Build Your Working

Knowledge of
Process Compressors
he role of compressors in the chem-

T
work done enhances the pressure and densi-
ical process industries (CPI) is crit- ty. Flow through the cylinder is controlled
How good are ical since they are used to circulate by valve actions. Examples of reciprocating
you at selecting gas through a process, enhance machines include piston compressors, lubri-
conditions for chemical reactions, provide cated and nonlubricated, and metal
medium-power inert gas for safety or control systems, diaphragm compressors.
recover and recompress process gas, and 2. Turbomachinery, or dynamic com-
reciprocating maintain correct pressure levels by either pressors, are those in which a dynamic head
compressors? adding and removing gas or vapors from a is imparted to the gas by means of high
process system. speed impellers rotating in a confining case.
The chemical engineer involved with This category includes axial-flow, radial,
process design and equipment selection centrifugal and fan-blower compressors.
must have a working knowledge of com- 3. Rotary machines are those in which
pressors, since they are the most mechani- gas is moved by the positive displacement
cally complex machinery used in the CPI. of two rotating lobes or by oscillating vanes
This working knowledge must not only be confined in an eccentric cylinder.
related to the thermodynamics of the gas 4. Ejector machines are those in which
being compressed, but also to the type of gas is moved by kinetic energy induced
compressor to be used for a particular through high-velocity nozzles.
process. The latter has become more impor- This article will primarily deal with recip-
tant as the result of the passage of the Clean rocating, positive displacement compressors
Air Act Amendments of 1990, legislation with emphasis placed on applications and
Edward H. Livingston, which places limitations on emissions from machines having installed power of 200 kW or
Howden Compressors process equipment. Fugitive emissions from less. However, some comments with respect to
Incorporated such sources as compressors, pumps, larger compressors will be made due to their
valves, and piping systems and connections importance in process applications.
must be reduced over the coming years in Before we discuss specific compressor
order to comply with EPA Equipment Leak types in detail, let’s look at typical applica-
Regulations. tions of the units.

Brief background Oil refinery processes

The principal types of compressors Both positive displacement and dynam-
found in the CPI are reciprocating, turbo ic compressors are used in the refining of
(centrifugal and axial), and rotary flow crude oil. Crude oil feed-stock contains
designs. Within some of the types are varia- polluting compounds such as sulfur, chlo-
tions. Nevertheless, in all cases, compres- rides and salts. Refining processes extract
sors are used to convert energy from one these pollutants and convert them into
form to another. needed byproducts, thus reducing emis-
1. Reciprocating machines are those in sions into the atmosphere. Hydrogen sul-
which gas is moved by the linear motion of fide and carbon dioxide are being treated by
a piston within a confining cylinder. The chemical absorption systems such as

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRESS . FEBRUARY 1993 . 27

 AIR AND GAS FLOW

methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) with usually a barrel-type centrifugal com- flow rates are small in comparison to
a high absorption efficiency. pressor since the compression ratio is standard, full-size plants. Feed compres-
Hydrogenation processes occur in low, while the make-up compressor is sors for additives operate to 320 MPa,
the initial distillation column, as well a multistage balanced opposed recip- and power is in the range of 75 k W .
as hydrotreating, hydrocracking, and rocating compressor because the High density polyethylene is often
catalytic reforming units. compressor must boost the gas from co-produced with polypropylene in a
1.4 MPa to 13.8 M P a . pressure range of 1 to 3.5 MPa. The
To reduce emissions within the catalyst is fed to the reactor with the
Hydrotreating refinery, hydrocarbon gases are col- gas is flashed, separated, and recycled.
Hydrotreating removes objection- lected, recompressed and used else-
able elements such as sulfur, nitrogen, where. Hydrogen collected from the
oxygen, and halides from feedstock reciprocating compressor packing Electronics
by reacting them catalytically with group and from the barrel-type com- and semiconductors
hydrogen. In this application, three pressor mechanical seal are often Gases are produced for the manu-
compressors are frequently used: the recycled back into the process by facture of electronic components and
recycle compressor which takes small, positive displacement, recipro- semiconductors. Purity of the gases is
hydrogen-rich gas from the hydrogen cating compressors. vital and ultrapure systems are used in
separator and recycles it to the all phases of manufacturing. Adding
process front end, the make-up com- to the purity requirements is the han-
pressor that adds hydrogen to the Polymerization dling problem associated with strong
process at the front end, and the vent Compressors are required to feed oxidizers, flammable, pyrophoric,
gas compressor which handles hydro- gases at elevated pressures into reac- and highly toxic compounds.
carbon gas mixtures of molecular tors or compress gases to a pressure Oxidation processes are used for
weights from 20 to 40. that will permit liquefaction after the formation of protective silicon
The size of the recycle and make- which the liquid is pumped directly dioxide coating on wafer surfaces.
up compressors depends on the into the reactor. Typical gases com- This is accomplished in a diffusion
hydrotreater capacity. In general, pressed include ethylene, hydrogen, furnace in an oxygen atmosphere.
recycle compressor flow rates vary hydrogen chloride, methyl chloride, Protective atmosphere doping uses
from 25,500 to 127,500 m³/h and rec- phosgene, propane, and butane. nitrogen in the purity range of of
iprocating or centrifugal compressors Depending on the polymer and the 99.9999% for the manufacture of
may be used since compression ratios process used, pressures can range microelectronic components to protect
are low. The make-up compressor from 0.1 MPa to 380 M P a the material as well as being a carrier
flow rates vary from 5,950 to 29,750 gas for dopants. Chip manufacturing
m³/h, and while the flow rates can involves ultrahigh-purity argon for sili-
support centrifugal design compres- con crystal growing, oxide removal
sors, the compression ratios are too Higher flow rate (etching) and doping of wafers for
high for centrifugal design and thus applications require desired chemical composition.
reciprocating designs are used. Manufacturing of integrated cir-
centrifugal or axial flow cuits and semiconductors use ultra-
high purity gaseous chemicals for dop-
Hydrocracking machines. i n g etching, epitaxy, and ion
Hydrocracking produces gasoline implantation. Gaseous chemicals such
from heavy feedstocks. In many cas- The original low density polyethyl- as arsine, phosphine, silane or chloros-
es, hydrocracking and cat reforming ene process required gas pressures of lanes, diborane, halocarbons, hydro-
units work in unison. Hydrocracking 200 MPa to 320 M P a Three positive gen selenide, hydrogen sulfide, and sul-
takes place at higher pressures, 6.9 displacement compressors were used fur hexafluoride are used in a mixture
MPa to 13.8 MPa and has a high con- in series to compress ethylene from of diluent gases like argon, helium,
centration of hydrogen with a fixed- 0.5 Pa to 240 M P a The combined nitrogen, and hydrogen.
bed catalyst. Two compressors are power requirements of these three
used for this application: the first is compressors exceeded 7,500 kW.
the recycle compressor which takes The operating pressures of the lin- Hydrogen recovery
hydrogen-rich gas from the separator ear linear low density process have Even though the cost of hydrogen
and recycles that gas to the process been reduced to 1 to 2.1 MPa, howev- is relatively low, hydrogen is recov-
front end where it mixes with the liq- er, compression equipment is ered for safety reasons. The hydrogen
uid feedstock, and the second is the required to keep the gas circulating in vapor from liquid storage tanks is
make-up compressor which adds the reactor and fluidize the polymer recovered by a compressor rather than
hydrogen to the process after the sep- particles. venting it to the atmasphere. This
aration and before the recycle com- Some specialized co-polymers still reduces the possibilities of auto-igni-
pressor. The recycle compressor is use pressures of 200 to 320 MPa. The tion, a situation that could occur when

28 . FEBRUARY 1993 . CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRESS

vapor is vented by a relief
device.
High-pressure piston com-
pressors use packing vents to
dispose of effluent leaks. 100

Small compressors recover,

recompress, and inject the gas
into the process stream.
10

Reactor gas feeds

Hydrogen. Hydrogen is
required for full or partial
1
hydrogenation of fats and oils
by converting unsaturated
radicals of fatty glycerides to
highly or completely saturat-
ed glycerides, pharmaceutical 0.1
intermediates, and final prod-
ucts. Compressors are used Inlet Flow, Actual m³ /hour
for initial hydrogen feed and
Figure 1, Range of CPI Compressors
recycle of hydrogen in the
process. , Pulsation Dampener , Intercooler
Hydrogen from either gas plants or
tube trailers is boosted by positive
displacement piston and diaphragm
compressors to the reaction feed pres-
sures required.
Carbon dioxide is a solvent at
supercritical conditions. High purity
carbon dioxide is compressed to the
critical pressure conditions and is
then recycled after separation.
Nitrogen is sparged into reactors to
reduce dissolved oxygen, blankets
sensitize compounds against oxida-
tion and contamination, and purges
process reactors and piping systems at inder
shutdown and startup. Crankcase (Frame)

Refrigerant gases such as chloro- n Figure 2. Piston design.

difluoromethane are fed to reactors for
manufacture of fluoropolymers such as required by the plant. These com- from storage tanks or tank cars.
polytetralluoroethylene (PTFE) . pressors are sized to meet peak Typically, bone dry nitrogen is intro-
demands for the gas (gases) and are duced under pressure to induce flow.
frequently specified with a standby Chlorine tank cars frequently use
Gas separation unit of 50 or 100% capacity. this method during cold weather and
Cryogenic separation of atmospher- Membrane separation can produce the importance of using an oil-free,
ic gases results in the highest purity higher purity gas streams and are used nonlubricated compressor is appar-
levels in comparison to membrane sep- in upgrading hydrocarbon gases. ent. Hydrocarbons from lubricants
aration or Pressure Swing Adsorption Processing pressure drops may could carryover and react with the
(PSA). If the final product can tolerate require the treated gas to be com- chlorine, while water vapor (150
lower gas purity levels, PSA produc- pressed for recycle. In most cases cen- ppm or more) would cause a highly
tion of nitrogen and oxygen can result trifugal compressors are applicable corrosive condition.
in cost reductions of 20-60%. because of the low compression ratio. Nitrogen also acts as a blanketing
Conventional air compressors feed gas to prevent fire or explosion condi-
the PSA unit. Depending on the pres- tions and creates an oxygen free envi-
sure requirements, reciprocating pis- Nitrogen boosting ronment to enhance long-term storage,
ton compressor can be installed to Under certain conditions, nitrogen especially for perishable products.
boost the PSA outlet pressure to that is required to maintain flow of liquid Nitrogen is used to balance pres-

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRESS . FEBRUARY 1993 . 29

 AIR AND GAS FLOW

First Stage
/ Diaphragm Cylinder
sures in high-speed mechanical seals
to prevent leakage of gas to the envi-
ronment. The system also permits
monitoring of seal performance by
pressure decay in the seal. Small, pos-
itive displacement, reciprocating Second Stage
compressors are used to pressurize
the seal and maintain purge flow.

Compressor types
Compressor selection is based on
the process operating variables and
how those variables fit the design
ranges of the types of available com-
Drive Motor )t Baseplate Crankcase (Frame)
pressors. Figure 1 illustrates the range
of compressors used in the CPI. n Figure 3. Diaphragm design.
Positive displacement piston
compressors are normally selected Inlet Pulsation
Dampener
for applications where the inlet flow
rate is no greater that 6,800 m³/h.
Design discharge pressures can
range from 0.5 MPa to 380 MPa. The
latter for small displacement
machines assure low density poly-
ethylene process. Diaphragm com-
pressors, a specialized version of
positive displacement piston com-
pressors, are limited to single cylin-
der inlet flows up to 204 m³/h.
Centrifugal compressors range from \ Last Stage Crankcase (Frame) \
inlet flows of 850 m³/h to 340,000 m³/h Diaphragm Cylinder 1
Baseplate First Stage _I Second Stage
with case pressures to 70 MPa for small Piston Cylinder Piston Cylinder
centrifugal units and considerably low-
er pressure for large units, and axial n Figure 4. Hybrid design.
flow compressors range from 34,000
m³/h to 1,020,000 m³/h with case pres- Suction Valve Pockets
Crosshead Packing Case w/Valves
sures generally limited to 1 to 2 MPa
\ I / I
for all sizes.

Engineering considerations
and economics
For the higher flow rate applica-
tions, the process engineer has few
alternatives, with selections being lim-
ited to either centrifugal or axial flow Crankcase Compression Cylinder
machines. However, in the lower flow
range, several choices are available: n Figure 5. A simplification of compressor crankcase elements.
positive displacement piston and
diaphragm compressors, or hybrid crankcase that converts rotary motion fied diagram of these elements is
machines that combine piston and to linear motion: a crosshead for guid- shown in Figure 5.
diaphragm cylinders on one crankcase. ing the motion of the piston, a piston Air compressors should not be
General arrangements of these com- fitted with seal rings, a cylinder in considered as process gas compres-
pressors are shown by Figures 2 which gas compression takes place, sors. There are significant design dif-
through 4. and one or more suction valves and ferences inherent in the air compres-
one or more discharge valves that reg- sors and the improper use of an air
Piston compressors ulate the flow of gas into and out of compressor in a process gas applica-
All piston compressors have a the compression cylinder. A simpli- tion could have severe consequences,

30 . FEBRUARY 1993 l CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRESS

 such as excessive leakage, fire, or Packing Rings Vent to Flare
explosion. For example, the air com- Distance I .
Cylinder
pressor piston is sealed from the
crankcase by piston rings, usually of
cast iron. Since gas can leak into the
crankcase, the simple air compressor
should be limited to air or nitrogen
even if the crankcase is pressurized.
Process-gas piston compressors
are designed with a distance piece to
eliminate gas leakage into the atmos-
phere and crankcase. The piston is
mounted on a piston rod which is con-
nected to a crosshead. The piston rod
is relatively small in diameter, and
therefore can be sealed within a pack-
ing case with one or more sets of
packing. Figure 6 illustrates a typical
packing case. Special purged packing ’ Purge Connection
cases and distances pieces are fitted n Figure 6. A typical packing case.
on these compressors to further mini-
mize gas leakage. the gas being compressed. Types of late them from the crankcase thus pre-
In the lubricated process-gas com- service for nonlubricated compressors venting oil carryover. The cylinders
pressor fluid is injected into the com- include oxygen compression, food pro- may be mounted horizontally, vertical-
pression cylinder to provide lubrica- cessing, container manufacturing, ly, at an angle, or in combinations of
tion for the piston rings and the breweries, chemical, and specialty gas these on multistage, multithrow
compressor valves. Packing is both plants where oil contamination of the crankcases. Nonlubricated cylinders
lubricated and cooled by injecting the end product cannot be tolerated. are normally limited to pressures of 25
same lubricant into the packing set(s). Nonlubricated reciprocating compres- to 41 MPa. A typical non-lubricated
The lubrication is provided by either a sors vary in design, but fundamentally piston cylinder is shown in Figure 7.
separate, crankshaft driven lubrica- the piston is driven through a crosshead For the successful operation of non-
tion pump, or an auxiliary motor dri- from the crankshaft. The piston rod is lubricated piston compressors, non-
ven lubricator. sealed by a stuffing box with packing metallic piston rings are required.
Nonlubricated compressor opera- rings. The compression cylinders are Materials such as PTFE with fillers
tion prevents the entrainment of oil in mounted to distance pieces which iso- have proved to be the most efficient.

Valve Flange Suction Valve Discharge Valve

Cylinder &Retainer & Retainer
I / Valve Hold-down suction Va’ve

Gas Plate
Contour
Diaphragm Group

O-Ring Seals
Head Integrity O-Ring
Head Integrity
Detection Port

Piston Seals

Piston Crankcase
Rider (Guide) Ri& Piston Ring Discharge Valve

Figure 7. A typical lubricated piston cylinder. nFigure 8. Motion of the displacing element causes the
diaphragm to move into the compression chamber to
reduce volume and thereby increase gas pressure.

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRESS . FEBRUARY 1993 . 31

 AIR AND GAS FLOW

Head Integrity
Detection O-Ring , Gas Plate
Not only are the wear rates been developed by the EPA for all
extremely low on the rings made Process equipment, including compres-
O-Ring
of these materials, but cylinder sors. For compressor seals, the
Diaphragm
wear is also reduced. It is vital Group
emission factor is 0.228 kg/h/s
that these materials be uniform ource.e Using standard design and
throughout the entire cross sec- Hydraulic construction methods, leak rates
tion so that wear rates and sealing O-Ring from a diaphragm compressor are
properties are continuous for the Head Integrity Detection Port Oil Plate in the order of 1 x 10-7 standard
life of the ring. cc/s. When extremely low leak
Another type of oil-free piston n Figure 9. Typical leak detection arrangement for a rates are required, in the order of 1
compressor is one in which a diaphragm compressor. x 10e8 standard cc/s or less, the
labyrinth profile is used. diaphragm can be sealed by metal-
Normally, the leakage volume lic “0” rings or it can be seal-
past the labyrinth does not exceed welded to the gas head.
5% of the rated displacement. A In the event the integrity of the
two-compartment distance piece diaphragm or seal is breached,
for oil wiping and for holding pis- effluent process gas is retained in
ton alignment is required. the head assembly detection sys-
tem. With a relatively inexpensive
monitoring system, an anomaly
Diaphragm compressors can be detected and corrected
Piston compressors and before there is a discharge to the
diaphragm compressors share atmosphere. Figure 9 illustrates a
many of the same components: typical arrangement for diaphragm
a crankcase, crankshaft, con- compressors and Figure 10 illus-
necting rod(s), and piston. trates a monitoring system
The main difference between
piston and diaphragm compres-
sors is how the gas is com- Vent to Flare
Hybrid compressors
pressed. Unlike other types of Hybrid compressors are
reciprocating piston compres- Vent to Flare unique since they combine nonlu-
sors in which the primary dis- nFigure 10. Typical leakage monitoring system. bricated piston technology with
placing element, a piston, con- diaphragm technology on one
tacts the gas, the metal diaphragm reciprocating frame (crankcase).
compressor completely isolates the ture diaphragm failure is minimal. As These compressors find application
gas from the displacing element dur- a result, this equipment has become when inlet pressures are low, the gas
ing the entire work cycle. The motion widely accepted for all types of cont- flow rates are relatively high, and
of the displacing element is transmit- amination-free applications in labora- the gas must be compressed to high
ted to a hydraulic fluid, and the tory, pilot, and plant operations. pressure. Depending on the gas flow
hydraulic fluid transmits its motion to Corrosive gases can be handled in rate, multiple two or three stage
one or more thin, flexible metal discs these compressors because the com- diaphragm compressors, or a five
called “diaphragms.” This motion pression cylinder can be manufac- stage piston compressor may other-
causes the diaphragm to move into the tured from virtually any machinable wise be required. To avoid such a
compression chamber, reducing the material. Certain limitations do apply situation, two or three stages of non-
volume and thereby increasing the and these limitations are related to the lubricated piston cylinders are used
gas pressure. See Figure 8. diaphragm material. Materials of con- with a final stage diaphragm cylin-
Because the diaphragms isolate the struction commonly used for gas con- der. In a single machine, the large
gas from the compressor lubricants, tacting parts include 17-4ph, 17-7ph, capacity of a piston compressor is
the discharged gas is as pure as the 304SS, 316SS, 400SS, 20Cb, nickel, combined with the high pressure
gas entering the compression head. carbon and low alloy steels. Designs and leak-tight performance of a
The gas only contacts clean, dry to handle H2S and conforming to diaphragm cylinder.
metallic surfaces and static elastomer National Association of Corrosion
or metallic seals. With improved Engineers (NACE) MR-01-75 can be
diaphragm materials and contour con- produced. Piston and diaphragm
figurations, reliability of these The benefit of a no-leakage design compressor efficiency
machines has been demonstrated by is evident and is of greater importance The volumetric efficiency of a
years of service in critical applica- with the advent of the Clean Air Act. positive displacement compressor is
tions. With proper installation and Synthetic Organic Chemical Manufac- the ratio of the gas handled to the
maintenance, the likelihood of prema turing Industry (SOCMI) factors have compressor displacement including

32 l FEBRUARY 1993 . CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRESS

gas compressibility. Several factors
influence volumetric efficiency:
• compression ratio;
• compressibility factors of the gas
at suction and discharge conditions;
• cylinder clearance volume;
• valve action (losses);
• piston ring leakage (piston com-
pressors);
• adiabatic or polytropic exponent;
and
• water vapor.
Compressor manufacturers can
control clearance volume, valve
action (losses), piston ring leakage,
and the compression ratio (by multi-
staging). Of great concern to the com-
pressor manufacturer is the control of Figure 11. Compressor efficiency (valve design effect).
clearance volumes at high-compres-
sion ratios and when gases have a low designer may concentrate on the clear- Volumetic efficiency increases
specific heat ratio. ance volume reduction to improve vol- with a decrease in clearance volume
Piston compressor clearance vol- umetric efficiency and valve losses and a decrease in compression ratio.
umes can range from 7% to 22% with could be high, thus affecting compres- While the other factors do influence
fixed valve pockets; diaphragm com- sion efficiency. A decrease in com- volumetric efficiency, clearance vol-
pressors are normally designed with pression efficiency leads to increased ume has the most pronounced effect.
clearance volumes between 4% and power requirements. In the end, a compromise position
7% depending on the size of the Compression efficiency (valve must be taken to balance volumetric
diaphragm cylinder. For pressure appli- design effect) is also illustrated in and compression efficiency. In gener-
cations to 300 MPa diaphragm com- Figure 11. The pressure increases al, the design compromises are relat-
pressor clearance volumes may be as along curve ABC, and when the ed to compression ratio. For high
high as 10% to 12%, due to practical cylinder pressure exceeds the line dis- compression ratios (6 to 15), clear-
manufacturing tolerance limits, partic- charge pressure P2 at point B, system ance volume is the principal factor
ularly in the valve pocket area. energy unseats the discharge valve. and valves are secondary. For the
The effect of clearance volume is Pressure spikes to point C, and the gas intermediate compression ratios (3 to
illustrated in Figure 11. Clearance is released into the discharge piping. 6), clearance volume and valve
volumes of 5%, 10%, and 15% are The discharge event is a series of design should be balanced. For low
given for illustrative purposes. The pressure waves that will degenerate compression ratios (less than 3),
5% compression slope ABC will until the piston reaches the end of its valve design is primary.
attain P2 quicker than the compres- stroke at point D. From top dead cen- For a given operating condition
sion slopes of 10%. Likewise, upon ter, unexpelled gas pushes on the pis- where either a piston or diaphragm
re-expansion at the end of the com- ton and expands along curve DEF. compressor can be considered,
pression stroke DEF, the slope is Slightly below point E at P1, the pres- diaphragm compressors will have a
steeper and therefore allows the gas to sure is further reduced to point F. higher volumetric efficiency since
enter the cylinder sooner during the Here a sufficient differential pressure clearance volumes are less and ring
suction cycle. exists to unseat the suction valve. Gas leakage is not a factor. This will also
Compression efficiency is con- is drawn in by the piston for the permit compression ratios of 15: 1
trolled by the valves and valve pocket remainder of the stroke until the pis- across one cylinder. Most piston com-
design. For example, the compressor ton reaches bottom dead center. pressors limit compression ratios to
5: 1 or less in nonlubricated designs
due to the inherent problem of heat
Table 1. Relative Cost Factors. removal and the effect of high tem-
peratures on piston rings.
Installed Power Lubricated Nonlubricated Diaphragm Isothermal efficiency is usually
higher in the diaphragm compressor.
to 30 kW 1.0 1.3 1.5 This is due in part to the large, flat sur-
31 to 50 kW 1.0 1.3 1.9 face area of the cylinder, the proximi-
51 to 100 kW 1.0 1.4 1.7 ty of the cooling passages to the com-
101 to 200 kW 1.0 1.4 1.6 pressor valves, and the recirculation
of the hydraulic fluid on the back side

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRESS . FEBRUARY 1993 33

 AIR AND GAS FLOW

Table 2. Typical selection guidelines. provide low temperature impact

strength and thus avoid brittle failure
Process and Operating Requirements Compressor Type
of critical component\.
Liners are recommended for cylin-
Contamination during compression Lube or NL piston ders since they can be replaced easily
Limited contamination during compression NL piston or diaphragm in comparison to complete cylinder.
Medium corrosive gas All Two types are used--a wet liner or a
Highly corrosive gas Diaphragm dry liner. Wet liners form the inside
Hazardous gas (toxic, flammable) Oiaphragm or NL piston pressure boundary of the cylinder and
Leaktight Diaphragm also the inside of the water cooling
Low suction pressure, low compression ratio Lube or NL piston jacket. Because it is a pressure bound-
Low suction pressure, high compression ratio Hybrid
ary, the liner wall must be designed to
High discharge pressure (to 25 MPa) NL piston or diaphragm
High discharge pressure (> 25 MPa) Lube piston or diaphragm
withstand the internal gas pressure
and the external cooling water pres-
sure. The liners arc either pressed or
of the diaphragm group. However, machines combine the high flow of shrunk into place. Dry liners are not
isothermal efficiency of any positive the nonlubricated piston compressor pressure boundaries. They arc thinner
displacement compressor is less than with the leaktight, high-pressure in section and are pressed into the
a dynamic compressor. Hence, a capabilities of diaphragm compres- cylinder. Liner materials include
comparison of isothermal efficiency sors. The benefit to the engineer is steel, stainless steel. nodular iron or
between compressor types is a false that the total package is on one com- gray iron. The liner material selection
comparison. Overall efficiency. volu- pressor and driver, not multiple com- should be reviewed with the manufac-
metric and compression will normal- pressors and drivers. A limitation of turer since there may be limitations
ly favor diaphragm types. such equipment is the diaphragm relating to pressure and piston ring
cylinder operating speed which must combinations.
be in the range of 400 to 450 rpm. Table 4 lists typical materials of
Engineering economics construction for diaphragm compres-
For comparison purposes, capital sor cylinders.
cost factors for lubricated, non-lubri- Process and Diaphragm compressor gas plates
cated and diaphragm compressors arc equipment considerations can be produced from any machinable
given in Table 1. These values are rel- Process c o n t a c t i n g materials of material. Some limitations do apply
ative and are based on manufacturers’ construction. Table 3 lists typical because of the special requirements
standard materials of construction materials of construction for lubricat- placed on diaphragm material by the
and exclude drivers. ed and non-lubricated piston com- compressor manufacturers. Certain
Performance cost factors are usu- pressor cylinders. alloys are not readily available. or are
ally based on such ratios as cost/kW, For temperatures of -25ºC to available only with a tremendous cost
cost/m³/h, and cost/Nm³/h. Whatever -200ºC, type 304SS low carbon, impact. Such materials include high
measurement is used, the piston com- alloyed cast iron, or nickel alloy steel nickel alloys, and so forth.
pressor has the most favorable ratio should be used. These materials will The diaphragm compressor cylin-
within the context of its application.
However, relative cost factors should
not be the sole criteria for compressor Table 3. Typical piston compressor materials of construction.
selection assuming that any of the
types discussed have the pressure and Component Material Remarks
displacement capabilities. Process or
environmental constraints can raise Cylinders and Heads Gray Iron Pressures to 10 MPa
the cost factors of lubricated piston Ductile Cast Iron (DCI) Pressure to 16 MPa
Steel Pressure to 400 MPa
compressors above other types.
Stainless Steel Pressure to 25 MPa
Cleanup and disposal equipment and
monitoring instruments for hazardous Piston Aluminum Large cylinders, low inertia
gases will rapidly escalate the ratios. Cast Iron, Steel High pressures, chlorides
This points out the need to match Stainless Steel Corrosive conditions
application. In Table 2, some typical
selection guidelines are given. Liners Gray Iron, DCI Most common
Applications requiring compres- Ni-resist Low temperature, corrosion
sion equipment to boost pressure in Stainless Steel Corrosive conditions
the range of 101 kPa to 21 MPa and as
Packing PTFE-Fitted Pressures to 28 MPa
high as 40 MPa should consider the
Metal Pressures > 28 MPa
use of hybrid compressors. These

34 . FEBRUARY 1993 . CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRESS

Table 4. Typical diaphragm compressor Table 5. Typical compressor valve materials
process materials of construction. of construction.
Component Material Remarks Component Material Remarks

Gas Plate Carbon Steel Pressure to 63 MPa Valve Seat/Guards Steel Standard, medium pressure
‘Low Alloy Steel Pressure to 200 MPa 400 ss Standard, all pressures
304 SS, 316 SS Pressure to 63 MPa 17-4 PH Optional, corrosion resistance
17-4 PH, A296 Pressure to 200 M Pa
High Nickel Alloys Pressure to 63 MPa Valve Discs 400 ss Standard
20C b-3 Pressure to 63 MPa 17-4 PH/17-7 PH Corrosion resistant
316 SS Corrosion resistant
Diaphragms 301 SS, 316 SS Standard for most service Plastics Corrosion resistant/valve action
Ni-Cu alloy Oxidizer service
Springs 17-7 PH Standard
Nickel superalloy Corrosion resistant
der can be designed for structural tem- 302 SS, 316 SS Corrosion resistant
peratures from -150°C to 317°C.
Special construction methods and
hydraulic fluids with acceptable vis- For constant speed compressors, method is the progressive capacity
cosity at these temperature extremes several methods can be used to control control. The action of the suction
are required for successful operation of capacity. They are suction control, valve is delayed and the compression
the compressor at low or high tempera- bypass control, and suction valve clear- diagram is altered. This permits
tures. Occasionally, the diaphragm ance control. All of these methods can capacity fine tuning from 40% to
cylinder is located off the crankcase be applied to piston compressors. 100%. No-load power is 15% to 20%
with an extended distance piece and Diaphragm compressors are limited to of the full-load power
piston rod so that the temperature suction control and bypass control. Clearance control can be either
extremes do not affect the reciprocating Suction control limits the gas pres- fixed or variable, the latter preferred
frame. Separate hydraulic systems, one sure at the suction valve. Because pis- for line control. This control method
for frame lubrication and the other for ton and diaphragm compressors are permits the capacity to vary by chang-
diaphragm pulsing can be employed. positive displacement, the inlet flow ing clearance volumes which, in turn,
Valves are common to all recipro- varies directly with the suction pressure affects the volumetric efficiency. Like
cating compressors. Table 5 lists typi- and provides an infinite number of steps suction valve unloading, it is efficient
cal materials of construction for com- between fully opened and fully closed. and results in power savings almost
pressor valves. For example, a 10% decrease in suction proportional to the capacity with no-
Certain gases or gas mixtures are pressure will result in a minimum flow load and full-load power.
corrosive, flammable, or explosive, decrease of 10% since both the gas den- Power savings can be realized by
When pressures and temperatures are sity and the volumetric efficiency are using variable-speed control.
increased, or when water vapor is pre- decreased. Some power savings can be Capacity and power vary linearly
sent, the gas can be more difficult to expected, but compression ratios and with speed. A speed decrease of 10%
handle. Process contacting materials discharge temperatures will be higher will result in a power decrease of
of construction should be specified by affecting compressor performance. 10%. However, variable-speed drives
the user because the user is most Bypass control (capacity bypass) have a high initial cost and they must
familiar with the process. However, requires additional external piping, a be carefully sized to meet the torque
the experience of the compressor control valve, and instrumentation. requirements of the compressor
manufacturer permits solutions to be This provides an infinite number of which generally limits the practical
offered, including material of con- steps, but the compressor operates at turndown to 50% to 80%.
struction choices, In Table 6, guide- full discharge pressure and capacity all
lines are given for some of the com- the time. Compressed gas is recycled
mon gases used in the CPI. back to suction but it must be cooled to Multistage compressors
the normal suction pressure or else Multistage compressors are select-
higher discharge temperatures will ed when the single stage compressor
Energy use result. Power savings are non-existent. design limitations are reached.
In today’s energy conscious envi- Suction valve unloading controls Generally, these limitations are:
ronment, users require the correct capacity by maintaining one or more compression ratio (clearance
l

solution for gas compression applica- suction check valves in a partially or volume);
tions. Energy costs can amount to fully opened position. This is a step pressure differential;
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80% of a compressor’s operating cost. control and capacities of 0%, 25%, discharge temperature; and
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It is important to use only the energy 50%, 75%, a n d 1 0 0 % c a n b e power savings.

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required for the process. achieved. A variation of this control Practical, maximum single-stage

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRESS . FEBRUARY 1993 . 35

 AIR AND GAS FLOW

E.H. Livingston is President and CEO of Howden Table 6. Material and construction guidelines
Compressors Incorporated, Langhorne, PA 19047
Tel: 215/702-7777, Fax: 215/702-7787
Gas Type Remarks
His responsibiIities include
management of overall operations, Acetylene Explosive Temperature limit, 55 C, low gas
application and design engineering of pis- velocity, no copper/copper alloys
ton and diaphragm type reciprocating com-
pressors he has spent 30 years associated Ammonia Corrosive No copper/copper alloys
with chemical processing equipment, such
as compressors, pumps, and high pressure Carbon Dioxide Corrosive Corrosive when wet, use 316 SS
vessels and piping. The author of several
articles on diaphragm compressors and Carbon Monoxide Toxic Temperature limit 150ºC, carbon
high pressure equipment, Mr. Livingston steel or low nickel alloys
has also lectured in courses on compres-
sors and high pressure equipment for Chlorine Toxic Temperature limit 125ºC,
applications in the chemical and petro- no hydrocarbon greases/oils
chemical industries. He received his engi- corrosive when wet
neering degree in chemical engineering
from Drexel University. He is an active Chlorofluorocarbons Environmental Temperature limit 110ºC, leaktight
member of AIChE, American Society for hazard construction
Testing and Materials (ASTM), ASM
International, and National Association of Fluorine Corrosive Fluorinated hydraulic fluids, 316 SS
Corrosion Engineers (NACE). or high nickel alloys, degrease all
components

Hydrogen Explosive Leaktight construction, potential

compression ratios for piston embrittlement above 30 MPa
diaphragm compressors are 5: 1, and
for diaphragm compressors 8: 1 to Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosive Leaktightness, toxic gas, material
10: 1. These limitations are based on hardness limitations, 21 Rc per
the clearance volumes and the heat NACE publications
characteristics of each compressor
Oxygen Flammable Fluorinated hydraulic fluids, 316 SS
type. or high nickel alloys, degrease all
High-pressure differentials can components, low gas velocity, limit
create higher loads (stresses) on the . compression ratios
mechanical parts of the compressor.
In most cases, this can be solved by Vinyl Chloride Flammable Temperature limit 90ºC, will
multistaging. polymerize or liquify
High discharge temperatures are to
be avoided to prevent the deteriora-
tion of piston rings, packing, and
cylinders. Gas discharge temperatures pressor manufacturers to develop the 4. Can lubrication be tolerated dur-
should be limited to 200°C. complete gas handling system for a ing compression and if so, must
Diaphragm compressors can tolerate particular process. Still, the process lubricants be removed from the gas?
higher gas discharge temperatures engineer must evaluate and select the 5. Can leakage be tolerated?
because of the limited use of non- type of compression equipment to be 6. Can neither lubrication or leak-
metallics and a higher rate of heat used. During this phase of the pro- age be tolerated?
rejection. ject, several important points must be 7. Is there an actual or potential
Power savings from multistaging considered: corrosion problem?
can range from 5% to 25% depend- 1. Are the process conditions accu- 8. Can the manufacturer service
ing on the number of stages. Actual rately stated and are there any contin- the equipment?
savings will be a function of the gencies relating to flow rate and pres- The responses to these questions
compressor load factor and com- sure identified? are very important and they will help
pressor size. 2. Will the process be scaled-up in in the selection process. If there are
the future and, if so, should the com- questions relating to the type of com-
pressor specifications reflect immedi- pressor, controls, process changes,
In conclusion ate needs, future needs or both? and the like, discuss these issues with
The compressor types available to 3. Are standard specifications such a manufacturer or another user. If
the process engineer are many and the as API 618 relevant to the type of these steps are not taken, the engineer
proper selection can be quite difficult. equipment to be specified? Should a is faced with difficult equipment and
More users are relying on the corn stand-alone specification be written? cost comparisons. CEP

36 l FEBRUARY 1993 . CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRESS