COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Introduction to computer Graphics systems :

Graphics are defined as any sketch or a drawing or a special network that pictorially represents some
meaningful information. Computer Graphics is used where a set of images needs to be manipulated or
the creation of the image in the form of pixels and is drawn on the computer. Computer Graphics can be
used in digital photography, film, entertainment, electronic gadgets, and all other core technologies
which are required. It is a vast subject and area in the field of computer science. Computer Graphics can
be used in UI design, rendering, geometric objects, animation, and many more. In most areas, computer
graphics is an abbreviation of CG. There are several tools used for the implementation of Computer
Graphics. The basic is the <graphics.h> header file in Turbo-C, Unity for advanced and even OpenGL can
be used for its Implementation.

The term ‘Computer Graphics’ was coined by Verne Hudson and William Fetter from Boeing who were
pioneers in the field.

Computer Graphics refers to several things:

 The manipulation and the representation of the image or the data in a graphical manner.

 Various technology is required for the creation and manipulation.

 Digital synthesis and its manipulation.

Types of Computer Graphics

 Raster Graphics: In raster, graphics pixels are used for an image to be drawn. It is also known as a
bitmap image in which a sequence of images is into smaller pixels. Basically, a bitmap indicates a
large number of pixels together.

 Vector Graphics: In vector graphics, mathematical formulae are used to draw different types of
shapes, lines, objects, and so on.

Applications

 Computer Graphics are used for an aided design for engineering and architectural
system- These are used in electrical automobiles, electro-mechanical, mechanical, electronic
devices. For example gears and bolts.

 Computer Art – MS Paint.

 Presentation Graphics – It is used to summarize financial statistical scientific or economic data.

For example- Bar chart, Line chart.

 Entertainment- It is used in motion pictures, music videos, television gaming.

  Education and training- It is used to understand the operations of complex systems. It is also
used for specialized system such for framing for captains, pilots and so on.

 Visualization- To study trends and patterns.For example- Analyzing satellite photo of earth.

components of interactive computer graphics system :

An interactive computer graphics system typically consists of several key components
that work together to create, manipulate, and display graphical content in real-time.
These components include:

1. Input Devices: These devices allow users to interact with the system by providing
input data. Common input devices include keyboards, mice, graphic tablets,
touchscreens, and specialized input devices like joysticks or game controllers.
2. Graphics Software Libraries and APIs: Graphics libraries and application
programming interfaces (APIs) provide a set of functions and tools for developers
to create and manipulate graphics. Examples include OpenGL, DirectX, Vulkan,
and WebGL.
3. Graphics Processing Unit (GPU): The GPU is a specialized hardware component
designed to handle graphical computations efficiently. It processes the graphical
data and renders images to be displayed on the screen. Modern GPUs are highly
parallel processors optimized for graphics tasks.
4. Central Processing Unit (CPU): While the GPU handles most of the graphical
computations, the CPU coordinates overall system operation, manages memory,
and executes non-graphical tasks. In interactive graphics systems, the CPU and
GPU often work together to handle various aspects of rendering and interaction.
5. Memory: Both system memory (RAM) and graphics memory (VRAM) are
essential for storing data used in rendering graphics. System memory holds
program data, textures, and other assets, while graphics memory stores frame
buffers, textures, and other GPU-specific data.
6. Display Device: The display device, such as a monitor or projector, presents the
rendered graphics to the user. It converts electrical signals into visible images.
7. Rasterization Pipeline: In 3D graphics, the rasterization pipeline converts
geometric primitives (such as polygons) into pixels on the screen. This process
involves vertex transformations, clipping, rasterization, and pixel shading.
8. Rendering Engine: The rendering engine encompasses algorithms and processes
responsible for generating images from 3D scene data. It includes techniques
such as lighting, shading, texture mapping, and effects like shadows and
reflections.
 9. User Interface (UI): The user interface allows users to control and interact with
the graphics system. It includes elements such as menus, buttons, sliders, and
other widgets for adjusting settings and initiating actions.
10. Event Handling System: This component manages user input events (e.g.,
mouse clicks, keyboard presses) and triggers appropriate responses within the
graphics system, such as updating the scene or initiating specific actions.

These components work together seamlessly to create immersive and interactive

graphical experiences in various applications, including video games, simulations,
scientific visualization, and design tools.

Components Of Computer graphics:

Interactive computer graphics consists of three components such as:

1. Digital memory buffer
2. TV Monitor
3. Display controller

Using these components, we are able to see the output on the screen in the form of
pixels.

Components Of Computer graphics:

1. Digital Memory Buffer (Frame Buffer)

This is place where images or pictures are stored as an array (matrix of 0 and 1, 0
represents darkness and 1 represents images or picture).
Frame buffer is the video RAM (V-RAM) that is used to hold or map the image displayed
on the screen. The amount of memory required to hold the image depends primary on
the resolution of the screen image and also the color depth used per pixel. The formula
to calculate how much video memory is required at a given resolution and bit depth is
quite simple.
Usually frame buffer is implemented using rotating random access
semiconductor memory. However, frame buffer also can be implemented using
shift registers.

2. TV Monitor:
Monitor helps us to view the display and they make use of CRT (Cathode Ray
Tube)

3. Display Controller:
It is an interface between digital memory buffer and TV monitor. The main
function of this is to pass the contents of frame buffer to the monitor. The display
controller reads each
Successive byte of data from the frame buffer memory and converts 0’s and 1’s
into corresponding video signal. This signal is then fed to the TV monitor to
produce a black and white picture on the screen. Now, display controller is
recognized as display card and one of our choice can be VGA card with a
resolution of 640 x 480.

Application areas of computer graphics :

Computer graphics deals with creation, manipulation and storage of different type of
images and objects. Some of the applications of computer graphics are:
1. Computer Art: Using computer graphics we can create fine and commercial
art which include animation packages, paint packages. These packages
provide facilities for designing object shapes and specifying object
motion.Cartoon drawing, paintings, logo design can also be done.

2. Computer Aided Drawing: Designing of buildings, automobile, aircraft is

done with the help of computer aided drawing, this helps in providing minute
details to the drawing and producing more accurate and sharp drawings with
better specifications.
3. Presentation Graphics: For the preparation of reports or summarising the
financial, statistical, mathematical, scientific, economic data for research
reports, managerial reports, moreover creation of bar graphs, pie charts, time
chart, can be done using the tools present in computer graphics.

4. Entertainment: Computer graphics finds a major part of its utility in the

movie industry and game industry. Used for creating motion pictures , music
video, television shows, cartoon animation films. In the game industry where
focus and interactivity are the key players, computer graphics helps in
providing such features in the efficient way.

5. Education: Computer generated models are extremely useful for teaching

huge number of concepts and fundamentals in an easy to understand and learn
manner. Using computer graphics many educational models can be created
through which more interest can be generated among the students regarding
the subject.

6. Training: Specialised system for training like simulators can be used for
training the candidates in a way that can be grasped in a short span of time
with better understanding. Creation of training modules using computer
graphics is simple and very useful.

7. Visualisation: Today the need of visualise things have increased drastically,

the need of visualisation can be seen in many advance technologies , data
visualisation helps in finding insights of the data , to check and study the
behaviour of processes around us we need appropriate visualisation which
can be achieved through proper usage of computer graphics
8. Image Processing: Various kinds of photographs or images require editing in
order to be used in different places. Processing of existing images into refined
ones for better interpretation is one of the many applications of computer
graphics.
 9. Machine Drawing: Computer graphics is very frequently used for designing,
modifying and creation of various parts of machine and the whole machine
itself, the main reason behind using computer graphics for this purpose is the
precision and clarity we get from such drawing is ultimate and extremely
desired for the safe manufacturing of machine using these drawings.

10. Graphical User Interface: The use of pictures, images, icons, pop-up
menus, graphical objects helps in creating a user friendly environment where
working is easy and pleasant, using computer graphics we can create such an
atmosphere where everything can be automated and anyone can get the
desired action performed in an easy fashion.

These are some of the applications of computer graphics due to which it’s popularity
has increased to a huge extend and will keep on increasing with the progress in
technology.

Video Display Devices:

Video display devices in computer graphics are hardware components
used to visually present digital images, graphics, videos, and visual
content to users. The evolution of these devices have been an
extraordinary journey through time and technology.

Different types of video display devices in computer graphics are –

Refresh cathode -ray tube

Raster scan displays

Random scan displays

Colour CRT-monitors

Direct view storage tube

Flat-panel displays

3-D viewing devices

Virtual reality

Raster scan systems

Random scan systems

Graphics monitors and workstations

Refresh Cathode-Ray Tubes (CRT)

Cathode-ray tube (CRT) displays were once widely used in television sets and computer
monitors before being largely supplanted by newer technologies like LCD and LED
displays. Here's a brief overview of CRT technology and its historical significance:

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT):

 Technology: CRT displays work by emitting electrons from a cathode (a

negatively charged electrode) inside a vacuum tube. These electrons are
accelerated and focused into a beam by an anode (a positively charged
electrode) and passed through magnetic or electric fields to control their path.
The beam strikes phosphor-coated glass on the front of the tube, causing it to
emit light and produce images.
  Advantages: CRTs were known for their high refresh rates, good color
reproduction, and deep black levels. They were also relatively inexpensive to
produce.
 Disadvantages: CRTs were bulky and heavy due to the vacuum tube design. They
also consumed more power and were susceptible to issues like screen flicker and
image distortion over time.
 Historical Significance: CRTs were the standard display technology for much of
the 20th century, used in televisions, computer monitors, radar systems, and
oscilloscopes. They played a crucial role in the development of television and
computing industries.

Despite their historical significance, CRT displays have largely been phased out in favor
of newer technologies like LCD, LED, and OLED displays, which offer advantages such as
thinner profiles, lighter weight, lower power consumption, and better image quality.
However, CRTs still hold niche applications in industries like broadcasting, where their
unique characteristics may be preferred for specific purposes.

— A beam of electrons emitted by an electron gun,

passes through focusing and deflection systems that direct the beam toward specified positions on
the phosphor-coated screen.
— Because the light emitted by the phosphor fades very rabidly, the refresh process is needed to maintain
the picture on the screen.
— Refreshing is done by redrawing the picture repeatedly by quickly directing the electron beam back over
the same screen points.
— Refresh rate: the frequency at which a picture is redrawn on the screen.
 — Components of the Electron Gun :
1. The heated metal cathode
2. A control grid
— Heat is supplied to the cathode by directing a current through a coil of wire (the filament) inside the
cathode.
— This causes electrons to be “boiled off” the hot cathode surface.

—
Then, the free, negatively electrons are then accelerated towards the phosphor coating by a high
positive voltage.

— Intensity of the electron beam is controlled by the voltage at the control grid.
— A high negative voltage applied to the control grid will shut off the beam.
— A smaller negative voltage on the control grid decreases the number of electrons passing through.
— The brightness of a display point is controlled by varying the voltage on the control grid.
— The focusing system forces the electron beam to converge to a small cross section as it strikes the
phosphor.
— Deflection of the electron beam can be controlled by the deflection coils.
 — Spots of light are produced on the screen by the
transfer of the CRT beam energy to the phosphor.
— Persistence: how long phosphors continue to emit light after the CRT beam is removed.
— Persistence is defined as the time that it takes the emitted light from the screen to decay to one-tenth of
its original intensity.
— Lower-persistence phosphors require high refresh rates to maintain a picture definition on the screen
without flicker and they are useful for animation.
— Higher-persistence phosphors are useful for displaying highly complex, static pictures.

Raster scan displays :

Raster Scan Displays are most common type of graphics monitor which employs CRT.
It is based on television technology. In raster scan system electron beam sweeps across
the screen, from top to bottom covering one row at a time. A pattern of illuminated
pattern of spots is created by turning beam intensity on and off as it moves across each
row. A memory area called refresh buffer or frame buffer stores picture definition. This
memory area holds intensity values for all screen points. Stored intensity values are
restored from frame buffer and painted on screen taking one row at a time. Each screen
point is referred to as pixels.
In raster scan systems refreshing is done at a rate of 60-80 frames per second. Refresh
rates are also sometimes described in units of cycles per second / Hertz (Hz). At the end
of each scan line, electron beam begins to display next scan line after returning to left
side of screen. The return to the left of screen after refresh of each scan line is known
as horizontal retrace of electron beam. At the end of each frame electron beam returns
to top left corner and begins the next frame.
Raster-Scan Display Processor:
An important function of display process is to digitize a picture definition given in an
application program into a set of pixel-intensity values for storage in refresh buffer.
This process is referred to as scan conversion. The purpose of display processors is to
relieve the CPU from graphics jobs.
Display processors can perform various other tasks like: creating different line styles,
displaying color areas, etc. Typically display processors are utilized to interface input
devices, such as mouse, joysticks.

ADVANTAGES:
 Real life images with different shades can be displayed.
 Color range available is bigger than random scan display.
DISADVANTAGES:
  Resolution is lower than random scan display.
 More memory is required.
 Data about the intensities of all pixel has to be stored.
Random scan displays (Vector display, Stroke writing,
Calligraphic) :
In Random-Scan Display electron beam is directed only to the areas of screen where a
picture has to be drawn. It is also called vector display, as it draws picture one line at
time. It can draw and refresh component lines of a picture in any specified sequence. A
Pen plotter is an example of random-scan device. The number of lines regulates refresh
rate on random-scan displays. An area of memory called refresh display files stores
picture definition as a set of line drawing commands. The system returns back to first-
line command in the list, after all the drawing commands have been processed. High-
quality vector systems can handle around 100, 00 short lines at this refresh rate. Faster
refreshing can burn phosphor. To avoid this every refresh cycle is delayed to prevent
refresh rate greater than 60 frames per second. Suppose we want to display a square
ABCD on the screen. The commands will be:
 Draw a line from A to B
 Draw a line from B to C
 Draw a line from C to D
 Draw a line from D to A

Random-Scan Display Processors: Input in the form of an application program is

stored in the system memory along with graphics package. Graphics package translates
the graphic commands in application program into a display file stored in system
memory. This display file is then accessed by the display processor to refresh the
screen. The display processor cycles through each command in the display file program.
Sometimes the display processor in a random-scan is referred as Display Processing
Unit / Graphics Controller. The structure of a simple random scan is shown below:
ADVANTAGES:
 Higher resolution as compared to raster scan display.
 Produces smooth line drawing.
 Less Memory required.
DISADVANTAGES:
 Realistic images with different shades cannot be drawn.
 Colour limitations.

virtual reality
What is virtual reality?
Virtual reality is a simulated 3D environment that enables users to explore and
interact with a virtual surrounding in a way that approximates reality, as it is
perceived through the users' senses. The environment is created with computer
hardware and software, although users might also need to wear devices such as
helmets or goggles to interact with the environment. The more deeply users can
immerse themselves in a VR environment -- and block out their physical surroundings
-- the more they are able to suspend their belief and accept it as real, even if it is
fantastical in nature.

What are the main types of virtual reality?

The VR industry still has far to go before realizing its vision of a totally
immersive environment that enables users to engage multiple sensations in a
way that approximates reality. However, the technology has come a long way
in providing realistic sensory engagement and shows promise for business
use in a number of industries.

VR systems can vary significantly from one to the next, depending on their
purpose and the technology used, although they generally fall into one of the
following three categories:

 Non-immersive. This type of VR typically refers to a 3D simulated

environment that's accessed through a computer screen. The
environment might also generate sound, depending on the program.
 The user has some control over the virtual environment using a
keyboard, mouse or other device, but the environment does not directly
interact with the user. A video game is a good example of non-
immersive VR, as is a website that enables a user to design a room's
decor.

 Semi-immersive. This type of VR offers a partial virtual experience

that's accessed through a computer screen or some type of glasses or
headset. It focuses primarily on the visual 3D aspect of virtual reality
and does not incorporate physical movement in the way that full
immersion does. A common example of semi-immersive VR is the flight
simulator, which is used by airlines and militaries to train their pilots.

 Fully immersive. This type of VR delivers the greatest level of virtual

reality, completely immersing the user in the simulated 3D world. It
incorporates sight, sound and, in some cases, touch. There have even
been some experiments with the addition of smell. Users wear special
equipment such as helmets, goggles or gloves and are able to fully
interact with the environment. The environment might also incorporate
such equipment as treadmills or stationary bicycles to provide users
with the experience of moving through the 3D space. Fully immersive
VR technology is a field still in its infancy, but it has made important
inroads into the gaming industry and to some extent the healthcare
industry, and it's generating a great deal of interest in others.

collaborative VR is sometimes cited as a type of virtual reality. In this model,

people from different locations come together in a virtual environment to
interact with one another, with each individual represented by a projected 3D
character. The users typically communicate through microphones and
headsets.
How can virtual reality be used?
Virtual reality is often associated with gaming because the industry has been
at the forefront of the VR effort, as evidenced by the popularity of products
such as Beat Saber, Minecraft VR and Skyrim VR. Even so, there has been a
growing interest in the potential of VR across a number of other areas:

 Training. VR makes it possible to train personnel safely, efficiently

and cost-effectively. It can be especially beneficial to those in high-
risk or highly specialized positions, such as firefighters, EMTs, police
officers, soldiers, surgeons or other medical personnel.

 Education. VR offers educational institutions new methods for

teaching and learning. It can provide students with intimate insights
into environments that are typically inaccessible, while keeping them
engaged in the learning process. For example, a history teacher
might use VR to show students firsthand what life was like in ancient
Greece or China.

 Healthcare. VR has the potential to benefit individuals across the

healthcare industry, including patients, practitioners and researchers.
For example, VR shows promise in treating disorders such as
anorexia, anxiety or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). On the
other hand, doctors might be able to use VR when working with the
patients to explain diagnoses or treatment options. VR could also
benefit individuals who are physically limited in some way.

 Retail. VR has already made some inroads into retail, but the
industry has only scratched the surface. With the right apps,
customers will be able to try on clothes, decorate their homes,
experiment with hair styles, test eye glasses and in general make
more informed decisions about products and services.

 Real estate. VR can benefit real estate in a number of ways. For

example, architects can show detailed plans in 3D; home buyers can
 tour homes virtually; building engineers can tour HVAC systems; and
home owners can see what their remodels would look like.

 Entertainment. VR has already had an impact on gaming, but it also

promises to transform the film and television industries, providing
viewers with an immersive experience that puts them right into the
scene. VR could also lead to an entire industry in virtual tourism,
making it possible for people to experience places that they might
never be able to see in-person.

The simplest form of virtual reality is a 3D image that can be explored

interactively through a personal computer, usually by manipulating keys or the
mouse so that the content of the image moves in some direction or zooms in
or out. More sophisticated efforts involve such approaches as wraparound
display screens, physical rooms augmented with wearable devices, or haptic
devices that let users "feel" the virtual images.