Information

centre
Sir Tim Burners-Lee
invented the world-wide
web (www) in 1989
El ec troma
opagaionofElectro
gnetio Transmitter antenna radiates E.M. waves
these waves travel through space & reach
receiving antenna at other end
Transmitter
Transmitted
poX Terserp sinAtmOSphere Space satellite
signal Transmitter Antenna Receiver Antenna
Channel44 Noise
Received
lonosphere plays major rolein
sky wave propagation.
signal
In ionosphere ionization occurs
Receiver Sky waves due to the absorption of UV rays
Coming from the sun by the air
Message molecule.
signal B a n dW i d t h Communication

ransMedimisuiom
User of I n this layer bending of E.M.
Information Syotems wave occurs so that they are
Band
widen Space Wave diverted towards the earth
which is helpful in sky wave
propagation

Itrefersto thedata
o f
T r

Radio waves (1710 KHZ to 40 MHZ)

carrying capacity of are propagated in sky wave
a channel or medium Tb transmit the information propagation.
Signal Band width
-
signal oflowfrequency, it is
superimposed on high Space waves travel in straight line
Mobile phone 896-901 MHz
840-935 M Hz frequency waveas a carrier from transmitter antenna to receiver
Satellite 5.9-64 GHz wave called modulation. antenna.
Signal Band width
Communication 3.7-4.2GHz
speech/voice 300 Hz-3100 Hz It is used for ine of sight
AM 540-1600 kHz communication as TV broadcast
Music signals 20 Hz-20 KHz or satellite communication
FM 88-108 M Hz
Video signal 4.2 M Hz
TV (VHH 54-72MHz
The process of retrieval The maximum line of sight (LOS).
of information from the
TV signals 6MHz carrier wave at the receiveris distance d R2R
(both volce VH 76-216 MHz termed as demodulation h,= height of transmitter antenna
& video) 420-890 MHz It is reverse of modulation h,height ofreceiver antenna.
 Device made by aclose
The energy band which are
completely filled with
Valence Band In 1927, Walter Heitler|
P . Nj u n c t i o nD i o .

contact of N- type and|

electron at Zero kelvin (OK) and Fritz London
F o r w a r dB i a
s see d

P-type semiconductors
The bands with higher onduction Band
discover bands
Rev
Everse Biased
energy above the A range
the
ofenergiesstates
associated Semiconductor Diode
valence band with quantum of
+ve terminal to P-side -ve terninal to P- side
electrons in a crystalline soid. -ve to N-side
+ve terminal to N-Side
VB1 diffusion current increases
Gap
depletion layer reduced diffusion current decreases
The difference between the Forbidden depletion layer increases
highest energy valence
in
band and lowest energy
a

inBand GaP
o r

Light| Emitting used in T.V.or electronic gadgets.

the next higher band.
a p

used as avoltage ode/LED

Classification of metals
regulator
PhotoDiDiode is a P.N. junctionwhose function
is controlled by the ight allowed
Semiconductor &
Insulator on the basis
Transistor tofall on it.
of band theory Electronic Deuices Types NPN

S4Onpu Insulato Logic gates PNPF

Extrinse
Eg=0 orleast
Density of charge
carners is very Ge
E =0.72eV for
high (For electrons0< E, < Insulator
1.1ev for Si
Semiconduct
Pure semiconductor Impure or doped
semiconductor
Amplifier (CEC)
-A + B
las

Load
resistor

1 0 m 'tor
For Hole th)
For- n-type
very low (e)
Charge carner
n
concentration

nn
N-Type Semi OR Gate

-AB
Signal in
nal

0m (1n cas* ot For-p-type I=n+n

opper)
=
7 x
10Sm* -1x10m' eg. Si (Silicon) AND Gatee

for Si doped for Si doped with Al

with P
Every high = 7ev S i or Ge doped with NOT Gate

for diamond negigible = o

pentavalent .Si or Ge doped with A-
-AB
(PAs, Sb) elements trivalent (B, Al) elements
Electrons are majorityElectrons are minority NAND Gale

camers cariers
Holes are minorily Holes are majority carriers A
carriers NON Gate
 2
>
uogeja aBog ap d'sObservation
U Iuadxg aua HeAIaSgospIeua1
1 1eN
uognqyuoo
 Tf there exists an electric current as ctrum

Radio wave >10 nm

well as a changing electric field, they onaußeuioP Dads
The current due to flow Use:radio, TV signal
result into magnetc field &
of charge is often called Micro wave10*>> 10nm
cause displacement current Use: micro wave oven, radar
:de de
dt

In 1886 Henrich
Hertz became the
Conduction Curent dt Infrared 10 >A> 700 nm
Use: night vision
Visible ight 700A> 400 nm
Use: to observe world
first person to transmit UVrays 400>>10nm
Use: destroying bacteria
and received controlled
radio waves
History Xrays 10>A>0.01 nm
Use: detect bene break
Gauss's Law (electricity) yrays 0.01nm>
Use:to treat cancer
Eds a Maxwell's Equai
Gauss's Law (magnetism)
B.ds=0 Electromagnetic
Combination ofmutually Wawes U= = energy per
Faraday's Law perpendicular electric& 2 H
magnetic fields is referred unit volume
Ed-d
dt to as an electromagnetic wave Energy density U over a long time
Ampere's Law Characteristics of Electromagnetic
oi+ Hofo de
waves
GB.di =

dt Do not needany material

medium for propagation
Travels with speed (v)
1
2 Ho
Produced by accelerated charge
Transverse in naturee

Oscillating electric && magnetic

fieldsare in phase and their ratio
isconstant (C)= E/B
 Pole is taken as origin Angle of deviation 8 1-i-A
Light scattered i.e. redirected
in different paths when
Principle axis as the X-axis Incident ray reflected ray and ntotimum 2i-A i= i]
normal to the reflecting surface interacts with partide
All distance are nmeasured from origin (or pole)|
are coplanar - (4-1)A, if A is small e.g. sunset, sunrise, colours,
All distance measured in the direction minimum
blue colour of sky
of incident ray are taken + ve.
All distance measured in the direction ITTTATITT
opposite to the incident ray are taken -ve.
| M=1+[image at near point]
Sign( u3r13

Spherical Mir.Conversion
Scattering
or M-DIf image at infinite]
u RS
Lateral Magnification
Pris
MiCTOSCope
Inormaladjustment
Compound
sini - MicroscOpe
sinr Refraction of light
real depth
Pparent depth Cptics Optical For final image at least distance
e o t ailn t e r n a refection
l Pant-1 nstruments
image shift
Fower ofaelelsecnospe
onSphericalsurtace
When ray passes from optically
CriticalAngle s

M- m
image at n e a r point]

denser to rarer medium, if indident

angle () further increased till ( e
critical angle, entire light is then uo
eouayds M - mage at infinite

reflected back to the denser medium uoy°

again, this process is called TLR. It is
used in optical fibre.
11 11

Incident angle (0ofor which angle

of refraction is 90° | Lateral Magnification
ie. sine, =1/4
-- fA4=1 (air)|

sin R- 0ena fornua)

For Combination of lens
inContact]
When ray passes from optically
denser to rarer medium. Lateral Magnification
 Wave front
particles the primary resultant
Locus ofall Each point on suuperimpose to form a
vibrating in same phase wavefront is the s o u r c e Two waves same amplitude.
lower or
wavelets
wave of greateror
of a secondary
1-(+)-4+4
For constructive Interference

For spherical wavefront A-A+A interference A=(4 A

For destructive
rterenceofLign
A bsin -na (dark fringe)
width of cerntral maxima
Linear
22
nterference
o

Width of central maxima

nof Light by singleslit
D i f f r a c t i o n o fL i g h t

F r i n g e - w i d t h
Angular width 2D
Young's Double-
Slit Experiment Polarisation bsin -(2n+1)
is a distance betweena
Optics
two consecutive, Part-2 Restricting the vibration (for maxima brightfringe)
bright or dark fringes of light in a particular
direction perpendicular

Distance between
tothe direction of
propagation of wave Brewster ss Law ,
tan
angle of polarisation
Polariod used in lab
nth bright fringe
and central fringe to analyse plane
polarised light
used to eliminate the
D=distance between
COirceand Ween
screen
headlightglare in
motor cars.
Two sOurces of light are
9aid to be coherent if the
For bright fringe initial phase difference Resolving power of telescope
Distance between nth dark AD=nl between the waves d /1.222
fringe and central fringe emitted by the sources
For dark fringe
x,-2-1)2D remains constant in
2d
d distance between slits - thme, otherwise they
are called Incoherent
sOurce of light.
Resolving power of microscope
2n sin 0/A
1-Whenever magnetic flux through In 1831, Michael Raraday discovered Mi
an area bounded by aclosed electromagnetic induction and James
do
conducting loop changes, an emf Clerk Maxwell mathematically described it.
- M

dt at
is produced in the loopP
2-The given by
emf is E=-daldt
where B.ds Faraday's Law of Ma onn tr

Electromagnetic Inducs
is the magnetic flux through the Emf induced in an AC generator, E = NBAw sin ot
area.

The direction of the induced current

is such that it the
opposes change
ction
L e n zs L a w

that has induced it

ER d Electromagnetic Ifa solenoid of N turns, the fiux through

Blo Rdtnducedcur
Inductian & Self Induction each each tum= B.ds
i obl /R+T) Altennating Cunents emf induced between the ends
Motional E nducedEME Kectangularloop
Part-1
of coil =E=NBds
dt

resistance of rod moving

with velocity v in unifom do
tancece of L= onai
n= no. of turms per unit length
magnetic field B dt
long fux = (4ni) ar
ina It is induced when magnetic
flux linked with the
Solen enoid\ = radius of each loop of solenoid
Growth of current in LR Circuit|
EBol E M Fi n d u c e
a i n gc o n a Conductor changes
Decay of current
Magnetic force on the loop i = ie

P emf inducedF B12 vR Thermal power developed

E UBl Energy stored in an Inductor
force required to move in the loop is
VBI
R
the loop with constant
velocity ()
P DB
R
U-u
 A device generatirng alternating current having elements magnet,
VV2 RMS value Armature and graphite Brushes emf induced through coil
or root
root i E-NBAo sinot -NEN
mean ER- NBA
NBA s
o isin ot/R
n otR
i,= -NEN
square 1fN>Nitiscalled step up Transfomer
imean 21,/T Mean value or
Vms2%/T
Average valuevalue 1EN,>Nitis called step-down
value Direction ofcurrent
changes alternatively noutput power/nput power
iihsinot
eak value or Maxm yalue Vsinaot
999% efficiency can easily achieved
tsused to obtain a
AC Current Transforme
n e r

high ACyoltage fromnal transformer

The ratio of emf applied and the Low-voltage AC source Eticiency

of a

current produced in an AC circuit Or vice versa

Z E Ohm
Electramagnetic-
The hindrance offered by inductor or
Impedance Trduction &
Alternating Curnents in AC Circuit
cos cos
Power
capacitor or both to the flow of AC ( Reactance Part-2

AC Circuits L-C-R circuit R-X

-aina
Inductive (L) circuit
Phase difference b/w V&L
Power factor cos ($)=0 Save(R)circuit
Voltage leads current by w/2
0
Capacitive(C)circuit

L-C circu L-R circuit tano

-oR
Resistive
11sin(ot)
sin(at +
2 VR+x
iosin(ot)
X 1/oC Z-R+X
isin o tand 1/oCR
isin ot oL
cos 1
2orz P-Vo o2 E/2 X-X-X tand oLR
coso Power factor cos
Powert=0
Current&voltage both Power factor0, Either voltage Powerfactor R/Z
the voltage by
are in same phase Current leading x or current leadin8 voltage is leadin8