Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

Midterm Exam Reviewer

GROUP 1
Domains of Development

DOMAIN 1: BIOLOGICAL DOMAIN

It is the most visibly obvious domain. This is evident in the bodily changes, the maturation process and
outward growth. (INCLUDES NEUROSCIENCE, CONSCIOUSNESS, & SENSATION)

1. Neuroscience- is the study of how the nervous system develops

2. Consciousness- sentience and awareness of internal and external existence.
3. Sensation- a mental process (such as seeing, hearing, or smelling) resulting from the immediate
external stimulation of a sense organ

DOMAIN 2: COGNITIVE DOMAIN

- Involves how children think, explore and figure things out.
- It refers to things such as memory and the ability to learn new information.
- Includes the development of knowledge and skills in maths, science, social studies, and creative
arts.
- Historically, the cognitive development of children has been studied in a variety of ways.
- The oldest is through intelligence tests, such as the widely used Stanford Binet Intelligence
Quotient (IQ) test first adopted for use in the United States
(Lewis Terman 1877- 1956)
- IQ scoring is based on the concept of "mental age," according to which the scores of a child of
average intelligence match his or her age, while a gifted child's performance is comparable to
that of an older child, and a slow learner's scores are similar to those of a younger child.
- Research shows that even at a young age, children have the capability to observe, explore,
and discover the world around them.
- The National Science Teachers Association recognizes that these skills can be encouraged from
birth.

DOMAIN 3: SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DOMAIN

- changes in the way we connect to other individuals and express and understand emotions
- In simple words, socio-emotional development is the development of your interaction with your
emotions
- Socio-emotional development takes times
- However, we will continue to be shaped by our experiences
- Parents and peers play the biggest role in socio-emotional development

FIVE (5) CORE COMPONENTS OF SOCIO-EMOTIONAL

Self-awareness- ability to consider and understand your own emotions, thoughts, values, and
experiences, and its influence on your actions.
Self-management- ability to regulate and control their emotions, thoughts and behaviors in different
situations
Social awareness- ability to empathize with others, and take the perspective of those in different
situations to you
Relationship Skills- ability to make positive connections with others, to take their emotions into account
and form and maintain healthy, mutually relationships.
Responsible Decision-Making- ability to make positive and constructive choices based on individual
and social factors

DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONE (Gesell, Arnold)

- born and raised in Alma, Wisconsin
- he received a doctorate in psychology in 1906 from Clark University
- Gesell established and directed the Clinic of Child Development
- he also worked toward a doctorate in medicine
 10 MAJOR AREAS OF DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONE
1. Motor Characteristics- refers to the growth in the ability of children to use their bodies and physical
skills
2. Personal Hygiene- a child needs to keep themselves clean to remain healthy and to feel good
about themselves.
3. Emotional Expression- the ability to show feelings
4. Fears and Dreams- refer to a feeling of being afraid. Dreams refer to a cherished aspiration,
ambition, or ideal.
5. Self and Sex- Self is your sense of who you are, deep down — your identity. Sex is the traits that
distinguish between males and females
6. Interpersonal Relations- social associations, connections, or affiliations between two or more
people
7. Play and Pastimes- engage in activity for enjoyment and recreation
8. School Life- the period of your life that you spend at school
9. Ethical sense- pertaining to or dealing with morals or the principles of morality
10. Philosophic Outlook- outlook is your general attitude towards life

- His training in physiology and his focus on developmental milestones led Gesell to be a strong
proponent of the "maturational" perspective of child development.
- That is, he believed that child development occurs according to a predetermined, naturally
unfolding plan of growth.
- Gesell's most notable achievement was his contribution to the "normative" approach to
studying children. In this approach, psychologists observed large numbers of children of various
ages and determined the typical age, or "norms," for which most children achieved various
developmental milestones.

ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY

URIE BRONFENBRENNER
- also known as the Human Ecology Theory, and recently renamed as the “Bioecological Systems
Theory”.
- Formulated by famous psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner.
- Ecological Systems theory states that human development is influenced by the different types
of environmental systems.

THE FIVE ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM

1. MICROSYSTEM- the closest to the child and contains the structures with which the child has direct
contact.
- Encompasses the relationships and interactions a child has with her immediate surroundings.
2. MESOSYSTEM- provides the connection between the structures of the child’s microsystem.
3. EXOSYSTEM- defines the larger social system in which the child does not function directly.
- Ecological models pertain to the linkages that may exist between two or more settings, one of
which may not contain the developing children but affect them indirectly, nonetheless.
4. MACROSYSTEM
- Largest and most distant collection of people and places to the children that still have
significant influences on them.
- composed of the children’s cultural patterns and values, specifically their dominant beliefs and
ideas, as well as political and economic systems
5. CHRONOSYSTEM
- It demonstrates the influence of both change and constancy in the children’s environments.
The chronosystem may include a change in family structure, address, parents’ employment
status, as well as immense society changes such as economic cycles and wars.
 GROUP 2
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT PIAGET AND VYGOTSKY THEORY

JEAN PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

JEAN PIAGET (1896-1980)

● He was born in 1898 in Neuchâtel, Switzerland
● A psychologist and epistemologist who focused on child development.
● He developed a theory of human cognitive development (known as genetic epistemology)
● At the age of 30, he published his first book “Genetic Epistemology” which received critical
acclaim.
● His research interests included child development, logic, mathematics, linguistics, social sciences
and education.
● His major works include “Logic”, “Reasoning and Judgment” and “Constructionism.”
● Piaget influenced the field of developmental psychology because he showed that learning takes
place through stages rather than just being acquired all at once.
● He was one of the first people to study children’s development and he developed the theory that
children develop through stages.
● He also studied how children learn and he found out that they learn by doing things and not just
listening or reading about them.
● He also discovered that children have their own ways of learning and that they don’t always
follow the same rules as adults do.
● He also found out that children are very creative and imaginative and that they like to play and
explore.

WHAT IS PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT?

According to Miller, 2011

● The theory of Cognitive Development by Jean Piaget, The Swiss psychologist, suggests that
children’s intelligence undergoes changes as they grow. Cognitive development in children is not
only related to acquiring knowledge, children need to build or develop a mental model of their
surrounding world.
1920’s
● Piaget was working at the Binet Institute and his main responsibility was to translate questions
written in English intelligence tests into French.

PIAGET’S NEW SET OF ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT THE INTELLIGENCE OF CHILDREN:

● Children think differently and see the world differently from adults.
● Children are not passive learners, they actively build up their knowledge about the surrounding.
● The most effective way to understand children’s reasoning is to think from children’s point of view.

PIAGET
● Used observations and clinical interviews of older children who were able to hold
conversations and understand questions. He also made controlled observations and used
naturalistic observation of his own three children and developed diary descriptions with charts
of children’s development.

STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

SENSORIMOTOR STAGE OBJECT PERMANENCE (FROM BIRTH TO 18-24 MONTHS)

● The infants use their actions and senses to explore and learn about their surrounding environment.
● At this stage, infants live only in the present. They do not have anything related to this world stored
in their memory. At the age of 8 months, the infant will understand different objects' permanence
and they will search for them when they are not present.

PREOPERATIONAL STAGE SYMBOLIC THOUGHT (FROM 2 TO 7 YEARS OLD)

● Young children and Toddlers gain the ability to represent the world internally through mental
imagery and language.
● At the preoperational stage, children do not show problem-solving or logical thinking.
● Infants in this age also show animism, means that they think that toys and other non-living objects
have feelings and live like a person.
 ● By an age of 2 years, toddlers can detach their thought process from the physical world. But, they
are still not yet able to develop operational or logical thinking skills in later stages.

CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE LOGICAL THOUGHT (7 TO 11 YEARS OLD)

● They start to grasp the concept of conservation. They understand that, even if things change in
appearance, some properties remain the same.
● This stage is also known as concrete as children begin to think logically. According to Piaget, this
stage is a significant turning point of a child's cognitive development because it marks the starting
point of operational or logical thinking.
● Conservation means that the child understands that even if some things change in appearance,
their properties may remain the same. At age 6 children are able to conserve numbers, at age 7
they can conserve mass and at age 9 they can conserve weight. But logical thinking is only used
if children ask to reason about physically present materials.

FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE SYMBOLIC REASONING (12 AND ABOVE)

● At this stage, individuals perform concrete operations on things and they perform formal
operations on ideas. Formal logical thinking is totally free from perceptual and physical barriers.
● At this stage, adolescents can understand abstract concepts. They are able to follow any specific
kind of argument without thinking about any particular examples.
● This stage allows the emergence of scientific reasoning, formulating hypotheses and abstract
theories as and whenever needed.

HOW IS PIAGET'S THEORY DIFFERENT FROM OTHERS?

PIAGET VS. VYGOTSKY
● Vygotsky claims that cognitive development is led by social interactions and children are social
beings.
● Whereas Piaget believes that a child's development is led by his own self-centered and focused
activities as he is more independent.

PIAGET V.S. KOHLBERG

● For Piaget, moral development is a construction process, and the interplay of thought and action
creates moral concepts.
● Kohlberg believes that process of exploring universal moral principles is called development.

PIAGET VS. ERIKSON

e main difference between Erikson and Piaget is that Erikson focused on the understanding of development
ing the entire life of a person.

KEY CONCEPTS RELATING TO PIAGET’S SCHEMA THEORY

SCHEMAS
● indicates both the physical and mental actions involved in knowing and understanding.
● Schemas represent the categories of knowledge that help people to understand and interpret
the world. A current schema can be built on and become more complex.
● Piaget believes that a schema involves a category of knowledge and the procedure to
obtain that knowledge.

ADAPTATION
● A type of schema that explains how persons understand and learn new information.

There are two ways in which adaptation can occur.

● Adaptation through Assimilation
- When new information is taken from the outside world and is incorporated into a previously existing
schema, it is called assimilation. This process is thought to be subjective, as people tend to modify
information or experience that should match with their pre-existing beliefs.
- balance between the application of past knowledge (assimilation)
● Adaptation through Accommodation
-Accommodation occurs when persons process new information by altering their psychological
representations to fit the new information.
- altering attitude to acquire new knowledge (accommodation).
EQUILIBRATION
● Equilibration assists and demonstrates how children must move from one stage of thinking into the
next stage.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

● Piaget was very influential in creating teaching practices and educational policy.
● In 1966 a primary education review by the UK government was based upon Piaget’s theory.
● The outcome of this review provided the foundation for publishing the Plowden report (1967).

DISCOVERY LEARNING
● The concept that children learn best through actively exploring and doing was viewed as
central to the primary school curriculum transformation.

HENCE, TEACHERS NEED TO ENSURE THE FF. WITHIN THE CLASSROOM:

1. Pay more attention to the learning process, rather than focusing on the end product of it.
2. Use active teaching involving reconstructing or rediscovering "truths."
3. Use individual and collaborative activities (to allow children to learn from one another)
4. Devise situations that offer useful problems, and develop disequilibrium in children.
5. Assess a child's development level so appropriate tasks can be created.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT USING “BLOCKS OF KNOWLEDGE”

SCHEMAS
● The building blocks of knowledge
● The basic building block of intelligent behavior (way of organizing knowledge)
● The development of a person's mental processes is the increase in the number and complexity of
schemata (plural of schema) that a person has learned.
● Schema can be defined as a set of linked mental representations of the world, which we use both
to understand and to respond to situations.

EXAMPLES OF SCHEMA:
● buying a meal in the restaurant
● This is an example of a type of schema called a 'script'. Whenever they are in a restaurant,
they retrieve this schema from memory and apply it to the situation.

THE SCHEMA IS A STORED FORM OF THE PATTERN OF BEHAVIOR:

● looking at a menu
● ordering food
● eating it
● paying the bill.

CRITICAL EVALUATION OF PIAGET’S THEORY

● Sets of schemas are used by the child to help them adjust to their environment. The key points of
his theory reflect Piaget's interest in the development of cognition and how knowledge is acquired.
● The sensorimotor stage has lacked evidence on babies' thinking ability. Piaget characterizes
development negatively, but his theory is based on the conception of development as a transition
from absence to presence which is what constructivists beyond Piaget claimed.
● Piaget's theory is open for discussion due to his 1978 claim that the two great mysteries of
knowledge cannot be solved solely within a functionalist framework. Armando and Orlando, 1996,
argued that Piaget's idea is paradoxical because it assesses ideas through language.

LEV VYGOTSKY THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

LEV VYGOTSKY (1896-1934)
● Was born November 17, 1896, in Orsha, a city in the western Russian Empire.
● Lev Vygotsky was a seminal Russian psychologist best known for his sociocultural theory.
● He believed that social interaction plays a critical role in children's learning, a continuous process
that is profoundly influenced by culture.
● In 1917, he earned a law degree at Moscow State University, where he studied a range of topics
including sociology, linguistics, psychology, and philosophy.
 LEV VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
● The work of Lev Vygotsky (1934) has become the foundation of much research and theory in
cognitive development over the past several decades, particularly what has become known as
sociocultural theory.
● Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory views human development as a socially mediated process in which
children acquire cultural values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies through collaborative
dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society.

VYGOTSKY’S IDEAS
● Vygotsky’s theory focuses on the role of culture in the development of mental abilities, speech and
reasoning in children. They provide the child with what to think (the knowledge) and how to think
(the processes, the tools to think with)
● Vygotsky argued that higher mental abilities could only develop through interaction with more
advanced others. Once thought and language merge, however, the social language is
internalized and assists the child with their reasoning.
● Vygotsky proposed that children are born with elementary mental abilities such as memory and
perception and that higher mental functions develop from these through the influence of social
interactions.

VYGOTSKY THEORY EFFECTS ON CULTURE

● Vygotsky emphasized the role of the social environment in the cognitive development of the child.
● Vygotsky claimed that infants are born with the basic abilities for intellectual development called
"elementary mental function” These develop throughout the first two years of life as a result of direct
contact with the environment.
● For example, memory in young children is limited by biological factors. However, culture determines
the type of memory strategy we develop.

SOCIAL INFLUENCES ON COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

● Vygotsky believed that young children are curious and actively involved in their own learning and
the discovery and development of new understandings/schema.
● Vygotsky placed more emphasis on social contributions to the development process, whereas
Piaget emphasized self-initiated discovery.
● According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs through social
interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviors and/or provide verbal instructions for
the child.

ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT

● The concept of the more knowledgeable other is integrally related to the second important
principle of Vygotsky’s work, the Zone of Proximal Development.
● An important concept that relates to the difference between what a child can achieve
independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled
partner.
● The gap between the level of actual development, what the child can do on his own and the level
of potential development, what a child can do with the assistance of more advanced and
competent individuals.

GROUP 3
Intelligence and Individual Differences
Concept of Intelligence (Binet)
Alfred Binet- French Psychologist

EARLY LIFE
● Born as Alfredo Binette on July 8, 1857
● Parents are physician and artist.
● Graduated from a law school in 1878.
● He began to study science at Sorbonne.
● Began educating himself to become psychology by reading works such as Charles Darwin and
John Stuart Mill
BEST KNOWN FOR:
● Most influential Psychologist in history
● Binet- Simon Intelligence Test Scale
● Stanford - Binet IQ Test
What was the Binet Simon test?
- The Binet Simon test was a series of 30 tasks of progressing difficulty.
- It was designed to assess whether the test taker would benefit from special education.
What did Alfred Binet contribute to Psychology?
- Alfred Binet is considered one of the most influential psychologists.
- The intelligence scale he created with Theodore Simon was the first of its kind.

MENTAL ORDER
- Mental age is based on a person's intellectual development.
CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER
- Chronological age is based on the calendar date that a person was born.
For instance, if a person's mental age is higher than their chronological age, they are considered to be
intellectually gifted. Yet, if a person's mental age and chronological age are the same, they are
considered to be of average intelligence.

The Standford- Binet Intelligence Scale

- Included an equation to compare mental and chronological age.
- known as the intelligence quotient.
- Found by dividing a person's mental age by their chronological age and multiplying that value
by 100.

Creating and Intelligence Test

- Binet's work of intelligence began in 1904
- With the help of a college named Theodore Simon
- By 1905, Binet and Simon develop their first in a series of test designed to measure intelligence, and
it's called BINET-SIMON SCALE

Age-Appropriate Scale
- In 1908, Binet and Simon revised their intelligence scale so that it considered the age of the person
tested.
- The new revision of the test was organized according to age levels ranging from 3- 13.

GENERAL INTELLIGENCE (SPEARMAN)

Charles Edward Spearman
- (September 10, 1863 - September 7, 1945) was an English psychologist.
- Known for work in statistics, as a pioneer of factor analysis, and for Spearman's rank correlation
coefficient.
- He also did seminal work on human intelligence, including the discovery of the G factor.

Spearman's theory of intelligence consists of two components: general intelligence (g) and specific
ability (s).

The “g” factor

- Is linked to the general ability, while the “s” factor is linked to the specific ability.
- Refers to the existence of a broad mental capacity that influences performance on cognitive
ability measures.

S factors
- Are specific factors that can be acquired by working hard on them and training. For example,
test of arithmetic, spatial relationships, verbal fluency, each of these specific intelligence
measure a separate 's'

SEVEN PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES OF THURSTONE'S INTELLIGENCE THEORY

Louis Leon Thurstone- American Psychologist
- Born on 29 May 1887 in Chicago, USA.
- electrical engineering graduate from Cornell University, New York
 - he is famous for his contribution to the factor analysis technique and development of
psychometrics.
- he developed the ‘Primary Mental Ability Test’ (1938) that measures the various factors related
to human intelligence.

THE NUMERICAL FACTOR

- It involves the ability of an individual to do quick and accurate numerical computations.
- It can be measured by checking the accuracy and speed of the person in solving various arithmetic
problems.
THE VERBAL FACTOR
- It refers to the ability of the person to understand and use various words, sentences, language, or
other verbal content pieces.
THE SPACE FACTOR
- refers to the spatial visualization of the person.
- A person tries to understand the manipulation of various real/imaginary objects in space.
MEMORY
- It refers to the ability of the person to quickly memorize the various concepts or phenomena and
retain them for a longer period.
VERBAL FLUENCY
- The ease with which a person can produce words.
- involve some sort of category like fruits, words beginning with the letter Q or animals.
INDUCTIVE REASONING
- a logical process in which multiple premises, all believe true or found true most of the time
- Often used in applications that involve prediction, forecasting, or behavior.
PERCEPTUAL SPEED
- Ability to compare similarities and differences quickly and accurately among sets of letters, numbers,
objects, pictures, or patterns.
- Also includes comparing a presented object with a remembered object

GROUP 4
TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE BY STERNBERG
Sternberg describes three different kinds of intelligence in his model:
1. Analytical 2. Creative 3. Practical

ANALYTICAL THINKING
• Metacomponents- Control, monitor and evaluate cognitive processing.
• Performance - Execute by the metacomponents. They are the basic operations involved in any
cognitive act.
• Knowledge acquisition - Are the process used in gaining and storing new knowledge.

CREATIVE THINKING (EXPERIENTIAL)

- Focusing on developing, applying new ideas and creating solutions.
- Deals with how well a task is performed about how familiar it is.

PRACTICAL THINKING (CONTEXTUAL)

- Focuses on selecting and shaping real world environments and experiences.
- Deals with the mental activity involved in attaining fit to context.

TYPOLOGY OF PEOPLE BASED ON THE TRIARCHIC INTELLIGENCE:

1. ANALYZER- fares well in academic environments but isn't likely to make creative contribution to the
field.
2. CREATOR- generates ideas easily but is unable to analyze these ideas or to put them into practice.
3. PRACTITIONER- is persuasive and maybe entertaining but lacks substance in thinking.
4. ANALYTIC CREATOR- can analyze created ideas but doesn't easily communicate these ideas to
others.
5. ANALYTIC PRACTITIONER- succeeds in conventional terms because of high IQ is translated into
practical work, but he is unlikely to make a lasting contribution.
6. CREATIVE PRACTIONER- can come up with new ideas and can persuade other people of the value
of these ideas, regardless of whether those ideas are worth it or not.
7. CONSUMATE BALANCER- can apply all three bits of intelligence as needed and is therefore in the
best position to make a valuable contribution to society.

GARDNER'S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

- proposed by Harvard psychologist Howard Gardner
- Intelligence is often defined as our intellectual potential; something we are born with, something
that can be measured, and a capacity that is difficult to change.

THE EIGHT INTELLIGENCES ACCORDING TO GARDNER ARE:

1. Visual-Spatial Intelligence - are good at visualizing things. These individuals are often good with
directions as well as maps, charts, videos, and pictures.

2. Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence- can use words well, both when writing and speaking. These individuals
are typically very good at writing stories, memorizing information, and reading.

3. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence- are good at reasoning, recognizing patterns, and logically

analyzing problems. These individuals tend to think conceptually about numbers, relationships, and
patterns.

4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence- are said to be good at body movement, performing actions, and
physical control. People who are strong in this area tend to have excellent hand-eye coordination and
dexterity.

5. Musical Intelligence- are good at thinking in patterns, rhythms, and sounds. They have a strong
appreciation for music and are often good at musical composition and performance.

6. Interpersonal Intelligence- are good at understanding and interacting with other people. These
individuals are skilled at assessing the emotions, motivations, desires, and intentions of those around
them.

7. Intrapersonal Intelligence- are good at being aware of their own emotional states, feelings, and
motivations. They tend to enjoy self-reflection and analysis, including daydreaming, exploring
relationships with others, and assessing their personal strengths.

8. Naturalistic Intelligence - more in tune with nature and are often interested in nurturing, exploring
the environment, and learning about other species. These individuals are said to be highly aware of
even subtle changes to their environments.

COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING- ATKINSON AND SHIFFRIN

Information processing
- is a cognitive activity in which human nervous system receives an input of information through
sense organs, transformed it, stored it, and retrieved it when needed.
- to understand human memory is based on the functioning of digital computers that takes items
of information in; processes them in steps; and then produce an output.

According to information processing theory, human memorization process involves three tasks:
1. Encoding: the process through which information is converted into a form that can be entered into
memory.
2. Storage: the process through which information is retained in memory over varying periods of time.
3. Retrieval: the process through which the information stored in memory is located and accessed
when it is needed.

HOW DOES THE MODAL MODEL OF MEMORY WORK?

- First, senses that people smell, hear, taste, touch, or view are placed into the sensory register.

Human memory can be broken in to three sub-sections: Sensory Memory, short-term memory and long-
term memory by Richard C. Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin
1. THE SENSORY MEMORY is responsible for holding onto information that the mind receives through the
senses such as auditory and visual information.
2. SHORT-TERM MEMORY lasts for about 30 seconds. Short-term memory retains information that is
needed for only a short period of time such as remembering a phone number that needs to be dialed.
3. THE LONG-TERM MEMORY has an unlimited amount of space. In the long-term memory, there can
be memory stored in there from the beginning of our lifetime.
 GROUP 5

FACTORS AFFECTING COGNITIVE AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

JEAN PIAGET
• The study of knowledge and development.

THREE TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE:

1. PHYSICAL
2. SOCIAL
3. LOGICAL

PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE
• Period of Language Development
• Egocentrism - only see self perceptions

CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE

• Develop ability to handle complex logic and make comparisons
• Hypothesize and reason only about things they've experienced themselves

FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE

• Abstract thinking ability
• Offer interpretations and draw conclusions
• Formulate hypothesis

LEV VYGOTSKY
• Advocate of early childhood programs that meet the needs of the whole child.
• Children need to acquire a set of fundamental competencies that shape their minds for
further learning: (1.Cognitive 2.Linguistic 3.Social-emotional)

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
• Changes in cognitive skills are related to intellectual growth and age
• Child's behavior not just result of external stimuli but also internal stimuli
• Social learning leads to cognitive development
• Individual differences in children should be recognized and addressed
• The process of growth and change in intellectual/mental abilities:
1. Thinking
2. Understanding
• Children draw on experiences through all domains:
1. Social-Emotional
2. Language
3. Perceptual

INFANTS
• Explore through mouthing, dropping, banging, squeezing
• Learn how to use one object to get another
• Begin to understand cause and effect
• Learn "object permanence" object exist even when it's out of sight
TODDLERS
• Learning all the time!
• As they develop, the same experience takes on new meanings
• Just beginning to understand how things and events relate to each other-in, out under
• Think concretely and understand words very literally
• Can anticipate what will happen next and learn order in daily routines and schedules
• Beginning to understand cause and effect

FOSTERING COGNITIVE GROWTH:

What do children need?

• Self-confidence and skill to explore their world
• To try out new ideas
• To make mistakes
• To solve problems on their own
• Take on new challenges
What can the teacher do?
• Build on child's natural curiosity
• Create an environment for exploration
• Ask questions and talk with children
• Give children a chance to construct their own knowledge.
ROLE OF ADULTS
• Vital role in supporting cognitive development of infants
• Serve as prime source for imitation
• Provide the cultural context and determine what knowledge is valuable.

INFANT FOUNDATIONS:

CAUSE AND EFFECT:

• The developing understanding that one event brings about another.

SPATIAL RELATIONSHIP:
• The developing understanding of how things move and fit in space.

PROBLEM SOLVING:
• The developing ability in a purposeful effort reach a goal or figure out how something works

FOUNDATION
IMITATION
• The developing ability to mirror, repeat, and practice the actions of others, either immediately
or later.

MEMORY
• The developing ability to store and later retrieve information about past experiences.

NUMBER SENSE
• The developing understanding of number and quantity.

INFANT TODDLER FOUNDATIONS

CLASSIFICATIONS
• The developing ability to group, sort, categorize, connect, and have expectations of objects
and people according to their attributes.
SYMBOLIC PLAY
• The developing ability to use actions, objects, or ideas to represent other actions, objects, or
ideas.
ATTENTION MAINTENANCE
• The developing ability to attend to people and things while interacting with others and
exploring the environment and play materials.
UNDERSTANDING OF PERSONAL CARE ROUTINE
• The developing ability to understand and participate in personal care routines.

LEARNING LANGUAGE

• Need to be able to communicate

• To understand the world
• To function in the world
• Language unites people
• Talking and listening
• Literacy - reading and writing

LITERATURE
• the art form that uses language

THE TEACHER’S JOB

• Provide relationships full of language

• Speak honestly and respectfully
• Listen attentively
• Use language
1. To mediate problems
2. Communicate information
3. Share feelings and ideas
4. Demonstrate usefulness and valueb of oral language.
 LEARNING CUSTOM FROM HOME

• Learn to use nonverbal features in:

1. Communication 6. Need to be sensitive to cultural customs
2. Body position 7. Some cultures do not use eye contact
3. Gestures
4. Facial expression
5. Intonation in speaking
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE

• Children learn complex structure, rules, and meanings of language

• Normal Development - develop ability to create speech
• Taught through "language-rich" relationships
1. Learn through conversations
2. Learn through play
3. Learn through planned activities (Games, stories, songs, rhymes)
• Taught through structured group activities

LITERACY
• Literacy begins at birth - experiences in infancy with language, books, reading > Foster awareness
of print-filled world
• Foundations start long before child learns to read
• Include experience with books Each child needs to be read to
• Even the youngest children must have books and words throughout their environment.

DEVELOPING LANGUAGE

• Preverbal infants communicate through:

1. Eye contact
2. Facial expressions
3. Gestures
4. Sounds

• Infants understand the social processes involved in communication:

1. Learn turn
2. Taking behavior
3. Learn back and forth conversation
4. Like responses

PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

• Infants develop ability to perceive inter-sensory relations in auditory visual events
• Experience effects language development, Infants' perceptual and perceptual-motor systems
are altered by linguistic experience
• Phonetic experience change through native-language patterns

LANGUAGE FOUNDATIONS
• Communication skills and knowledge
• The developing ability to communicate nonverbally and verbally.
• Interest in print
• The developing interest in engaging with print in books and in the environment.

RECEPTIVE LANGUAGE
• The developing ability to understand words and increasingly complex utterances > Expressive
language.
• The developing ability to produce the sounds of language and use vocabulary and
increasingly complex utterances.

CURRENT RESEARCH AND PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATIONS

A New Application for the Concept of Pedagogical Content Knowledge: Teaching Advanced Social
Science Research Methods. (Melanie Nind, 2019)

• the paper shows the participating teachers' orientation to teaching methods and how they
combine knowledge of content and pedagogy in generic and distinctive PCK.
• a qualitative study conducted in the UK.
 SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
• Refers to a child's ability to create and sustain meaningful relationships with adults and other
children.

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
• Refers to a child's ability to express, recognize, and manage his or her emotions, as well as
respond appropriately to others' emotions.

DOMAINS OF SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

1. RELATIONSHIP WITH ADULTS

• Child develops expectations of consistent, positive interactions through secure relationships with
familiar adults.
• Child uses expectations learned through repeated experiences in primary relationships to
develop relationships with other adults.
• Child learns to use adults as a resource to meet needs.

2. RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER CHILDREN

• Child shows interest in, interacts with, and develops personal relationships with other children.
• Child imitates and engages in play with other children.

3. EMOTIONAL FUNCTIONING
• Child learns to express a range of emotions.
• Child recognizes and interprets the emotions of others with the support of familiar adults.
• Child expresses care and concern towards others.
• Child manages emotions with the support of familiar adults.

4. SENSE OF IDENTITY AND BELONGING

• Child shows awareness about self and how to connect with others.
• Child understands some characteristics of self and others.
• Child shows confidence in own abilities through relationships with others.
• Child develops a sense of belonging through relationships with others.

FIVE COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

1. SELF-AWARENESS
• Children who are self-aware are familiar with their strengths and weaknesses. This means they
know what they're good at and what they need to improve at to be successful.

2. SELF-MANAGEMENT
• A lifelong skill that takes time to practice, such as with self-awareness. It will help the child feel
more in control of their emotions and confident in their abilities to achieve their goals.

3. SOCIAL AWARENESS
• Improving relationships and communication skills, social awareness is also important. Develop
in order to build positive relationships and make responsible decisions.

4. RELATIONSHIP SKILLS
• the ability to build positive relationships, especially with diverse individuals and groups, using a
variety of methods such as active listening, and communication and conflict resolution skills.
These skills also include the ability to resist pressure and to seek out and offer help.

5. RESPONSIBLE DECISION MAKING

• The ability to make constructive choices about personal behavior and social interactions
based on ethical standards, safety concerns, and social norms; the realistic evaluation of
consequences of various actions; and a consideration of the well-being of oneself and others.

PROMOTING YOUNG CHILDREN’S SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL HEALTH

1. Are usually in a positive mood.
2. Listen and follow directions.
3. Have close relationships with caregivers and peers.
 4. Care about friends and show interest in others.
5. Recognize, label, and manage their own emotions.
6. Understand others' emotions and show empathy.

DEVELOPMENT OF SELF AND SOCIAL UNDERSTANDINGS

• The sense of self in children serves several important functions. It helps children understand
things that happen to them, motivates them to engage in behaviors in which others may
respond to positively.

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
FRUED
• an individual must successfully complete each stage to become a psychologically healthy
adult with a full ego and superego.
• Otherwise, individuals may become stuck or "fixated" in a particular stage, causing emotional
and behavioral problems in adulthood.

PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY

ERIKSON
• personality develops in a predetermined order through 8 stages of psychosocial development
from infancy to adulthood.
• Each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or
negative outcome for personality development.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

BANDURA
• Observation and modeling play a primary role in how and why people learn.
• Bandura's theory goes beyond the perception of learning being the result of direct experience
with the environment.
• Bandura's theory moves beyond behavioral theories, which suggest that all behaviors are
learned through conditioning, and cognitive theories, which take into account psychological
influences such as attention and memory.

FOUR PROCESS OF BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Reproduction
4. Motivation