Master Thesis KUL

FACULTEIT LETTEREN
TAAL- EN REGIOSTUDIES
KATHOLIEKE
UNIVERSITEIT
LEUVEN
THE CREATION OF THE MYTH OF ‘TRADITIONAL JAPANESE’ KARATE UNDER

THE PRESSURE OF PREWAR NATIONALISM
Promotor : Dr. Michael Schiltz Verhandeling aangeboden tot het verkrijgen van de graad
van licentiaat in de Japanologie door :
Filip Swennen
- academiejaar 2005-2006 -
"German sport has only one task: to strengthen the character of the German people,
imbuing it with the fighting spirit and steadfast camaraderie necessary in the struggle for
its existence."
Joseph Goebbels, Minister of Propaganda, April 23, 1933

Acknowledgements
This is the one page where the author can freely state his personal opinions and feelings
without referring to everything and anything. Taking that chance, I want to thank a lot of
people for supporting me. So first of all, I want to thank the reader for picking up the
book and reading so far. The reader completes the long journey of the writer.
On the top of the list, I would like to thank my promoter Michael Schiltz. Thanks to him,
this work became what it is. His weekly feed-backs and sharp remarks gave me the right
direction. My new “way” of writing developed due to his efforts and will be valuable for
the rest of my life. Sakurai Naoko sensei receives my gratitude for polishing my
Japanese language skills and helping with the Japanese part of this thesis.
Furthermore I want to express my thanks to Professor Willy Vande Walle and Professor
Dimitri Vanoverbeke for giving me not once, but twice the chance to experience student
life abroad. The stay in Osaka and Venice are fantastic life memories. Hereby I want to
show my appreciation for the support of Ingeborg Verplancke, Gretl Van Ourti and
Takeyama Ena in difficult times and for their dedication for teaching me Japanese from
scratch. I can assure the reader they were very patient. Véronique Preuveneers deserves
to be listed here too for her helping smile every time I had paper work troubles.
I owe my parents… Without their moral and financial support: no studies, no
international experiences, no nothing could have been accomplished without both of them
by my side. さやかは 2002 年から、私にとってとても大事な人だ。彼女のおかげ
でたくさんいい経験があって、日本のことと自分のことがいろいろ分かってきた。
日本の両親、鈴木道春と洋子、いろいろとありがとう。
This thesis could not have been written without the advice of certain individuals who
thoroughly know the Japanese martial arts: My thanks to Jos Robert of Ronin Leuven, for
introducing me to the world of karate and giving me access to his precious library at my
own risk. (If I would have damaged one book, I wouldn’t be here anymore.) Freddy
Laseure, Jan Vleugels and Hatano sensei gave me good ideas while work was in progress.
Alberto Boffelli, grazie per tutto.
I
When the tough gets going, friends back you up. Thanks to: Costas for the speedy
English check, Samu for rebooting me when my brain was jammed, historical inspiration
by Nicolas and Pieter, and all the others who make life interesting: Janis, Karo, Karen,
Nico, Johan and Ellen, Steven and Bes, Vinni, Alexis, Driesje, Tim, Glendal, 寛明, Julie,
Bas and Kiki, Marie, Marcia, Merlijn, Nabil, Niel, Nuria, Rosti, Stefan and Woutte. Last
but not least, I have to thank the other stoogies of the “japanoloogjes united” for shared
memories: Anthony, Wouter and Dominique.
Enjoy the reading.
Filip Swennen
21st of May 2006
II
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements I
Table of Contents III
Table of Contents (Japanese) V

Abstract (Japanese) VIII
Summary (Japanese) X
Introduction 1
Chapter 1: Sport and nationalism, a literature study 3

1.1. Sport and politics 3
1.2. Sport and governmental education 4
1.3. Sport and identity 5
1.4. Sport and nationalism 6
1.5. The Nazi Olympics: sport and militarism 7
1.6. Sport and nationalism in Japan 8
1.6.1. Būdō and identity 9
1.6.2. Ideologizing būdō 12
1.7. Conclusion 13
Chapter 2: Japan, the powerful aggressor 14

2.1. The Meiji period (1868-1912) 14
2.1.1. The Meiji Restoration of 1868 14
2.1.2. The Sino-Japanese War: 1894-1895 16
2.1.3. The Russo-Japanese War: 1904-1905 17
2.2. The Taishō period (1912-1926) 18
2.2.1. World War I 18
2.3. The Shōwa period (1926-1989) 19
2.3.1. Manchuria incident 19
2.3.2. War against China 21
2.3.3. World War II 22
2.4. Conclusion 24
Chapter 3: Some roots of nationalism 25

3.1. The Emperor 26
3.1.1. The Emperor through history 26
3.1.2. The cult of the Emperor 27
3.1.3. The Meiji Constitution: the Emperor became legally a god 27
3.1.4. Japan’s mission 29
3.2. Education 30
3.2.1. Iwakura mission 30
3.2.2. School system 31
III
3.2.3. Textbooks: a tool for nationalism 34
3.3. Bushidō and Budō: the heritage of the samurai 36
3.4. The Dai Nippon Butoku-kai: the center of Japanese Budō 38
3.4.1. The Dai Nippon Butoku-kai’s link with the Emperor 38
3.4.2. Contribution for war 39
3.4.3. After World War II 40
3.5. Conclusion 41
Chapter 4: Okinawa, a dwarf between giants 43

4.1. The Ryūkyū 44
4.1.1. Common roots with Japan 45
4.1.2. Contact with China 45
4.1.2.1 The three kingdoms 45
4.1.2.2. Kumemura: the Chinese village 46
4.1.2.3. The Ryūkyū kingdom 46
4.1.2.3.1. An ‘armless’ nation 47
4.1.2.3.2. Satsuma’s invasion 48
4.1.2.3.3. Two bosses, China and Japan 49
4.2. Okinawa 49
4.2.1. From a kingdom to a province 50
4.2.1.1. From kingdom to han 50
4.2.1.2. The Taiwan expedition of 1874: scaring away China 51
4.2.1.3. From han to a province 52
4.2.2. The historical importance of the Ryūkyū shobun 53
4.3. The ”Japanization” of Okinawa 54
4.3.1. Education and the Emperor as tools for cultural assimilation 55
4.3.2. Okinawa as a part of the military system 56
4.4. The years of nationalism 57
4.5. Conclusion: karate in the middle of change 58
Chapter 5: The impact of nationalism on karate 60

5.1. Education 62
5.1.1. The Educators 62
5.1.2. Karate modified for school 63
5.2. The link with ultra-nationalism 65
5.2.1. The military’s interest 65
5.2.2. The Dai Nippon Butoku-kai’s interest aroused 66
5.3. The Dai Nippon Butoku-kai’s impact on karate 67
5.3.1. From “Chinese hand” to “the way of the empty hand” 67
5.3.2. Karate shaped according to Jūdō 68
5.3.2.1. The belt system 69
5.3.2.2. The uniform 70
5.3.2.3. Competition 70
5.4. Conclusion 71
General conclusion 73
List of References 76
IV
「目次」
謝辞 I
目次 III
目次(
目次(日本語)
日本語) V
要旨(
要旨(日本語)
日本語) VIII
各章抄訳(
各章抄訳(日本語)
日本語) X
序文 1
第一章：スポーツと愛国心、文学の研究 3
1.1.スポーツと政治 3
1.2.スポーツと政府の教育 4
1.3.スポーツとアイデンティティ 5
1.4.スポーツと愛国心 6
1.5.ナチズムのオリンピック：スポーツと軍隊主義 7
1.6.スポーツと日本の愛国心 8
1.6.1.武道とアイデンティティ
1.6.2.武道のイデオロギー化
1.7.結論 13
第二章：日本、強い侵略国 14
2.1.明治時代（1886－1912） 14
2.1.1.明治維新（1868） 14
2.1.2.日中戦争：1894－1895 16
2.1.3.ロシアと日本の戦争：1904－1905 17
2.2.大正時代（1912－1926） 18
2.2.1.第一次世界大戦 18
2.3.昭和時代（1926－1989） 19
2.3.1.満州事変 19
2.3.2.中国と戦争 21
2.3.3.第二次世界大戦 22
2.4.結論 24
第三章：愛国主義の基本 25
3.1.天皇 26
3.1.1.天皇と歴史 26
3.1.2.天皇崇拝 27
3.1.3.明治憲法：天皇は法律で神になる 27
V
3.1.4.日本の使命 29
3.2.教育 30
3.2.1.岩倉使命 30
3.2.2.教育制度 31
3.2.3.教科書：愛国心の手段 34
3.3.武士道と武道：侍の遺産 36
3.4.大日本武徳会：日本武道の中心 38
3.4.1. 大日本武徳会と天皇の関係 38
3.4.2.戦争のため寄与 39
3.4.3.第二次世界大戦後 40
3.5.結論 41
第四章：沖縄、巨人の間にいる小人 43
4.1.琉球 44
4.1.1.日本と共通のルーツ 45
4.1.2.中国と関係 45
4.1.2.1.三王国 45
4.1.2.2.久米村：中国人村 46
4.1.2.3.琉球王国 46
4.1.2.3.1.武器を持たない国 47
4.1.2.3.2.薩摩の侵攻 48
4.1.2.3.3.二大強国、中国と日本 49
4.2.沖縄 49
4.2.1.王国から県まで 50
4.2.1.1.王国から藩まで 50
4.2.1.2.台湾事件（1874）：中国を威嚇 51
4.2.1.3.藩から県まで。 52
4.2.2.琉球処分の歴史的重要性 53
4.3.沖縄の“日本化” 54
4.3.1.教育と天皇は文化同化の道具 55
4.3.2.軍隊制度の一部分としての沖縄 56
4.4.愛国主義の時代 57
4.5.結論：時代の変化の中心にあった空手 58
第五章：空手に愛国心の影響
第五章：空手に愛国心の影響 60
5.1.教育 62
5.1.1.教育者 62
5.1.2.学校のために空手の変化 63
5.2.超国家主義の関係 65
5.2.1.軍隊の興味 65
5.2.2. 大日本武徳会の興味 66
VI
5.3.空手に大日本武徳会の影響 67
5.3.1.「唐手」から「空手道」まで 67
5.3.2.柔道のように空手の変化 68
5.3.2.1.帯の制度 69
5.3.2.2.胴着 70
5.3.2.3.試合 70
5.4.結論 71
結論 73
参考文献 76
VII
ルーブァン・カトリック大学文学部日本学科卒業論文日本語要旨・抄訳
｢要旨｣
空手の歴史についてはこれまであまり研究がない。沖縄の伝統的な唐手と日本現
代空手は全く違うものだ。沖縄の唐手が本島に紹介されたのは 1920 年代からだ
った。その時代の日本には愛国心と軍国主義のイデオロギーが日常生活に大きな
影響を与えていた。沖縄の唐手は日本本島に輸入されることになり、いろいろ変
化した。その変化はその時代のイデオロギーと関係あるのだろうか。すなわち、
空手の発達に明治時代から第二次世界大戦までの愛国心と軍国主義が影響を与え
たのだろうか。
本稿の目的は、愛国心と軍国主義と空手の変化の関係を明らかにすることである。
社会的および歴史的な点から、日本の軍国主義を見て、空手の変化の理由を考察
する。
先、明治時代から第二次世界大戦まで日本がした戦争を明らかにする。さらに、
どうして日本は第二次世界大戦の最後までほとんど負け知らずだったのかの理由
を探す。すると、理由の中に｢愛国心｣、「軍国主義」、「武士道」、｢武道｣と
｢教育｣があげられる。そしてそれらについて調べ、同時に空手の「武道」におけ
る立場を分析することによって、軍国主義、武道と空手の関係が明らかにする。
以上のことから明治時代から第二次世界大戦までの愛国心と国家主義が武道、と
くに空手に大きな影響を与えたことが明らかになった。この時代のムードの影響
を受けて、武道が教育制度に取り入れられ、軍国主義のために使われた。明治時
代から第二次世界大戦にかけて、日本の原動力は天皇制や教育制度などによって
強くなった。そのころ武道が教育制度に取り入れられた。このようにして、武道
が戦争にむかっていく力となった。
VIII
1920 年ごろ、唐手が沖縄から日本に入って普及した。しかし、その唐手は日本
らしくなかった。唐手は日本の武道のようにならなくてはいけなかった。つまり、
柔道の胴着と帯のシステムなどを利用しなくてはいけなかった。このように、唐
手が日本的になってきた。唐手の記述も空手となった。沖縄の学校のカリキュラ
ムに空手が導入され、このようにして戦争の準備に役立った。結論から言えば、
空手が日本の戦争ムードの影響でさまざまに変化したということである。
IX
「各章抄訳」
空手と愛国主義
序論
この論文は「日本の戦前愛国心と空手はお互いに影響を与えたか？」という問い
に答えを探すものだ。
第一章：スポーツと愛国心、文学の研究
多くの国でスポーツは愛国主義のアイデンティティの一部分となっている。その
ことについてさまざまな研究者が書いている。スポーツと政治、教育、アイデン
ティティ、愛国主義、軍国主義などの関係についての本が多い。ドイツ第三帝国
は愛国主義のおかげで統合し非常に強くなった。スポーツはその愛国主義の一つ
の要素だ。ベルリンの 1936 年のナチスオリンピックはその頂点だった。国民は
スポーツによって強く統合された。日本も同じように国民を統合し、国の力を世
界に見せたいと考えた。日本はその目的のために武道、とくに柔道と剣道を使っ
た。日本も戦前にスポーツを同じように使った可能性があるだろうか？他の国の
ように、日本は戦前にスポーツ、愛国主義と軍隊主義を連結した。輸入されたス
ポーツは日本の風習に合うように変化され、日本の武道のような、日本精神が組
み入れられた。井上俊によると、「武道的に」されたスポーツは国民に日本精神
を教え込み日本の政治に役立った。その日本精神の基本はなんだろうか？それは
日本の文化を愛国主義に混ぜ合わせることである。
第二章：日本、強い侵略国
日本の軍隊も、最初の日中戦争から（1894－1895）第二次世界大戦の中間まで、
どの国も日本の軍隊を止められなかったようだ。明治時代に日本が非常に変化し
た。国際的に弱い国から強い、軍国主義の国になってきた。それから、日本は日
X
中戦争のあと、ロシアと戦争を始めて、勝った。大正時代に日本が第一次世界大
戦に加担した。昭和時代に満州事変があって、日本が中国と戦争をはじめて、第
二次世界大戦に入った。この最後の戦争以外は、日本は全戦争を勝ってきた。日
本がそんなに強かったの理由は何だろうか？
第三章：愛国主義の基本
天皇制と武士道は教育に通じて、愛国主義に提供した重要な要素だ。明治憲法で
天皇が神様になり、天皇制が日本中に広まった。日本の天皇は神様だと信じられ
ていたため、日本は世界で一番重要な国であると考えられていた。そのことが学
校で教えられ、教科書に書かれていた。日本は他の国を助けるのために戦争を始
めたという考えがあった。戦争の準備に武道が大事だった。武道は学校で教えら
れたことを通して、武士道が国民の精神の一部分になってきた。大日本武徳会は
教育、天皇制と武士道を愛国主義に組み入れている武道機関だ。その考えを広め
るため、武道を全部集めるのに従事していた。武道を通して、愛国主義と戦争の
準備に役立っていた。柔道や合気道や弓道などが全て大日本武徳会で教えられた。
武道は日本精神の象徴だった。第二次世界大戦のあと、大日本武徳会が禁止にな
り、武道を練習すること禁止された。
第四章：沖縄、巨人の間にいる小人
愛国精神と唐手との関係はなんだろうか？空手は武道の部分になった。以上述べ
たことから考えると、武道は日本精神の一部分だ。しかし、空手は 1920 年代ご
ろになって初めて沖縄県から日本に輸入された。どうやって唐手が日本の“伝統
的な”ものになったのか？
沖縄は昔琉球王国だった。その王国は 1872 年に日本で廃止され、琉球藩になっ
た。1879 年に日本の沖縄県になる。日本の愛国主義の圧力で、その王国が日本
らしくなりながら、県になってきた。
XI
沖縄では空手は唐手と書かれていた。初めて唐手に興味を持ったのは、戦争の準
備をしている軍隊だった。しかし、当時の唐手はシステムがなかったので取り入
れられなかった。そのころ教育制度は戦争準備の一部分だった。沖縄の唐手の指
導者たちは日本の戦争機構を役に立たせるために唐手を学校に紹介した。そのた
め糸州安恒は秘伝の唐手を学校の生徒に適応するように変化させた。例えば、
「形」はその後教育を目的とし、技も安全に作り直した。沖縄県の教育制度に紹
介されてから、大日本武徳会が唐手に興味を持ち始めた。そのため、唐手は武道
の一部分となるため、日本風に変化した。愛国主義の理由で「唐手」の「唐」は
「空」に変えられた。柔道は愛国心と関係があり、武道のプロトタイプだった。
それで、空手は柔道のように組織された。空手は 1933 年に日本の武道の一部分
になった。愛国主義の圧力により、空手は変化させられた。
結論
愛国主義が空手を日本のものらしくしたと結論づけられる。空手がこうやって日
本の“伝統的な”文化になり、戦前の愛国主義傾向を支えた。
XII
Introduction
When one thinks of Japan, many stereotypes come to mind. One is the image of a strong
Japanese man wearing a white uniform with a black belt, most probably breaking bricks.
Karate is a sport that has spread over the entire world and yet, its image has remained
linked with the country of the ‘rising sun’. Karate, together with jūdō, is commonly
regarded as a Japanese national sport symbol. However, there are few historical books
about karate, a fact that is rather odd when compared to the amount of similar books
written about jūdō and aikidō. Whilst searching for an answer concerning how karate
became a symbol of the Japanese nation, it soon became clear that it can not even be
considered to be wholly Japanese. Is the idea of “Japanese karate” a myth?
According to Mirror of Modernity: Invented Traditions of Modern Japan by Stephen

Vlastos, many of Japan’s oldest traditions are relatively modern when compared to those
of other nations. These modern traditions are often created by those in power to serve
their needs, and so it is interesting to analyze how, and for what reasons these traditions
are produced. One of these “invented” traditions is budō, the martial arts, as a Japanese
national symbol.
How did this evolve? In many works of literature, the relationship between sport and
nationalism can be found. Alas, this connection can be abused for militaristic causes, as
during the Olympics of 1936 in Germany. Japan also developed into a militaristic state
from 1868 up to the Second World War, and like other countries, sport would play a
strong role in strengthening its nationalism. Sport had become a core activity in Japan’s
war machine and the martial arts were used to fulfill that task. The Dai Nippon Butoku-
kai standardized all Japanese martial arts in its nationalistic organization, and jūdō
became the prototype. Karate later became part of the budō, but only in 1933. The
origins of karate can be traced to Okinawa, which was formerly an independent kingdom.
This nation, with its own culture and language, became absorbed by the mighty Japanese
empire in 1879. The newly created province had to quickly adapt under nationalistic
pressure to act as a part of Japanese culture. In turn, karate eventually had to adjust and
1
became “Japanified”. Unfortunately, in the search to “Japanize” the martial art, the roots
of karate were partially erased.
And so, it seems that a non-native cultural product such as karate was appropriated and
presented as something typically Japanese. The world knows karate as a Japanese sport,
but it is far more likely that it is a “Japanified” foreign sport created during a time of
strong militaristic nationalism. If this were true, we could speak of the ‘myth of
traditional Japanese karate’. Nevertheless, before jumping to a single conclusion, many
questions have to be answered. What were the general circumstances in Japan at that
time? What spurred the Japanese in their wars? How does the recently created province
of Okinawa fit within a wider historical context? And finally - how do all the above
factors influence the evolution of karate? Therefore, this work opts to analyze this sport
from a cultural and historical perspective. In providing background information on the
general history, the education system, the structure of organizations in Japan and related
biographies, this thesis attempts to demonstrate and clarify exactly how prewar
nationalism influenced karate.
To formulate the key question: “How did the pressure of prewar nationalism create the
myth of ‘traditional Japanese’ karate?”
2
Chapter 1: Sport and nationalism, a literature study
1.1. Sport and politics
The Olympic Games is the biggest international sports event in the world. The best
athletes of each nation battle for the Olympic gold. The losers will be forgotten, but the
winner is given eternal glory. The athletes symbolize their nation. Victory at the
Olympics becomes therefore a matter of national pride.
The Olympics claim to bring all countries together at the sport level but the political and
nationalistic aspect of the Games can not be ignored. Christopher R. Hill shows in his
book Olympic Politics, how sport has grown into big business and that governments show
a strong interest in sport for political and economical reasons. He analyses how power
and politics are closely entangled in the Olympics.1 Other important authors analyzing
the relationship between sport and politics are Allison Lincoln and Gerald Redmond. The
Politics of Sport by Lincoln highlights the influence of international relations on sport
and vice versa. She describes the politicization of sport in Northern Ireland, South Africa,
Black Africa and the Olympic Games.2 The title of Redmond’s book, Sport and Politics,
explains exactly that. Sport and Politics’ first part deals with the role of the government
in sports in Australia, Canada and the United States. The second part describes how
Imperial governments dealt with sport. The propaganda of athletism in Britain between
1914-1918 and the way German politics dealt with sport and physical culture in the inter-
war period of 1925-1933 are thoroughly described. In the third part, the relationship
between politics and the Olympics is stressed 3 , like in the other two previous books.
Alan Tomlinson and Garry Whannel describe in Five-ring Circus: Money, Power and
Politics at the Olympic Games, how the Olympics became more and more mixed up with
economical and political issues.
1
Christopher R. Hill, Olympic Politics
2
Allison Lincoln, The Politics of Sport
3
Gerald Redmond, Sport and Politics
3
1.2. Sport and governmental education
Victory at the Olympics very much symbolizes the strength of a nation. Thus because of
its political importance, governments want to do whatever it takes to win. Sports used
effectively to strengthen the unity of a nation is the wish of any government. Probably
the most effective way to achieve control over sports is through mass media and
education. As sports are part of a nation’s culture, one should study it if one tries to
understand a nation.
Professor Mangan J.A. is the authority on the relationship between sport, culture,
education and its importance for a nation. He is the founder of the International Journal
of the History of Sport and the Director of the International Research Center for Sport,
Socialization and Society at the Srathclyde University (United Kingdom). He has
published numerous books about sports and its historical and sociological importance.
His Physical Eduation and Sport: Sociological and Cultural Perspectives addresses the
importance of sports and education for a nation.4 In The Games Ethic and Imperialism:
Aspects of the Diffusion of an Ideal, he examines how sports in public schools are of
importance for creating an empire. Ideals, idealism and patriotism are lectured at schools,
laying the foundation for the empire, and through these teachings, the young British
school boys learn the system of the imperial command. Courage and endurance were
part of it but loyalty and obedience were most important.5 This entanglement of sport
and ideology in education is also examined in Athlteticism in the Victorian and
Edwardian Public School: The Emergence and Consolidation of an Educational Ideology.
This ideology can be used for creating an identity, patriotism and imperialism as with the
boys in the Victorian and the Edwardian schools.6
In the works of John Hargreaves, David Kirk, John Evans and Richard Holt, the above
theme has been further elaborated. Sport, Power and Culture: A Social And Historical
Analysis of Popular Sports In Britain by Hargreaves depicts the link of sport, power and
culture. In the third chapter, he highlights the relationship between these elements and
4
J.A. Mangan, Physical Education and Sport: Sociological and Cultural Perspectives
5
J.A. Mangan, The Games Ethic and Imperialism: Aspects of the Diffusion of an Ideal
6
J.A. Mangan, Athlteticism in the Victorian and Edwardian Public School: The Emergence and
Consolidation of an Educational Ideology
4
public schools.7 The creation of docile citizens through sport is studied by David Kirk,
who studies the schools of Britain and Australia between 1880 and 1950 in Schooling
Bodies: School Practice and Public Discourse 1880-1950.8 Evans on the other hand,
focuses more on the relationship between physical education and society. He states that
if society changes, so will physical education and schools.9 Richard Holt, a lecturer in
history at the University of Stirling (United Kingdom), portrays these changes in the case
of France from the end of the nineteenth century up till the Second World War in Sport
and Society in Modern France. France became modernized and so did sport. From local
town events it grew into national mass leisure, the Tour de France being a world-known
example. This was carefully supervised by the government, and sport brought unity in the
country. Sport, together with mass media and compulsory education were important
factors in the creation of the state of France.10
The creation of a state is accompanied with the idea of identity, which can be well
expressed through sport. In what follows we will look at how identity can develop into
nationalism and ultimately into militarism.
1.3. Sport and identity
According to the book The Nordic World: Sport in Society of Henrik Meinand and J.A.
Mangan, sport has always been a device to create group identity. Sport reflects the
national self image. It is used in a confrontational way against other countries and is
even seen as a way to prepare for war. They analyze this theme for the Nordic
countries. 11 Professor Mangan assembled many authors in Sport, Culture, Society:
International Historical and Sociological Perspectives. In that book, J. Dewar wrote a
chapter on how that the inhabitants of Papua New Guinea try to keep their identity
through sport. The part of G. von der Lippe describes the suppressed national identity of
the Scottish by the English and its link with professional football. G.A. Olafson explains
7
John Hargreaves, Sport, Power and Culture: A Social And Historical Analysis of Popular Sports In
Britain
8
David Kirk, Schooling Bodies: School Practice and Public Discourse 1880-1950
9
John Evans, Physical Education, Sport and Schooling: Studies in the Sociology of Physical Education
10
Richard Holt, Sport and Society in Modern France
11
Henrik Meinander and J.A. Mangan, The Nordic World: Sport in Society
5
in his chapter the influence of sport of Fascist Italy on Nazi Germany during the period of
1928 till 1936. 12
Grant Jarvie is an instructor at the University of Stirling and president of the British
Society of Sports History. In his Sport in the Making of Celtic Cultures he researches the
link between Irish sport and nationalism. He also takes a look at the importance of sport
for the nationalistic politics of France. He explains why national sports are so important
for many European countries. Grant Jarvie makes it very clear that sport can be used to
strengthen all kinds of ideologies.13
1.4. Sport and nationalism
As we have seen above, sport and physical education are important factors in creating a
state. The rulers of a country have always had an interest in the regulation of sport.
These ideas are clearly stated in Sport and Education in History. Gigliola Gori and
Thierry Terret have assembled many authors in their book. The general message of the
contributions is that sport gives a feeling of unity to people. It can therefore easily be
used as a form of propaganda. Sport and education have lost their pure ideals and have
become tools to strengthen national pride. Jacques Dumont for example examines in his
chapter how physical education is something that was dealt with the French state. This
national pride can be easily abused. The chapter of Youcef Fates deals with how sport
had its function in the war with Algeria in the period between 1954 and 1962. Jean Saint-
Martin analyses how sport contributes to the nation unity. He looks at the politics of
France in relation to physical education in the inter-war period. For the case of Japan,
Fumiaki Shishida researched how aikidō modernized itself to the model of judo, a
national sport, in the inter-war nationalistic period.14
Sport and the ideologies of the state go hand in hand. J.A. Mangan shows us this in his
The Cultural Bond: Sport, Empire, Society. Sport was of great importance for Britain, a
nation wanting to spread its imperial values. The British sought to introduce along with
12
J.A. Mangan and R.B. Small, Sport, Culture, Society: International Historical and Sociological
Perspectives
13
Grant Jarvie, Sport in the Making of Celtic Cultures
14
Gigliola Gori and Thierry Terret, Sport and Education in History
6
their civilization their sports too. They attempted through sport to culturally bind the
colonies and enforce their imperial superiority. Thus sport was an important element in
the creation of an imperial unity and a national identity.15
The composed work Sports: The East and The West by Gertrud Pfister and Liy Yueye
looks at how the East and the West have influenced each other in sport. Getrud Pfister
gives us for example an overview of the evolution of jūdō and jūjustu in Germany. In the
first part of the book, the authors write mainly about sport and education. Xiong
Xiaozheng and Gu Shiquan write about Mao Zedong’s ideas on physical culture. “The
Study of Physical Education and Exercise” was written by Mao Zedong in 1917. In the
1910s a more pragmatic vision on physical education emerged in China. According to
Mao, physical education had to serve the state. Physical exercise would make strong
bodies that could fulfill their social functions. Physical exercise is also important to
control emotions. In short, a healthy, strong body benefits the nation. After China had
suffered due to the western imperialism, it would be able to strengthen its patriotism and
nationalism through physical culture.16
1.5. The Nazi Olympics: sport and militarism
Nationalism can take many forms. Nations want to show the glory of their country and
power to the world. Nationalism can take a positive form, an example being the
Olympics. It can also develop into something negative, such as a feeling of superiority,
or even support war. The Nazi Olympics of 1936 were a mix of nationalism, militarism,
education and sport. Duff Hart-Davis, a British journalist shows in his Hitler’s Games:
The 1936 Olympics how the games were intentionally used for political ends. Hilter
succeeded in his propaganda in spite of the persecution of the Jews and the concentration
camp of Oranienburg close to the Olympic stadium. The author wants to show how the
Nazis successfully used the Olympics as a medium for their nationalistic propaganda.
The games and the ceremonies were very nationalistic and militaristic in nature. 17
15
J.A. Mangan, The Cultural Bond: Sport, Empire, Society
16
Gertrud Pfister and Liu Yueye. Sports: The East and the West
17
Duff Hart-Davis, Hitler’s Games: The 1936 Olympics
7
Richard Mandell’s The Nazi Olympics18 and Olympiad 1936: Blaze of Glory for Hilter’s
Reich of Judith Holmes 19 handle about the same subject. Sport and International
Politics: The Impact of Fascism and Communism on Sport by Pierre Arnaud and James
Riordan is seen as a key reference for the relationship between sport and ideology. The
book examines how sport was shaped under the communist and fascist institutions during
the inter-war period in Europe. It details how sport was used by nations as a means of
propaganda and psychological pressure. In the fifth chapter they write about the Soviet
Union sport policy during 1917-1941 period. Sport was used to strengthen the nation-
state of the USSR. The sixth chapter talks about the role of sport for German politics in
the inter-war period. The eighth chapter describes how sport is owned by the nation in
France between 1919 and 1939 and the ninth chapter deals with fascist Italy, mass media
and sport. National strength was created through sport training. Sport became in these
nations a matter of prestige and propaganda.20
1.6. Sport and nationalism in Japan
Stephen Vlastos writes in his Mirror of Modernity: Invented Traditions of Modern

Japan21 that many old cultural traditions are in fact rather modern. Invented traditions
distinguish themselves from genuine ones by the idea of fictitious continuity of a
historical past. He states that it is important to find an answer to the following question.
How, by whom, under what circumstances, and to what social and political effect
are certain practices and ideas formulated, institutionalized, and propagated as
tradition?22
These traditions are mostly produced by elites as a tool of power. Japan has produced
several national symbols since the nineteenth century and the budō(武道), the martial
18
Richard D. Mandell, The Nazi Olympics
19
Judith Holmes, Olympiad 1936: Blaze of Glory for Hilter’s Reich
20
Pierre Arnaud and James Riordan, Sport and International Politics: The Impact of Fascism and
Communism on Sport
21
Stephen Vlastos, Mirror of Modernity: Invented Traditions of Modern Japan
22
Stephen Vlastos, Mirror of Modernity: Invented Traditions of Modern Japan, p.5.
8
arts, are one of them. The 11th chapter deals with The Invention of the Martial Arts,
written by Inoue Shun.
1.6.1. Budō and identity
The idea of sport being an important element of national identity can also be found in
Japan. The budō, martial arts, fulfilled this function from the late Meiji period up to the
Second World War. Jūjutsu(柔術) had developed into jūdō(柔道), a national sport. It
would symbolize the national identity of Japan. Among these budō, jūdō was the first.
Under the influence of military and ultra-nationalism, budō were reinvented as a tool to
promote the “Japanese spirit”.23
Although jūdō became part of Japan’s national identity, it was only created in 1882. In
the 1870s, Japan showed great enthusiasm for anything from the West. At that time, the
Japanese in fact despised their own traditional culture to such an extent that even martial
arts were on the decline. Kanō Jigorō(嘉納治五郎), the creator of jūdō, was able to buy
several books on the subject due the declining popularity of martial arts.24 He followed
jūjutsu classes in different schools and made an inventory of the techniques in a scientific
matter which facilitated the creation of his jūdō. Because of the unpopularity of jūjutsu,
Kanō adopted the name jūdō, which sounded fresh. He stressed the idea that this new
martial art was based on principles and not only on techniques. Kanō introduced many
innovations to make it more attractive to the general public. He adopted the dan-kyū(段
級) system, which was a system to grade the students according to their level of progress.
With this system, the students could be grouped into 16 levels, i.e. 10 dan and 6 kyū. He
also introduced randori(乱取り), a free-form of sparring. This stood in great contrast
with the traditional martial arts which stressed the training of kata(形 or 型), i.e set forms.
The other budō soon followed jūdō’s example in adopting these changes.
Yet, jūdō would be depicted as something traditional. This was possible because jūdō
after all had its roots in the traditional jūjutsu. The Kitō school(起倒) of jūjutsu was
sometimes called Kitō jūdō. Also on the certificate that Kanō received from Iikubo
23
Shun Inoue, “The Invention of the Martial Arts: Kanō Jigorō and Kōdōkan Judo”, p.164.
24
Ibid. p.165.
9
Tsunetoshi(飯久保恒年) in 1883 is written “Nihonden Kitō jūdō”(日本伝起倒柔道),
where Nihonden stands for Japanese tradition. Kanō used this idea for his own martial
art: the Nihonden Kōdōkan Jūdō(日本伝講道館柔道).25 Hence jūdō, a new martial art,
became part of Japan’s national identity due to this reference to tradition. It was thus an
“invented tradition”.
Once the foundation of the new “tradition” was laid, it had to be spread over the whole
nation. Kanō’s personal effort, the school system and the military nation would assist.
Kanō seized every opportunity to expound on the cultural significance of Kōdōkan
jūdō. 26 (講道館) He was an effective spokesman who would use any opportunity to
promote and publicize jūdō. He published his first magazine Kanō juku dōsōkai
zasshi(嘉納塾同窓会雑誌) in 1894, and would also publish others like the Yūkō no
katsudō（有効の活動）and Jūdō(柔道). His lectures and essays are assembled in a
work of fourteen volumes. Kanō created in 1922 the Kōdōkan Cultural Association to
promote jūdō as a cultural aspect of the nation. The organization had three principles.
The first one states that the most efficient use of energy is the basis of self-perfection.
The second principle states that self-perfection can be best achieved by helping others to
achieve self-perfection. The last principle deals with mutual self-perfection as the
foundation for mutual prosperity of human kind. These principles were abused by the
state to fit the idea of the Japanese Co Prosperity sphere. The “self-disciplined” Japan
would guide his surrounding nations, just as an older brother would do.
Japan found his pride again and started to create a new nationalistic state and the budō
would help to develop this new identity. Although jūdō had few members in the
beginning, its membership grew rapidly. This was thanks to its highly publicized
victories and the rise of national pride due to the ongoing war with China.
In 1887, the Naval Academy adopted jūdō. Jūdō, and therefore budō, had set its first step
in becoming part of the Japanese war machine. The connection with the Naval Academy
allowed Kōdōkan jūdō to penetrate the military.27 The war hero, Hirose Takeo(広瀬武
25
26
Ibid. p.168.
27
Ibid. p.167.
10
夫), who died at Port Arthur during the Russo-Japanese War and Takarabe Takeshi(財部
虎), who would become secretary of the navy, were initiated in jūdō at the Naval
Academy.
Kanō used his position as an educator to promote jūdō. In 1883 he was a professor at the
Gakushūin University(学習院大学) and established there a practice hall for jūdō. The
Tokyo Imperial University and the Keiō University followed the Naval Academy in
instructing jūdō. Other institutions followed soon. Jūdō would become officially part of
the school curriculum and would flourish in the prewar educational system. 28 Jūdō
created fit bodies but its character-building aspect was most valued. It would create good
citizens who would contribute positively to the nation.
As we have seen in other countries, the Olympics are a perfect occasion to show a
nation’s strength to the world. Japan, becoming more and more nationalistic, wanted to
become part of that great event. The man who got the honor to represent the nation was
none other than Kanō Jigorō. He was not extreme in nature, but being a master of a
“traditional” Japanese martial art put him under the wings of politicians of the
conservative-nationalist camp. He was sent as the first Japanese, to join the International
Olympic Committee in 1910. Kanō was not only a martial arts teacher but also an
advocate of western sports. He created the Japan Amateur Sports Association in 1911 for
the selection of athletes for the Games. In 1912 he accompanied a few athletes to the
Olympics in Stockholm where Japan would participate for the first time. Kanō’s link
with the “traditional” jūdō made him the ideal representative. Kanō made also great
efforts to bring the Olympics to Japan. At the 1936 International Olympic Committee
convention in Berlin, he succeeded in attracting the Twelfth Olympic Games to Tokyo.29
Normally Japan would have held the 1940 Olympics at Tokyo. After the decision was
officially announced at the Cairo meeting, Kanō returned home but died during that trip
due to pneumonia on 4th of May, 1938. A couple of months later, the Japanese
government declined the invitation to host the games because of the war with China.
28
29
Ibid. p.170.
11
1.6.2. Ideologizing budō
The nationalists would adapt budō to suit their cause. The Dai Nippon Butoku-kai（大
日本武徳会）, the Japan Martial Virtue Association, institutionalized and developed the
ideology of budō. Education, the Emperor cult and the martial spirit were gathered in
this association and these elements were the backbone of the Japanese war machine. The
organization was established in the formal capital Kyoto in 1895, and was created in
honor of the 1100th anniversary of the founding of Kyoto by Emperor Kanmu(桓武). The
association’s purpose was to spread the martial spirit of Emperor Kanmu. This martial
spirit was seen as the pure Japanese spirit. Jūdō, kendō(剣道) and kyūdō(弓道) stood for
the spirit of the Japanese people. The association built a training hall called the
Butokuden(武徳殿) in 1899. This “hall of martial value” was located close to the Heian
shrine. In 1905 it opened a training center of martial arts teachers and in 1912 it became
a college. Any martial arts teacher who wanted official recognition had to be member of
this association with its nationalistic spirit.
In the 1920s-1930s budō grew strongly and became more and more closely associated
with Japanese militarism. From the Manchuria Incident in 1931 up till the Second World
War, budō became even more strongly associated with nationalism and the Emperor
cult.30 The martial arts became a national sport, kokugi(国技). It became an ideological
tool for the mobilization for total war. To achieve this, from 1941 the Butoku-kai was
put under governmental supervision as state education was a crucial element to spread the
ideology that would support the war. Martial arts would become part of the national
education system. This shows how much the Japanese government valued the budō at
that time. The training of budō at the schools would foster the spirit of self sacrifice and
devotion to the nation.31
In the 1930s-1940s the Western sports were discouraged. Western sports would stand for
the Western spirit and had to be “Japanized”. This would happen through budō.
Although budō was a creation of the Meiji period, it was redefined as something
30
31
Ibid. p.172.
12
traditional. The nationalistic state stressed the “ancient history” of the budō. The budō
were seen as national treasures which would purify the Western sports from its
individualistic and selfish spirit, and so the “imported” sports would be “Japanized”
through budō.32
Because of this association of budō with Japanese militarism and ultra-nationalism, the
martial arts were prohibited by the American occupiers after the defeat in the Second
World War. The Dai Nippon Butoku-kai was disbanded in 1946 and the teaching of jūdō
and kendō at the schools was prohibited. During the 1930s, sports were shaped into the
spirit of budō but after the war, budō was “sportified”.33
1.7. Conclusion
In the above works we have seen to what extent sport and nationalism can influence each
other. With the Olympics we can witness how sport and politics are closely related.
Governments will therefore spend attention to sports and incorporate them into their
education system. Through education, and thus through sport, national identities are
created. This feeling of national identity can develop into nationalism, ultra-nationalism
and even into militarism. The Nazi Olympics of 1936 are an infamous example of this
blend of sport, ideology and politics. Japan also used sports to support its nationalism
and militarism.
In the second chapter we will describe the general history of Japan’s militaristic
expansionism from 1868 up until the Second World War. This historical context should
give us a deeper understanding about the level of strength Japan’s military had developed.
This was only possible by creating a nationalistic state and applying all means necessary
to achieve it.
32
33
Ibid. p.173.
13
Chapter 2: Japan, the powerful aggressor
In three to four generations, Japan evolved to a level of development which took Europe
about five hundred years. Between the Meiji Restoration of 1868 and Japan’s defeat in
1945, the country transformed with an incredible speed. Japan abolished the feudal
system, established a democratic and authoritarian form of government, created a modern
industrial nation, conquered and finally lost a huge empire.34 This period is characterized
by the many wars Japan instigated.
We need a clear understanding of this period because it is coincides with the modern
history of karate. Therefore we focus here on the general historical context of Japan. We
will start with the Meiji Restoration as we can find there the roots of the many succeeding
wars, which we will also briefly discuss.
Before we look at the Meiji period, we need to name the different eras. Indeed, Japan has
the tradition that each time a new Emperor reigns, a name is given to that era. The period
of 1868 till 1945 can be divided into three eras. The first era, from 1868 to 1912 is called
the ‘Meiji period’. The ‘Taishō period’ lasted from 1912 to 1926. For the ‘Shōwa
period’ we will only look at the period from 1926 until around the Second World War.
2.1. The Meiji period (1868-1912)
2.1.1. The Meiji Restoration of 1868
To have a general idea about Japan’s modern history, a brief note should be made about
the Meiji Restoration as it was an important turning point in Japan’s history. Due to the
pressure of Commodore Perry and his American black ships, Japan had to alter itself
drastically. It ended the 250 years of Tokugawa(徳川) military dictatorship, restored the
Emperor to power and transformed the feudal society into an almost unstoppable modern
nation.35 All this happened in just a couple of generations.
34
John Benson, Takao Matsumura, Japan 1868-1945: From Isolation to Occupation, p.1.
35
Ibid. p.13.
14
Commodore Perry arrived with his black ships in 1853 in Japan. Shortly there after, he
would force the Tokugawa shōgun(将軍) to open Japan’s borders.36 Until then, Japan’s
borders were closed and contact with the outside was forbidden, with the death penalty as
punishment. The only contact possible was through Dejima(出島), a small artificially
created island in the bay of Nagasaki(長崎).
With the opening of its borders, Japan was forced to accept ‘unequal’ treaties and in
consequence Japan would develop an inferiority complex. In reaction, Japan underwent a
fast change to catch up with the West and to get rid of these ‘unequal’ treaties. Indeed,
Japan looked upon itself as a failure and wanted to discard everything that was typically
“Japanese”. This was a blow to the martial arts.
From then on, Japan’s history can be seen as a continual reassurance of itself, attempting
to raise itself to an equal level as that of the West, and finally trying to surpass it. The
leaders wanted to build a united, prosperous and strong nation. They succeeded in this at
remarkable speed37 and used all means necessary to attain their goal.
The new leaders exploited and, when suited them, they invented a particular view
of Japanese character, culture and history as a way of driving forward the
enormously ambitious programme of reform which they considered necessary to
equip Japan to compete successfully with the nations of the West.38
Japan would look at the West for inspiration to modernize its country. During the
modernization process, the military development was stressed the most. By 1890s more
than thirty percent of the governmental spending would go to the military. Almost
everything would be inspired on the West. The newly introduced conscription system,
Western military experts, the uniforms, were all part of the new Japan. Yet, the samurai
code stayed alive. An idealized version was used by the ones in control to spread martial
values. This code, together with the Emperor veneration, would be of paramount
importance for the unstoppable morale of the Japanese during all the following wars.
36
Edward Adriaensens, Dimitri Vanoverbeke, Op Zoek naar het Nieuwe Japan, p.12.
37
38
Ibid. p.17.
15
The Tokugawa bakufu(幕府) was overthrown, by Chōsu and Satsuma, after they had
ruled Japan for about two and a half centuries. The imperial palace was moved to the
new capital Edo(江戸), the center of power during the last couple of centuries. The
name Edo was changed to Tokyo(東京).
The period between 1868 and 1912 is seen as a period during which the emperor,
oligarchs and bureaucrats laid the foundation for a modern Japan.39 Mutsuhito(睦仁)
was born in 1852. He would become the Meiji Emperor from 1867 until his death in
1912. The real power was with the Meiji oligarchy, but Emperor Meiji would be closely
involved in many important political events, for example the promulgation of the Charter
Oath and the Rescripts for Education and Soldiers. He would also give his people the
Meiji constitution. This constitution would strengthen his political position whilst at the
same time create space for a representative government. We will look more closely at the
constitution and its importance in the second chapter.
During Emperor Meiji’s reign, Japan would undergo extreme changes, thereby moving
from a semi-colony status to a modern nation capable of defeating two major powers:
China and Russia.
Having in mind that Japan wanted to prove itself to the outside world, we can look at
Japan’s imperial conquests. We will look briefly at the Sino-Japanese War
(1894-1895), the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), the participation of Japan in the First
World War and the long run towards the war with China. The latter would result in Japan
entering the Second World War.
2.1.2. The Sino-Japanese War: 1894-1895
This war started on Korean soil. It started with a Tonghak revolt in 1894. This revolt
was aimed against the presence of foreign powers and the poverty in Korea. China and
Japan responded to the appeal of the Korean court for help but they became involved in a
conflict themselves. The Japanese were stronger because of the modernization
39
16
implemented during the last couple of decades. They marched north to Pyongyang and
even into the Liadong Peninsula. By 1895 the war with China was over and the Treaty of
Shimonoseki was forced upon the Chinese. China had to recognize the ‘independence’ of
Korea, leaving it vulnerable to Japan. They had to pay a sum of 200 million taels. China
had to hand over its control over the Liadong Peninsula, the Pescadores and Taiwan to
Japan and open more ports. Due to all the above, the imperialism of Japan had a kick-
start. However France, Germany and Russia soon intervened and the Liadong Peninsula
had to be returned to China. This intervention was the trigger for Japan’s next war with
Russia in Korea and Manchuria.40
2.1.3. The Russo-Japanese War: 1904-1905
Russia and Japan’s imperial ambitions collided over a conflict about Korea and the
Liadong Peninsula. The Liadong Peninsula was taken by Japan from China in the Sino-
Japanese War, but due to the intervention of Russia and two other countries Japan lost
control over these areas. The area became a wanted zone for the two imperialistic nations.
Japan, as previously with China, attacked first. It conquered Port Arthur and the
Russians were driven back over land to Mukden. The decisive battle took place in the
Tsushima Strait, were the Japanese destroyed the Russian Baltic fleet.41
Japan had won but was exhausted and therefore willing to accept the offer of mediation
by the United States President Theodore Roosevelt. In 1905 the Treaty of Portsmouth
was signed.42 Russia had to give up several areas, like the southern part of Sakhalin. It
had also to accept the influence sphere of Japan on Korea. Japan made Korea a
protectorate and annexed it in 1910. Hence Japan was further strengthening its position
on the continent.
It is important to note that this was the first time that a war was won by an Asian nation
over a European nation.43 That in itself is proof that Japan had come a long way since the
40
Martin Collcut, Marius Jansen and Isao Kumakura, Cultural Atlas of Japan, p.190.
41
42
43
Andrew Wiest, Gregory Louis Mattson, De Oorlog in de Stille Oceaan, p.10.
17
American commodore Perry had subdued the nation with his Black ships about 50 years
ago.
2.2. The Taishō period (1912-1926)
The following era would be called the “Taishō Democracy”. This romanticized name
was given to the period of 1912 till 1926, in which Emperor Taishō reigned. The new
Emperor, politicians and others in power made efforts to widen their policy. This
happened under the increasing pressure for democratic reform. 44 This period was
characterized by both liberation, with the gradual retreat of oligarchy, and by
repression.45 Hence it should therefore not be idealized too much.
2.2.1. World War I
Japan participated in World War I on the side of the Allies. Japan declared in 1914 war
on Germany. Due to the focus of the war being waged in the West, Japan was able to
seize the German colonial possessions in the East. It took former colonies of Germany in
China and the Pacific and put pressure on China. In the infamous 21 Demands, Japan
demanded control over not only Shandong, but also over other parts of China, Manchuria
and Mongolia. These demands were strongly disapproved by China and the West and
were perceived as a clear statement of Japan’s imperial ambitions.
In 1918, Japan was invited to be one of the ‘big five’ at the conference of Versailles. Its
possessions over Shandong and the former German Pacific Islands were ratified. It also
received a seat in the League of Nations.
Although the war was over, Japan soon found another reason for action. The fall of the
tsar and the Bolshevik revolution in Russia was a good excuse to send troops to Siberia.
Japanese forces tripled the amount of those sent by the allies. Once Japan had its forces
44
45
Ibid. p.35.
18
over there, it maintained them up until 1922, ignoring thereby international pressure to
withdraw.46
2.3. The Shōwa period (1926-1989)
In 1927 there was a severe financial crisis. The leaders looked to the military to deal with
the situation. It would become a period in which the military, in the name of the Emperor,
would wield the actual power. A photograph of the new Emperor, in military uniform47,
was placed in the schools. Schools became again the means to create the desired citizens.
Ex-army officers served as military instructors at the schools.
It was in 1927 that Tanaka, a retired army general, became Prime Minister. He would
send Japan into a militaristic course. The Prime Minister would exploit Japan’s sudden
attack on China and would bring the whole population under control. Opposition was not
tolerated. With the Peace Preservation Act almost any excuse would be valid to suppress
certain groups. Everything political ‘left’ was arrested or forced away from public life.
This period is characterized by military supremacy resulting finally in total war.
2.3.1. Manchuria incident
It was a staged incident near the capital of Manchuria. This would be the first step of the
independent actions of a part of the Imperial army. It would conquer the entire province
and create the puppet state of Manchukuo. The government could only accept the end
result.48
In 1931, close to the city of Mukden, the South-Manchuria railway was destroyed. The
railway was property of the Japanese. The Chinese were blamed for this incident, and
this excuse was used for the Japanese army to undertake actions in that area. Chinese
troops were eventually forced to pull back. Some see this event as the initial seeds of the
war with China. The Japanese government ordered the army to stop its actions, but it had
46
47
48
Ibid. p.39.
19
lost control. It wouldn’t be the last time that the Kwantung army on the continent would
ignore orders from the government. The army was, according to the Meiji constitution,
only responsible for its actions towards the Emperor. 49 Informed by the expansionist
ideals of secret societies like the Black Dragon Society, its officers were keen to promote
national interests by conquest regardless of the orders of party politicians. (Kaiso So
Doshin(開祖宗道臣), the creator of Shorinji Kempo(少林寺拳法) martial art in the
postwar period, was an active member of the Black Dragon Society in Manchuria before
the Second World War). Therefore it was almost impossible for the government to have
control over the army. Without the consent of the government, the Kwantung army in
Manchuria asked support from the army located in Korea that responded positively.
Hence the government had completely lost control over its army. So they decided to
approve the actions against the Chinese, which already had started.50
The Kwantung army soon took possession of the entire region of Manchuria. By 1932
the whole Manchuria was under control and changed into a puppet state of Manchukuo.
The Chinese reacted with a boycott on Japanese goods. Again the Japanese faked an
incident. This time it was supposed to be an attack of the Chinese on Japanese citizens.
In the beginning of 1932, the Japanese started bombing Shanghai in revenge of the so-
called incident. Japanese ground troops invaded the city. The Chinese soon ended their
boycott. According to the book “De Oorlog in de Stille Oceaan: Van Pearl Harbour tot
Hiroshima: 1941-1945” the bushidō(武士道) code was widespread amongst the soldiers.
During the incident in Shanghai for example, the following was reported on how vivid
the code lived, and died, with them: During the battle a young officer got wounded. His
company retreated and left him behind. He was found and treated for his wounds by the
Chinese. The officer felt great shame that his company had not won. He returned to the
place where he was found. There he cut open his belly, in the same way as a dishonored
samurai would do. This example was seen as a perfect representation of the Japanese
warrior.51
49
50
51
Ibid. p.16.
20
In 1932 a group of young officers killed the Prime Minister Inukai(犬飼). The coup
failed but was the starting point of the black pages in Japan’s history. The following ten
years were called “the dark valley” 52 , and marked a period of extreme nationalism.
Everything that did not coincide with the ideas of those in charge was suppressed. No
criticism on militarism and the cult of the Emperor was tolerated. Japan was preparing
itself for total war.53
The invasion of Manchuria was condemned by the West. But they did not undertake any
military or economically sanctions. Japan concluded that it had no reason to fear
anything from the West and decided to withdraw from the League of Nations in 1933.
The Japanese considered their imperial actions similar to those of the Western colonial
powers during the past.54 The passivity of the West in fact encouraged the Japanese that
they could get away with their actions.
The Kwantung army, this time officially supported, moved to the Chinese province Jehol.
In 1933, the Kwantung army invaded the Hopei province, close to Peking. Again the
League of Nations did not respond to Japan’s actions in China.
In 1936, there was a coup in Japan by young officers. They almost succeeded in killing
Prime Minister Okada(岡田). They demanded a direct rule by the Emperor. Emperor
Hirohito(裕仁) disapproved these actions and the rebels had to surrender.55 The coup
failed but left Japan in the hands of the military. With this came a new aggressive policy
towards China. 56 In the same year, Japan signed a treaty with Germany against the
Soviet Union.
2.3.2. War against China
In 1937, a war started between Japan and China, for the second time. This was during the
period that the military had taken control in Japan. The trigger was the Marco Polo
52
53
暗い谷間
kurai tanima, , the dark valley
54
55
56
21
Bridge Incident. This incident was in fact preceded with six years of Japanese aggression
in China, and would result in total war between the two nations.57 This war would later
become part of that waging in Europe, the Second World War. This incident was not set
up like the Mukden incident was. There was a small armed clash between the Chinese
and the Japanese of little significance. But it was the perfect excuse for the Japanese
nationalists to launch a full war against China. The Kwantung army won, took Peking
under control and moved to Shanghai. After seven weeks of intense fighting they
captured the city. 58 As the Chinese did not give up easily, the Japanese moved to
Nanking, the center of Chinese nationalism and conquered it in 1937. The victory was
followed by a blood bath that lasted for about a month. The slaughter was so terrible that
even the Nazis complained about its cruelty59
The West did not react, again. Japan felt free to handle as it pleased because it didn’t fear
the West anymore. Japan was satisfied with its conquest and was willing to negotiate
about peace. Nazi-Germany would lead the negotiations. During the conversations it
was clear that Japan demanded an unconditional surrender of China but the Middle
Kingdom refused. Japan was furious and immediately went on the offensive. It took
North-China and all the major seaports on the east-coast. The center of the country was
left rather alone. The Japanese did not have enough man power to deal with such a large
area. Japan could not win the war but wasn’t even willing to negotiate.60
The expansionistic drift was then aimed at Russia. As history has the tendency to repeat
itself, the Kwantung army started the fire. The conflict in Mongolia was decided after
more than a month. The Soviet armed vehicles defeated the 23rd division of the Japanese
army and the Kwantung army decided to negotiate about peace.61
2.3.3. World War II
The European nations were too busy fighting amongst themselves, so Japan seized the
opportunity to take the European properties in the Far East. The conquest of the
57
Michael A. Barnhart, Japan Prepares for Total War: The Search for Economic Security, 1919-1941, p.91.
58
59
Ibid. p.23.
60
Ibid. p.24.
61
Ibid. p.25.
22
Netherland Indies and French-Indo-China made Japan less independent from import from
America.
In 1940 Japan became part of the 10 ten-year Triple Alliance with Germany and Italy.
Japan hoped this action would scare away the United States but it acheived the opposite
effect.
In 1941 the United States ended the oil-exports to Japan. The Japanese considered this as
an economical war declaration. This was the first effective step done by the West as a
reaction against Japan’s actions in the Asian continent. On 7 December 1941 the
infamous attack on Pearl Harbour took place.62 Japan wanted to break the American will
with this surprise attack, but accomplished the opposite. They had awoken a giant and
the determination of the West would only grow stronger. They wanted nothing less than
an unconditional surrender. The battle of Midway would be the turning point of the
Pacific War in 1942. This would be followed by many bloody battles on the islands in
the Pacific. During this period of island hopping, the Americans were confronted with
Japanese bravery. With the words of Winston Churchill: ‘The violence, fury, skill and
might of Japan far exceeded anything we had been led to expect.’63 Japan suffering from
a shortage of materials and energy applied the kamikaze. These pilots would crash their
planes into the enemy, causing serious damage. These pilots were a great homage to the
bushidō code.64
The United States made a decision to use the first atomic bombs on Hiroshima and
Nagasaki after the Japanese government did not respond to the Potsdam declaration. The
Soviets invaded Manchukuo and Korea. On the 15th of August 1945 Japan accepted the
Potsdam declaration and surrendered.65
62
63
64
Raymond Lamont-Brown, Kamikaze: Japan’s Suicide Samurai, p.22.
65
23
2.4. Conclusion
Figure 1: The expansion of the Japanese Empire in 1942
Japan succeeded in creating an enormous empire, reaching its peak in 1942. It had won
wars against China, Russia, and again China. It participated on the winning side in the
First World War. It conquered an enormous part of south-east Asia, including Korea,
Manchuria.66 Japan had won the previous wars and was victorious in the Second World
War up until 1942. It had driven the Americans from the Philippines, the Dutch from the
Dutch East Indies and the British from Malaya, Burma, Hong Kong and Singapore.67
How was Japan able to attain all this? There are so many factors that contributed to
Japan’s successes that an exhaustive analysis is not possible in this thesis. We will look
at a few in the next chapter and focus on those aspects that had an influence on the
nationalistic ‘spirit’ and fanaticism of Japan. Many of them will have a direct link with
the budō.
66
67
Ibid. p.81.
24
Chapter 3: Some roots of nationalism
This chapter will focus on some reasons for the successes of Japan’s military, thereby
focusing on how the Japanese “spirit” was shaped. However we will not deal with
political decisions, military actions and the international context.
Up to the present day, Japanese are proud about their uniqueness, their homogeneity and
the cohesiveness of their society.68 Yet Japan is not a homogenous society. There are
immigrants from China, Korea and Brazil, burakumin69(部落民),the Ainu70, inhabitants
from Okinawa( 沖縄 ), all of which are not adequately integrated. Many of these
minorities are discriminated in various ways. A noteworthy case is that of the Japanese
Airlines which destroyed their own stock of in-flight-magazines because an article
mentioned something about burakumin. 71 The press does not cover these topics as
anything that would harm the idea of ‘homogeneity’ is avoided. This includes the myths
about the racial homogeneity, but also topics on the Imperial family and Japan’s military
past.72 As we will see, these concepts of a homogenous society and the sacred image of
the Emperor were created by the ones who were leading the country from the Meiji
period onwards. This idea would be finally abused during the 1930-1940s by military
fanatics to manipulate the masses.73 This was facilitated by the Japanese people who
subdued to unquestioned obedience during the 1920-1930s. Some of these attitudes
lingered already in Japan through Confusianism and “historical” facts like the unbroken
line of Emperors but for the most part, they were created from the Meiji period onwards,
combining facts and fiction.
So then, from where does the idea arise of a homogenous society and the need for
obedience? Also, why is there such a taboo on the military historical past of Japan and
the Emperor? Almost all taboos in Japan can be linked with the prewar nationalistic
68
69
A group of social outcasts who’s occupations were seen in the past as religious unclean as for example,
butchers and leather workers.
70
71
Ibid. p.179.
72
Ibid. p.177.
73
25
period but still many aspects of the prewar nationalism can be found nowadays. We
will see that these factors can be linked to the mobilization of the people for the wars in
the past.
The prewar Japanese nationalism consists of many factors. We will look more closely at
those elements which have a connection with the martial arts, as we will see in third
chapter. Here we will deal with three elements: the Emperor, education and bushidō.
3.1. The Emperor
3.1.1. The Emperor through history
Nowadays, the Emperor functions purely as a symbol, as has been throughout history.
Nevertheless, a symbol can hold great power. Japan however was most of the time run
by other forces than the emperor. The shōgun74, leader of the bakufu75 ruled for a long
time the islands of Japan. The kanpaku76(関白) and the sesshō77(摂政) also ruled Japan
for a while. These latter two positions were under control of the Fujiwara from the 9th till
the 11th century.78
Japan’s historical names indicate the lack of real power by the Emperor. During the
feudal period, the Emperor hardly existed for the common man.79 During the Kamakura
(鎌倉)period (1185-1333), the Muromach (室町)period (1392-1568), the Momoyama
(桃山) (1568-1600) and the Edo period (1600-1868) the Emperor hardly had any power.
Indeed from the slick kanpaku up till the brutal shōgun, the powerlords ruled in the name
of the Emperor. The names of these periods refer to those who had the real power in
Japan. In short, up until the Meiji period, the emperor was virtually powerless.
74
The shōgun(将軍 ) was a military leader in the past.
75
The bakufu(幕府 ), also called shōgunate, was a name given to the organs of the warrior government of
the shōgun.
76
Kanpaku( 関白 ) was the title given to the regent of the Emperor.
77
78
Sesshō( 摂政 ) was the title given to the regent of a child Emperor.
79
Ruth Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, p.29.
26
The question is thus how Japan succeeded in making a hardly-known figure
acknowledged by the common people and even making it into the backbone of Japan’s
war machine.
3.1.2. The cult of the Emperor
Ruth Benedict states in her book that the few Japanese prisoners of war were all extreme
supporters of the Emperor and his mission.
The Emperor was to them, however, inseparable from Japan. ‘A Japan without
the Emperor is not Japan.’ ‘Japan without the Emperor cannot be imagined.’
‘The Japanese Emperor is the symbol of the Japanese people, the center of their
religious lives.’
The Emperor was a religious subject. As we know, religious belief can be very powerful
in times of war. There are several historical examples of believers sacrificing their lives
for their religion. The Crusades in the 11th century and the attack on the World Trade
Center in New York on the 11th of September are some of the better known examples.
The veneration of the Emperor was not widespread until the Meiji period. The roots of
this religion were based on the Meiji Constitution and on a combination of historical and
fake facts.
3.1.3. The Meiji Constitution: the Emperor became legally a god
The absolute authority which the emperor had came from the Meiji Constitution and
lasted until the end of the Second World War. This was supported with propaganda
based on historical and created facts. Let us first look more closely at the constitution.
During the Iwakura mission (Iwakura Shisetsudan, 岩倉使節団 ), the government

showed interest in the constitutions of the Western countries.80 In 1882, Itō Hirobumi
80
27
(伊藤博文) was sent to Europe to prepare a constitution. During this trip he developed
much interest in the German chancellor Bismarck. In 1889, the Meiji Constitution was
promulgated and became largely based on the German constitution of 1850. This
constitution was supposed to be a gift of the Emperor to his people.81 At that time the
constitution seemed modern but it subordinated completely all subjects to the Emperor.
This would explain how there was simultaneously an evolution towards democracy
during the twenties and thirties and the rise of the military.82
In article one of the constitution it was clearly stated that the Emperor was almighty. The
Emperor was given full sovereignty. 83 This was based on the legend that the first
Emperor was a descendant of Amaterasu, the sun goddess. The family line of emperors
has never been interrupted since then and therefore Emperor Meiji would be a direct
descendant of Amaterasu(天照).84 It was Itō Hirobumi who created the image of the
Emperor as being a human god, and this was incorporated into the constitution. This idea
was rather new, as the Emperor was hardly known to the public prior to the Meiji
period.85 The next step was to integrate the newly created god into an already existing
religion. The Shinto religion would fulfill this function and thus through the Emperor,
Shinto would become part of the national idea and a powerful tool. 86 Consequently
Buddhism separated itself from Shinto. Finally, both the Emperor and Shinto would be
used by the military for their purposes. The basic aim of those making the constitution
was thus to give absolute, symbolic power to the Emperor but have the actual political
power remain in the hands of the ruling elite.87
The constitution stated that the army had to justify its actions only to the Emperor. The
Minister of Defense had to be on active duty in the army. Therefore, he could be
summoned by the army.88 This would give the army a tremendous power and a feeling of
81
82
83
84
Carol Gluck, Japan’s Modern Myths: Ideology in the Late Meiji Period, p.5.
85
86
87
88
28
superiority. The army was after all a servant of a god. This feeling of independence
towards the government is clearly seen in the actions the Kwantung army in Asia. This
left the government with no choice but to accept the accomplished facts, as we have seen
in the second chapter.
Basic freedoms were given but could be modified according to law. The individual was
always subjected to the bigger group, the state.89
In short, the constitution spelled out the fundamental characteristics of the

kokutai, the ‘national principle’ or ‘national essence’ of the Japanese state.90
The Meiji Constitution would remain valid up to the end of the Second World War. Then
it would be replaced by a constitution drafted by the Americans who controlled Japan
after its defeat.
3.1.4. Japan’s mission
Like the Emperor being the head of the Japanese people, so was Japan the head of the
world’s nations. After all, the Japanese were the children of god and their national leader
was a god.91 The Emperor was a direct descendant of an unbroken line of Emperors, and
therefore the Emperor was directly linked with Amaterasu, the sun goddess. Japan
developed the idea of being a superior race. It would use these racialistic ideas to
motivate its imperialistic conquests as they saw themselves as the leading race.92
There was anarchy in the world as long as every nation had absolute sovereignty;
it was necessary for her to fight to establish a hierarchy under Japan, of course,
since she alone represented a nation truly hierarchal from top to bottom and
hence understood the necessity of taking ‘one’s proper place’.93
89
90
91
Carol Gluck, Japan’s Modern Myths: Ideology in the Late Meiji Period, p.4.
92
93
29
Japan created a positive image around its imperialism. The ‘New Order in East Asia’ and
the ‘Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere’ were names given to these ideas. Prime
Minister Konoe（近衛）asked a group of intellectuals to create ideas that would justify
Japanese imperialism. Japan was considered as a patriarchal figure, which would free the
Asian nations from the West. This would be mutually advantageous but in the ‘Greater
East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere’ Japan would be the ‘leading race’, the older brother.94
3.2. Education
The spread of patriotism and complete loyalty to the Emperor was the objective of the
educational system. Already from the Meiji Reform, education was seen as the means of
allowing Japan to compete with the West.95 By the 1880s, all children underwent four
years of elementary schooling and from 1907 this became six years. The ‘Explanation of
School Matters’ of 1891 by the Ministry of Education states that priority was given to the
spirit of reverence to the Emperor and to patriotism.96
3.2.1. Iwakura mission
Japan needed to modernize and sent its government under the leadership of count
Iwakura on a mission. They stayed abroad for 21 months, from 1871 to 1873.97 Their
task was to gather as much information as possible in Europe and America so that Japan
could use that information to catch up. The group consisted also of five women who
would have to research healthcare, the position of the western women98 and education99.
The mission’s interest in education was of great importance as education shapes a
country. To quote Kido Takayoshi’s(木戸抗允) admiration for the American public
school system:
94
John Benson, Takao Matsumura, Japan 1868-1945: From Isolation to Occupation, p.80-81.
95
Ibid. p.28.
96
Ibid. p.29.
97
98
99
30
From now on, unless we pay a great deal of attention to the children, the
preservation of order in our country in the future will be impossible… To prevent
trouble ten years from now, there is only one thing to do and that is to establish
schools worthy of the name.100
He also states that it is all a matter of education and lack of education. 101 They
concluded that the modernization of the West was something that had happened recently
and thus it was possible for Japan to catch up.
Education shapes a country. It is responsible for the way of thinking of future

generations. The school system adopted would be of tremendous importance for the
spread of nationalism and the cult of the Emperor.102 Jūdō and kendō would later be part
of the educational system, shaping the whole nation in the etiquette of bushidō. So would
karate in the prefecture of Okinawa. Budō would therefore influence the generations that
would be involved in the Second World War. It would function as one of the many
factors to strengthen the spirit of national feeling. We will later examine this more
closely.
3.2.2. The school system
The educational system showed increasing trends towards nationalism as the Second
World War drew nearer. It would eventually be one of the foundations of Japan’s war
machine. Prewar education had been a powerful instrument of political legitimation for
the regime in power.103 The ideology of a state, with the Emperor having absolute power
would be taught from childhood at schools.104 Nationalism and patriotism were made by
the Ministry of Education a part of the school curriculum. Nationalism and militarism, in
the name of the Emperor, spread into all parts of life. Anything that could be used to
strengthen the unity of Japan would be used such as sports, media, and so on. Education
100
101
Ibid. p.181.
102
103
Ellis S. Kraus, Thomas P. Rohlen and Patricia G. Steinhoff. Conflict in Japan. p.137.
104
Kenneth W. Colegrove, Militarism in Japan, p.16.
31
and physical exercise would therefore be also used for Japan’s nationalistic purposes.
The use of sports to spur nationalism is not something unique to the case of Japan as we
have seen in the first chapter.
From 1919 onwards more attention was given to sciences, Japanese history and
geography and a national feeling by the Ministry of Education. In 1920 a bureau was
created that had to oversee the publication of schoolbooks. During the middle of the
twenties, this bureau made guidelines for books about social education. Movies were
censored and the Ministry of Education made its own movies. In 1929 a bureau in charge
of social education was created. It was in charge of youth training centers and the
approval and recommendation of books. In 1924 a Council of Education and Cultural
Policy was established, which remained active up to 1935. The more the Second World
War approached, the more this council focused on the nationalistic cause. For example:
the attachment of military officers to high schools, the establishment of youth training
centers,… 105 Under the Ministry of Education, a Research Institute for Physical
Education was set up. Up to 1938 it was an important factor for the training of future
leaders and physical education in Japan. In 1925 the Maintenance of Public Order Law
was passed and connected with the Hinomaru106 (日の丸) and the Kimigayo107(君が代).
The aim of that law was to protect the national unity of Japan. Several institutes were
created to supervise the way of thinking of students and to influence them to follow the
national policy. The law of 1925 could be used and abused to suppress any movement or
action that was against those in power. It was immediately used to arrest several persons
during the Kyoto Case of the Student Federation. From then onwards it was obvious that
education was a form of propaganda. From the thirties more and more right winged
student organizations were set up. These were tolerated because of their explicit patriotic
and nationalistic ideas.
From 1925 the number of hours of physical education was augmented from three to five
hours and it became possible to for military drills to be introduced.108 In the same year a
law came into force stating that military officers would be sent to high schools to
105
Richard J. Smethurst, A Social Basis for Prewar Japanese Militarism: The Army and the Rural
Community, p.37.
106
Hinomaru (日の丸 )the Rising Sun flag of prewar Japan
107
108
Kimigayo (君が代） the national anthem
32
organize the military drills. To strengthen the national feeling of unity, classes as moral,
Japanese, Chinese classic history and geography were revised. In 1926, the course
‘Japanese history’ was revised to ‘Japanese national history’. In secondary schools, the
hours of chemistry and physics lectures increased. Also in the curriculum good civil
values were stressed constantly. The number of universities increased which reached 19
state universities by 1940. Private schools that wanted to have the statute of universities
had to meet strict standards. Waseda (早稲田大学)was such an example. Anything that
did not follow the nationalistic course was not accepted.
Japan’s light industry leaped forward thanks to the economical profits made during the
First World War and much attention was paid to manual labor. Slowly heavy industry
became more important. 109 Consequently, the number of schools and students of
technical and vocational training increased spectacularly. Class hours were reduced to
leave more space for practical training. In the morning there were classes but the
afternoon was devoted to practical applications. In 1929 a Social Education Bureau was
established under the Ministry of Education. It was in charge of both vocational schools
and youth training centers. In these training centers military drills were part of the
program.
Although Japan showed at first interest in democratic ideas after the First World War,
these ideals were quickly replaced by ideas of nationalism and the feeling of unity under
the symbol of the Emperor.
The Ministry of Education worked together with the Ministry of Defense. Therefore
mental and physical disciplines were stressed. Military drill in the public schools is
under the joint control of the war office and the education office110 to create good citizens
which are good soldiers and vice versa. Moral and physical education became an
important part of the curriculum. For the boys, the military drill was introduced.
109
Makato Aso, Ikuo Amano, Education and Japan’s Modernization, p.39.
110
33
In a nutshell, prewar education is viewed as nationalistic and militaristic… it was
111
accountable for contributing to Japanese militarism and imperialism.
3.2.3. Textbooks: a tool for nationalism
As stated above, textbooks were used to create a feeling of national unity. Hence they
were not always truthful because they needed to shape whole generations of citizens who
needed to believe in a unified Japan. Because the Japanese ruling class was using these
textbooks to construct a unified national consciousness,…112
History was adapted to fit the needs of those in power. We will take the case of Prince
Shōtoku Taishi(聖徳太子) as an example. By looking more closely at this case, we want
to point out that everything that could be used to support Japan’s unity and warfare was
used.
Prince Shōtoku was an old symbol who became a new hero. Prince Shōtoku lived from
572 to 622 when he died of sickness. He is one of Japan’s greatest heroes.113 He was
revered as a statesman and promulgator of Buddhism. To promote Buddhism at that time
in a country with already existing kami, the Buddhist priest portrayed the Buddhas as
superior kami.114 How could this historical figure who promoted Buddhism be used in a
time of upcoming war when Shintō(神道) was venerated?
Prince Shōtoku is credited of writing the constitution of seventeen articles.115 In 1903 a
textbook called the Shōgaku Nihon rekishi(小学日本歴史) was published. According to
this textbook, the constitution was the basis of Japan’s morality. Another textbook, the
Jinjō shōgaku Nihon rekishi(尋常小学日本歴史) of 1909 stressed even more the idea of
Prince Shōtoku being a nationalistic figure. The tendency to emphasize the Prince’s
nationalism was retained in later textbooks. 116 In the textbook Jinjō shōgaku kokushi(尋
常小学国史), published in 1920, this idea was repeated and further stressed. Shōtoku
111
Ellis S. Kraus, Thomas P. Rohlen en Patricia G. Steinhoff, Conflict in Japan, p.155.
112
113
114
Ibid. p.58.
115
Ibid. p.60.
116
34
had angered the Chinese Emperor by addressing him in a letter with the greetings “from
the Son of Heaven in the land where the sun rises to the Son of Heaven in the land where
117
the sun sets.” This has been remembered as the first clear expression of Japan’s
national identity. This was commentated in the textbook as: “What a noble action!”118
These books weren’t teaching history anymore, they had become a form of propaganda
against the enemy, molding a new generation’s brain little by little. For scholars, the
greeting of the Prince was a proof of his nationalistic spirit.119
Shōtoku’s nationalism was especially stressed after the occupation of Manchuria in 1931.
The Shōgaku kokushi(小学国史) of 1940 emphasized even more the Prince’s nationalism.
“He showed how powerful our nation was.” Through history, the Prince was known as
one of the biggest advocates of Buddhism. The Shotō-ka kokushi(初等科国史) of 1943
on the contrary followed the tendency of the war period. It stated: “The prince ardently
worshipped the gods [kami], following the example of the emperor…”120 History was
being used for the cause of the Empire. Its academic neutrality was lost.
These textbooks are clear marks in the shift of ideology. At the end of the Edo period,
Prince Shōtoku was despised by nationalistic intellectuals. They argued that he upset the
country by introducing Buddhism in Japan. A half century later he was seen as a national
symbol and his image being a part of Shintō and the modern imperial tradition.
The general interest in the Shōtoku came after 1903. It was the 1300th anniversary of his
constitution of seventeen articles. It peaked again in 1921, the 1300th anniversary of his
death. Previously he had been perceived as the introducer of Buddhism. But from
around the time of the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) his statesmanship was
underlined. This new image fitted better with the rising nationalism in the country.121
Article three of his constitution became more and more exposed. The article demanded
obedience to the throne.122 During a period of complete obedience to the emperor, this
historical fact was stressed. As such, his patriotic image was strengthened. Ōkawa
117
118
119
Ibid. p.45.
120
Ibid. p.40.
121
Ibid. p.42.
122
35
Shūmei( 大川周明 )(1886-1957) was a right-wing politician. He approved the
expansionistic cause in Manchuria and the rest of Asia. He wrote a passage in Nihon
nisenroppyaku-nen shi(日本二千六百年史) of 1941 in which he bends history for his
own suiting. The book celebrated the mythical 2006th anniversary of the imperial state.
Prince Shōtoku’s role as introducer of Buddhism was remodeled into a way that he
seemed a supporter of Shinto and the worship of the Emperor.123 Prince Shōtoku became
a symbol of the national spirit in a time of national crisis during the 1930s. It was one of
the many factors that helped unify the country. Prince Shōtoku’s image was revised
profoundly in Japan’s modern period.124
Similarly, budō had to adapt to the needs of the moment. Jūdō and kendō became part of
the school curriculum as a way of training the youth. Especially karate, with its foreign
roots had to undergo adjustments, so it would fit with the thinking of that time, in a
similar way as that we have seen with Prince Shōtoku. This will be discussed in the last
chapter.
3.3. Bushidō and Budō: the heritage of the samurai
During the Meiji period (1868-1912) the samurai class was abolished and thus their way
of living stopped suddenly. The carrying of two swords and the chongmage (top-knot
hairstyle) became forbidden. Eventually the last samurai died a heroic death against the
troops of the emperor during the battle of Kagoshima(鹿児島) in 1877, under the
leadership of Saigō Takamori (西郷隆盛).125
Bushidō is the code of the samurai. The samurai died out, but their spirit of bushidō,
survived. It is considered to be the finest example of Yamato damashii (大和魂), the
Japanese spirit.126 According to this code, the highest honor is to die for your master.
This attitude eventually became part of life of the common people during the wars from
the Meiji and the following periods. The martial arts of these samurai, called in Japanese
123
124
Ibid., p.47.
125
126
Patrick McCarthy, Ancient Okinawan Martial Arts: Koryu Uchinadi, p.72.
36
bugei, would become the foundation of the budō, martial ways. Henceforth we will in
general refer to budō as martial arts.127 These budō were made during the Meiji period
and the pre-World War II period. So the “ancient” Japanese martial arts date back from
the period128 between 1868 and 1973. During this period the modern kendō (fencing),
jūdō , archery(kyūdō, 弓道), halberd fencing (naginatadō, 長刀道), bayonet-mounted
fencing （ jūkendō, 銃剣道） and karate-dō were created. 129 Through these arts,
education and propaganda, the spirit of bushidō was transmitted among the common
people. The qualities of virtue, value, discipline and glory in sacrificing oneself for the
master, became common ground. It was a small step to change “master” into “emperor”.
This bushidō spirit was thus very important in the wars Japan became involved in,
including World War II. The infamous Kamikaze(神風) attacks are the most prominent
examples of the bushidō spirit.130
Budō encouraged shugyō (austerity) and won widespread popularity in Japan

during an age of escalating militarism131.
There are many anecdotes from the wars about the Japanese courage based on bushidō.132
Probably the most important factor of the mental strength of the Japanese army was this
spirit. Japanese often chose to fight to their death or commit suicide rather than being
captured. 133 To support this statement, Ruth Benedict compares the amount of those
Japanese captured to the number of those that died. In the North Buruma campaign, this
would be 1:120. Thus for each prisoner captured, one hundred and twenty would fight to
the death, but in the armies of Occidental nations this ratio was 4:1.134 This enormous
difference is attributed to the belief of the Japanese in their emperor, as seen above, and
the warrior code.
127
Bugei and budō are both names for martial arts. The first is a term used for martial arts were its aim was
to prepare for real combat. The second term was used for martial arts where the objective is to build a
strong body and character. These were mostly developed based on bugei.
128
129
130
Douglas Brinkley, Michael E. Haskew, The World War II Desk Reference, p.287.
131
Ibid. p.73.
132
David Boyle, De Tweede Wereldoorlog In Foto’s, p.448.
133
Douglas Brinkley, Michael E. Haskew, The World War II Desk Reference, p.427.
134
37
3.4. The Dai Nippon Butoku-kai: the center of Japanese Budō
The Dai Nippon Butoku-kai was created in Kyoto in 1895, during the Meij period. From
1895 until 1945, all Japanese martial arts fell under the jurisdiction of the Dai Nippon
Butoku-kai. This institute was of tremendous importance to the development of the budō.
As we have seen above, the ideal of the Emperor, education and bushidō were all
fundaments of the Japanese “spirit”. These elements were all integrated in the
organization of the Dai Nippon Butoku-kai. The institute was only accountable to the
emperor and his administration, and was supported by the bureaucrats, the Ministry of
Education and the military. It was built at a time when Japan became involved in a war
with China. Like many other organizations at that time, the Dai Nippon Butoku-kai had a
strong affiliation with nationalism and the Emperor. With its idealistic vision, it would
actively take part in the preparation of Japan’s wars.
3.4.1. The Dai Nippon Butoku-kai’s link with the Emperor
The organization created a strong connection with the image of the emperor. It had the
aim to build strength, a strong spirit, and virtuous characters. These are all qualities that
were encouraged by Japan’s fiftieth emperor Kanmu (A.D. 781-805). The Dai Nippon
Butoku-kai took Kanmu as its patron. Here already we can see the affiliation between
budō, the martial arts, and the emperor.
The Dai Nippon Butoku-kai was authorized by the government to promote budō. On the
fifth of September in 1896, Emperor Meiji selected Komatsumiya Akihito(小松宮彰仁),
a member of the Imperial family, as the first general director of the Dai Nippon Butoku-
kai. Shortly hereafter the Dai Nippon Butoku-kai held its first Butoku-sai（武徳祭）, a
martial arts festival. The membership grew and the association received financial support
from the government and from the emperor.135 The construction of the Butokuden（武
徳殿）, the official training hall of the Dai Nippon Butoku-kai, was finished in 1899. It
was located close to a Heian Shrine, near to Kyoto’s Imperial Palace grounds. These
135
38
three buildings symbolize some of the important factors for the successes of the wars: the
belief in the bushidō spirit, the Shintō religion and the emperor veneration. In 1906,
Fushinomiya(伏見宮), also a member of the imperial family, became the second general
manager of the Dai Nippon Butoku-kai. One year later, in 1907, the Dai Nippon Butoku-
kai became a Foundation.
Figure 2: Dai Nippon Butoku-kai insigna
The Dai Nippon Butoku-kai insignia is shaped in an eight-point chrysantemum. This

flower is associated with the emperor and is regarded as a national flower. The
background is purple, again, a color associated with the emperor. In the lower part we
can see a bow and two arrows, symbolizing the first line of defense in feudal times.
3.4.2. Contribution for war
In 1911 the Dai Nippon Butoku-kai, with the cooperation of the Ministry of Education,
introduced kendō and jūdō into secondary schools. Jūdō136 and kendō137 are a heritage of
Japan’s warrior class. They have evolved from the samurai’s jū-jutsu and ken-jutsu.
During a period of rising militarism, from the Meiji period up till World War II, budō
was a perfect tool for the government. Kendō and jūdō served to build strong bodies and
spirits for Japan’s war machine.
Modern budō flourished in Japan’s school system, signifying the value the
government was placing upon budō training.138
136
柔道
Jūdō ( ) is a Japanese grappling art.
137
138
剣道
Kendō( ) is the art of Japanese fencing.
39
In 1911, the Dai Nippon Butoku-kai opened its martial arts college, next to the
Butokuden. Its name changed later from ‘Bujutsu Senmon Gakkō’ (武術専門学校)to
‘Budō Senmon Gakkō’(武道専門学校). The difference in the name is in the accent on
‘jutsu’ meaning ‘skill’ or ‘dō’ signifying ‘the way, road’ referring more to character
building. Isogai Hajime(磯貝一), who was the greatest follower of Kanō Jigorō, the
creator of jūdō, was the director of the jūdō department. Naito Takaharu(内藤高治), was
in charge of kendō. Next to jūdō and kendō, military strategy, history, philosophy and
other related subjects were taught. The graduates were seen as the elite of that period.
They were forged to become Japan’s new military mind.139 The Dai Nippon Butoku-kai
actively supported the Japanese war machine. They spread the idea of “Budō is the way
common men build uncommon bravery. The organization was a grand supporter of the
ideas of shushin(主審), kokutai(国体), and Nihonjinron(日本人論) (in general, the idea
of support of the nation’s system, emperor worship, lifetime loyalty and things
‘Japanese’).
The Dai Nippon Butoku-kai organized in 1941 a committee to follow the evolution of
different budō groups. The next year, with the beginning of the war, the Dai Nippon
Butoku-kai was put under supervision of the ministries of welfare, education, war, navy
and national affairs.140 Prime Minister Tōjō Hideki served as head of the Dai Nippon
Butoku-kai during the war years.
3.4.3. After World War II
With the end of the war in 1945, the Dai Nippon Butoku-kai was dissolved. Obviously
the abolishment of this organization was one of the first actions taken by the Allied
Forces.141 The occupation forces wanted to ban everything that was considered to be part
of militarism.142
139
140
Ibid., p.77.
141
Ibid.
142
Edward Adriaensens, Dimitri Vanoverbeke, Op Zoek Naar Het Nieuw Japan, p.38.
40
In 1946, the Education Ministry was put in charge of budō, but it could only be used as a
means of physical education within schools. The same year, officials who had been part
of the Dai Nippon Butoku-kai, succeeded in reinstating the organization. But the Allied
Forces ended this resurrection very quickly in fear of a possible rebirth of militarism.
The Dai Nippon Butoku-kai hence did not exist during the seven years of American
occupation. Its headquarter, the Butokuden, was used from 1945 till 1950 by the Allied
Forces. Afterwards it was also used by the Legal Affairs and Finance Ministries. Then it
was used by the Kyoto Police Department and finally by the Tokyo Municipal Koto
Association143. In 1970 it was declared as a national treasure and restored to its original
form in 1987.
In 1953 the Dai Nippon Butoku-kai was reorganized and privately funded. The
management consisted of prewar members. Again a member of the imperial family
served as a patron. Higashifushimi(東伏見)fulfilled this role. Ono Kumao, a skillful
swordsman became the leading figure of the Dai Nippon Butoku-kai. It was located
close to its original site. The Dai Nippon Butoku-kai received permission to use the
Shoren Temple(青蓮院)in Kyoto’s Higashi Yama-Ku(京都東山区), Awahta Guchi
（粟田口）, up until today.144 Nowadays, the Dai Nippon Butoku-kai is no longer in
charge of all the budō. There are many more commercial associations who share the
control of all Japanese budō.
3.5. Conclusion
Within a couple of decades since the beginning of the Meiji Period, Japan developed into
a strong nation. This thesis does not allow for the space to examine every single aspect
that contributed to this evolution. We briefly mentioned in this chapter some important
factors that enforced the Japanese nationalistic spirit. In the first part we saw haw the
figure of the Emperor was transformed into a powerful symbol for Japan’s war machine
through the Meiji Constitution. These ideas became widespread through the educational
143
144
琴
Koto ( )is a thirteen-stringed traditional Japanese instrument.
41
system. The schools molded the brains of the new generation for its militaristic purposes.
The introduction of budō at the schools, due to the Dai Nippon Butoku-kai, was not only
done for strengthening the bodies of the young generation. Its main objective was to
teach through jūdō and kendō the spirit of bushidō, the way of the warrior. This spirit
would serve the militaristic nation well. We can see in the adaptation of martial arts at
school the importance the national government placed upon them. The martial arts would
create good citizens that would do whatever the nation would demand of them.145
It is the spirit of the Japanese race which sustains them in adversity and spurs
them on to the attainment of their objectives. This human strength and hard work
compensate for the Japanese for their lack of many material resources.146
The Dai Nippon Butoku-kai was an institution that gathered all the budō. The
organization was very nationalistic in nature and so would all budō that would fall under
its wings. The Dai Nippon Butoku-kai’s link with the Emperor was displayed in many
ways: the insignia had royal colors, the patron of the institution was the Emperor Kanmu
and a member of the Imperial family served as the first general director. Due to its
militaristic support, the organization was abolished by the American occupation forces.
The impact of the Dai Nippon Butoku-kai and nationalism on karate will be discussed in
the last chapter. Before that, we have to look at the historical context of karate’s cultural
roots: Okinawa.
145
146
42
Chapter 4: Okinawa, a dwarf between giants
We have to look at the history of Okinawa to demonstrate how different the original
karate was from its Japanese derivative version. In short, the traditional karate was
developed under Chinese influence whilst the current version took shape under Japan’s
reign.
Toudi(唐手), later known as karate, was introduced into the Japanese mainland in the
1920s-1930s. However no foreign elements were tolerated during this period of rising
militarism and “Japanisation”.147 Hence typical traits of the Okinawan culture had to be
modified to become more Japanese. This was not an exception as any other aspect of life
was also “purified”. The mentality was “If it wasn’t Japanese, it wasn’t good”. This
even lasted after the wars as the tendency still exists to ”Japanize” facts. For example,
the technological improvement of ceramic in Japan of the sixteenth century which is
credited to the Koreans, is still ignored in some textbooks.148
The Japanese culture is known for its ability to absorb and modify foreign elements and
to incorporate it as a part of their own culture. The best known examples are the
introduction of Chinese characters together with Buddhism. As such they combined the
foreign writing system with their own spoken language, added some extra readings and
developed new symbols. Also Buddhism, which was introduced in the late fifth or the
early sixth century, was adapted to fit Japan’s culture.149
Karate underwent a very similar story. It was a martial art developed in the small
Ryūkyū kingdom(ryūkyū ōkoku,琉球王国). Later on, this kingdom became part of Japan,
and the martial art was introduced in the mainland. In the 1960s this Japanese martial art
spread all over the world. But the real origin of this martial art can be found in Okinawa.
This martial art was forged under influence of the Chinese onto the Ryūkyū kingdom and
would later become a part of the Japanese war machine against China.
147
148
149
43
Figure 3: Okinawa and its neighbors
4.1. The Ryūkyū
To understand the evolution of karate we have to look at the history of the small islands
of the Ryūkyū archipelago. These small islands are located between two big nations:
China and Japan. Karate was shaped under the influence of Chinese martial arts. Later
many of the Chinese elements were removed before karate could be accepted as a
Japanese budō during a period of rising animosity between the two great nations. Karate
44
was forged in the fire of the Ryūkyū150 kingdom, between the Japanese hammer and the
Chinese anvil.
4.1.1. Common roots with Japan
During the antique migrations, some people travelled through the Ryūkyū to reach their
end destination, Japan. Hence it should not be a surprise that the Ryūkyū culture and
Japanese culture have some common roots. Even the language has common aspects,
according to the linguist, Hattori Shirō (服部四郎). 151
From the Yayoi period(弥生時代), between the end of the third century B.C. until the
third century A.C., communications between the Ryūkyū and Japan diminished to a
minimum. Japan became strongly influenced by China and entered the age of iron but
the Ryūkyū remained isolated. Japan evolved under Chinese influence. It took over for
example the Chinese model of ‘State’ for its own nation. Since that time the cultures of
the Japanese and the Ryūkyū became more and more different. The differences between
the Ryūkyū and Japan are therefore mainly due to their different speed of cultural
evolution. The culture of the Ryūkyū hardly evolved up until the 11th century when it
introduced iron from Japan. 152 The local lords would use it for the basis of every
developed culture: war. The introduction of iron was followed with the introduction of
Buddhism and writing.
4.1.2. Contact with China
4.1.2.1 The three kingdoms
Conflicts between the local lords in the Ryūkyū resulted in three small states by the end
of the 14th century: Hokuzan(北山), Chūzan(中山) and Nanzan(南山) (from north to
150
Shunten is the first king of the Ryūkyū in 1187. In 1879, the kingdom will be abolished, becoming a
province of Japan, Okinawa. Historians not always distinguish the historical connotation given to
‘Ryūkyū’ and ‘Okinawa’. I will in general use the term ‘Okinawa’, as the term is used nowadays to refer to
the southern province, unless I want to stress the historical period.
151
Kenji Tokitsu, Storia Del Karate: La Via Del La Mano Vuota, p.17.
152
Ibid.
45
south). This period was called the Period of the three mountains: Sanzan-jidai(三山時
代). 153 During this period each king established his first official contacts with the
Chinese Ming dynasty but King Satto(察度) of Chūzan was the first to have a vassal
relationship with China. This was also a first step for the introduction of martial arts
from China. During the Sanzan-jidai, the society of Okinawa evolved rapidly under the
influence of the Chinese culture. This evolvement however started later than in Japan.
Between 1372 and 1866 at least 23 Chinese delegations visited the Ryūkyū kingdom. In
fact, a delegation came each time there was a new king. Delegations could be as big as
five hundred men, consisting of civilian functionaries and military and they would stay
between 3 to 10 months. During these visits, martial arts were transferred.154
4.1.2.2. Kumemura(久米村): the Chinese village
In 1392, under the reign of king Satto, a group of Chinese immigrants settled in the
village of Kume.155 This group consisted of “the 36 families” and made the relationship
stronger between the Ryūkyū and the Ming dynasty. The group lived in a closed society
and benefited from many privileges. They practised martial arts in secrecy and thus
would play a key role in the development of karate.156
4.1.2.3. The Ryūkyū kingdom
In 1429 the three kingdoms were unified by Chūzan. Nowadays we can still recognize
the three kingdoms in the regions Kunigami( 国頭 ) (Hokuzan), Nakagami( 中頭 )
(Chūzan) and Shimajiri(島尻) (Nanzan).157 With the unification by Shō Hashi(尚色志),
“the first Shō clan” controlled the local lords but soon conflicts rose within the Shō
family.
153
154
Ibid. p.19.
155
Rosa Caroli, Il Mito Dell’ Omogeneità Giapponsese: Storia Di Okinawa, p.43.
156
157
46
This ended in 1469 when Kanamaru(金丸) took power under the name Shō En(尚円).
This would be the “second Shō clan” which ruled the islands till the end of the 19th
century.158
His son, Shō Shin would succeed in building a strong centralized state. He placed his
government at Shuri(首理) and obliged all the local lords to set up their residence in the
same location. 159 This was very similar to the sankin kōtai(参勤交代) 160 system in
Japan.161
4.1.2.3.1. An ‘armless’ nation
In 1509 the Shuri castle was built under his reign. At the inside of the central building
there is a monument with eleven inscriptions. The fourth inscription states that the king
Shō Shin(尚真) had gathered all the weapons to protect the country.162 Consequently the
entire population was disarmed. Thus the first disarmament was not made by a foreign
power but by Okinawa’s own king. The disarmament was aimed to weaken the local
lords but hardly affected the population.163 And so, it would be a mistake to interpret the
birth of karate as a result from a revolt by the population against Shō Shin. This
disarmament made it possible to develop a martial art with empty hands. However many
books and websites erroneously state that karate was developed against the suppression
by a foreign invasion.
Later, under the rule of Satsuma, there would be a second abolition of weapons. This
could have been the basis of the theory of the foreign invasion being the cause of the
development of karate. We will look more closely at this in the next paragraph.
158
159
160
参勤交代
Sankinkōtai ( )is the system in which the military government orders the local lords to leave
their families in Edo and that the lord himself had to alternate his residence every other year between Edo
and their homes. This hostage system would also financially drain the lords, leaving them without the will
to resist the military government.
161
162
163
47
The 10th and the 11th inscription inside the main building of the Shuri castle states that
Shō Shin had modified the life style of his people and changed his castle and palace
according to a Chinese model. This is interesting for a comparison with the karate in the
prewar period of the 20th century. During the period of the Ryūkyū kingdom, karate was
developed in a peaceful environment. It was neither a result of war nor of revolution, but
the result of a peaceful blending of two cultures. It was also an art of the elite and trained
in secrecy. In contracts, the 20th century prewar variant was a popular version open to the
public. It spread in a period of animosity and xenophobia and it would become part of
the Japanese war machine against China.
4.1.2.3.2. Satsuma’s invasion
The people of the Ryūkyū are often considered as extremely kind and peaceful. There is
an interesting anecdote from the canons of the small Kingdom to illustrate this point. In
1466 some officials of the Ryūkyū kingdom visited the government of the Shōgun at
Kyōto(京都). While leaving the palace, they fired a couple of shots as a sign of gratitude.
The Japanese were utterly surprised. The use of gunpowder had already reached the
Ryūkyū thanks to the relationship with China, but it was never developed as a means for
war. The use of gunpowder as a means for war was only introduced in Japan, together
with guns, in 1543 by the Portuguese. In 1609 Satsuma(薩摩), a southern province of
Japan, invaded the Ryūkyū kingdom, by means of guns. 164 The small kingdom was
squashed easily by the superior Japanese warriors. The invasion resulted in 57 deaths at
the side of Satsuma and 531 deaths on the part of Ryūkyū as the people and nobles had
little or no arms.
We can look again at the claim that karate was developed against the invaders. Karate
was not destined for the peasant inhabitants. Up to 1879 it was a privilege reserved for
the nobles, who practiced it in the utmost secrecy.165 Thus during the confrontation with
Satsuma the inhabitants hardly stood a chance.
164
165
Mark Bisshop, Karate Di Okinawa: Maestri, Stili e Techniche Segrete, p.12.
48
4.1.2.3.3. Two bosses, China and Japan
The Ryūkyū lived during centuries under a double submission. It was a vassal of China
but was invaded by Satsuma. As such, it was also under control of Japan at a period
when Japan was closed for all foreign nations. Indeed, the Shōgun was scared that
western nations would send in first their missionaries, and later the army to create a
colony. However due to the Ryūkyū, Satsuma still had some contacts with foreign
nations. It is important to stress that Satsuma did not mingle with the culture of the small
islands. On the contrary, they wanted the islands looked as foreign as possible, so that
they could display that they had conquered a foreign nation.166
Satsuma allowed the small kingdom to continue its mercantile relationship with China
but concealed its own presence when the Chinese delegation was present.167 In this way,
Satsuma could benefit from the imported foreign goods, indirectly through the
Ryūkyū.168
4.2. Okinawa
The Ryūkyū kingdom would undergo enormous changes from 1872 until the Second
World War. We have observed before how the kingdom became dependent of Satsuma,
and therefore of Japan. At that time, the culture and customs of the kingdom were left
almost untouched. This attitude would completely change in the last two centuries. The
Meiji government wanted to demolish the unequal treaties and therefore had to present
itself as a strong and modernized nation. Japan wanted to make clear borders and the
Ryūkyū kingdom would become part of it. However before the kingdom could be called
“Japanese” it had to get rid of all its foreign elements so that its people could become
loyal subjects of the empire.
166
167
George H. Kerr, Okinawa: The History of an Island People, p.164.
168
49
4.2.1. From a kingdom to a province
4.2.1.1. From kingdom to han(藩)
In the Meiji period, Japan was trying to create a strong and unified state. The Ryūkyū
had been under control of Satsuma since 1609. Satsuma was part of Japan and therefore
the Ryūkyū should be too.169
The Japanese government sent a letter in 1872 to Shuri to invite the king Shō Tai（尚
泰） to Tokyo to present himself to the new Emperor Meiji. The objective was a public
submission by the leader of the Ryūkyū to the Emperor.170 However the invitation was
declined with the excuse that the king was ill. A small delegation was sent instead.171
Shortly after their arrival, the delegation received an imperial edict. It stated that the
people of the Ryūkyū belonged to same race and had the same language and customs as
the Japanese. Shō Tai would be given one of the highest ranks of nobility, namely, the
leader of the han of the Ryūkyū. In this way, Shō Tai was no longer the sovereign of an
independent state, but an administrator of a small part of a great nation. Approximately
two weeks later, a second edict was presented that subjected the Ryūkyū under the
jurisdiction of the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Thereby, the area was subjected
to all the agreements made with foreign nations, like the United States, the Netherlands
and France.172
In 1873 the Hinomaru, the Japanese flag, was introduced. It had a double function. First,
to show the world that Okinawa was part of the Japanese territory and second, that
inhabitants had to be loyal to the Emperor and the Japanese nation.173 For Satsuma, this
was particularly painful as they had lost all their privileges to the empire. This imperial
edict of 1872 was the first step towards the annexation of the Ryūkyū.174
169
170
171
172
Ibid. p.87.
173
Ibid. p.140-141.
174
Ibid. p.86.
50
4.2.1.2. The Taiwan expedition of 1874: scaring away China
The king of Ryūkyū did not obey the letter that was sent to him. This act of disrespect, in
the eyes of the Japanese, created a delicate situation.175 It did not coincide with the idea
of Japan’s unified race.176 This was a serious problem for the Meiji government, which
was trying to build relationships with the strong West. 177 An incident happened that
would forever change the future of the small kingdom.
In 1871 a ship of the Ryūkyū was wrecked at sea. The sailors were stranded in Taiwan
and there the locals slaughtered fifty four of them. The wrecking of a ship on the coast of
China was a rather common incident, but this time, the Meiji government used it as an
excuse to interfere. This interference of Japan would have great consequences on the
relationship between China and the Ryūkyū. 178 Around 1873 there was an internal
conflict in Japan on the issue whether it should invade Korea (seikanron, 征韓論). The
Taiwan incident arrived in time to channel the frustration of the ex-samurai. In 1874 the
decision was made to send an expedition to Taiwan under the command of Saigō
Tsugumichi(西郷従道), the brother of Saigō Takamori(西郷隆盛)179.180 The Japanese
government sent an expedition to punish the locals of Taiwan who had slaughtered
shipwrecked sailors of Okinawa. The expedition had been legitimized by the Meiji
leaders claiming that the victims were “Japanese subjects”. During that same year, the
Ryūkyū’s case was replaced by Japan from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to the
Ministry of Internal Affairs.181 The sailors of the Taiwan incident of 1871 were viewed
as heroes by the Japanese government. They had given their lives in service of the state
and the Emperor.182 This caused confusion in China about the nationality of the victims
and resulted in the end of the tribute relationship between China and Okinawa. China
objected weakly but Japan had won the dispute. China finally paid a sum to Tokyo
175
176
177
Ibid. p.85.
178
Ibid. p.88-89.
179
Saigō Takamori was the leader of the rebel army of samurai against the imperial troops in the battle of
Kagoshima in 1877. The battle was lost by the rebels, ending forever the age of the samurai.
180
181
Ibid. p.95.
182
Ibid. p.130.
51
intended for the family of the victims. By paying the sum to Japan, China had in fact
admitted that the Ryūkyū belonged to Japan. The expedition of 1874 was one of the first
steps Japan took for the expansion of its empire. It opened the way for the complete
annexation of the kingdom.183
4.2.1.3. From han to a province
The Ryūkyū maintained unofficially its relationships with China, even after that China
had recognized the sailors as “Japanese subjects” and the Ryūkyū had become a han.
This was most embarrassing for Japan. This not only brought doubt on the jurisdiction of
Japan but also dented the Japanese pride that was linked with the Emperor.184 Shō Tai
was asked to present himself at Tokyo as a sign of gratitude for the actions Japan took for
the sailors.185 The king did not obey.
Matsuda Michiyuki(松田道之) was given the task to go to Ryūkyū and inform them
about the new rules that Japan would lay down on the kingdom. They were forbidden to
send tributes to China. The Chinese calendar was abolished and from then on they had to
use the Japanese system. They had to adopt the Japanese penal system. About ten young
students had to be sent to receive education in Tokyo. The office of the Ryūkyū in Fujian,
a province of China, had to be abolished. The king of the Ryūkyū han had to go to
Tokyo to show his sign of gratitude. A Japanese garrison would be located on the
island.186 The Ryūkyū government did not want to break its relationship with China.
Resistance followed, especially from Kumemura. This was the village that was
established in the 15 century where some Chinese had received power and prestige.187
th
Matsuda Michiyuki reported in Tokyo how the mission went. Shō Tai refused to give his
respects to the Japanese Emperor. This offended the Emperor and the national system he
stood for.188 At the same moment, the Ryūkyū sought foreign aid for their cause. China
and Ulysses Grant, the ex-president of the United States, were asked for help.
183
Rosa Caroli, Il Mito Dell’ Omogeneità Giapponsese: Storia Di Okinawa, p.93-95.
184
185
186
187
Ibid. p.375.
188
52
Japan wanted to quickly abolish the han and change it into a province(ken,県). By
changing the Ryūkyū han into a ken they wanted to confront China and Grant with a fait
accompli. Namely, that the islands were already a part of the national territory of
Japan.189
Matsuda would return to the Ryūkyū, accompanied with a vast police force and a
document. The document of 11 March 1879 declared the abolishment of the Ryūkyū han.
From now on it would be known as Okinawa ken. Shō Tai had to go to Tokyo where he
would receive a rank of high status after he formally submitted himself to the Emperor.
He would stay there till his death in 1901. This measure is known as the Ryūkyū
shobun.190 This annexation of 1879 was the first step of Japan’s expansion towards
191
Asia.
In 1879, the ex-president of the United States Grant, together went to Tokyo to discuss
the annexation of the Ryūkyū but in the end, China accepted the fact of the annexation.
China’s lack of intervention in favor of the Ryūkyū can be explained by its economic
interest. The Ryūkyū were neither of great economical nor of strategical importance to
China but its other tributary states were of more importance. China, as we have seen in
the first chapter, was much more willing to defend its stakes in Korea, Taiwan and
Vietnam.192
4.2.2. The historical importance of the Ryūkyū shobun(琉球処分)
Ryūkyū shobun is the term given to the actions that the Meiji government took against
the Ryūkyū in the period 1872 to 1879. In 1872 they made Shō Tai the head of the
Ryūkyū han. From then on the many actions resulted in the creation of the province of
189
Ibid. p.100.
190
Ibid. p.101.
191
Ibid. p.81.
192
Ibid. p.104-105.
53
Okinawa in 1879.193 The Ryūkyū shobun was an act of the Meiji government which
wanted to improve the international prestige of Japan.194
The period of the Ryūkyū annexation was a period of transformation of Japan. It just had
left the feudal society and put its first steps in the modern world.195. Japan was trying to
create a strong nation with its place in the world. To do so, it looked for internal
stabilization, uniformization, and prestige from the world.196 The newly annexed Ryūkyū
had to be molded into this ideal of a uniformal nation.
The abolition of the Ryūkyū han and the proclamation of Okinawa ken would introduce a
new period for the islands. The old traditions and habits had to adapt to the imposed
Japanese administration. The administration had only one aim: creating a unified, strong
and modern country. Everything had to adapt to the national interests.
4.3. The ”Japanization” of Okinawa
The “Japanization” of Okinawa after 1879 was part of the unification and strengthening
of Japan as seen by the Meiji leaders on the basis of a “homogenous” race. Shintō,
nationalistic ideas, the Emperor cult and education all served that purpose.
The Meiji government was trying to create a unified state, limiting the differences
between the regions as much as possible. It introduced an educational system, obligatory
conscription, Japanese as the official language, the national anthem and the flag and
abolished the old customs and habits.197 All traces of the past had to be eliminated, such
as the past relationship between Okinawa and China.
193
Ibid. p.101.
194
Ibid. p.107.
195
Ibid. p.102.
196
Ibid. p.108.
197
Ibid. p.128-129.
54
4.3.1. Education and the Emperor as tools for cultural assimilation
The ordinance of 1879 made schooling obligatory. This would lay the foundation for a
school system that would last until the Second World War. Indeed, education was
extremely important for creating a sense of loyalty between the regions and the central
government. It served to create a modern centralized nation.
The importance of education as a tool to assimilate the Okinawans in the Japanese culture
can not be underestimated. By using education as a tool for indoctrination, the old habits
and local cultural aspects could be eliminated. Through this, the Okinawans successfully
absorbed the idea of one unified race that was devoted completely to the Emperor.198
The “Japanization” of the Okinawan culture clearly shows that the Japanese considered
their own culture as superior.199 According to Ichiki Kitokurō(一木喜徳郎), secretary of
the Ministry of Internal Affairs who visited the province in 1894, education was the only
way to make the Okinawan culture part of the Japanese civilization. All the memories of
the past about an independent kingdom and its own unique culture had to be forgotten.
Every mark that was left of China in the Okinawan culture had to be erased. 200 The
courses of Chinese were suspended and replaced by those of the Japanese language.201
The teaching of the Japanese language was not only important for communication, but
also an important aspect of the “Japanization” of Okinawa. This uniformity in language
had to support the idea of a homogeneous race. 202 The “Japanization” included the
abolition of traditional habits and the introduction of those of the Japanese main islands.
For example, the traditional clothes had to be abandoned at school. The pupils had to
wear the same type of school uniform like the rest of Japan.203 National sports were also
introduced.204
198
199
Ibid. p.132.
200
Ibid. p.131.
201
Ibid. p.114.
202
Ibid. p.128.
203
Ibid, p.116.
204
Ibid. p.131.
55
The reforms in education did not have the aim to create an adequate educational system
for the young generation. Its main objective was to create good subjects for the kōminka
（皇民化）A good subject would support the nation and would even lay down his life if
the Emperor wished so. That educational system would spread the Emperor cult.205 The
children became completely indoctrinated about the Emperor. The students, for example,
had to bow to a picture of the Emperor every time they entered or left the school.206
When the Okinawan kids went to school they entered the Japanese world. These kids
would become the future generations who would participate in Japan’s wars. 207
Education facilitated the spread of the Shintō religion and the Emperor cult. These
elements were the foundation of the “national system”, which supported the militarism
and nationalism of the following decades. 208 The Okinawans became part of the war
machine through education.209
4.3.2. Okinawa as part of the military system
Okinawa was the most southern point of Japan and therefore of strategic importance. In
1887 the Minister of Internal Affairs, Yamagata Aritomo(山県有朋) visited Okinawa. In
the next year, Itō Hirobumi(伊藤博文) visited for a military inspection. The defensive
function of Okinawa became clear with the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895. It formed
the border closest to Taiwan. Many of the inhabitants opposed these reforms and were in
favor of China winning the war. For the security of the empire, the reform of the
province had to be executed at a fast pace.210
Obligatory military conscription was introduced in 1898, after the first war with China
was over. The conscription’s demands were placed just above the average physical
characteristics of the Okinawans. This was seen as discrimination by the Japanese
authorities to keep the number of Okinawans in the armed forces limited. Okinawa had
always been a country of diplomacy and not of military force. This was in strong
205
Ibid. p.130.
206
207
208
Ibid. p.113.
209
Ibid. p.112.
210
Ibid. p.110-111.
56
contrast with the Japanese militaristic culture. The government wanted to spread its
military culture and the national conscience that was closely linked with the figure of the
Emperor in the province. The strength of the Japanese nation can be found in the
physical and moral discipline of the military. Athletic and gymnastic courses were
introduced to improve the physical well-being and the patriotic spirit of the young
Okinawans. A higher standard of physical fitness and training was developed at
schools.211 This was an effective policy.
4.4. The years of nationalism
By the end of the 1920s, especially after the invasion of Manchuria in 1931, nationalistic
tendencies increased. This nationalism would influence Okinawa’s history strongly. The
tendency of “Japanization” that had started from 1879 would only strengthen itself
through time. Shintō, the Emperor and nationalism would be promoted through
education. These elements served the nation by unifying the Japanese under one spirit.
The traditional habits were hardly tolerated at first but would become completely
forbidden during the period of extreme nationalism.212
The Japanese state went to search for local characters who were an example of good
subjects. These people who would believe in the principals of the imperial system
tennōsei(天皇制) and kokutai (system of traditional, national government) would help
in spreading the Japanese form of education and stimulate national harmony. They
would have to fight against the “bad” old habits and promote the new ones.213 Already in
the last years of the 19th century there was a Japanese teacher, Nitta Yoshitaka(新田義尊),
who promoted the elimination of old customs in a series of articles in a magazine called
Ryūkyū kyōiku(琉球教育). She criticized people who tried to interpret the history of the
Ryūkyū as being something unique. According to her it would influence the youth in a
negative way.214 According to Nitta, the term Ryūkyū referred to the period of the period
211
212
213
Ibid. p.155.
214
Ibid. p.157.
57
of the “double subordination” and should not be used anymore.215 Ōta Chōfu(大田朝敷)
was another person who shared the same thoughts. He wanted to wipe out all habits and
local ideas in favor of the kokutai doctrine.216
Anything particular about Okinawa and its history would be seen as a threat to the
national system. Studies of the particular history of Okinawa were disapproved.
Everything that stroked against the nationalistic idea of Japan at that time was not
tolerated. 217 Even the names of people became “Japanized”. Out of fear of
discrimination several Okinawans gave up their name and substituted it for a Japanese
one.218
This complete negligence of Okinawa’s history explains why few historical books have
been written about karate219 at that time compared to the number of works about the
Japanese nationalistic sports like judō and kendō.
This process of ignoring its own culture showed its results after the First World War.
From then on, the new generation was strongly attached to the Japanese nation and its
objectives. The nationalistic propaganda had thus developed good results for Japan.
Al these tendencies finally came together in the Law of General Mobilization (kokka
sōdōinhō,国家総動員法) of 1938. Fuchigami Fusatarō(淵上房太郎), the governor of
Okinawa, declares in 1940 that all traces of the Okinawan culture should be completely
eliminated. If not, it would hamper the realization of the Imperial objectives. His
statement expresses the general spirit of that era. Japan would use everything to
strengthen its nation and would eliminate everything that would hinder the achievement
of that objective.220
4.5. Conclusion: karate in the middle of change
They Ryūkyū kingdom had close relationships with China. The rulers of the Ryūkyū
forbade weapons. In 1609, Satsuma invaded the small kingdom, putting it under the
215
Ibid. p.159.
216
Ibid. p.157-158.
217
218
219
E.J. Harrison, The Fighting Spirit of Japan, p.76.
220
58
double submission of Japan and China. For the second time the possession of weapons
were forbidden. This lack of arms would stimulate the development of unarmed combat
techniques. These were mainly introduced through the tribute relationship with China.
With the Taiwan incident of 1874, Japan was able to reshape the kingdom into a new
province. In short: the Ryūkyū kingdom became a Ryūkyū feudal in 1872, and in 1879 it
became the province Okinawa. Once it had become a part of Japan, all the non-Japanese
elements had to be eliminated to make the new province “Japanese”. It is important to
note that all these changes took place from the beginning of the Meiji period up until the
Second World War, with Japan becoming increasingly militaristic and nationalistic. At
the same time, karate stepped out of the legends and became part of Japan’s history. This
secret martial art, practiced by the nobles, would undergo a huge metamorphosis
spanning this time. In a similar way as the country in general, it had to adapt to the
situation of that time. Under pressure of the nationalistic spirit of Japan, karate changed.
The art would abandon its secrecy and nobility. It would transform from a martial art
into a form of physical education at school, just like judō and kendō in the mainland.
With the introduction of the esoteric martial art in the lives of common people, many
changes also occurred at the technical level. The dangerous techniques were modified to
become safer.
In the 1920s, the art would be introduced in the mainland. Karate was a product of a
different country that had centuries of strong Chinese influence. Japan had won the war
with China at the end of the 19th century and the friction between the two nations was
rising again around the time karate came to Japan. This foreign martial art had two
choices: stay in its current state and disappear, or “Japanize” like anything else during
221
that nationalistic period. The karate masters chose to adapt. In the following chapter
we will look more closely on how this Japanization of karate under nationalistic pressure
took place.
221
59
Chapter 5: The impact of nationalism on karate
As we have seen in the previous chapter, the Okinawa inhabitants “became Japanese”
with the transition of the Ryūkyū kingdom into the Okinawa province. Yet, they were
not treated as equals although many Okinawans strived to become good Japanese citizens.
Indeed they wanted to receive appreciation by contributing something to their new
nation: the militaristic, nationalistic Japanese empire.222
Several karate masters wanted to support this in their own way. Schools were perceived
as part of military preparation as children would become tomorrow’s soldiers. Therefore
they strived to get karate adopted into the school system. If karate would be part of the
school system, and the school system part of the military system, then karate would
become part of the ideological apparatus for mobilization to war. Thus, a cultural
product of Okinawa would support the nation.
By importing karate first in the local school system and later into Japan’s mainland,
many changes occurred to the martial art. The first changes were done by the masters to
introduce karate into the school system. Their motivation was nationalistically inspired.
The second set of changes came directly from the mainland. Under the supervision of the
Dai Nippon Butoku-kai, karate had to be “Japanized” to become officially part of the
budō. Judō was the prototype of these budō and seen as a symbol of Japan’s modern
national identity.223 In this chapter it will become clear that karate followed a similar
path of evolution as jūdō and would be strongly influenced by it.
A short comparison is given of some similarities between jūdō and karate in the outline
beneath. It is far from complete but gives a brief overview of some aspects that are
common in these arts.
222
Kenji Tokitsu, Storia del Karate: La Via della Mano Vuota, p.70.
223
60
Table 1: Characteristics of jūdō and karate compared
Jūdō Karate
Origin Jūjutsu Te, To de, Toudi
-weaponless -trained in case weapon was lost -weapons outlawed
-secrecy -only the Samurai -only the nobles
-roots -Japan -Okinawa
Innovators Kanō Jigorō Itosu Anko

-educational link -professor (Tokyo), principal of -adapts karate so it can be introduced in the
Kumamoto Fifth Higher School, Tokyo elementary school system in 1901 and in the
First Higher School, Tokyo Higher secondary schools in 1905
Normal School judō in education
system Funakoshi Gichin
-teacher at elementary school in Naha
-introduces karate in the Japanese
universities
-representatives -represents Japan at the Olympics -Funakoshi Gichin represents Okinawa in

Japan in 1922
Innovations
-publicizing - victories - Ten precepts (Tode Jukun) of karate by
-Kanō juku dōsokai zasshi, Kokushi, Anko Itosu
Jūdō, ūdō, Yūkō no katsudō, Taisei, -Ryūkyū kenpō karate, Rentan goshin karate
Sakkō by Kanō Jigorō jutsu, Ten precepts of the way of karate by
Gichin Funakoshi
-character-building and -instead of jūjutsu for close combat -instead of Toudi for close combat
educational purposes
-for everyone -at schools, universities, for big groups, -at schools, universities, for big groups
also women instead of only the samurai instead of only the elite
-free form of sparring and -randori - free from of sparring introduced by

competition Funakoshi Yoshitaka
-dan/kyū belt system -adopted to motivate the -adopted to become part of Japanese budō
customer/student
-white uniform -standardization -adopted to become part of Japanese budō
Military link -through school, to create good citizens -according to Itosu Anko’s Ten precepts of
to serve the nation, used for mobilization karate: introduction of karate to school
for war would benefit Japan’s militaristic nation
-judō as example of budō under the - Karate adapted to become part of the Dai
nationalistic Dai Nippon Butoku-kai Nippon Butoku-kai became associated
(budō associated with militarism) with militarism
-adapted by the Naval Academy -karate’s possible benefits for the nation were
first seen in draftees
Cultural myth, -“traditional” Japanese although newly -represented in Japan in the 1920s as
nationalism created in 1882 by Kanō Jigorō “traditional” Okinawan, although formalized
by Itosu Anko around end 19th, beginning
20th century
- Funakoshi Gichin “Japanified” karate by
adapting the names of techniques to the
Japanese language
-judō was used by the ones in power to -karate contributed in the same way to the
nation by shaping itself to the example of
support the nationalistic and militaristic
judō
cause through education
61
5. 1. Education
5.1.1. The Educators
Kanō Jigorō, the creator of jūdō, had an academic background. He started teaching jūdō
for the first time at the Tokyo Imperial University while he was still a graduate student.224
The Keiō University and other institutions of higher learning adopted jūdō too.225 Kanō
became a professor at the Gakushūin University, the principal of Kumamoto Fifth Higher
School, principal of Tokyo First Higher School and the principal of Tokyo Higher
Normal School. By 1911, jūdō and kendō became part of the compulsory courses due to
the link of the Dai Nippon Butoku-kai with the Ministry of Education. The basis of
jūdō’s success is that it became part of the prewar educational system. 226 The
government valued budō because it would serve the nation in creating strong bodies with
fighting spirits for Japan’s war machine.227
Toudi, the old name for karate, was practiced by the elite of Okinawa and stood as a
symbol of their rank.228 There is no historical evidence of the common belief that the
martial art had been developed by peasants to defend themselves of foreign invaders.229
The practitioners of this martial art had therefore all come from a well educated
background. Many of them showed interest in educational matters. To name a few: Itosu
Anko（糸州安恒）introduced karate in the elementary schools230, Funakoshi Gichin(船
越儀珍) was a teacher at an elementary school in Naha before he introduced karate in the
Japanese universities231, the war hero Yabu Kentsu(屋部憲通)was a professor in physical
education and military preparation, Hanashiro Chomo( 花城長茂 ) was a physical
education teacher232, Tokuda Anbun(徳田安文) was an educator at the middle school of
224
225
Ibid. p.167.
226
Ibid. p.167.
227
228
229
Ibid. p.28.
230
Ibid. p.53.
231
Ibid. p.68.
232
Ibid. p.58.
62
Shuri233, Oshiro Chojo(大城朝恕) was an instructor at the industrial high school of the
Okinawa prefecture234.
In 1901 Itosu Anko introduced karate as a form of physical education in elementary
schools. This was three years prior to the first war with China. The nationalistic spirit
was strongly felt throughout the whole nation, which inspired Itosu. In 1904 he gave a
demonstration to the inspectors and professors of physical education. One year later, in
1905, karate became part of the physical education of secondary schools in the whole
province of Okinawa.235 With the introduction of karate in the local system, karate could
contribute to the general war effort, like kendō and jūdō would do on the mainland from
1911 onwards. Through the school system, Itosu Anko saw a way how karate could
contribute to the military forces of Japan. His “ten lessons” were written in 1908 to draw
the attention of the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of War. In the conclusion he
explicitly writes what karate could contribute for the Japanese and the nation’s military:
…introduce Toudi at the local levels: namely in the elementary schools. In this
way, Toudi could be disseminated throughout the entire nation and not only
benefit people in general but also serve as an enormous asset to our military
forces.236
5.1.2. Karate modified for school
The introduction of a martial art as a form of physical education for school children was
not an easy task. In 1901, Itosu Anko introduces into the elementary schools a karate
that was especially adapted for educational purposes.237 The traditional ways of training
were altered.238 These new features were not only found in the new type of karate. Kanō
Jigorō had systemized the techniques of the old schools of jūjutsu and had introduced
233
Shoshin Nagamine, I Grandi Maestri di Okinawa, p.71.
234
Ibid. p.72.
235
236
237
238
Ibid. p.58.
63
them with new ideas to create his jūdō.239 He had developed from the jūjutsu a new type
of martial art that could be practiced safely and was suitable for the mass clientele.240 To
spread his martial art, he used every chance to publicize jūdō. His first magazine, the
Kanō juku dōsōkai zasshi(嘉納塾同窓会雑誌) was published in 1894. Soon many
others followed, such as the Yūkō no katsudō(有効の活動) and Jūdō(柔道). 241
Karate used to be a privilege for the elite. The esoteric art’s teachings took place in a
very secret way242, like the hermetic teaching traditions of the jūjutsu.243 On the other
hand, the new pedagogy of Itosu was aimed to teach big groups in schools and was
inspired on the methods of soldier formation in Japan. Karate’s trainings previously
consisted of only a few disciples guided by a master. With karate as physical education
in the schools, one teacher would shout commands to numerous students. Itosu would
also modify and create new kata specially designed for school. He divides the kata
Naifanchi（ナイファンチ） into three simplified parts and created the five Pinan（ピ
ンアン） kata, 244 which are still taught up till today. These kata, developed and
modified for school, contained more educative elements than combative elements.
Dangerous open hand techniques, like the eye jab, were replaced with simple fist
245
techniques. In the past, the kata were used to train combat techniques as a solo
exercise. Being adapted for the school system, the kata became a form of gymnastics and
lost their martial significance.
With Itosu Anko, the wall of silence was breached. He had taken karate out from its
secrecy into the open. Itosu wrote the Tode jūkun(唐手十訓) in 1908. Many masters
would follow his lead in publishing their ideas. Under Funakoshi Gichin’s name we can
find Ryūkyū Kempō to-te(琉球拳法唐手), Karate-dō Kyōhan(空手道教範),...246 Mabuni
Kenwa(摩文仁賢和) would translate the secret “bible of karate”, the Bubishi(武備誌).
He wrote many other works like Karate-jutsu(唐手術), Kōbō Jizai Goshin-jutsu Karate-
239
240
Ibid. p.164.
241
Ibid. p.169.
242
243
244
245
Ibid. p.61.
246
Shoshin Nagamine, I Grandi Maestri di Okinawa, p.92.
64
dō Kempō( 攻防自在護身術空手道拳法 ), Karate-dō Numon( 空手道入門 ),… 247
Newspapers, like the Hokushi Mainichi and the Chogoku Mainichi showed a general
interest for these publications. The once secret, orally transmitted art was now accessible
for everyone on black and white.
With the introduction of karate into the public schools, it became institutionalized. The
practitioners started to consider karate as a classical and fixed art where respect for
tradition was seen as utmost important. This can be seen as a paradox. Karate kept on
evolving although it was seen as something traditional.248 Like jūdō, it had become an
“invented tradition”.249
5.2. The link with ultra-nationalim
5.2.1. The military’s interest
The Naval Academy adopted jūdō in 1887. A couple of Kanō’s best students were
instructors. It was through this connection that jūdō could penetrate the military. The
hero of the Russo-Japanese war, Hirose Takeo, and the late secretary of the navy,
Takarabe Takeshi, were both initiated in jūdō at the Naval Academy.250 Jūdō, deriving
from the old jūjutsu, became associated with “tradition”. Therefore jūdō could be
interpreted as a useful tool for the conservative-nationalists.251 Budō, of which jūdō was
the prototype, became propagated by nationalists. The martial arts underwent a strong
growth during the 1920s and the 1930s while it became more and more associated with
Japans nationalism and militarism.252
The first interest shown from the Japanese mainland for karate was during a draft in
Okinawa.253 During the medical examination in 1891, two Okinawan recruits were found
to have outstanding physical conditions: Yabu Kentsu and Hanashiro Chomo. This was
the first time that karate became known outside Okinawa. The Imperial army was
247
248
249
250
Ibid. p.167.
251
Ibid. p.170.
252
Ibid. p.171.
253
65
interested in this local martial art because of the possibility that it may enhance the
effectiveness of Japan’s war machine, like jūdō for the Naval Academy. But eventually,
the Imperial army considered Toudi not suitable. There were several reasons. The
training methods were not standardized and therefore impractical for military preparation,
as for example in a boot-camp. In addition, the training took too much time before a
decent level was attained. As a reaction to the abandonment of the army’s interest, Itsou
Anko wanted to modernize karate into a physical exercise for schools. 254 With the
introduction of karate into the schools of Okinawa, strong characters and bodies could be
molded to be useful for the Japanese society, hence, military service.255
As we have seen above, this would alter the aim and way of teaching. The practice of
karate had greatly improved from then on, with the emphasis on kata training to teach
large groups. With this, the interest of the army was slightly rekindled, drawing the
attention of the Dai Nippon Butoku-kai.256
5.2.2. The Dai Nippon Butoku-kai’s interest aroused
With the interest of the army and the prefectural Ministry of Education authorizing karate
to become part of the school curricula in Okinawa, the martial art became of interest to
the Butoku-kai. It was especially due to the enthusiasm of a naval officer, Rokuro
Yashiro, that interest was raised at the Dai Nippon Butoku-kai. Also in 1912, the
Imperial Navy docked in the Okinawa Nakagusuku(中城) Bay for a week of maneuvers.
The crew could then experience karate first hand. Once returned, the praise about the
Okinawan martial art was heard by the Navy. A petition was sent to Okinawa’s
Prefectural Ministry of Education, requesting a demonstration for the Dai Nippon
Butoku-kai. The Prefectural Ministry of Education sent a pupil of Itosu Anko, Funakoshi
Gichin with a small group to the mainland. On the 5th of May 1917, this small group
gave the first official demonstration of karate on the mainland at the Butokuden of the
Dai Nippon Butoku-kai.257
254
255
Ibid. p.79.
256
Ibid.
257
Ibid.
66
Although Itosu Anko modified the martial art for a wider public, it was the next
generation of masters that went to the mainland introducing the martial art. They were
Funakoshi Gichin, Motobu Choki( 本部朝基 ), Uechi Kanbun( 上地完文 ), Miyagi
Chojun(宮城長順), Mabuni Kenwa(摩文仁賢和) and Gima Shinkan(城間真繁).
5.3. The Dai Nippon Butoku-kai’s impact on karate
Karate had no uniform, competition rules, formal teaching methods nor a system of
grading. In short, it was not Japanese.258 As many things that have been absorbed by the
Japanese culture through history, it was modified to become more “Japanese”. It would
be the Dai Nippon Butoku-kai that would take care of this. Hence the Dai Nippon
Butoku-kai wanted a unified teaching method, a uniform, the introduction of Kanō
Jigorō’s grading system, and competitive rules.
5.3.1. From “Chinese hand” (唐手) to “the way of the empty hand”(空手道)
Although the first ideas to change the name of karate did not come from the Dai Nippon
Butoku-kai, they were strongly in favor to change the name into something more
Japanese. The period of karate’s introduction into the Japanese mainland was
characterized by xenophobia and rising militarism.259 During that time, anything foreign
was discriminated, especially of Chinese origin. Karate underwent a lot of criticism too,
due to its name.
Karate used to be referred to as “Te”(手) meaning “hand” or “Tōdi”(唐手), “Chinese
hand”.260 From the beginning of the twentieth century the characters of “Chinese hand”
became also pronounced as “karate”. 261 If karate wanted to become accepted on the
mainland it had to cut off all connections with China, like the rest of Okinawa had done.
With the rising of nationalism and anti-Chinese sentiments, the character “China” had to
258
259
Ibid. p.81.
260
Ibid. p.59.
261
67
be removed to be able to integrate karate in the budō.262 Up to the middle of the 1920s,
karate could be still found with the characters of “Chinese hand”. In the Japanese
language, the Chinese characters can be pronounced in several different ways. The
“China” character, pronounced “kara”, became replaced in the 1930s under militaristic
pressure by a character with the same pronunciation but having the significance of
“empty”(空). Although Hanashiro Chomo used the “Empty hand” characters for the first
time in 1905 in his book, Karate Kumite,263 the term became widespread in Japan during
the thirties when karate was trying to be accepted as a budō.
The Dai Nippon Butoku-kai is however directly responsible for adding the suffix
“dō”(道), “the way”. The “dō” means that the cultivation of the spirit is stressed.264 Judō
deriving from jūjutsu, was the first to adapt the suffix. Many of the martial arts that were
modified from the Meiji period onwards, followed judō’s example. The Dai Nippon
Butoku-kai wanted to promote the “martial spirit” which formed the basis of the pure
Japanese spirit. By adapting the name in such a way, the foreign elements were replaced
with elements that gave a “Japanese” ring to karate. The new term karate-dō, “the way
of the empty hand”, was not officially accepted in Okinawa until after the historical
gathering of the masters in 1936.265 Under the presence of a representative of the Dai
Nippon Butoku-kai, they discussed about the new term that was formally recognized by
the organization in 1933.266 But before the Dai Nippon Butoku-kai could accept karate
as a budō in 1933, it had to be molded to the image of jūdō.
5.3.2. Karate shaped according to Jūdō
The Dai Nippon Butoku-kai played a crucial role in institutionalizing and developing the
budō. The prototype of all budō was jūdō.267 With its origins coming from jūjutsu, it had
a strong link with tradition and became associated with the Japanese national identity.268
262
263
264
Ibid. p.61.
265
Ibid. p.44.
266
Ibid. p.59-64.
267
268
Ibid. p.169.
68
The Dai Nippon Butoku-kai wanted therefore that all budō inspired their organizational
structure from jūdō. Karate, being imported, had to be “Japanized” through budō, which
symbolized Japanese spiritual values.269 Hence, karate had to adapt several aspects of
jūdō to become officially part of the Japanese martial arts.
Gichin Funakoshi came to Kyōto in 1922 to represent the Okinawan martial art at a
national exhibition of physical education. Kanō Jigorō, who at that moment had an
important function at the Ministry of Education, invited Funakoshi to his dōjō (道場) in
Tokyo for a presentation of karate. Funakoshi was planning to return to Okinawa after
the demonstration but due to the encouragement of Kanō Jigorō, Funakoshi stayed in the
capital to spread karate. At that period, the people of Okinawa longed to affirm their
Japanese identity.270 Funakoshi therefore wanted to “Japanify” karate. He altered the
names of kata, which originally were orally transmitted and came from a mix of Chinese
and Okinawan dialects. The new names were especially adapted to the Japanese
language. To give one example: the Pinan was changed into Heian (平安), signifying
“peace”.271 To further alter karate into a “Japanese” art, he adapted several aspects of
jūdō.
5.3.2.1. The belt system
Kanō Jigorō was the first to introduce the belt system into a martial art. He divided the
students in two big groups: the yudansha(有段者) and the mudansha(無段者). The first
group consisted of the more advanced students who received the black belt. They were
of the dan level. The second were the students of the beginner level. They received a
kyu grade. These belts are in fact a clever marketing system that served to motivate the
students. This type of ranking system became adopted by other Japanese martial arts.272
Funakoshi Gichin, given advice from Kanō on how to spread karate, would adapt the
same grading system of white and black belts.273 In 1924, Fuankoshi would hand out for
269
270
271
Ibid. p.80.
272
273
69
the first time 1st dan diplomas to Kasuya S. and Gima S. The other masters followed
Funakoshi’s example and the belt system became generally adopted. The colored belts in
karate came much later. These were introduced in jūdō in the 1950s. Karate followed
about a decade later.
5.3.2.2. The uniform
An extremely similar story can be told about the dōgi(胴着). The white uniform, which
nowadays is common in every karate school, finds its origins in jūdō. Karate in
Okinawa used to be performed in any convenient cloth. Due to the warm climate, the
training was mostly done in a naked torso and short pants. For the demonstration in
Kanō’s dōjō, a white dōgi was lent to Funakoshi. For karate, he would adapt a lighter
version of the jūdōgi274 and soon the other karate schools followed. The dōgi became
introduced as a new form of tradition.275 A couple of decades earlier, karate still was a
secret art but the introduction of the new uniform was a statement that it wanted to be
seen and recognized.
Figure 4: Training in Okinawa Figure 5: Modern karate dōgi

without uniform
5.3.2.3. Competition
An important innovation that Kanō Jigorō introduced was randori(乱取り), a free form
of sparring. The traditional martial arts emphasised the training of kata. Randori was
introduced to teach students to deal with unexpected situations. It was also more
274
275
70
motivating than the endless repetitive drills of kata. This way of sparring was used in
competitions. The first interscholastic match took place in 1898 between the First Higher
School of Tokyo and the Second Higher School of Sendai. 276 Nowadays, due to the
success of competition, kata is hardly trained anymore in jūdō.
Karate masters were of the opinion that the training of kata was enough to acquire
combat skills. Some of them, like Mabuni Kenwa, experimented a little with protective
gear but in general, free sparring was considered to be too dangerous. Funakoshi Gichin
was strongly opposed to the exercise of free sparring.277 Ignoring his father’s opinion,
Funakoshi Yoshitaka(船越義豪) eventually introduced and popularized it.
Yoshitaka went to Ōsaka （大阪） with other students of his father. There they
participated in a match of free fighting which was rather common in the age of
militaristic tension. The matches were brutal due the lack of regulations and often ended
in real fights. Yoshitaka and the others were disappointed in the results. From then on,
Yoshitaka searched ways to introduce a form of free sparring. 278 The innovations
introduced by him came during a period just before and even during the Second World
War. “To die at the age of twenty” was a common expression of that time. Therefore,
when developing his ideas he did not bother considering any long term effects from the
new way of training.279 After the war many rules were changed to make competitions
safer, yet the method of training is still based on these prewar innovations often causing
health problems at a later age.
5.4. Conclusion
Karate drew the military’s attention during a draft as it possibly could contribute to the
war preparations. The interest however faded away quickly due to a lack of organization.
Motivated to contribute their share to the Japanese war machine, the Okinawan masters
introduced karate under the lead of Itosu Anko into the school system. The adaptation of
the previously secret martial art to a large number of students would transform karate
276
Shun Inoue, “The Invention of the Martial Arts: Kanō Jigorō and Kōdōkan Judo”,, p.167.
277
278
279
Ibid. p.82.
71
forever. Kata was modified and created for educational purposes, and techniques were
made safer. Karate was noticed by the nationalistic Dai Nippon Butoku-kai when it
became part of Okinawa’s physical education system. From then on, efforts were done to
“Japanize” karate to make it part of the budō which was under supervision of the Dai
Nippon Butoku-kai. The name was changed from “China hand” to “the way of the empty
hand” for nationalistic reasons. It was further reshaped according to the image of jūdō,
which was seen as the prototype of all budō and became firmly associated with Japan’s
national identity. In 1933 it became formally accepted as a budō by the Dai Nippon
Butoku-kai. Under pressure of strong nationalism, karate had to adapt itself to the spirit
of that age.
72
General conclusion
To answer the question of how the pressure of prewar nationalism created the myth of
‘traditional Japanese’ karate, the following steps were taken.
In the first chapter we saw that sport and nationalism have a close relationship in many
nations. Sport is used to strengthen the people’s nationalistic sentiments. Militaristic
countries often abuse sport for their ultra-nationalistic cause, like Germany did during the
Nazi Olympics in 1936. Japan also became more and more militaristic and nationalistic
from 1868 on. The “Empire of the rising sun” seemed to be unstoppable up till the end of
the Second World War, as we have seen in the second chapter. To study the reasons of
Japan’s strength at that time would probably take a life time work. The third part limits
itself by analyzing a few elements that contributed to Japan’s war machine. One of them
was the unification of the Japanese under the cult of the Emperor that became spread
through the education system. The rightist Dai Nippon Butoku-kai organization, that was
in charge of all budō, succeeded in introducing jūdō and kendō in the school system. The
spirit of bushidō became spread through them. All these elements worked together to
forge the unstoppable Japanese spirit.
One of the first victims of the Empire’s expansion was the small Ryūkyū kingdom. The
kingdom, which already had a tribute relationship with China, was put under the double
submission of Japan and China with the invasion by Satsuma in 1609. Up to the Taiwan
incident of 1874, the kingdom’s culture was left alone. Shipwrecked sailors of the
Ryūkyū were killed by inhabitants of Taiwan in 1871. This was used as a perfect excuse
for Japan to interfere and send its own troops to take revenge. The claiming of the
victims as its own subjects by Japan started a chain of events that would finally result in
the abolishment of the kingdom and the establishment of the province of Okinawa in
1879. The kingdom’s culture had to adapt completely to that of Japan. Japan itself was
looking to stabilize its own identity and anything that not completely confirmed with it
had to adjust or disappear.
One of the cultural elements that became subjected to this nationalistic pressure was the
secretive martial art that would become known to the whole world as “karate”. The
interest shown by the army disappeared quickly due the lack of organization. The first
set of changes came by the Okinawan masters who were spurred by a nationalistic sense
73
of duty. They integrated a safer and easier form of karate into the Okinawan school
system. Through the school system, karate would contribute in forming the new
generation of soldiers. In the process new kata were created, old ones were modified and
techniques were made safer. Once introduced in the local schools, the Dai Nippon
Butoku-kai would further influence the evolution of karate on the mainland. To make
karate a part of the budō, it became “Japanified” by the nationalistic organization. Jūdō
was seen as a symbol of Japan’s national identity and therefore many of its characteristics
would be transferred onto karate. The white uniform, the belt system and the free-form
sparring of modern karate were all inspired on jūdō’s organization. But of all the changes
that occurred to karate, the most striking one would be the change of name. Under the
nationalistic pressure and wars with China the name “China hand” had to go. With some
clever word twists “the way of the empty hand” was born and became an official part of
the Japanese martial arts legacy in 1933.
Changes happen through history. Some are in favor for the old ways, while others value
the importance of the wind of change. The changes that happened with karate are seen
by some as an improvement, by others as a loss. A fact is that Japan’s prewar
nationalism changed karate so it would become a part of the budō. Karate can be only
called a truly “Japanese” martial art from the 1930s on. Being less then a century old, the
tradition of a “Japanese karate” can be seen as invented, a myth.
For future studies it might be interesting to look at the evolution of the martial arts after
the Second World War. Among the budō, karate and jūdō spread over the whole world.
There is no major city imaginable where these two martial arts can not be found. Yet,
jūdō became an Olympic sport while karate is still not accepted. The many different
styles have their own rules and there is no unification. How did these martial arts spread
over the entire world? Why did karate not continue its standardization process after the
war? What organizational changes have to be made for karate to be accepted as an
Olympic discipline? Can unmodified traditional Okinawan kata still be found? What is
the Japanese government’s attitude today towards budō? Trying to find answers for these
74
and other related questions would definitely be an interesting challenge. Due to lack of
time and space these question will be left unanswered, for now.
75
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Articles
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80

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FACULTEIT LETTEREN

THE CREATION OF THE MYTH OF ‘TRADITIONAL JAPANESE’ KARATE UNDER

Joseph Goebbels, Minister of Propaganda, April 23, 1933

Table of Contents III

Table of Contents (Japanese) V

Chapter 1: Sport and nationalism, a literature study 3

Chapter 2: Japan, the powerful aggressor 14

Chapter 3: Some roots of nationalism 25

Chapter 4: Okinawa, a dwarf between giants 43

Chapter 5: The impact of nationalism on karate 60

According to Mirror of Modernity: Invented Traditions of Modern Japan by Stephen

1.1. Sport and politics

1.3. Sport and identity

1.4. Sport and nationalism

1.5. The Nazi Olympics: sport and militarism

1.6. Sport and nationalism in Japan

Stephen Vlastos writes in his Mirror of Modernity: Invented Traditions of Modern

1.6.1. Budō and identity

2.1. The Meiji period (1868-1912)

2.1.1. The Meiji Restoration of 1868

2.1.2. The Sino-Japanese War: 1894-1895

2.1.3. The Russo-Japanese War: 1904-1905

2.2. The Taishō period (1912-1926)

2.2.1. World War I

2.3. The Shōwa period (1926-1989)

2.3.1. Manchuria incident

2.3.2. War against China

2.3.3. World War II

Figure 1: The expansion of the Japanese Empire in 1942

3.1. The Emperor

3.1.1. The Emperor through history

3.1.2. The cult of the Emperor

3.1.3. The Meiji Constitution: the Emperor became legally a god

During the Iwakura mission (Iwakura Shisetsudan, 岩 倉 使 節 団 ), the government

In short, the constitution spelled out the fundamental characteristics of the

3.1.4. Japan’s mission

3.2.1. Iwakura mission

Education shapes a country. It is responsible for the way of thinking of future

3.2.2. The school system

3.2.3. Textbooks: a tool for nationalism

3.3. Bushidō and Budō: the heritage of the samurai

Budō encouraged shugyō (austerity) and won widespread popularity in Japan

3.4.1. The Dai Nippon Butoku-kai’s link with the Emperor

Figure 2: Dai Nippon Butoku-kai insigna

The Dai Nippon Butoku-kai insignia is shaped in an eight-point chrysantemum. This

3.4.2. Contribution for war

3.4.3. After World War II

4.1. The Ryūkyū

4.1.1. Common roots with Japan

4.1.2. Contact with China

4.1.2.1 The three kingdoms

4.1.2.2. Kumemura(久米村): the Chinese village

4.1.2.3. The Ryūkyū kingdom

4.1.2.3.1. An ‘armless’ nation

4.1.2.3.2. Satsuma’s invasion

4.2.1.1. From kingdom to han(藩)

4.2.1.3. From han to a province

4.2.2. The historical importance of the Ryūkyū shobun(琉球処分)

4.3. The ”Japanization” of Okinawa

During the Iwakura mission (Iwakura Shisetsudan, 岩倉使節団 ), the government