process [41, 87–97], since the
three innovations, they achieved the self-assembly monolayer with dip coating
thickest (1.2 μm) PbS CQD solar cell is relatively easy. Here we will briefly
which has been reported. This solar cell is review several dip-coating examples used
capable of reaching EQE of 80% with both in the CQD field. Earlier studies are
the first exciton peak and the nearest focused on dye-sensitized solar cells
Fabry-Perot resonance peak in the infrared (DSSCs). The reason is that porous TiO2
region between 1100 nm and 1800 nm, layers are employed in DSSCs, allowing
which is a feat in CQD solar cells. that the pores can be easily filled by dip
coating. For example, Liu and Wang
OTHER LESS-USED LARGE-AREA demonstrated that PbS CQDs could be
COATING TECHNIQUES successfully deposited onto porous TiO2
layers by dipping the TiO2-coated
DIP COATING substrate into Pbþ and S2
Dip coating is a simple and effective ion solutions alternatively, leading to in-
coating place chemical reactions [90]. This is
technique commonly termed the dip-SILAR method,
commonly where SILAR means the successive ionic
used in various layer adsorption and reaction. With a
industry fields similar dip-SILAR method,
and has Ratanatawanate et al. fabricated PbS
become a main coating method in the CQDs doped TiO2 nanotubes by dipping a
fabrication of thin films with a purpose- TiO2-nanotubes-coated substrate into the
built dip coater. Under optimized Pb(NO3)2 aqueous solution and the Na2S
conditions, dip coating not only could aqueous solution, respectively [87]. Dip
successfully manufacture highly uniform coating was later employed to fabricate
films, but also is advantageous to other CQD solar cells with the LbL protocol,
coating techniques with regard to its where carboxylic-capped CQDs were dip-
simplicity in design which contributes to coated onto the substrate, and SSE and
low costs of installation and maintenance. rinsing were conducted as well. For
example, Luther et al. reported a Schottky
 taken from other types of solar cells.
Solvent engineering is of special
importance for slot-die coating because
solvents could affect the substrate
wettability, meniscus dynamics, and film
drying and crystallization. For example,
Yang et al. employed slot-die coating and
solar cell based on PbSe CQD thin films in successfully fabricated efficient and stable
2008 [41]. The PbSe CQD thin films were large-area formamidinium-cesium
fabricated as follows: ITO substrates were perovskite parallel solar modules [107]. In
this work, diphenyl sulfoxide (DPSO) was
dipped by hand into a 20 mL beaker filled
with the oleate-capped PbSe CQD solution added into the
in hexane (6 mg/mL), followed by a FA0.83Cs0.17PbI2.83Br0.17 precursor
second beaker containing 0.01 M EDT in solution with a combined solvent of DMF
and N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone (NMP).
acetonitrile. The 25 to 40 dip-coating
cycles were performed to fabricate films of They found that the DPSO additive could
different thicknesses. Based on the enlarge the nucleation energy barrier,
deposited PbSe CQD films, the effectively retard the natural nucleation of
perovskite during the coating process, and
corresponding device obtained PCE of
2.1%. Later in 2010, Ju et al. adopted the stabilize the wet precursor film. The
same way to fabricate the PbS CQD active results indicate that the solvent plays a
layer and thus reported a PbS CQD solar decisive role in the microscale processes.
It not only affects the dynamics within the
cell, which increased PCE to >3% by
ink but also modulates the macroscale
introducing another TiO2 layer into the
device [89]. However, there has been no morphologies of the film. Currently,
report on dip coating with CQD inks. similar solvents for perovskite inks have
been used in CQD inks. For example,
Because the thickness control is a
DMF is commonly used in both CQD
challenge for the solvent used for the CQD
ink. Solvent engineering might be [59,60] and perovskite [107] inks. Other
conducive to a breakthrough in this realm. solvents or solvent mixtures, such as γ-
butyrolactone (GBL) and 2-methoxy-
SLOT-DIE COATING ethanol (2-ME):DMSO, are also potential
Slot-die coating is another used deposition alternatives for CQD inks.
method in industry, which can be easily
CONCLUSION
integrated with roll-to-roll processes, as
CQDs have been attracting much attention
shown in Fig. 25. However, very few
because they can absorb light above their
studies on slot-die-coated CQD solar cells
energy bandgap with a high extinction
have been reported. As a comparison, slot-
coefcient and can be processed by using a
die-coated perovskite [98–107] and
solution process. Signifcant progress has
organic [108–114] solar cells have seen
been achieved in the development of CQD
rapid growth. Here we will mainly
PVs by understanding their surface
introduce the general principles of slot-die
characteristics and using surface
coating and several application examples
modifcation to obtain superior
characteristics that distinguish them from blade coating are shown to be promising
general bulk semiconductors. In the future, for producing high-performance CQD
we aim to address the various issues solar cells. While other coating techniques,
presented in this article and to including slot-die coating and dip coating,
commercialize CQD PVs along with the which have been used for perovskite and
commercialization of CQD display felds. organic solar cells, do not attracted much
Here we reviewed the recent advances in attention in the field of CQD solar cells.
utilizing colloidal quantum dots as light The performance of CQD solar cells based
harvesters in various types of photovoltaic on those methods is still low compared
devices. At present the power conversion with that of other solution-processed
efficiencies of colloidal quantum dot solar technologies, such as perovskite and
cells are about 5%. Further research is organic solar cells. There is still a long
needed in this area to screen potential way to go. However, CQDs are also
systems which could provide a roadmap promising for solar cell applications. There
for the design of super-efficient solar cells. are two main merits which make CQD
Development of high performance solar cells highly attractive. First, CQDs,
photovoltaic cells will necessitate the use especially lead chalcogenide CQDs, could
of high quality nanocrystals with good harvest NIR radiation. By stacking CQD
material properties. In achieving this goal solar cells with silicon, perovskite, and
surface state of the nanocrystals should be organic solar cells to form tandem solar
well passivated. This could be achieved cells, the device could collect more
either by using organic or inorganic sunlight and achieve higher PCE. Second,
capping ligands. In conclusion, well CQD solar cells show excellent long-term
ordered semiconductor nanoparticles in stability. It has been verified that
photovoltaic cells are tought to bring a unencapsulated PbS CQD solar cells are
major breakthrough in this field. stable under both shelf storage and
Crystalline semiconductor solar cells continuous operation [118]. For example,
besides possessing low efficiency due to Choi et al. reported that the
their band gab limit (Shockley-Queisser unencapsulated PbS CQD solar cell
limit)[53] they are expensive in terms of passivated by PbX could retain >80% of
manufacturing cost per generated Watt of its initial efficiency after 300 h continuous
delivered electric power. In single junction operation in air.
bulky semiconductor solar cells, photon of
energies less than the band gap are wasted
since none of them are absorbed.
Moreover, excess energy of those photons
with energies greater than the bandgap is
wasted as heat as a result of hot-carriers
thermalization. A quantum dot is a
crystalline semiconductor nanoparticles.
This paper reviewed recent studies on the
fabrication of large-area CQD solar cells
with various roll-to-roll compatible
techniques. Amongst, spray coating and
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panels/?_gl=1*dflo9u*_ga*V0c1RFFHX1N1UHRpa3Etc2N3MGo5QURINkwz
WWRPZVJCSzRaMXZrRzBhVGZ5dUtCSkN4SVhTSmlrWWpYT25Uag

7. https://www.solarsquare.in/blog/types-of-solar-panels