Cbapter•.

5
I. DC Machines

'
5.1 Introduction
Electrical energy is one fo~ of energy that is most flexible and· can be easily
controlled. It can be converted into other forms of energy and converted back •
from other energy forms. Thus, energy conversion devices are require d both at '
I
the generating end and the receiving end of the electrical power systems. At the
I
I. generating end, energy obtained from a natural source (e.g., heat, water, or nu-
clear energy) is first converted into electrical energy, transmitted to the load cen-
tre, and .then converted into required form of energy (e.g., heat, sound, light,
mechanical, or chemical energy).
In generating stations (such as hydroelectrical and diesel-electric power sta-
tions), mechanical or thermal energy is converted into electrical eriergy with the
help of generators. When electrical energy is available and mechanical work is to
be done by it, a device called electrica.l motor is needed, which convert .
s electri-
cal energy into mechanical energy.
Thus, the electrical machin es-gene rators and motors -are devices that trans-
form mechanical power into electrical power and vice versa. This chapter incor-
porates a discussion of electrical machines. A special emphasis is given on their
basic principles, working, types, and applications.
ii . .

5.2 Principle and Working of DC Machines

Electrical machines related to electrical energy of direct type ·are call~d de machines.
These machines are classified as de generator and de motor.
A de generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy (or power) into
electrical energy (or power), whereas a de motor is a machine that converts elec-
trical energy (or power) into mechanical energy (or power).' From construction
point of view, there is no basic difference between a de generator and a de motor.
Any de machine can act as a dc·generator or a de motor.·
:I .
DC Mach,ne5
427

DC generator
orking principle
de generator works on the principle of Faraday's law of elect
romagnetic induc-
on that. st~tes that when a conductor cuts the magnetic
flux lines, an emf is
duced tn tt, called dynamically induced emf. The direction
of the induced emf
n be determined by the Fleming's right hand rule and the
duced e1nf is given by magnitude of the
•
e = B l v sine volt
where B = flux density in Wb/m2
l = active· length of the conductor in m
v = relative velocity of the conductor in mis
0 = angle between the direction of motion of the
conductor and the
magnetic field
Accordin•g to Fleming's right hand rule, if three fingers
of right hand, namely
thumb, index finger and middle finger, are outstretched so
that they are.mutually
perpendicular to each other, and if the index finger is made to
point in the direction
of magnetic field, the thumb in the direction of motion of the
conductor, then the
outstretched.middle finger gives the direction of the emf induc
ed.in the conductor.
Consider the arrangement as shown in Fig. 5.l(a). If we move
the conductor
in a magnetic field in a direction at right angle to the field as
shown in Fig. 5.1 (a),
it cuts the flux lines, and emf is induced in it, called dynamica
lly induced emf (as
conductor is in motion). By applying the Fleming's right
hand rule, it is found
that the direction of the induced current (or induced emf) is
out of the plane. This
direction is shown by putting the dot inside the cross secti
on of the conductor.

s s
........
I I I
' ' ' • - - Flux
I I I M .
<=====:::I::
I I
=(8}..: \ I I
Cond uctor
i i i ot1on Motion . , .
' ' of Of J I J

N conductor
I
conductor N

(a) Curre nt comin g out (b) Current going in

Fig. 5.1 Working principle of ade generator

It is sAthat reversal of direction of motion of the conductor reverses

the direc-
tion ofthe induced current [see Fig. 5.1 (b)].
.
Working
Figure 5.2 shows the schematic diagram of a simple de gene
rator consisting of a
;;rectangular copper coil ABCD mounted on a shaft and rotat
ing about i_ts _own axis
{sbaft) in a magnetic field produced by permanent magnets.
The coil 1s rotated
42 8 Basic Electrical Engineering

(7\
I
1"
C I
0
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B

I I
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s
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s N
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1
2

h Load
· h Load (b)
(a)
Fig. 5.2 Schematic diagram of a de generator
1
me ans of a pri me mo vei (P~ ). The coil h~
wi~h constant angular velocity by Q are
ntic al con duc tor s AB and CD . Th e two end s of the coil P and
two ide ectively.
nec ted per ma ne. ntly to two com mutator2 segments· R 1 and R2 resp
con commutator is
ll insulated from eac h o!her. Th e
The commutator segments are we on
sam e sha ft and rot ate s alo ng with the coil. Two stationary carb
placed on the ~re further
~ B and B are pre sse d aga ins t the commutator. Th ese brushes
brushe 1 the current
uit. Their fiu~ction is to collect
2
con n~c ted to the ext ern al loa d circ
to the external circuit.
induced in the coil and deliver it
l be rota t~d in an ant iclo ckw ise direction wit h constant angular
Let the coi ording to
ty. So, its con duc tor s AB and CD ·cu~ the liries of flux and acc
veloci them.
induction, an em f get ind uce d in
Faraday's law of electromagnetic
r= BI v sin 0 volt ·
Now, em f induced in one con du cto induce_d in
Fle mi ng' s rig ht han d rul e, it is seen that at any instant, the em f's
By conductors, •
nature. As the coil has two identical
the two conductors are additive in (5.1).
in the coi l, = ~B I v sin 0 vol t
em f induced vPQ
uced emf is
ximum. The ma xim um val ue of ind
When 0 = 90°, em f induced is ma
= 90°, V = vm.
expressed by vm. Thus, when 0
I

So, vm = 2 B I V sin 90°

<
or -Vm = 2 BI v
Now, Eq. (5.1) becomes
. .
VpQ = vm sin 0 volt
d in the ~il
eous val~e of the voltage indu~e
Equation (5.2) gives the instantan sot
ear s acr oss the coi l ter min als p and Q. Th is voltage is a sinu
which app •
rna ting vol tag e as sho wn i]?. Fig . 5.3.
alte
.
engine, or some
1
e mov er, whi ch driv es ~he gen erator, .may be a turbine, a diesel .
The prim
~o c
-
m mounted on a ~h~ft. The surface
of the drum ~ad e ofa is
A commutator is a cyiindrical dru · • •• ·
copper.
number of segmen_ts of harddrawn
 DC Machines 429
Vm

t
VpQ
r-~,---1~-~--Le(wt
)

Fig. 5.3 Voltage induced in the coil of a de generator

e direction of the indu ced emf can be determined
b Fl . , . h
Fig. 5.2(a), as the con duc tor AB of the co1·1 ABC
. .. Dym em1ndg s ng t hdanddruClDe.
~ves u~w ard, ~he dire ctio n of the indu ced emf oves ownwar an
in the coil is along DCBA. The
11 terminal P (1.e., com mut at~r seg~ ent
R 1) is positive and the coil terminal Q
.e., commutator segm ent R2) 1s negative. The current in the external load circuit
,Bows from brus h B 1 to brus h B • The direction
of the current remains the same
Ir 2
hal~ revo lutio ~ of the coil starting from its vert
ical position. In the next half
revolution [see Fig. 5.2(b)], the direction of the
induced current is reversed and
the coil terminal Q (i.e., commutator segment R ) is
positive and the coil terminal
P (i.e., com mut ator segm ent R ) is negative2. As
1 the commutator segments
interchange thei r positions, the current direction in
the external load circuit remains
same, i.e., from brus h B to brus h B .
1 2
The com mut ator segments are so arranged that
during half revolution of the
coil, each segm ent remains in contact with a part
icular brush, whereas during th~
next half cycle, whe n the current is reversed, the
same segment is in contact with
the other brush. It is seen that in the first half revo
lution [Fig. 5.2(a)], brush B
in contact with segm ent R acts as the positive 1
1 end of-the supply and brush B
acts as the negative end. In the next half revolutio 2
n [Fig. 5.2 (b)], the direction of
the induced curr ent in the coil has reversed. But
at the same time, the positions of
segments R 1 and R are also reversed-with the resu
2 lt tha~ brush B1 comes in con-
tact with the segm ent that is positive, i.e., segm
ent R in this case, and brush B 2
comes in cont act with the segment that is negative, 2
i.e., segment R 1 in this case.
Hence the current in the external load circuit rema
ins unchanged.
The' natu re of current in the external load circuit
with the rotation of the coil,
i.e., with time, is shown in Fig. 5.4. This current is
unidirectional but not constant
like a pure direct current.

Fig. S.4 Current in the external load circuit of a de generator

Thus, the current induced in the coil is alternating

but_d~e t~ ~he c~~mut_ator and
the brushes, the current flowing through the exte
rnal c1rcu1t 1s un1d1recttonal. In
other words, the commutator acts as a rectifier.
•
 430 Basic Electrical Engineering

5.2. 2 DC Motor
Working principle
ciple that wh~n a current-carrying
The working of a de motor is based on the prin
ductor exp enen ces a mechanical
conductor. is placed ii) a magnetic field, the con
's left h~nd rule and magnitude is
• force, who se direction is given by Flerping •
given by _
F = B I I sin0 newton
whe re F = mechanical for~e expe rience by the conductor in N
2
B = flux density in Wb/m
l = active length of the conductor in m
I = current through the conductor in A
0 = angle between the direction of the curr
ent and th~ magnetic .field
netic field produced by permanent
Consider a single conductor placed in a mag
passed through the conductor in
magnets as shown in Fig. 5.5(a). If current is
plane, then according to the basic
the direction shown in Fig. 5.5(b), i.e., into the
hanical force. If the force is suffi-
principle, the conductor will experience a mec
ction of the force. By Fleming's
cient, then the conductor will move in the -dire
of motion of the _conductor or the
left hand rule, it is observed that the direction
to right).
force is towards the right direction (from left

s s
..
I I
J. I
I
.. carry
Current-
ing conductor , ,
I
I
I
I
;.--F lux
(curr ent going in) ! i ; Direction
!
I
I 0 - - Conductor I....-- -l - ) I i ~ , of fore~
experienced•·
I I I ! ! ! ! I I
I I
I I I
I I
I I I
I I

I
I I I

I
'
N Mag~et
N
,,

(a) (b)
'
Fig. 5.5 Working principle of a de motor
, . .
Fleming's left hand nile is as follows:
thumb, index finger and mid-
Outstretch the· three fingers of left hand, namely
cular to each other. If the index
dle finger, such that they are mutually perpendi
netic field, middle finger in the
finger is made to point in the direction of mag
s the direction of the force experi-
direction of the current, then the thumb give
enced by the conductor.
of force experienced by· a single
App ly the above rule to verify the direction
n in Figs 5.6 (a), (b), (c), and (d).
conductor plac ed in a magnetic field as show
field is reversed without chang-
It can be seen that if the direction of magnetic
uctor, then· the direction of force
ing the direction of current through the cond
a) and (c)]. Similarly, keeping the
experienced also gets reversed [see Figs 5.6(
n of current through the conductor
direction of magnetic field same, if the directio
experienced by the conduct~r gets
is reversed, then also the direction of force
 D C Machines

5 I .. II
s
I I I l .
N
I l
431

1
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I

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i
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I

'II
I
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'II
I
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'I
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N
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I I I
'tI I I F I
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I I
I I I I I I I I
I I I
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I I I 1 I I

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' ' '
I I I I
I
I I
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t I
t F
N I I I
N.
\ ·s
s
(~ (b )
• (c) .
Fig. 5_6 A conduc
tor placed in a magnetic field un ~)
der different situations
(see Figs S.6(a) an
reversed ugh the co d (b)]. B u t if dire
nd uc to r ar e revers ctions o f both mag
thr0
current ductor re m ed , then the direction netic field and
e ai ns un ch an ge d [s o fforce experienced
bY th con ee Figs 5.6(a) and
(d)).
working •
.
5 7 sh ows th e . .
sc he m at ic diagra . .
f,gure iar copper co m o f a simple de mot
il A B C D m ou nt ed or consisting o f a
rec~~~~d by pe rm an on a shaft and plac
en t m~gnets. T h e ed in a magnetic fi
pro T ends o f th e coil ha s two identic eld
co il ar e co nn ec te al co nd uctors AB an
O
d permanently to tw
CD. ; R respective
ly. T h e co m m ut at o commutator segm d
Rihan T;e commut or segments are w ents
ator is p la ce d o n ell insulated from
stationary carbon br th e same shaft al ea ch
us he s B 1 an d B . ong with the coil.
2 ar e pressed agains T w o
t t~e commutator.
0
I
I
I
0 I
I
I
I
N I
I
I
s N
s

de s u p p ly -_ I
I
+ .. a. ., _- 'd c supply
_ _...
+
(a )
(b )
Fig. 5.7 Schematic I
diagram of ade motor
When th
CUtrent fle de supply co nn ec te d across -b
Cond ows th ro ug the rus hes B an
. 1 d B2 is switched on,
h th e co il A B C D • F '
as sh o ~ n in ig. 5 7(a) As a resu lt, each
uctor o f the co il ex
pe ri en ce s a mecha Fieming's left hand
ni~al fo r: :a r~ di
B
e conductor A B ex rection, while the
pe ri
CD ex pe ri en ce s a en ce s a force 1~ d o ~ These forc
i\ torque, an d th e force in upwar~ direction._ (sha es collectively
co il rotates about ft) in anticlockwis
its own axis e
•
h al f a ro ta ti on d segmen R o f th
es in co nt ac t·w it o f th e coil ~s complete ' R with t br 1 e commu-
h b ru sh B and se us h 1 , thereby
gment 2 B
2
••
 432 Basic Electrica_/ Engineering
•
.
5.7(b). Since the
rev:r~ing the direction of current in the coil as shown i~ Fig.
d, the dire _
pos1tton of the conductors AB and CD of the coil are also interchange
on rotating :
tion of ~otation of the coil remains unchanged and the coil keeps
• . • . •
the same direction. .
the current in
Thus, function of the commutator is to reverse the direction of
to develop a
0

each conduc(or as it passes from one pole to another. It helps

continuous and unidirectional torque.

5.3 Construction of DC
·'I
Mac hine
ruction remains
Whether the de machine is a generator or a motor, the basic const
s parts of a
the same. Figure 5.8(a) shows the cross-sectional yiew showing variou
de machine.
two-pole de machine. Figure 5.8(b) sho~ s the equivalent circuit ofth~
Yoke
Flux Pole shoe
Field . ( ' ,I .. , . --

windin g I A+

l
' 1
I • I
I
I
I
PoIe -. I
I
:I
I
,; I A~ I
F
F+ I
Armat ure
condu ctor
Armat ure core
(b) Equivalent circuit
(a) Cross-sectional view .
Fig. 5.8 DC. machine

A de machine consists of the following parts:

Stationary parts:
(i) Yoke
(ii) Pole
(a) Pole shoes
(b) Pole core
(c) Field winding
l (iii) Brushes
I Rotating parts:
(i) Armature
·?
I ,

,(a) Armature core

(b) Armature winding
(ii) Commutator
(iii) Bearings
\
 4 ~, • t • •

• DC Machines 433

yoke ter frame of the de machine It is • •, •

the oU F I • nonnany md
It is s cast iron: or .arge machines, rolled steel . a e of a magnetic material
sucfl ~hich provides high penneability, i.e., low reiucast steel, or silicon steel is
used, mechanical strengt~. Yoke generally serves ctance for the flux and giveS
go~d It provides mechanical support to the 1 two purposes: ,
(1) h' po es and act · · g cover
t'. r the w~ole mac 1ne, so that the inner parts of the 8 as ah'protectin
. .
ful h • ma_c tne get protected
from harm atmosp enc elements such . .
io

• . . . fumes..
as moisture' dust' and ac1d1c
••) It forms a part o f magnetic circuit and ca . he magnet· •
(11 by the poles. It prov1'des the path of low mes t ic fl ux produced
, • •- . 1
re uctance for magnetic flux. -
po/es
An even number of poles are bolted to
the yoke. Each pole is divided into
three parts, namely pole core, pole
shoe, and field winding. This is shown
inFig.5.9.
The poles of the machin e are
electromagnets. A winding is placed
over the poles to excite them. This ""
winding is called exciting winding or~
field winding or magnetizing winding.
~owever, more commonly used name
Pole core
~eld winding. As the poles are
18
\

::•ted b~ the w~nding, they ·produce • Fig. 5.9 Pole

agnettc field 1n the machine.
c· The pole cores, Which support the field windings, are mounted on the inside
tl.ll'OCUmference of the yoke. The. Core
is made of Cast steel .or sheet steel. lamina-
ns of h' h 1 .

The •g permeab ility, SQ that it provides the low reluctance_ for the flux.
Fig. 5 t:le faces are shaped to fit the curvature of the armature as shown in
nd
PUrpo~e~.) ~ are known as the s~oes of th~ pole. The po~e shoes serve twq
sectio • (t) they spread out the flux in the atr gap also, being of larger crosi
ing co~iteduce the reluctance of the magnetic path and (ii) they support the excit:
lh (or field coils). .
e field ·1 s, which · • ·
. consist of copper wire or strip, are 1onner-w c. d c.
thec0 co1 oun "
th rrect d • • d ·1. .
ePl 1.tnens1on. Then the former is removed and the woun co1 1s put 1n
· · h fi II
\Ve getace over the core. These field coils are connected 1n senes, so t at tna
ing re t~e field Winding· having two terminals called F+ and F-.The field win
d' ce1ve h b
irC\:tly ac s t e current either from an external de source or may _e c_onnect
Uetic fl ross the annatur Wh urrent flows through the-field w1nd1ng, ma
as Sha\Vnux lines are establ.h e •• ·d. etnhc ke pole pieces' air-gap and armature co
in F. 1s e 1n e yo , ,• ,
•g. 5.8(a). -
434 Basic Electrical Engineering

Armature
and armature windi
It is further divided into two parts, namely armature cor~
the shaft as shown~.
The armature core is cylindrical in shape, mounted on
r sur~ace is slott e::
Fig. 5.lO(a) and rotates in the magnetic field. The oute
core ts made of la 1.
receive the armature conductors (windit;1g).The arm~ture
ness of the laminati: •
nations of sheet steel as shown in Fig. 5.1 O(b). The thick
and t~e c<;>nductors~:
varies from 0.4 to 0.6 mm. The insulatio.n ~etwee~ th~ core
the slots. The armatu
provided by placing thin sheets of sohd 1nsulat1on -In
coils, which are call~
conductors connected in specific manner form the _armature
armature winding. The ends of the armature coils
are brought to the commuta-
er and they fonn a closed
tor segments. The armature windings are made up copp
• • •
circuit.
Commutator
, , segments

Key
\~.. -4-- - Hole for
the shift
- core ~-r- ---A ir holes·
Slot

(a) Armature core (b) Armature lamination j·

(

Fig. 5.10 Armature •

Com mut ator and brushes .

l drum mounted
As shown in Fig. 5. I 0(a), the commutator is a cylindrica
drum is made of
shaft, along with the armature drum. The surface of the
er. The segme
~umber of wedge-shaped segments of h3:rd-drawn copp
ture winding is
1nsul~t~d fro~ one another by thin layer of ~ica . The arma
at vanous points and these tapings Cloc k sprin g
are successive,ly connected to Pigtail•
various commutator segments. +
The brus hes gene rally are
~,.

made to rest on the commutator Brush

by plac ing them in the brush
hoI4er against the action of spring
whose tension can be adjusted as II
shown in Fig. 5.11. II
II Box
The b~sh es are usually made II
of carbon and can slide on the
- 11
11
commutator with the rotation of
the brush gears, so that they can
be fixed at. any desired- position Fig. 5.11 Brush
 DC Machines 435
.• . •
e surface of the commutato~.·A fle~ible co ted at the top of
on th h carries the current. The brush h0 Id pper_ p1gta1l moun ed to the brush
5 •h h • ers, whic h are attach
8 bf1.1
ieces togetherdw1t t he. spnn g, hold the brushes in their position on the commu-
P When a c mac 1ne acts as a generator, the brushes are used to collect
13tor. . .t. When it acts as
t from the commutator and supplY1·t t0 t·he external crrcu1
curren gh
8111otor,
the brushes are used to send the current to the armature winding throu
commutator.
searings
Their main
The bearings form an important part of all types of rotating machines.
minimum
function is to support the rotating part and allow .its smooth motion with
de machines.
friction. Ball and roller bearings are used for small- and medium-size
medium-size
These bearings reduce the bearing losses to the great extent. For
ngs at the
machines, roller bearings may be used at the driving end and ball beari
for large
non-driving end (commutator end). Pedestal bearings are normally used
de machines.

5.3.1 Types of Armature \Yinding

' which are
In a de machine, there are a_ larg·e number of armature conductors,
armature
connected in specific manner a·s per _the requirement. These are called
ture windi~g
•windings. According to the way of connecting the conductors, arma
are basically of two types, namely lap winding and wave winding.
Lap winding
lel paths,
In this. type of ~inding, the armature conductors are divided into paral
-~e connec-
whose number equals the number of poles. In simple lap winding,
to the
tion is made from one commutator segment through the sides of the coil
ng has
ext commutator segment {see Fig. 5.12 (a)]. If an armature with lap windi
each
oles and z conductors, then the number of parallel paths will also be P,
ive
isting of Z/p conductors, connected in series between the ~ositive and negat
ture
hes. The current carried by each path is JjP, where 10 ts the totaJ arma

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Comm utator
segm ents
(b) Wave windin g
Lap windin g '
• S.12
F19. -rypes of armature winding
 g
43 6 Basic Electrical Engineerin
.
of a large nu m be r of parallel paths, lap winding
ce
cWTent. Due to the presen cu rreiits. Figure 5. l3 (a ) shows th
e inten/;
rating large
more suitable for gene .
a
lap wind ing
connections in armature of
Wa~e winding co nd uc to rs a~e divided ,into .two
parallel
the ar m atu re
In ·this type of winding, in g th e ne gative brush finds two pa
rallel
cu rre nt en ter
paths. Thus, the armature us h. en ce , each parallel path carri
es a cur-.
po sit iv e br
paths while going to the m atu re cu rrent. In wave winding
the fi rst
is the tot al ar
rent of Ia /2 ' where Ia , which
'

po le)
I

is co nn ec ted di re ctly to another ~onductor

conduct9r (say under N- r the op posite polarity pole (i.e.,
S-pole in
sit ion , bu t un de
occupies. a similar po va nc es forward to the next N~po
le and so on
e wi nd ing ~d
the above example). Th .travels·like a
Th is typ e of wi nd ing is so named because it
[see Fig. 5. l 2(b)]. abl~ for low-
th e ~u m be r of p~ ra lle l paths is less, it is prefer
progressive wave. As
ne rat or s. Fi gu re 5.13 (b) shows the internal con-
city ge
current, high-~oltage capa
ve winding.
nections in armature of wa
/JP ZIP

la
la

Lo ad
f
s• ,
I I

(a) Lap winding

i •
"'- - ., • ..
' ' • ... •
I • ,.. • J. ,.. I

1a12 m
+Ve

Brush
1
'B ru sh
Zl2

Load··
(b) Wave winding
ns in annature winding
. Fig. 5.13 lntema! connectio
G, .
5.4 EMF Equation of DC enerator •
. • •
cited To
When field winding is ex
m a~ et 1c field is es tab lished in the de machine,
ra~
use this machine as a gene e an na tu re is rotated with constant
angu}at
pr · or, t
velocity with the help of 1me mover Wh en th e• armature rotates its conductor1-1cs
es a d cord • . '
cut the magnetic flux lin n ac ing tO p araday's law of electromagnel,J •a
•d • f induced in the con.ductors. Th . d em f ~n
in uction, em
· . e equation ,of total in duce -
d ed e:
c generator can be calculat as 1011ows. ,
'

L
 DC Machines 437
N rnber of pole s of generato~
f : fl~ prod uced by ~ach pole in webe r (Wb) .
~et _ speed of arma ture 1n rpm . • ,/ I

JY : total num ber of arma ture cond

uctors
Z_}'lumber of para llel path s in whic h the total
A- . ·ded ,
dtVl • r , '
number of conductors are
of winding, A = P • •·
type
for JaP type of win • d.1ng, A - 2
-
forwa~e to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction
~~
~cCo . .
,
e value of emf indu ced i~ sing le cond ucto r= def> (·: N=
Averag · I)
•
• . . dt
I '

consider one revo lutio n of a conductor. In one revolution

N~w, t the total flux prod uced by all the pole s(= Pcf>). , the conductor
will cu
t by the conducto r 1n •
one revo• 1utton
•
,. d<I> = Pcf> weber
I

'
. .
. . 1 •1 . ' 60
rune required to com p ete one revo. utton,·dt = -N sec

Hence,average value ofemfi nduc ed in single COnductor= = :: = p:t _volt

N
This is the em~ induced in one conductor. Now, the cond
uctors in one parallel
path are always in serie s. Ther e are Z conductors with
A parallel paths. Hence,
llA number of conductors are alwa ys in_series and emf rema
ins same across all
fueparallel paths.
So, total emf can be expr esse d as

E =.Pcf.>N z
-vo lt
g 60 A
This equation is called emf equa tion ~f ~he de generator
.
We can also write E = ct>ZN p volt
g 60 A
Where A_ • . .
- P for lap w1nd1ng
A === 2 for wave wind ing.
~.5 l
YPes of DC Generators ,,
lne 8Ylllb r
~re is O ic repre • is show · p·1 5 14 The arma
sentation of a de generator n in ~· •. • :. -
mover d~noted by a circ.le with two brushes. The arma
ture ts driven by _pnme
lbe fi;1th speed N rpm. The two ends of th~ arm a~e are denoted as A+
~d A-.
andp_/d Winding is show n·ne ar armature and the two ends
are denoted by F+
A I
438 Basic Electrical Engineering

The poles of the machin e are A+ F+

electro magne ts. By passing the curren t
through the field winding, the magnetic field , ' , - - •- - - - - - ,
I
is produc ed in the generator. Hence, · this , 1
current is called exciting current. Depending •:
on the way of deriving the field ~urrent or ,.-t
exiting current , de- generat or is basi call Y /:;:;:\/ ;::-'l_ _ _ _ __ -' __ 1
divided into two cat~gories: (i) separat ely W
excited genera tor and (ii) self-ex cited A- F-
genera tor. The self:ex cited genera tor is Fig. 5.14 Symbol of a de generator
further classified depending upon the way of
1
•

field winding connection with armature as (i) shunt genera~or, (ii) series generator,
and (ii) compound generator. · •

5.5.1 Separately Ex~ited DC Generator

When the field winding is supplied fr~m external, separate de supply, i.e., excita-
tion of the field winding is separate, the generator is called separately excited de
generator. Schematic representation of separately excited de generator .is shown
1

in Fig. 5.15.
,, h

r
PM : prime mover
la
N : speed of armature In rpm
. Eg : emf induced In-armature
+
Ra : armature resistance
DC supply Ra Load V I a : armatu.re current. --

1
/, : field current
V : terminal voltage·
F- A- I
I
IL : load current
I
I
I

I!; .,

Fig. 5.15 Separately excited de generator

Voltage and current relations

The prime mover rotates the armature at N rpm. The generator induces the emf
Eg. Since the field winding is excited separately, the field current depends on
-supply voltage and resistance of the field winding. For armature side, we can see
that it is supplying a load demanding a load_ current IL at a voltage of V, which is
called terminal voltage. • -
Now, la= Ii_, (5.3)
Equation (5.3) is called current equation. . , •
The internally induced em.f Eg supplies the voltage to the load. Hence, tennin~ 15
voltage Vis a part of Eg. But it is not equal to V while supplying a-load. This
becaµse when armature current la flo~s through armature winding, due to annature
 DC Machines 43g
sistance Ra ohm, there is a voltage d
. g re
·odtJ1 R volt. The in • d
uce d emf has to s rop across. a
nnature winding
1 1
111;oal to a Jt~ge V. To keep lfi..a drop to minim: :i this ~rop, along with the
ert11i11al vo sinall. In addition to this drop the '. e resistance Ra is designed
te verY
10 be f the brush, ca11e db rush contact 'dropreBis t some
hi
volt d
_age rop at the
contacts o erallY neglecte d. When armature ca~· u t s drop ts negligible and
11ence, genaUed armatur e flux. This flux has a tend1es curren~ la, it produces its
fluX c
0wt1 ful flux producedby fi1eld winding. This distency
rt·
to disturb th tt
e pa em of
•nuse ld fl . o ion produced by ann ture
01a1 ting with fie ux 1s called armature reacti . a
oux ~eac there is a drop jn voltage. O
on. ue to this am:iature
acuon, • d d
re ce in all the 1n uce emf , Eg has to overcome 1- D ..._ b
}-{en ' . • d ucop, rush contact
o and armature reac!1on rop_ to produce the terminala'"a voltage Yat the load
dr P the voltage equatio n for the generator is •
ThUS,
Eg = V + lcfia + Vbrush + Arma~r e reaction drop (5.4)
Equation (5.4) is called volta~e e~uation . . •
By using _the voltage equation,_ induced emf Egor terminal voltage y CID k
determined 1f other drops are known. The brush contact drop is Dlllll
fied as per brush drop. As there are two brushes, total brush
drop per brush.

5.5.2 Self-excited [?C Genera tor

Self-excited de generat or is one whose field windings are e
produced by the generat or itself. Now, without generated
excited in such a generat or and without excitation, there
emf. So, one may obvious ly wonder how this type of gen
swer to this is residual magneti sm possessed by the field
condition. This enables armatur e to develop small emf, w
through field, which further increase s the flux produced. B
f .
ive process, the generat or ultimate ly produces its rated vol
~here are three types of self-exc ited generators named
ner in which their field winding s are connected to the anna
erator, (ii) series generat or and (iii) compound generator.
, Sh '
Unt generator
When th fi, · • • 1·1 1
generat e ield winding is connect ed across or 10 para e
tu •
or is called shunt generator. Since the fiel d win• d"ing
msb of th·in wire
· it has high •
resistance compared to the
sh e the • '
\Vinctin resistan ce of the field winding an d Jsh be the .c
B fig. Schematic represen tation of shunt generator _is sh
that~ore loading a shunt generato r, it is allowed ~o build u~
drive e generator in Fig 5 16(a) has no load connected tot
residual certa~n speed •by• a prime mover. usua - uy, there
n at a is
. rod
etnf cir ~agneti sm in the poles· hence, a small. emf is
culates a small current in' the field circuit, which inc
440 Basic Electrical Engineering

When flux is increased, generated emf is increased, which further increases th

flux and so on. As shown in Fig. 5.16(b), 'E 1'_is t~e induced emf due to residua~
magnetistn, which appears across the field circuit and cause_s. the field current
'/shl 'to flow. This current aids residual flux and hence produces a larger induced
emf In turn this increased emf causes an even larger current sh2 ,
Th.
'E '. 'Ei' 'I ,

2 . ,
which creates more flu~ for a still larger emf and ~o o_n. is process o~ voltage
build-up continues. The effect of magnetic saturation 1n the pole faces hmits the
termi,:ial voltage of the generator to a steady state value (Eg).

Eg ------~

,I

/sh h
F+ ... •.
I
I
I
Induced E2 --1
I

emf I
Rsh Ra Load V

l
I
I
I
,
/ I

lsh1 Ish2
Field curren
(a) (b) I •

.Fig. 5.16 Shunt generator and build-up of a generator

\

Voltage and current rel(!,tions From the circuit shown in Fig. 5.16(a),
write the current equation as
. Ia = IL + /sh. "
Now, voltage across load is V, which is same across field winding as bo
parallel with each other.
V
So, I=-
sh ~h·

While induced emf still requires· to supply voltage_ drop

Eg brus lfia,.

drop and armature reaction drop. Thus, we get the voltage equation as
= + Eg + Vb~h + Armature reaction drop
V lfia

Since the shunt field winding has large number of turns of thin copper, i
sectional area is small. Its resistance is high. This is because the loa
Rsh

should not disturb the fi~ld current and remains constant for the o
/sh

range of generato~. •
. .
Load characteristics ofshunt generator The relation between the tennina
V and the load curre!lt IL is called load characteristics or ·performance. ch
istics of the generator.
From the voltage equation, we can see that as load curre~t incre jL

armature current increases to sati_sfy the load demand.· T~us, the anna
Ia

age drop 0 also increases. Hence, the terminal voltage

lfi. = -Jj?.0 de V E

neglecting other drops. But as is very small,' though JL chanJs from no

Ra
 DC Machines 441
d the drop in the terminal volt- V
~11 . v~rY smal 1. This is shown •
108
e is d h in
,g 5. I7. J-lence, c s unt generatcir is , No-ioad
fig• l)ed constant voltage generator. voltage r - - - - _
ca
a150 /icatiolf ofshunt generator Due to . I

~PP Mnt voltage characteristics shunt I

I

cons"" , bat-
I

erators are commonly used for

I
I
I '
I

charging, ordinary lighting and o, h

Full load
wer supply purposes.
po
series generator. . . Fig. 5.17 Load current vs terminal It
When the field wmdmg 1s connected i • •• • • • VO age
· h I d n senes with th • •
supplytng t e oa ' the generator is call d • e armature wmdmg while
fig. 5. I8. The field winding resistance • ; senes generator. It is shown in
very small and hence, naturally it has les;s e~ted by Rse. The resistance R is
section. . n~ er of turns of a wire of thick c~ss

Isa Rse

F+ F- h

Load
Ra

..
I,·

Fig. 5.18 Series generator .

Voltage and current relations As armature, field' winding• and load,
sen • all are in
es, they carry the same current. So, the cUifent equation can be written as
Wh 1a = lse = Ii • (5.1)
ere/se. -_ cu~~nt ,through series field winding
.Now
seri ' 10 a~d1tton to drop/ Tl induced emf has to supply voltage drop across
es field . .
'rt The Volta (· • I = 1 J
1,.a'

w1nding·too.
d · . •• ·1 R - J R 0

•nus ge rop across series field wmdmg == se''se - a"se • • •

, Voltage equatton • can be written

•• as
Eg = V + /fi + I Tl + v; + Armature reaction drop (5.8)
Or E a ~1..se brush • • d
l g === V + J (R + R ) + v; + Armature reaction rop
OQd a a se brush • _ _ J
Wh charact • . 1n sene• s generator, as la - lse O- L'
en
8 l InerI . erist,cs of series generator • •
fl <I> is directly proport1ona I t 1 se·
aJ0' the flux _eases, /se also increases. The . ro ortional to the flux, Eg0
i~so incre increases. As induced emf Eg is directl~PR p + R ) increases as /
creases. :es. or load chara~teristics, the .drop :\;:V du;•to increase in Eg,
ut this drop is small compared to mcreas
442 Basic Electrical Engineering

and so graph of V versus IL is rising in nature as shown tn Fig. 5.19. 0

'
there exists some voltage due to• residual
· • dbY the field Wind·
flux retaine nno Ioa"
· • • Ing
the characteristics do not pass through ong1n. • . • • . , and

V (volt)

Voltage
due to
residual
flux
_ IL= la(amp.) ,

Fig. 5.19 Terminal voltage vs load current

\

Application of series generator Due to the rising characteristics, series

generators are used as boost~rs on ,de feeders and as constant current generators
for welding generators and lamps.
Compound generator
In compound generator, the poles' of the machine are excited by the two inde-
pendent field windings,_ i.e., shunt field winding and series field winding. The
shunt field winding is connected in parallel and the series field winding is con-
nected in series, with the armature winding. The shunt field winding is stronger
than the series field winding. If series field aids the shunt field, i.e., the magnetizing
effect of the two windings is cumulative, the generator is called cumulative
compound generator [see Fig. 5.20(a)]. If series field opposes the shunt fiel~
the generator is said to be differential compound generator [see Fig. 5.20(b)].

i Shunt field winding

I ~-=t-~-t,,---+,- series
f q--1----~-+--=-- Series field winding
field windln

Ji..
<Dsh •

(a) Cumulative generator (b) Differential generator

I

Fig. 5.20 Excitation of pole by shunt and series· field winding~

The compound generator can be either short shunt or long shunt as sbo 0
Figs 5.2l(a) and (b) respectively. So, the cumulative or different_ial coll1P
generator can be either short shunt or long shunt. •
 DC Machines

-
IL 443
F+
jeS field + It
-
se r -.......
Rse Series F-
fie ld~ +
/sh F- lsh
Rse
Load F+
V F+ la Load
V
Ra Rsh
Shunt
field
Ra

(a.) Sho rt shun t

(b) Long shunt
Fig. 5.21 Compound generator

Load characteristics In Fig. 5.21, if it is imagined that

the series field winding
. is absent, it is simple-shunt generator and i~s load char
acteristi~s will be same as
those shown in Fig : 5 .1 7. The se
characteristics are of drooping nature. •
Cumulative
·For the cumulative com pou nd gen-
erator, series field aids the shunt field,
and so, it gives cha ract eris tics of . V
t compound

--- -.. _ Shunt

boosting nature. But for differential
compound generator, as series field Differential
compound
winding. opposes the shu nt field, it
now gives negative boosting charac-
teristics. The load characteristics •of IL ·

compound generator are sho wn 1n . Fig. 5.22 Load characterstics of compound

,
Fig. 5.22. . generator

• 5•6 Operation of DC Mo tor and Back EMF

••
~e know that constructionally there is no basic
d1ffi
erence between a de generator and a de mo-•
tor. In fact, the same machine can be used inter-
chan b
_gea ly as a generator or as a motor. ·
Figur
0f tw
e 5.23 sho ~s the cros s-se ctio nal view
areexo-po le de motor. Wh en its field magnets...
•
to cited and de volt•age is app ·
lied to the mo-
r, curr
tor ent flows through the armature con
as8: J\nnature conductors under the N-pg
by ctnect to carry the current downwarc}
rosse)
tent u s and those und er S-pole to
Pwards (shown by dq~ )
 444 Basic Electrical Engineering

By basic principle, each ~onductor will experience mecha?ical force. Ac-

cording to Fleming's left hand rule, each conductor will expenence a force in
anticlockwise direction, which is shown by small arrows placed above each con-
ductor.. These forces collectively produc~ a driving torque, which sets the anna..
ture rotating in anticlockwise direction.
It should be noted that the function of commutator is to reverse the direction
of current in each conductor as it passes from one pole- to ~nother. It ~elps to
\
I •
'j develop a continuous and unidirectional torque. ,
. It is seen in the generator action that when an armature conductor cuts the
lines of flux, emf gets induced in it. In a de motor, after a motoring action, there
exists a generator action. :When the armature r9tates, the coi:iductor cuts the mag..
I I
•
netic flux lines and according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, emf
gets induced in it. This induced emf in the armature always acts in the opposite
'direction of the supply voltage. This is according to Lenz's law, which states that
the direction o( induced emf is always so as to oppose the c~use producing it. In
a de motor, electrical input, i.e., the supply voltage, is the cause and hence . , this
induced em~ opposes the supply voltilge. This emf tries to set up a current through
the armature in t~e opposite direction, whi_ch supplies voltage forcing. through
• the conductor. • \ . . \ ·, )

So, as this emf always opposes the supply voltage, it i~ called back einf ~d
denote~ by Ek. Though it is denoted as ~b, basically it g~~s generated by the
generating action that we have s~en earlier. So, its magnitude can 6e determined
by the emf equation derived earlier. Thus,
'I ,

cf>ZN P
. Eb= - - -volt
A
. I -
, 60
where all symbol.s carry the same meaning as, i~ ~ase 9 r generators. . .
dThe back
. emf 1s shown schematically .in Fig• 5 •24(a)
' . If IS the•supply VOItage
1
v· 1

an Ra _is t~e value of the a°?ature resistance, the eq~ivalent circuit wilf be as·
shown m F1~. 5.24(br In equivalent circuit, hack emf is represented by a battery
of emf Eb with polanty such that it opposes the supply voltage. . •
' . . .. .. .'

:l ~
• , ' ";

r
•

r
•
A+ ' •I
>--..._ I

" ., '
V I
/
\.
, V
·,1 Rat• Supply ,' IEb\
Ji I voltage 'R
\ a ..;::.,.. I
l Supply
\ :::,-, I
voltage·
' ,, - .. -- ,
L
• ' I

L
- j )
I

(a) Back emf

(b) Equivalent circuit
Fig. 5.24 . Armature circuit , ,,
Appl~ing KVL to the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 5 24(b) · th t-, • It g.e
equation of the de motor as •. • , we get e '!o a
V= Eb+ lfia (5.9)

L
 D e Machines 445
o to r, su p p ly v o lt .. e
ag ,, h'·
se o f d e m I , as to o e b ack e m f E b
•n c a d an ce d ro / V er co m
n n a tu re resist
fbus, t p o
in
se
o
s
v e
V
rc
)
o
an
m
_
in
a
g
so
th e
a
b a c k e m fgets co n v rt f. ~ a - In
m
~a
ec
ct,
ha
the electrical
ni cal en ergy,
(Wbjclt o p . , . .e e , in to ~ e
th e ·~ rm a tu re . •
wor~ d o ;; in le ss th a n th e su p p ly v !t a · ·
Je"eloP k e m f 1s a lw a y s ly v 0
ta g e. T he net v o ltag e across
e is th e d if fe re n c e b e tween the supp 1 ck em f, which
'[he bac l~ g e an d ~ e ba
a n n a tu re c u rr e n t. H e nce, frolll the v o
eq u ation' , we can write
the arrnatuhr ge' .
•dest e V - Eb .·
. ,
JeCI = R
re current, la a
'
J\1111atu q. (5 .9 ), by "' we get
o lt a g e eq u at io n , E
• 1 ing b_oE th si d e s1o2fRth e .v . · I
MultlP Y 0 -1 + O O •
(5.10)
•
V/ - Ir a
l p o w e
. •
r in p u t to th e an nature
• VI = Electrica re si st an ce ca lled ar m ature copper
lo ss d u e to the armat u re
where 1 /= P o w e r
2
a a
loss ·
h an ic al p ow er de ve lo ped in the
E le c tr ic a l e q u iv a le nt _of gross mec .
E,Ja =
• . .
a rm a tu re f th e de motor.
o w e r eq u a ti o n o
• (5 1O) is c a ll e d p in / 2R lo ss an d re st is co nv erted into
• o f th e a rm
. a
. tu re in put is waste.d _ ·
EHqu an,on
ence some .
h •c al p o w e r w1th1.n th e arm.ature.
mec am ' • .
 446 Basic Electrical Engineering

5.8 Types of DC Motor )

Similar to the de generators, the de motors are classifie~ d~~e.nding upon the
way of connecting the _field winding with the armature winding as shunt motor
and series motor. , ·,

5.8.1 Shunt Motor

In this type of de motor, the field winding is connected across _·the a~a~e Wind-
ing and the combination is connected across the supply as shown 1n ~1g. 5.25.

/sh I
+ V: Supply v9ltage
I: Motor input current

Rsh
r
V
N: Speed of armature in rpm ,
Eb: Bac;:k emf •
R8 : Armature resistance
Rsh: Resistance of shunt field winding

1
I a: Armature current.
_ /sh: Shunt field current
L---~----'-------

Fig. 5.25 Shunt motor

•
The value of Ra is very small while Rsh is quite large. Hence~ shunt field winding
has more nu!llber of turns with le~s cross-sectional area.· . \
The voltage across the armature and the field winding is same-equal to the
I
I •
supply voltage V. . ,
From circuit diagram, the total current drawn from the supply can be written a~,,
I= la + lsh (5.13)
Equation (5.13) is called current equation of the shunt motor.
V
where shunt current, Jsh = -
~h
The supply voltage V has to overcome back emf Eb (which is opposing V) and
also armature resistance drop lfla• So, we get the voltage equation of shunt motor
as
; I (5.14)
Now, the flux produced by the field winding is proportional to the current pass·
ing through it, i.e., •
- <f> oc /sh. .
.
As long as the supply voltage is constant, which is generally so in.practice, the
flux produced is constant. Hence, de shunt motor is also called constant flux
motor.
Applications of shunt motor . .
Shunt motor is a constant speed motor having medium startin~ torque. The speed
 DC Machines 447
tor can be adjust ed over a wide range There£
shu11
t 010 • ore, shunt motor can
.
of:sed in machine tools such as· lathe machfne·s drillin • • h' •
i,e arious . , g mac 1nes, m1.111ng
. •
(i) v }lines, etc., . . •
roac -~ gal and recipr ocatin g pump s
truu ' •
cen s and fans, and
(ii) blower / , •
.
(iii) rioting machinery and paper machi.nes.
(i") p ' . '
series Moto r
5•s.2. pe of · . . .
de motor, the series field winding is connected in· series with the
winding and the supply_ as shown in Fig. 5.26. .
•
F- Rse. F+ 1•

r
V: Supply voltage
lse
I: Motor input current
N: Speed of armature.in rpm
Eb:.Back emf .
V Ra: Armatu re resista nce
Rse: Resistance of series field
winding .
la: Armature current
lse: Series field current

Fig. 5.26 Series motor

The value of Rse is very small and it is made of small number of turns having
large cross-sectional area.
i
As all armature, field windi ng and supply are in series, they carry the same
current. So, the curren t equati on can be written _as
J_=-J5e=]a . (5.15)
Where /se =- current throug h the series field winding . . . .
1:he supply voltage Vhas. to overco me the drop across series field windin
add f g, in
d 1 ton to the back emf Eb •
(whic h is opposing• V) and the• armature resista
•
rop I T> S nce
cr\a· o, we get the voltag e equati on of series .
motor as
V=-Eb+Ja'-1)'-a +Ii)
a'- '-se

Inthis V==E b+I(R +R) • • • r (5.16)

a a se •
So, fl rnotor, entire armatu re curren t is passing through the series field windin
~Pmduce ct·1s propo rtiona l to g.
•
the armature current, 1.e., · . ·
4 <l> <x:: 1se a: /
PPlicat· .a
Serie ' 005 of series motor ·
s tnot h • ·
speed is act?r as very high startin •
g torque and good acceleratln~ torque. Th
e
danger JUstabie and varyin g The· motor has very low speed at high loads
(i). etouslyh· • and
. igh speed at low loads. Therefore, series motor can b e used'10
ectric trains . .
'
443 Basic Electrical Engineering

(ii) trolley cars and trolley buses,

(iii) cranes and hoists,
(iv) conveyers, and
(v) rapid transit system.

EXERCISES
1. ·What is the basic nature of induced emf in a de
•function f generat ?
• a dc gene
o c~mmutator in rator? . . •or. Wbat \
2. What is the difference between a generator and a moto
r? ,
3. Explain with a neat sketch the construction of a de
machine. ·
4. Which parts of a de machine are la~inated and why
?
5. What is the difference between lap-type and wave~typ
e armatur . .
6. What is the basic principle of a de· generator?
ewm
7. Derive ~om first principles, an expression for induced
• ' !

emf in a deg~
8. State different types of de generator and state applicatio
ns of each
9. Sketch and explain_ the load characteristics of the
following typ
generator: '
(i) D~ shunt generator
(ii)· DC series generator
(iii) DC compound generator
10. State various applications of de generators.
11. Explain the principle of working of a de motor. Wha
t is the fun •
coinmutator in a de motor?
12. State voltage .and power equation~ of a de ·motor expla
ining the im
of each term.
13. What is back emf? Explain the significance of back
emf.
14. Derive the expression for the ~lectrom~gnetic torqu
e developed
, motor.
•1s. •Explain why a de s~ries m?tor_ should not be started ·d
on no 1oa •
16. What are applications of de shunt motor? ,.
.17. What are applications of de series motor?

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