Chapter 1

Calculus

CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

☞ Limit of a function ☞ Mean value theorem

☞ Derivatives

Limit oF a Function Now, let us see what happens when x is greater than 2.
Let y = f(x) be a function of x and let ‘a’ be any real number. When x = 2.1, f (x) = 9.261
We must first understand what a ‘limit’ is. A limit is When x = 2.01, f (x) = 8.12
the value, function approaches, as the variable within that When x = 2.001, f (x) = 8.01
function (usually ‘x’) gets nearer and nearer to a particu- When x = 2.0001, f (x) = 8.001
lar value. In other words, when x is very close to a certain As x decreases and approaches 2, f (x) still approaches 8.
number, what is f(x) very close to? This is called ‘right-hand limit’ and is written as lim+
x→ 2
→ ←
Meaning of ‘x → a’ x 2 2 x

Let x be a variable and ‘a’ be a constant. If x assumes values We get the same answer while finding both, left and right
hand limits. Hence we write that lim x = 8.
3
nearer and nearer to ‘a’, then we say that ‘x tends to a’ or ‘x x →2
approaches a’ and is written as ‘x → a’. By x → a, we mean
that x ≠ a and x may approach ‘a’ from left or right, which Meaning of the Symbol: xlim
→a
f(x) = l
is explained in the example given below. Let f (x) be a function of x where x takes values closer and
Let us look at an example of a limit: What is the limit of closer to ‘a’ (≠ a), then f (x) will assume values nearer and
the function f (x) = x3 as x approaches 2? The expression ‘the nearer to l. Hence we say, f (x) tends to the limit ‘l’ as x tends
limit as x approaches to 2’ is written as: lim Let us check to a.
x→2
out some values of lim as x increases and gets closer to 2, The following are some of the simple algebraic rules of
x→2 limits.
without even exactly getting there.
1. xlim kf ( x ) = k lim f ( x )
When x = 1.9, f (x) = 6.859 →a x →a
When x = 1.99, f (x) = 7.88
2. lim[ f ( x ) ± g ( x )] = lim f ( x ) ± lim g ( x )
When x = 1.999, f (x) = 7.988 x →a x →a x →a
When x = 1.9999, f (x) = 7.9988 3. xlim[ f ( x ) ⋅ g ( x )] = lim f ( x ) ⋅ lim g ( x )
→a x →a x →a
As x increases and approaches 2, f (x) gets closer and closer
to 8 and since x tends to 2 from left this is called ‘left-hand f ( x) x→a
4. lim = ( lim g ( x ) ≠ 0)
limit’ and is written as lim− . x →a g ( x ) lim g ( x ) x → a
x→ 2 x →a

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 2.4 | Part II ■ Engineering Mathematics

NOTES For functions that are continuous on (a, b) the following

holds:
1. If the left hand limit of a function is not equal to the
right hand limit of the function, then the limit does
f is bounded and attains its bounds at least once on [a,
not exist. b], i.e., for some c, d ∈[a, b],
2. A limit equal to infinity is not the same as a limit that M = supremum of f = f(c) and m = Infimum of f = f (d)
does not exist.
(c, M ) (c1, M )
y

Continuous Functions
Let f: A → B be any given function and let c ∈ A. We say f is
continuous at c, if given ∈ > 0, there exists d > 0 such that
|f (x) - f (c)|< ∈ whenever |x - c| < d
(d, m )
In words, this means that, if x is very close to c in domain,
x
then f (x) is very close to f (c) in range. a d c c1 b
Equivalently f is continuous at c. If lim f ( x ) = f (c)
x →c NOTE
We observe
1. c ∈ A, i.e., f (c) must exist 1; 0 < x ≤ 1
The converse may not be true as f ( x ) =  is
2. lim f ( x ) exists −1; 1 < x ≤ 2
x →c
bounded on [1, 2] but it is not continuous at x = 1.
3. f (c) and lim f ( x ) are equal.
x →c
If any of these three conditions fail, then f is discontinuous Intermediate-value Theorem
at x = c. If f is continuous on [a, b] and f (a) ≠ f (b) then f takes every
value between f (a) and f (b).
Equivalently, if f is continuous on [a, b] and f (a) < k < f
Algebra of Continuous Functions (b) or f (b) < k < f (a), then there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that
If f, g be two continuous functions at c, then f + g, f - g, fg f(c) = k.
are also continuous at x = c. Equivalently, If f (a) and f (b) are of opposite signs then
To solve a problem of continuous functions at a point a, there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that f(c) = 0.
you can take the following approach. y

1. Find the value f (x) at x = a. If a is in the domain of f, f

(a) must exist. If a is not in the domain, then f (a) does
not exist. In such a case, f is not continuous at x = a. 0 a c b x

2. Find lim f ( x ). For this you have to first find lim

x →a x→∞
f ( x ) = l1 (say ) and lim+ f ( x ) = l2 (say ). If l1 ≠ l2 then
⋅
f (a) < 0 and f (b) > 0, clearly f (c) = 0.
x →a
lim f ( x ) does not exist and so f is not continuous at x NOTES
x →a
1. If f (x) is continuous in [a, b] then f takes all values
= a. If l1 = l2, then lim f ( x ) exists. between m and M at least once as x moves from a to b,
x →a
where M = Supremum of f on [a, b] and m = ­infimum
3. If lim f ( x ) exists and also f (a) exists.
x →a of f on [a, b].
Then verify whether lim f ( x ) = f ( a). 2. If f (x) is continuous in [a, b], then | f | is also continu-
x →a ous on [a, b], where | f | (x) = | f (x)| x ∈ [a, b].
If xlim f ( x ) = f ( a). Then f is continuous, otherwise it is 3. Converse may not be true
→a
not continuous at x = a. 1; 0 < x ≤ 3
Problems on continuous functions can be grouped into For instance, f ( x ) = 
−1; 3 < x ≤ 5
the following categories.
is not continuous at x = 3, but | f |(x) = 1x ∈ [0, 5], being a
1. Using ∈, d notation. constant function is continuous [0, 5].
2. Using existence of right and left hand limits.
3. To find the value of the unknown in f (x) when f is given Inverse-function Theorem
to be continuous at a point. If f is a continuous one-to-one function on [a, b] then f -1 is
4. To find f (a) when f is given to be continuous at x = a. also continuous on [a, b].

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 Chapter 1 ■ Calculus | 2.5

Uniform Continuity A function f defined on an interval I NOTES

is said to be uniformly continuous on I if given ∈ > 0 there
1. 
Every differentiable function is continuous, but the
exists a d > 0 such that if x, y are in I and |x - y| < d then
converse is not true.
| f (x) – f (y) | < ∈.
The example of a function which is continuous but
not differentiable at a point f (x) = | x - 3| for x ∈ R is
NOTE continuous at x = 3, but it is not differentiable at x = 3.
Continuity on [a, b] implies uniform continuity whereas 2. 
The function may have a derivative at a point, but the
continuity on (a, b) does not mean uniform continuity. derivative may not be continuous.
For example the function
Types of Discontinuity If f is a function defined on an inter-
val I, it is said to have  3 1
  x sin ; x ≠ 0 has the derivative function
(TD1) a removable discontinuity at p ∈ I, if lim f ( x ) f ( x) =  x
exists, but is not equal to f (p).
x→ p  0; x=0
(TD2) a discontinuity of first kind from the left at p if as
lim f ( x ) exists but is not equal to f (p).  2 1 1
x → p− 3 x sin − x cos ; x ≠ 0
′( )
f x  = x x
(TD3) a discontinuity of first kind from the right at p if  0; x=0
lim f ( x ) exists but is not equal to f (p).
x → p+
However lim f ′( x ) doesn’t exist.
(TD4) a discontinuity of first kind at p if lim x →0
x→∞
f ( x ) and lim+ f ( x ) exists but they are unequal.
x→ p

(TD5) a discontinuity of second kind from the left at SOLVED EXAMPLES

p if lim f ( x ) does not exist.
x→ p− Example 1
(TD6) a discontinuity of second kind from the right at Discuss the continuity of the function at x = 1 where f (x) is
p if lim+ f ( x ) does not exist. defined by
x→ p
3x − 2
(TD7) a discontinuity of second kind at p if neither f ( x) = for 0 < x ≤ 1
x
lim− f ( x ) nor lim+ f ( x ) exist.
x→ p x→ p
sin( x − 1)
= for x > 1
( x − 1)
Examples for each type are presented in the following   
table:
Solution
Type Example Point of Discontinuity Consider the left and right handed limits
TD1 x2 − 1 x=i
f ( x) = ,x≠ 3x − 2
x −1 lim f ( x ) = lim =1
f (1) = 3
x →1− x →1 x
sin( x − 1)
TD2 f(x) = x + 3 for 0 < x < 1 x=1 lim f ( x ) = lim
x →1+ x →1x −1
f(x) = 5 for x ≥ 1
sin( x − 1)
TD3 f(x) = x + 3, for x > 2 x=2 = lim = 1 and f (1)
f(x) = 8 for x ≤ 2 ( x −1) →0 ( x − 1)

TD4  x + 3; x > 2 x=2 3(1) − 2


f ( x ) =  7; x=2 = =1
 x − 3; x < 2 1

∴ lim− f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = f (1)
x →1 x →1
TD5 f(x) = tan x for x < p/2 π
f(x) = 1, for x ≥p/2 x=
2 \ f is continuous at x = 1.

TD6 f(x) = 1, for x ≤ p/2 π Example 2

f(x) = tan x for x > p/2 x=
2
( 2 x − 1) 2
If f ( x ) = for x ≠ 0 and f (x) = log 2 for x =
TD7 f(x) = 1/x at x ≠ 0 f(0) x=0 (sin 2 x ) log(1 + x )
= 3 at x = 0
0, discuss the continuity at x = 0.

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 2.6 | Part II ■ Engineering Mathematics

Solution And f (x) is continuous at x = 4, then find the values of a

and b.
( 2 − 1)
x
lim f ( x ) = lim
x →0 x →0 (sin 2 x ) log(1 + x) Solution
2 x−4
 2x −1  lim f ( x ) = lim− +a
  x →4− x →4 | x−4|
= lim  x 
x →0 sin 2 x log(1 + x ) ( x − 4)
( 2) = lim− + a = −1 + a
2x x x →4 −( x − 4)
2 x−4
 2x −1  lim f ( x ) = lim+ +b
  x →4+ x →4 | x−4|
= lim  x 
x →0 1 x−4
 sin 2 x  = lim+ + b = 1+ b
2  log(1 + x ) x x →4 ( x − 4)
 2x 
Since given f (x) is continuous at x = 4
2
 2x −1  lim f ( x ) = f ( 4) = lim+ f ( x )
lim   x →4− x →4
1 x →0  x 
= ⇒ –1 + a = a + b = 1 + b ⇒ a = 1, b = – 1
1 
2 sin 2 x  
 lim   log lim (1 + x ) x 
 x →0 2 x   x →0  Example 5
1 Examine the continuity of the given function at origin
= (log 2) 2 .
2 where,
But given f (x) = 2 log 2 at x = 0  1
∴ lim f ( x ) ≠ f (0)  xe x
 , x≠0
x →0 f ( x) =  1
∴ f (x) is not continuous at x = 0.  1 + e x
 0, x=0
Example 3
Find the value of k if Solution
1
2 x − 5 x + 4 x + 11
3 2
f ( x) = , for x ≠ −1 xe x
x +1 lim f ( x ) = lim− 1
=0
x →0 − x →0
And f (–1) = k is continuous at x = –1. 1+ e x
x
Solution lim f ( x ) = lim+ −1/x
=0
x →0 + x →0 e +1
Given f (x) is continuous at x = – 1
Then,
⇒ lim f ( x ) = f ( −1) = k .
x →−1 lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = 0
x →0 − x →0 x →0
 2 x − 5 x + 4 x + 11 
3 2
Thus the function is continuous at the origin.
⇒ lim f ( x ) lim  
x →−1 x →−1  x +1 
( x + 1)( 2 x 2 − 7 x + 11) Derivatives
= lim
x →−1 x +1 In this section we will look at the simplistic form of the
= 2(– 1)2 – 7 (– 1) + 11 definition of a derivative, the derivatives of certain standard
= 2 + 7 + 11 = 20 functions and application of derivatives.
\k = 20 [ f ( a + h) − f ( a)]
For a function f (x), the ratio is the rate
h
Example 4 of change of f (x) in the interval [a, (a + h)].
x−4 The limit of this ratio as h tends to zero is called the
If f ( x ) = + a, for x < 4, = a + b for derivative of f (x). This is represented as f ′(x), i.e.,
| x−4|
x−4 f ( a + h) − f ( a)
x = 4, = + b, for x > 4 lim = f ′( x )
| x−4| h→0 h

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 Chapter 1 ■ Calculus | 2.7

The derivative f ′(x) is also represented as d{ f ( x )} or Derivatives of Some Important Functions

d dx d n
{ f ( x )} 1. (a) (x ) = n · xn-1
dx dx
dy d  1  −n
Hence, if y = f (x), i.e., y is a function of x, then is the
(b) =
derivative of y with respect to x. dx dx  x n  x n +1

NOTES d 1
(c) ( x) = ; x≠0
dx 2 x
1. dy is the rate of change of y with respect to x. d
dx 2. [axn + b] = an · xn-1
dx
2. If the function y can be represented as a general curve, d
and a tangent is drawn at any point where the tangent 3. [ax + b]n = n a (ax + b) n-1
dx
makes an angle θ with the horizontal (as shown in the d
4. [eax] = a · eax
dy dx
figure), then = tan θ , In other words, derivative of
dx d 1
5. [log x] = ;x>0
a function at a given point is the slope of the curve at dx x
that point, i.e., tans of the angle, the tangent drawn d
6. [ax] = ax log a; a > 0
to the curve at that point, makes with the horizontal. dx
d
7. (a) [sin x] = cos x
Y y = f (x ) dx
d
(b) [cos x] = –sin x
dx
θ
d
(c) [tan x] = sec2 x
dx
O X
d
(d) [cot x] = –cosec2 x
dx
d
Standard Results (e) [sec x] = sec x · tan x
dx
If f (x) and g(x) are two functions of x and k is a constant, d
(f) [cosec x] = –cosec x · cot x
then dx

1.
d
(c) = 0 (c is a constant) Inverse Rule
dx If y = f (x) and its inverse x = f–1(y) is also defined, then
d d dy 1
2. k ⋅ f ( x) = k f ( x ) (k is a constant) = .
dx dx dx dx
dy
d
3. ( f ( x ) ± g ( x ))
dx Second Derivative
d d If y = f (x), then the derivative of derivative of y is called as
= f ( x) ± g( x)
dx dx d2 y
second derivative of y and is represented by .
dx 2
Product Rule d2 y d  dy  dy
= f ′′( x ) =   where
4. d { f ( x ) ⋅ g ( x )} = f ′( x ) ⋅ g ( x ) + f ( x ) ⋅ g ′( x ) dx 2 dx  dx  dx is the first derivative of y.
dx
d 1
8. (a) sin −1 x =
Quotient Rule dx 1 − x2
d  f ( x )  g ( x ) ⋅ f ′( x ) − f ( x ) ⋅ g ′( x ) d −1
5.  = (b) cos ec −1 x =
dx  g ( x )  ( g ( x )) 2 dx | x | x2 −1
d −1
Chain Rule (c) cos −1 x =
dx 1− x2
6. If y = f (u) and u = g(x) be two functions, then
dy  dy   du  d 1
= × (d) sec −1 x =
dx  du   dx  dx | x | x2 −1

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 2.8 | Part II ■ Engineering Mathematics

d
tan −1 x =
1 dn  nπ 
(e) (f) sin (ax + b) = an sin  + ax + b 
dx 1+ x2 dx n  2 
 (f) d −1 dn  nπ 
cot −1 x = (g) cos (ax + b) = an cos  + ax + b 
dx 1+ x2 dx n  2 
9. (a) d
sinh x = cosh x dn
dx (h) (eax sin bx)
d dx n
(b) cosh x = sinh x  b
dx = ( a 2 + b 2 ) n / 2 eax sin  bx + n tan-1 
d  a
(c) tanh x = sech 2 x d n ax
dx (i) (e cos bx)
dx n
d  b
(d) coth x = −cosech 2 x = (a2 + b2)n/2 eax cos  bx + n tan-1 
dx  a
d d  1  ( −1) n n+1
n n
(e) sech x = − sech x tanh x
dx (j)   = n + 2 sin θ sin (n + 1)θ
dx n  x 2 + a 2  a
d
(f) cosechx = − cosechx coth x -1  x
dx where θ = tan  
a
d 1 dn -1x) = (-1)n-1 (n - 1)! sinnθ ⋅ sin nθ
10. (a) sinh −1 x = (k) (tan
dx dx n
1 + x2
where θ = cot-1x.
(b) d cosh −1 x = 1
dx x2 − 1 Application of Derivatives
(c) d tanh −1 x = 1 Errors in Measurement
dx 1 − x2 Problems relating to errors in measurement can be solved
using the concept of derivatives. For example, if we know
(d) d coth −1 x = −1
dx x2 −1 the error in measurement of the radius of a sphere, we can
find out the consequent error in the measurement of the
d −1 volume of the sphere. Without going into further details
 (e) sech −1 x =
dx x 1 − x2 of theory, we can say dx = error in measurement of x and
d −1 dy = consequent error in measurement of y, Where y =
(f) cosech −1 x = dy
dx x x2 + 1 f (x). Hence, we can rewrite = f ′( x ) as dy = f ′(x) · dx.
dx
Successive Differentiation Thus, if we know the function y = f (x) and dx, error in
measurement of x, we can find out dy, the error in meas-
If f is differentiable function of x and the derivative f ′ is also
urement of y.
a differentiable function of x, then f ″ is called the second
derivative of f. Similarly 3rd, 4th ... nth derivative of f may NOTES
be defined and are denoted by f″′, f ″′′, ... f n or y3, y4 … yn. 1. An error is taken to be positive when the measured
11. The nth derivatives of some special functions: value is greater than the actual value and negative
when it is less.
dn n
(a) x =n !  dy 
dx n 2. Percentage error in y is given by   ×100.
 y 
dn m m!
(b) x = x m − n s(m being a positive
dx n ( m − n)
integer more than n) Rate of Change
d n ax While defining the derivative, we have seen that derivative
(c) e = an eax is the ‘rate of change’. This can be applied to motion of bod-
dx n
ies to determine their velocity and acceleration.
dn  1  ( −1) n n !
(d)  x−a = ; x ≠ −a
n
dx   ( x + a) n +1 Velocity If we have s, the distance covered by a body ex-
pressed as a function of t, i.e., s = f (t), then rate of change
dn ( −1) n −1 ( n − 1)! ds
(e) log( x + a) = ; (x + a) > 0 of s is called velocity (v). v = = f ′(t ).
dx n ( x + a) dt

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 Chapter 1 ■ Calculus | 2.9

Acceleration Rate of change of velocity is defined as Another Form If f is defined on [a, a + h] such that
­acceleration. Since v = f ′(t) itself is a function of t, we can 1. f is continuous on [a, a + h].
write v = f ′(t).
2. f is differentiable on (a, a + h) then there exists atleast
dv d 2 s i.e., acceleration is the second derivative
=a = , one q ∈ (0, 1) such that f (a + h) = f (a) + hf ′(a + qh).
dt dt 2
of the function s = f (t). Meaning of the sign of the derivative

Maxima and Minima SIGN OF f ′(x) on [a, b] Meaning

A function takes a maximum value or a minimum value f ′(x) ≥ 0 f is non-decreasing
when the slope of the tangent of the curve at that point is
f ′(x) > 0 f is increasing
zero, i.e., when the first derivative of the function is zero. If
y = f (x), then y is maximum or minimum at the point x = x1 f ′(x) < 0 f is non-increasing

 dy  f ′(x) < 0 f is decreasing

if   = 0. f ′(x) = 0 f is constant
 dx  x = x1
dy
Thus we can find the value of x1 by equating = 0. Example: The function f, defined on R by f (x) = x3 – 15x2 +
dx
75x – 125 is non-decreasing in every interval as f ′(x) = 3(x2
As mentioned above that y can have a maximum or a - 10x + 15) = 3(x - 5)2 ≥ 0
minimum value at x = x1. Whether y is a maximum value or Thus f is non-decreasing on R.
minimum is governed by the sign of the second derivative.
The function y has a minimum value if the second deriva- Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem Let f and g be two func-
tive is positive. In other words, y is maximum at x = x1 if tions defined on [a, b] such that
d2 y d2 y 1. f and g are continuous on [a, b]
2
< 0 at x = x1 . y is minimum at x = x1 if > 0 at x =
dx dx 2 2. f and g are differentiable on (a, b)
 dy  3. g′(x) ≠ 0 for any x ∈ (a, b) then there exists at least
x1.   = 0. in both the cases discussed above.
 dx  x = x1 one real number c ∈ (a, b) such that
The above discussion can be summerized as follows:
f (b) − f ( a) f ′(c)
1. If f ′(c) = 0 and f  ′′(c) is negative, then f(x) is maximum = .
g (b) − g ( a) g ′(c)
for x = c
2. If f ′(c) = 0 and f  ′′(c) is positive, then f(x) is minimum
for x = c Taylor’s Theorem
3. If f ′(c) = f ′′(c) = … = f r-1(c) = 0 and f r(c) ≠ 0, then Let f be a real-valued function defined on [a, a + h] such
(a) If r is even, then f (x) is maximum or minimum that
for x = c according as f r(c) is negative or positive.
1. f n-1 is continuous on [a, a + h]
(b) If r is odd, then there is neither maximum nor a 2. f n-1 is derivable on (a, a + h), then there exists a
minimum for f (x) at x = c. number q ∈ (0, 1) such that

h2
Mean Value Theorems f ( a + h) = f ( a) + hf ′( a) +
2!
f ′′( a) + 
Rolle’s Theorem Let f be a function defined on [a, b] such
that hn −1 n −1
+ f ( a) + Rn .
1. f is continuous on [a, b]; ( n − 1)
2. f is differentiable on (a, b) and
Where
3. f (a) = f (b), then there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that f ′(c)
=0 hn f n ( a + θ h)
Rn =
Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem Let f be a function de- n!
fined on [a, b] such that (Lagranges’ form of remainder)
1. f is continuous on [a, b], hn (1 − θ ) n −1 f n ( a + θ h)
2. f is differentiable on (a, b) then there exists c ∈ (a, b) Rn =
( n − 1)!
f ( b) − f ( a)
such that f ′(c) = .
b−a (Cauchy’s form of remainder)

Chapter 01.indd 9 5/31/2017 12:36:25 PM

 2.10 | Part II ■ Engineering Mathematics

Maclaurin’s Theorem Let f ⋅ [0, x] → R such that x3 x5 ( −1) n −1 2 n −1

1. f n-1 is continuous on [0, x], 11. tan −1 x = x − + − + x +
3 5 ( 2n − 1)
2. f n-1 is derivable on (0, x)
1 x3 1⋅ 3 x5
Then there exists a real number q ∈(0, 1) such that 12. sin −1 x = x + ⋅ + ⋅ +
2 3 2⋅4 5
x2
f ( x ) = f (0) + xf ′(0) + f ′′(0) +  Example 6
n!
For the function f (x) = x(x2 − 1) test for the applicability of
x n −1 Rolle’s theorem in the interval [−1, 1] and hence find c such
+ f ( n −1) (0) + Rn .
( n − 1)! that −1 < c < 1.
Where
Solution
xn n
Rn = f (θ x ) Given f (x) = x(x2 – 1)
n!
1. f is continuous in [−1, 1]
(Lagranges form of remainder) 2. f is differentiable in (−1, 1)
3. f (−1) = f (1) = 0
x n (1 − θ ) n −1 f n (θ x )
Rn =
( n − 1)! \ f (x) satisfies the hypothesis of Rolle’s theorems
\ We can find a number c such that f ′(c) = 0, i.e., f ′(x) =
(Cauchy’s form of remainder) 3x2 − 1

Maclaurin’s Series Let f (x) be a function which posses de- 1

rivatives of all orders in the interval [0, x], then f ′(c) = 0 ⇒ 3c 2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ c = ±
3
x2 x n −1 ( n −1) 1
f ( x ) = f (0) + xf ′(0) + f ′′(0) +  + f ( 0) ⇒ c=
2! ( n − 1) 3

xn n Example 7
+ f (0) +  is known as
n! If f (x) = 2x2 + 3x + 4, then find the value of q in the mean
value theorem.
Maclaurin’s infinite series.
Series expansions of some standard functions Solution
2 3 n f (a) = 2a2 + 3a + 4
1. e x = 1 + x + x + x +  + x + 
2 ! 3! n! f (a + h) = 2(a2 + 2ah + h2) + 3a + 3h + 4
f (a + h) − f (a) = 4ah + 2h2 + 3h = 2(2ah + h2) + 3h
x3 x5 ( −1) n x 2 n +1
2. sin x = x − + − + +
3! 5 ! ( 2n + 1)! f ( a + h) − f ( a )
= 2( 2a + h) + 3
h
x2 x4 ( −1) n x 2 n
3. cos x = 1 − + − + +  h
2! 4 ! ( 2n)! = 4  a +  + 3 (1)
 2
x3 x5 x 2 n +1
4. sinh x = x + + + + + Now f ′ (x) = 4x + 3, f 1 (a + qh)
3! 5! ( 2n + 1)! = 4a + 4hq + 3 (2)
Comparing Eqs. (1) and (2) we have 4  a +  + 3
x2 x4 x 2n h
5. cosh x = 1 + + + + +
2! 4 ! ( 2n)!  2
n −1 n h
6. log(1 + x ) = x − x + x − x −  + ( −1) x
2 3 4
= 4 a + 4 hθ + 3 ⇒ a + hθ = a +
2 3 4 n 2
7. (1 + x)-1 = 1 - x + x2 - x3 + … ⇒ θ=
1
8. (1 - x)-1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + … 2
9. (1 + x)-2 = 1 - 2x + 3x2 - 4x3 + …
Partial Differentiation
−
1
x 1⋅ 3 2 1⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 3 Let u be a function of two variables x and y. Let us assume
10. (1 − x ) 2
= 1+ + x + ⋅ x +
2 2⋅3 2⋅ 4 ⋅6 the functional relation as u = f (x, y). Here x alone or y alone

Chapter 01.indd 10 5/31/2017 12:36:28 PM

 Chapter 1 ■ Calculus | 2.11

or both x and y simultaneously may be varied and in each Similarly, f (x, y) is said to have a local minimum at a
case a change in the value of u will result. Generally the point (a, b), if f (x, y) has least value at (a, b) in a neighbour-
change in the value of u will be different in each of these hood of (a, b).
three cases. Since x and y are independent, x may be sup-
posed to vary when y remains constant or the reverse. Procedure to Obtain Maxima and Minima
The derivative of u wrt x when x varies and y remains Let f (x, y) be a function of two variables for which we need
constant is called the partial derivative of u wrt x and is to find maxima and minima.
∂u
denoted by ∂f ∂f
∂x 1. Find f x = and f y =
∂x ∂y
2. Take fx = 0 and fy = 0 and solve them as simultaneous
∂ 2 u ∂  ∂u  ∂ 2 u ∂  ∂u 
=  , =  . equations to get pairs of values for x and y, which are
∂x 2 ∂x  ∂x  ∂x∂y ∂x  ∂y  called stationary points.
∂2 f ∂2 f
Total Differential Co-efficient 3. Find r = f xx = , s = f xy = and
∂x 2 ∂x∂y
If u be a continuous function of x and y and if x and y receive
small increments Δx and Δy, u will receive, in turn, a small ∂2 f
t = f yy =
and find rt – s2.
increment Δu. This Δu is called total increment of u. ∂y 2
Δu = f (x + Δx, y + Δy) - f (x, y)
4. At a stationary point, say (a, b)
In the differential form, this can be written as
(a) If rt – s2 > 0, then (a, b) is called an extreme point
∂u ∂u of f (x, y) at which f (x, y) has either maximum or
du = dx + dy.
∂x ∂y minimum which can be found as follows.
Case 1: If r < 0, then f (x, y) has a local maximum at
du is called the total differential of u. If u = f (x, y, z) then a, b)
Case 2: If r > 0, then f (x, y) has a local minimum
du ∂u dx ∂u dy ∂u dz
= ⋅ + ⋅ +⋅ ⋅ at (a, b).
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
(b) If rt – s2 < 0, then (a, b) is called as saddle point

of f (x, y) where f (x, y) has neither maximum nor
Implicit Function minimum at (a, b).
If the relation between x and y be given in the form f (x, y) =
c where c is a constant, then the total differential co-efficient Example 8
wrt x is zero.
Find the stationary points of the function f (x, y) = x2y + 3xy
– 7 and classify them into extreme and saddle points.
Homogeneous Functions
Let us consider the function f (x, y) = a0xn + a1xn-1y + Solution
a2xn-2y2 + … + anyn. In this expression the sum of the indi-
Given f (x, y) = x2y + 3xy – 7
ces of the variable x and y in each term is n. Such an expres-
sion is called a homogeneous function of degree n. ∂f ∂f
∴ fx = = 2 xy + 3 y and f y = = x 2 + 3x
∂x ∂y
Euler′s Theorem
Now fx = 0 ⇒ 2xy + 3y = 0 and fy = 0
If f (x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n, then
⇒ x2 + 3x = 0
∂f ∂f
x +y = nf . −3
∂x ∂y ⇒ y = 0 and x = ; x( x + 3) x = 0 and x = −3
This is known as Euler’s theorem on homogeneous 2
function. 3
But for x = , fy ≠ 0
2
Maxima and Minima for Function \ The stationary points of f (x, y) are (0, 0) and (-3, 0)
of Two Variables Now r = fxx = 2y; s = fxy = 2x + 3 and t = fyy = 0
A function f (x, y) is said to have a local maximum at a point And rt – s2 = 2y × 0 – (2x + 3)2 = -(2x + 3)2
(a, b), if f (a + h, b + k) ≤ f (a, b) for all small values of h and \ rt – s2 < 0 at (0, 0) as well as (-3, 0)
k, i.e., f (x, y) has a local maximum at (a, b), if f (a, b) has a Hence the two stationary points (0, 0) and (-3, 0) are saddle
highest value in a neighbourhood of (a, b). points where f (x, y) has neither maximum nor minimum.

Chapter 01.indd 11 5/31/2017 12:36:29 PM

 2.12 | Part II ■ Engineering Mathematics

Example 9 ax
5. ∫ a dx = log a + c
x

Find the maximum value of the function f (x, y, z) = z – 2x2

– 3y2 where 3xy – z + 7 = 0.
6. ∫ e x dx = e x + c
Solution
Given f (x, y, z) = z – 2x2 – 3y2  (1)
7. ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + c
Where 3xy – z + 7 = 0  (2) 8. ∫ cos x dx = sin x + c
⇒ z = 3xy + 7  (3)
Substituting the value of z in (1), we have f = 3xy + 7 – 2x2
9. ∫ sec2 x dx = tan x + c
– 3y2 10. ∫ cosec2 x dx = − cot x + c
∂f ∂f
∴ fx = = 3 y − 4 x and f y = = 3x − 6 y 11. ∫ sec x tan x dx = sec x + c
∂x ∂y
fx= 0 ⇒ 3y – 4x = 0 and fy = 0 ⇒ 3x – 6y = 0
12. ∫ cosec x cot x dx = cosecx + c
fx = 0 and fy = 0 only when x = 0 and y = 0 13. ∫ tan x dx = log(sec x) + c
\ The stationary point is (0, 0)
∂2 f
14. ∫ cotx dx = log(sinx) + c
∂2 f
Now r = fxx = = − 4; s = f xy = = 3 and
∂x 2
∂x∂y 15. ∫ sec x dx = log(sec x + tan x) + c
∂2 f π x 
t = f yy = = −6 = log tan  +  + c
∂y 2
 4 2
\ rt – s2 = (-4) (-6) – 32 = 24 – 9 = 15 > 0 and r = -4 < 0 16. ∫ cosecx dx = log(cosecx + cot x) + c
\ f has a maximum value at (0, 0)
x
For x = 0, y = 0, from (3), z = 3 × 0 × 0 + 7 ⇒ z = 7 = log tan +c
2
\ The maximum value exists for f (x, y, z) at (0, 0, 7) and
that maximum value is f (x, y, z) at (0, 0, 7) = 7 – 2 × 02 – 3 × 1
02 = 7.
17.
∫ 1− x 2
dx = sin −1 x + c or − cos −1 x + c

1
Indefinite Integrals 18.
∫ 1+ x 2
dx = tan −1 x + c or − cot −1 x + c
If f (x) and g(x) are two functions of x such that g′(x) = f (x),
then the integral of f (x) is g(x). Further, g(x) is called the 1
antiderivative of f (x).
19. ∫x x −12
dx = sec −1 x + c or − cos ec −1 x + c
The process of computing an integral of a function is
called Integration and the function to be integrated is called 20. ∫ sinh x dx = cosh x + c
integrand.
An integral of a function is not unique. If g(x) is any one 21. ∫ cosh x dx = sinh x + c
integral of f (x), then g(x) + c is also its integral, where C is
any constant termed as constant of integration.
22. ∫ sech 2 x dx = tanh x + c
23. ∫ cosech 2 x dx = − coth x + c
Some Standard Formulae
x n +1
24. ∫ sech x tanh x dx = − sech x + c
1. ∫ x dx =
n
+ c ( n ≠ −1)
n +1
25. ∫ sech x coth x dx = − cosechx + c
( ax + b) n +1 26. ∫ Kf ( x)dx = K ∫ f ( x)dx + c
∫ (ax + b) dx = + c ( n ≠ −1)
n
2.
( n + 1)a 27. ∫ ( f ( x) ± g ( x)) dx = ∫ f ( x) dx ± ∫ g ( x) dx + c
1 f ′( x )
3. ∫ dx = log x + c
x 28. ∫ f ( x)
dx = log[ f ( x )] + c

1 log ( ax + b) [ f ( x )]n +1
4. ∫ ax + b dx = a
+c 29.
∫ f ( x ) n ⋅ f ′( x )dx =
n +1
+c

Chapter 01.indd 12 5/31/2017 12:36:33 PM

 Chapter 1 ■ Calculus | 2.13

dx x 3. If f (x) is continuous function of x over [a, b], then

30. ∫ a2 − x 2
= sin −1
a
+c
a b
∫
b
f ( x )dx = − ∫ f ( x )dx.
a
dx x
31. ∫ a +x
2 2
= sin h−1
a
+ c or 4. If f (x) is continuous in some neighbourhood of a,
a
then ∫ f ( x )dx = 0.
a
log | x + a 2 + x 2 | + c
dx x 5. If f (x) and g(x) are continuous in [a, b], then
32. ∫ = cos h−1 + c or b b b
x −a
2 2 a ∫
a
[ f ( x ) + g ( x )]dx = ∫ f ( x )dx + ∫ g ( x )dx.
a a

log | x + x 2 + a 2 | + c b b b
6.
1 1 x
∫
a
f ( x )dx = ∫ f ( z )dz = ∫ f (t )dt
a a
33. ∫x
+ a2
dx = tan −1   + c
2 a a
a a 7.
∫
0
f ( x )dx = ∫ f ( a − x )dx
0
1 1 x−a
34. ∫ 2 dx = log +c 8. a
x −a 2
2a x+a ∫
−a
f ( x ) = 0, if f ( x ) is odd
1 1 a+ x a a
35. ∫a 2
−x 2
dx =
2a
log
a−x
+c 9. ∫
−a
f ( x )dx = 2 ∫ f ( x )dx if f ( x ) is even
0

2a a
x a2 + x 2 a2 x 10. ∫ f ( x )dx = 2 ∫ f ( x )dx, if f ( 2a − x ) = f ( x )
36.
∫ a − x dx = + sin −1 + c
2 2 0 0
2 2 a
= 0 if f (2a - x) = - f (x)

x a2 − x 2 a2 x
37.
∫ a 2 + x 2 dx =
2
+ sin h−1 + c
2 a 11. ∫
0
na a
f ( x )dx = n ∫ f ( x )dx, if f ( a + x ) = f ( x )
0

38. x x 2 − a2 a2 x
∫ x 2 − a 2 dx =
2
− cos h−1 + c
2 a Applications of Integration
x Area as a Definite Integral
39. ∫ log x dx = x(log x − 1) = x log   + c 1. The area enclosed by a curve y = f (x), the lines x = a
e and x = b and the x-axis is given by:
40. ∫ e [ f ( x ) + f ′( x )] dx = e f ( x ) + c
x x

 b f ( x )dx, if f ( x ) ≥ 0, a ≤ x ≤ b
b  ∫a
Definite Integrals A = ∫ | f ( x ) | dx =  b
a
− ∫ f ( x )dx, if f ( x ) ≤ 0, a ≤ x ≤ b
The difference in the values of an integral of a function f (x)  a
for two assigned values say a, b of the independent variable
x, is called the Definite Integral of f (x) over the interval [a, y
b y = f (x )
b] and is denoted by ∫a f ( x )dx.
The number ‘a’ is called the lower limit and the number
‘b’ is the upper limit of integration.
A
Fundamental Theorem of Integral
o x=a x=b
Calculus x

If f (x) is a function of x continuous in [a, b], then y

b
x=a x=b
∫ f ( x)dx = g (b) − g (a) where g ( x) is a function such that
a o x
A
d
g ( x ) = f ( x ).
dx
y = f (x )
Properties of definite integrals
1. If f (x) is a continuous function of x over [a, b], and c be­­ 2. Similarly, the area enclosed by the curve x = g(y), the
d
b c b lines y = c and y = d and the y-axis is A = ∫ | g ( y )| dy
longs to [a, b], then ∫ a
f ( x )dx = ∫ f ( x )dx + ∫ f ( x )dx.
a c
3. When f (x) ≥ 0 for a ≤ x ≤ c and f (x) ≤ 0 for c ≤ x ≤ b, then
c

2. If f(x) is continuous function of x over [a, b], then the area enclosed by the curve y = f (x), the lines x = a
b b
∫ Kf ( x )dx = K ∫ f ( x )dx. c b
a a
and x = b and the x-axis is A = ∫ f ( x ) dx − ∫ f ( x ) dx
a c

Chapter 01.indd 13 5/31/2017 12:36:37 PM

 2.14 | Part II ■ Engineering Mathematics

y x = f (x ) 3
= 2
23
A
(c, 0) x=b 3
=
o x=a x
3
4

Example 11
Find the area enclosed by the curve y = x2 and line y = 4?
4. The area enclosed by the curves y = f (x) and y = g(x)
and the lines x = a and x = b is given by,
Solution
y f (x )
The area enclosed by the curve y = x2 and the line y = 4 is
A
the region OAB.
\ The region OAB is bounded by line y = 4 and the curve y
g(x ) = x2 from x = -2 to x = 2 and 4 ≥ x2 for all x ∈ [-2, 2]
o x=a x=b x
y
y g(x ) B (2, 4)
( −2, 4 ) A y=4
A A
y = x2
f (x ) o x
o x=a x=b x

2
 b ( f ( x ) − g ( x ))dx, if f ( x ) ≥ g ( x ), \ The required area = ∫ ( 4 − x 2 ) dx
 ∫a
x =−2

 a ≤ x ≤ b 2
= 2 ∫ ( 4 − x 2 )dx (∵ 4 − x 2 as even )
b
A = ∫ | f ( x ) − g ( x )| dx =  b
a
 ∫ ( g ( x ) − f ( x ))dx, if f ( x ) ≤ g ( x ); 0
 a 2
 a ≤ x ≤ b  x3  32
= 2 4 x −  =
 3 0 3
Example 10
Find the area enclosed by the curve y = x3, the line y = 2 and Rectification
the y-axis in first quadrant? The process of determining the length of arcs of plane
curves is called Rectification. The length of the arc can be
Solution
calculated by any one of the methods given below.
The area bounded by y = x3, y = 2 and the y-axis is the area
OAB as shown in the figure. Cartesian Equations Let y = f(x) be a function of x. The
1 length of arc between the points with x-coordinates ‘a’ and
So, the region OAB is bounded by the curve x = y , the 3
2
b  dy  dy
‘b’ is given by S =
∫ 1 +   dx, provided is con-
1

lines y = 0 and y = 2 and the y-axis and x = y ≥ 0, y ∈ [0, 2] 3 a

 dx  dx
y tinuous on [a, b].

y=2 B NOTE
A
If the equation of the curve is given in the form x =
o
f (y), then the length of the arc between the points with
x y-­coordinates ‘c’ and ‘d’ is given by
y =x3
2
\ The required area d  dx  dx
S=∫ 1 +   dy provided is continuous on [c, d]
2 c dy
  dy
 2 1 3 4
=  ∫ y 3 dy = y 3 

y =0 4 0
Parametric Equations Let x = f (t) and y = g(t) be paramet-
3 4 ric functions of ‘t’.The length of the arc between the points
= × 23
4 {f (t1), g (t1)} and {f (t2), g (t2)} is given by

Chapter 01.indd 14 5/31/2017 12:36:39 PM

 Chapter 1 ■ Calculus | 2.15

 dx  2  dy  2  dx dy  π
t2
g ( x ) ≥ 0 in 0, 
t1 ∫  +    dt provided
  dt   dt   dt
and
dt
are both
 2
\ By first mean value theorem,
continuous on [t1, t2].
π
π
Polar Equations Let r = f (θ) be a function of θ, the length ∫0
2
x cos dx = µ ∫ cos x dx = µ
0
of the arc between the points {f(θ1), θ1} and {f(θ2),θ2} is
 π π
2
\There exists is µ ∈  0,  such that
given by S = ∫
θ2  dr 
r +
2
 dθ provided
dr
is continu-  2 ∫
0
2
cos x dx = µ
θ1
 dθ  dθ
ous along the arc. Example 13
If the equation of the curve is given in the form θ = f(r), Verify second mean value theorem for f(x) = x2 and g(x) =
then the length of the arc between the points (r1, f (r1)), (r2, x2 on [-1, 1].
f (r2)) is given by
Solution
r2  dθ 
2
dθ Given f(x) = x2 and g(x) = x2 on [-1, 1] both f and g are
S=∫ 1+ r 2
 dr provided is continuous along
r1
 dr  dr continuous and integrable on [-1, 1] but g is a decreasing
the arc. function on [-1, 0] and increasing function on [0, 1] \ g is
not monotonic.
Theorems on Integration 1 1
\ ∫−1 f ( x ) g ( x )dx = ∫−1 x ⋅ x dx
2 2
1. If f is a continuous function on [a, b] then there exists
b
c ∈ (a, b) such that ∫a f ( x ) dx = f (c)(b − a)
1
 x5  1 1 2
2. If f, g ∈ R [a, b] and g keeps the same sign on [a, b] =   = + = (1)
 5  −1 5 5 5
then there exists m ∈ R lying between the infimum and
b b But by second mean value theorem,
the suprimum of f such that ∫ f ( x ) g ( x ) = µ ∫ g ( x )dx b µ b
∫ f ( x ) g ( x ) dx = g ( a) ∫ f ( x )dx + g (b) ∫ f ( x ) dx
a a

NOTE a a µ

1 µ 1
This is called the first mean value theorem. \ ∫−1 x dx = g ( −1) ∫−1 x dx + g (1) ∫µ x dx
4 2 2

3. If f, g ∈ R [a, b], g is positive and decreasing on [a, b] µ 1 2

Then there exists m ∈ [a, b] such that = ∫ x 2 dx + ∫ x 2 dx = ∫ x 2 dx = (2)
b µ
−1 µ 3
∫a f ( x) g ( x) dx = g (a)∫a f ( x)dx
Since (1) and (2) are not equal the mean value theorem does
NOTE not hold.
This is known as Bonnet mean value theorem.
Improper Integrals
4. If f, g ∈ R [a, b] and is monotonic on [a, b] then b
b Consider definite integral ∫a f ( x )dx (1)
there exists m ∈ (a, b) such that
µ b
∫a
f ( x ) g ( x ) dx =
If f(x) is a function defined in a finite interval [a, b] and
g ( x ) ∫ f ( x ) dx + g ( x ) ∫ f ( x ) dx f(x) is continuous for all x which belongs to [a, b]
a µ
Then (1) is called proper integral.
NOTE If f(x) is violated, at least one of these conditions then
This is known as second mean value theorem or the integral is known as improper integral. These improper
weierstrars theorem. integrals are classified into three kinds.

Example 12 Improper Integral of the First Kind In a definite integral

if one or both limits of integration are infinite then it is an
 π
Prove that these exists µ ∈  0,  such that improper integral of first kind.
 2
∞ b
π
1. ∫ f ( x )dx = lim ∫ f ( x )dx.
∫
0
2
x cos x dx = µ a b →∞ a

(Singularity at upper limit)
Solution
b b
Take f(x) = x and g(x) = cos x 2. ∫−∞
f ( x )dx = lim
a →− ∞ a ∫ f ( x )dx.
π
\ f is continuous on 0,  and g is integrable on  π ∞ lim b

also  2 0, 2 
 
3. ∫−∞
f ( x )dx = b → ∞ ∫ f ( x )dx. Or
a →− ∞ a

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 2.16 | Part II ■ Engineering Mathematics

∞ 0 b Example 14
4. ∫−∞
f ( x )dx = lim ∫
a →− ∞ a
f ( x )dx + lim ∫ f ( x )dx.
b →∞ 0
∞ dx
Or = lim ∫ f ( x )dx.

r Examine ∫
1 xp
for convergence/divergence.
r →∞ − r

Convergent: If the limits of the above integral exists or Solution

finite then the integral is said to be converge. k
k dx k  x − p +1 
Divergent: If the limits do not exist then they are said to be Consider ∫
1 x p
= ∫ x − p dx = 
1
 if p ≠ 1
 − p + 1 1
Divergent.

NOTES And ⇒ [log x ]1k if p = 1

1. Geometrically for f(x) ≥ 0, the improper integral dx k
∞ Case 1: If p = 1, ∫
= log k − log 1 = log k → ∞ when k
∫a f ( x)dx denotes the area of an unbounded region x 1

→ ∞ it does not tend to a finite limit.

lying between the curve y = f (x) the ordinate x = a
and x-axis. \It is divergent.
2. 
Let f(x) and g(x) be non-negative functions and k dx 1
∞ Case 2: If p ≠ 1∫1 = [k 1− p ] it converges
0 ≤ f ( x ) ≤ g ( x ) for x ≥ a. If ∫a
g ( x )dx converges x p 1− p
∞ ∞ If p >1 and diverges if p ≤ 1.
then ∫ f ( x )dx is also converges and
a
∫a f ( x )dx ≤
∞ Multiple integrals
∫a g ( x )dx.
Double Integrals: Integration of f(x, y) over a region R in
∞
Similarly let 0 ≤ g ( x ) ≤ f ( x ). If ∫a g ( x )dx diverges xy-plane is called a double integral.
∞
∫
x2 y2
then
a
f ( x )dx also diverges.
∫∫ R
f ( x, y )dR = ∫
x = x1 ∫ y = y1
f ( x, y )dxdy
 hat is the convergent or divergent of an improper
T
integral by comparing it with a simple integral. Order of Integration in a Double Integral Order of inte-
gration depends on the nature of limits of the variables.
Improper Integral of the Second Kind Case 1: If the limits of y are function of x, say y1 = f1(x) and
b
Consider ∫a f ( x )dx (1) y2 = f2(x) and the limits of x are constants, say x1 = a and x2
If both the limits of Eq. (1) are finite and f (x) is unde- = b, where a and b are constants, then integrate wrt y first
fined or discontinuous at a point in between a and b, then treating x as constant and then integrate wrt x.
Eq. (1) is known as Improper integral of second kind.
 y2 = f 2 ( x ) 
This can be evaluated as follows. x2 = b  
Let f (x) be undefined at a point c which belongs to (a, b) then That is,
∫∫ R
f ( x, y )dR = ∫
x1 = a
 ∫ f ( x, y )dy  dx
b c −∈ b  y = f ( x) 
∫ a
f ( x )dx = lim ∫
∈→ 0 a
f ( x )dx + lim ∫
∈→ 0 c +∈
f ( x )dx.  1 1 

If these limits exist then it is convergent otherwise it is Case 2: If the limits of x are function of y, say x1 = g1(y) and
divergent. x2 = g2(y) and the limits of y are constants, say y1 = c and y2
Improper Integral of Third Kind If the limits of the inte- = d, then integrate wrt x first treating y as constant and then
gral are infinite or f (x) may be discontinuous or both then integrate wrt y.
the improper integral is known as third kind.
 x2 = g 2 ( y ) 
NOTES y2 = d  
That is, ∫ ∫ f ( x, y )dR = ∫  ∫ f ( x, y )dx  dy
R y1 = c
1
∞
1. ∫ p dx is convergent when p > 1 and it is divergent  x = g ( y) 
1 x
 1 1 
when p ≤ 1. This result is used in comparison test for Case 3: If both the variables x and y have constant limits,
testing the convergence or divergence of the integral then one can follow any order of integration.
of first kind.
c 1 Change of Order of Integration Evaluation of some of the
2. ∫ dx is convergent for p < 1 and is divergent double integrals can be made simple by changing the order
a ( x − c) p
of integration. In change of order of integration, we take the
for p ≤ 1. This is used for convergence or divergence limits of the variables for the given region of integration in
of an improper integral of second kind. such a way that the order of integration reverses.

Chapter 01.indd 16 5/31/2017 12:36:45 PM

 Chapter 1 ■ Calculus | 2.17

Example 15 Like double integrals, in triple integrals also the order

x2
of integration depends on the nature of the limits of the
1 x x −
variables.
Evaluate ∫ ∫ e y
dy dx
x =0 y = x2 y
Applications of Double and Triple Integrals
Solution
1. Area of the region R in xy-plane is given by
x2
x −y
Area of R = ∫R ∫ dxdy
1 x
Let I = ∫ ∫ e dy dx (1)
x =0 y = x2 y
y
Y
R
y = x2 A(1, 1)
P A
Q
o x
o X

y=x 2. Volume of the solid of revolution:

(a) The volume of the solid of revolution obtained by
Evaluation of this integral can be made simple by changing revolving the area A about x-axis is
the order of integration.
From the limits of x and y given, the region of integration Volume = V = ∫ ∫ 2π y dx dy
A
is the region bounded by the line y = x and the parabola y =
x2 as shown in figure. y
Now by changing the order of integration, we first A
integrate wrt x, along the horizontal strip PQ from
=P ( x y=) to Q( x y ) and then
We integrate wrt y from 0(y = 0) to A(y = 1) o x

1  y x −
x2 
∴ I = ∫
y = 0  ∫x = y y
 e y
dx  dy  (2) (b) The volume of the solid of revolution obtained by
 revolving the area A about y-axis is
 
x2 2x Volume = V = ∫∫ 2π x dx dy
Put =t ⇒ dx = dt
y y A

x 1 (c) Volume under the surface as a double integral: The

⇒ dx = dt volume V of the solid under the surface z = f(x, y)
y 2
and above the xy-plane with the projection of z =
y2 ( y )2 f(x, y) on xy plane as its base is
x=y ⇒ t= = y and x = y ⇒ t =1
y y Volume = ∫ ∫ f ( x, y )dx dy
D

\ Eq. (2) Becomes Z

Z = f (x, y )
 1 1  1
I = ∫  ∫ e −1 dt  dy
y =0
 t=y 2  V
O Y
1
= ∫ ( −e )  dy = ∫ [−e −1 + e − y ]dy
1 1
−t
D
y =0  t = y y =0
C
X
−1 −y 1
= − ye − e ] 0 (d) Volumes as a triple integral: The volume of the
3-dimensional region V is given by ∫v∫∫ dx dy dz
= (-e-1 – e-1) – (0 – e-0)
e−2 Example 16
= 1 − 2e −1 =
e Find the volume under the surface x + 2y + z = 4 and above
the circle x2 + y2 = 4 in the xy-plane.
Triple Integrals Integration of a function f(x, y, z) over a
3-dimensional region V is called the triple integral. Solution
x2 y2 z2 Given surface is x + 2y + z = 4
∫ ∫ ∫ f ( x, yx, z )dv = ∫ ∫ ∫
V x = x1 y = y1 z = z1
f ( x, y, z )dxdydz
⇒ z = 4 – x – 2y  (1)

Chapter 01.indd 17 5/31/2017 12:36:48 PM

 2.18 | Part II ■ Engineering Mathematics

Let D be the region bounded by the circle x2 + y2 = 4 in

xy-plane =∫
5

x =2 ∫
6

y =4
2π ydxdy = ( ∫ dx )( ∫
5

x =2
6

y =4
2π y dy )
\ In D, y varies from y = − 4 − x to y = 4 − x and x ( )( )
2 2
= x ]5x = 2 π y 2 ]6y = 4 = 3 × 20π = 60π
varies from x = -2 to x = +2.
\ The volume under the surface x + 2y + z = 4 and above
the circle x2 + y2 = 4 in xy-plane is Change of Variables Evaluation of some of the double
(or) triple integrals can be made simple by changing the
2 4 − x2
V =∫ ∫ zdxdy = ∫ ∫ ( 4 − x − 2 y )dxdy  (2) ­variables.
D x =−2 y =−2 4 − x 2
1. In a double integral: Let a double integral ∫Rxy∫∫
Evaluation of this double integral can be made simple by f ( x, y )dxdy in x and y is to be converted into the
changing it into polar coordinates.
In polar coordinates, x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ and variables u and J where x = f(u, J) and y = Ψ (u, J).
Then
∂x ∂x
∂( x, y ) ∂r ∂θ cos θ − r sin θ
∫ ∫ f ( x, y)dxdy = ∫ ∫
Rxy R1uϑ
f (φ (u, ϑ ), ψ (u, ϑ )) | J | dudϑ
J= = =
∂( r , θ ) ∂y ∂y sin θ r cos θ ∂x ∂x
∂r ∂θ ∂( x, y ) ∂u ∂ϑ
Where J= =
\ J = r. Also, in the circle x2 + y2 = 4, r varies from r = 0 to ∂(u, ϑ ) ∂y ∂y
r = 2 and θ varies from θ = 0 to θ = 2p ∂u ∂ϑ
\ From (2), Is the Jacobian of x and y wrt u and J and Ru′ϑ is the
region of integration in u, J-plane corresponding to
V = ∫ ∫ ( 4 − x − 2 y )dx dy Rxy in xy-plane.
D
2π
=∫
2
2. In a triple integral: Let a triple integral ∫Rxyz∫∫
∫
θ =0 r =0
( 4 − r cos θ − 2r sin θ ) | J | drdθ
2π 2
f ( x, y, z ) dxdydz in x, y and z is to be converted into
=∫ ∫ ( 4 − r cos θ − 2r sin θ )rdr dθ the variables u, J and w, where x = f(u, J, ω), y = Ψ
θ =0 r =0
(u, J, ω) and z = h (u, J, ω)
=∫
2π

θ =0 (∫ r =0
2
( 4 r − r 2 cos θ − 2r 2 sin θ )dr dθ ) Then ∫ ∫ ∫ f ( x, y, z )dxdydz = ∫ ∫ ∫ f (φ (u, ϑ , ω ),
Rxyz R1
uϑω
2
2π r3 2r 3  ψ (u, ϑ , ω ), h(u, ϑ , ω )) | J | dudϑ dω
= ∫  2r 2 − cos θ − sin θ  dθ
θ =0
 3 3  r =0 ∂x ∂x ∂x
2π  8 16  ∂u ∂ϑ ∂ω
=∫ 8 − 3 cos θ − 3 sin θ  dθ ∂( x, y, z ) ∂y ∂y ∂y
θ =0
  where J =
= is the
∂(u, ϑ , ω ) ∂u ∂ϑ ∂ω
2π
8 16  ∂z ∂z ∂z
= 8θ − sin θ + cos θ  = 16π
3 3 θ =0 ∂u ∂ϑ ∂ω

Example 17 jacobian of x, y and z wrt u, J and ω and Ru′ϑω is the region

of integration in u, J, ω, coordinate system corresponding
Find the volume generated by the revolution of the rectangle to the region Rxyz in xyz co-ordinate system.
formed by the lines x = 2, x = 5, y = 4 and y = 6 about x-axis.

Solution Vector Calculus

The volume of the solid generated by revolving the rectan- If r is the position vector of a point P, having co-ordinates
gle ABCD about x-axis = V = ∫ ∫ 2π ydxdy ( x, y, z ), then r = xi + yj + zk , where i , j , k are unit
R
vectors along OX, OY, OZ respectively, and
Y
| r |=| xi + yj + zk |= x 2 + y 2 + z 2 .
D y=6 C

x=2 R x=5 Given any vector v = ai + bj + ck its direction ratios are a,

y=4 b, c and its direction cosines are given by:
A B
a b c
O X l= , m= , n= and l 2 + m 2 + n2 = 1
|v | |v | |v |

Chapter 01.indd 18 5/31/2017 12:36:51 PM

 Chapter 1 ■ Calculus | 2.19

Linear Combinations 8. The square of a vector is the square of its modulus,

i.e., ( a ) = | a |
2 2
A vector r is said to be a linear combination of the vec-
tors a , b , c … etc. if there exist scalars x, y, z, … such that i=
2
k=2
j2 =1
r = xa + yb + zc + 9. m is a scalar, then
m( a ⋅ b ) = ( ma ) ⋅ b = a ⋅ ( mb )
Test of Collinearity
10. If a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k and b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k , then
Three points A, B, C with position vectors a , b , c respec-
tively are collinear if f there exist scalars x, y, z not all zero a ⋅ b = a1b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 and angle between the vec-
such that xa + yb + zc = 0, where x + y + z = 0 tors is
a ⋅b a1 ⋅ b1 + a2 ⋅ b2 + a3 ⋅ b3
Test of Coplanarity cos θ = =
| a || b | a + a 2 + a3 ⋅ b 2 + b 2 + b 2
2
1 2 3 1 2 3
Four points A, B, C and D with position vectors a , b , c , d
are coplanar if there exist scalars x, y, z and u (not all zero) 11. Work done = F ⋅ S
such that xa + yb + zc + ud = 0, where x + y + z + u = 0
Vector or Cross Product
Linear Dependence and Independence
a × b = | a || b | sin θ ⋅ n where q (0 ≤ q ≤ 180) is the angle
A system of vectors a , b , c … is said to be linearly inde-
between a and b , and n is a unit vector such that it is per-
pendent (L.I.) if xa + yb + zc +  = 0
pendicular to both a and b .
⇒x=y=z…=0
a , b and n (in the same order) are in the right handed
If a , b , c … is a system of vectors which is not LI, then orientation (i.e., the rotation of a right handed screw from
they are linearly dependent (L.D) and for such system of
a to b advances it in the direction of n ).
vectors there exist scalars x, y, z … (not all zeros) such that
xa + yb + zc +  = 0 NOTES

NOTE 1. a × b ≠ b × a but a × b = −b × a
Every non-zero vector is LI. 2. If a and b are parallel, then a × b = 0
Every pair of non-zero non-collinear vectors is LI.
3. i × j = k , j × k = i , k × i = j and
Every pair of collinear vectors is LD.
Three non-coplanar vectors are LI. j × i = −k , k × j = − i , i × k = − j
Three coplanar vectors are LD.
i × i = j × j = k × k = 0 ? [In particular a × a = 0]

Multiplication of Vectors | a ×b |
4. The angle between two vectors: sin θ =
Scalar or Dot Product If a and b are two non-zero vectors | a || b |
and q is the angle between them (0 ≤ q ≤ p), then their dot or 5. A unit vector perpendicular to the plane of a and b
scalar product is given by a ⋅ b =| a || b | cos θ ⋅ a ⋅ b is a scalar. a ×b
is given by n where n =
| a ×b |
NOTES 6. Area of parallelogram whose adjacent sides are
1. If one or both of a , b , are 0 , then a ⋅ b = 0 a and b is given by | a × b |
7. When the diagonals are given, the vector area of par-
2. a ⋅ b = | a | ⋅ (scalar component of b along a )
1
allelogram ABCD is ( AB × AC )
= |b | (scalar component of a along b ), 2
3. a ⋅ b = b ⋅ a 1
8. The vector area of the triangle ABC = ( AB × AC )
4. If a , b , c are any three vectors, then a ⋅ (b + c ) 2
= a ⋅b + a ⋅c 9. If a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k and b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k ,
5. Two non-zero vectors  a and b   are perpendicular if
i j k
a ⋅b = 0
Then a × b = a1 a2 a3
6. i ⋅ j = j ⋅ i = j ⋅ k = k ⋅ j = j ⋅ k = k ⋅ i = 0
b1 b2 b3
7. a ⋅ b is positive, negative or zero according as 0 ≤ q
< 90°, 90° < q ≤ 180° or q = 90° 10. Vector product is distributive with respect to vector
addition a × (b + c ) = a × b + a × c

Chapter 01.indd 19 5/31/2017 12:36:58 PM

 2.20 | Part II ■ Engineering Mathematics

Triple Products Differentiation Formula

Scalar Triple Product The Scalar triple product of three 1. The derivative of a constant vector with respect to any
vectors a , b , c is ( a × b ) ⋅ c denoted by [abc ] scalar variable is 0.
The Scalar triple product of orthonormal right handed d dF dG
2. [ F (t ) ± G (t )] = ± .
vector triad i , j , k is equal to unity dt dt dt
That is, [=
i j k ] [=
j k i ] [k=
i j ] 1. d dF ds
3. [ s(t ) F (t )] = s(t ) ⋅ + ⋅F
1. The volume of a parallelepiped having a , b , c as dt dt dt
co-terminus edges = [abc ]. dF dF du
4. Chain rule: = × , where F = F (u ) and u is
2. If three vectors are coplanar then [abc ] = 0 dt du dt
a function of t.
3. If two of the three vectors are equal, then their scalar
triple product is zero, i.e., [a b c ] = 0 5. Dot and cross products:

4. If a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k , b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k , d dG dF
(F ⋅ G) = F ⋅ + ⋅ G,
dt
dt dt
a1 a2 a3

c = c1 i + c2 j + c3 k , then  abc  = d dG dF
 b1 b2 b3 ( F × G) = F × + × G.
c1 c2 c3 dt
dt dt

5. The volume of a tetrahedron with co-terminus edges 6. Partial derivatives: If F is vector function dependent
1 on x, y and z, say F = F ( x, y, z ), then partial
a , b , c is [abc ] cubic units. derivative of F with respect to x is defined as
6
∂F F ( x + ∆x, y, z ) − F ( x, y, z )
6. [abc ] = ( a × b ) ⋅ c = a ⋅ (b × c ) = lim .
∂x ∆x →0 ∆x
Vector Triple Product If a , b , c are three vectors, then the ∂F ∂F
Likewise, one can also define and .
triple product a × (b × c ) is called the vector triple product. ∂y ∂z
If a , b , c are any three vectors, then a × (b × c )   It is also possible to define higher order partial
derivatives as:
= ( a ⋅ c )b − ( a ⋅ b )c
∂2 F ∂  ∂F  ∂ 2 F ∂  ∂F 
=  , =  .
Vector Variable ∂x 2
∂x  ∂x  ∂y 2 ∂y  ∂y 
A variable of the form r = xi + y j + zk is called a vector ∂2 F ∂  ∂F 
variable and x, y, z are scalar variables. =   , etc
∂x∂z ∂x  ∂z 
Scalar Function If t is a scalar variable on a range a ≤ t ≤ b
and a function f defined as f = f (t) for t ∈ [a, b] is called a Differential Vectors
scalar function of t.
1. If G = G ( x, y, z ) then
Example: f (t) = 9t3 + 4t2 + 7,
∂G ∂G ∂G
f (t) = sint + 5cost + et, etc. dG =
dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
Vector Function If t is a scalar variable defined on a do-
main [a, b], and a function F (t ) = x(t )i + y(t ) j + z (t )k is 2. If F = F1 i + F2 j + F3 k , then
called a vector function of the scalar variable t.
dF = dF1 i + dF2 j + dF3 k

NOTE 3. d ( F ⋅ G ) = F ⋅ dG + dF ⋅ G
t is generally taken as ‘time’.
4. d ( F × G ) = F × dG + dF × G
Differentiation If F (t ) is a continuous single valued vec-
tor function of the variable t, then the derivative of F (t ) is Vector Differential Operators ∇ is to be read as del or nabla
dF F (t + ∆t ) − F (t ) ∂ ∂ ∂
defined as = lim where Dt is a small
dt ∆t →0 ∆t ∇ = i + j + k
∂x ∂y ∂z
increment in t.
One can also look at second and higher order derivatives ∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇2 = + + is called Laplacian.
in a similar way. ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

Chapter 01.indd 20 5/31/2017 12:37:04 PM

 Chapter 1 ■ Calculus | 2.21

Gradient of a Scalar Function 3. div (F × G) = F ⋅ curl G - G ⋅ curl F

∂φ  ∂φ  ∂φ
If f (x, y, z) is a scalar function, then i +j +k is 4. ∇⋅ ∇f = div (grad f ) or ∇⋅ ∇f = ∇2 f
∂x ∂y ∂z
5. curl (grad f) = 0 or ∇ × (∇ f ) = 0 , i.e., curl of a
known as the gradient of f and is denoted by grad f. One
gradient equals 0 .
can also write the gradient of f using the ∇ operator as grad
6. div (curl F ) = 0 or ∇⋅ (∇ × F ) = 0
∂φ  ∂φ  ∂φ
φ = i +j +k = ∇φ 7. curl (curl F ) = grad (div F ) - ∇2 F (or) ∇ × (∇× F )
∂x ∂y ∂z
= ∇ (∇⋅ F ) - ∇2 F
Now ∇ f denotes a vector field.
NOTES Integration
1. If f is a constant, then ∇ f = 0 Line Integral
2. If a vector G ( x, y, z ) is defined at all points in a region Let F ( x, y, z ) be a vector function defined on a region
we say G is a vector field. A vector field is said to be of space and let C be curve in that region, then the integral
irrotational if G = grad f for some scalar function f.
3. Gradient can be used in finding directional d­ erivative. ∫c F ⋅ dr is called the line integral.
(An example is discussed in worked examples section) For Riemann Integration,
x =b
4. ∇ f also gives the normal to the surface f (x, y, z) = C. ∫ x =a
fdx the limits of integration are along the line seg-
5. If ∇2f = 0, the function is called the harmonic
ment joining (a, 0), (b, 0), where a < b.
function.
Here instead of line, we integrate along the curve C.
6. The directional d­ erivative of f (x, y, z) in the direction
a
of a vector a is ∇φ ⋅ n̂ , where nˆ = . Circulation
|a |
The line integral around a closed curve C denoted by
Divergence of Vector ∫ F ⋅ dr is called circulation of F around C.
F ( x, y, z ) be a vector field which is differentiable at each
point (x, y, z) in some region of space, i.e., F is differenti- Example 18
able vector field. The scalar product of the vector operator ∇ Evaluate ∫ F ⋅ d r , where F = xyi + y 2 j along the triangle x
C
and F gives a scalar which is termed as divergence.
= 0, y = 0 and x + y = 1 in the first quadrant.
∂F  ∂F ∂F
∇ ⋅ F = i ⋅ + j⋅ +k⋅ Solution
∂x ∂y ∂z y

NOTE
C2
If div ( F ) or ∇ ⋅ F = 0, then F is called ‘solenoidal’ C3

x
0
Curl of a Vector C1

Let F ( x, y, z ) is a vector field defined for all (x, y, z) in ∫c F ⋅ dr = ∫C ( xydx + y 2 dy) + ∫C ( xydx + y 2 dy)
a certain region of space and is differentiable, i.e., F is a 1 2

differentiable vector field. The cross product of the vector + ∫ ( xydx + y 2 dy )

C
operator ∇ with the vector F is termed as curl F.
3

i j C1 C2 C3
k
y=0 y=1-x x=0
∂ ∂ ∂
curl F = ; F = F1 i + F2 j + F3 k 0<x<1 1<x<0 dx = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
dy = 0 dy = - dx 1<y<0
F1 F2 F3
1 0 0
NOTE =∫ [ x(0)dx + 0 + ∫ x(1 − x )dx + (1 − x ) 2 ( −dx ) + ∫ y 2 dy
x =0 x =1 1

If curl F = 0, then F is said to be irrotational. 0 0

= ∫ ( x − x 2 − 1 − x 2 + 2 x )dx + ∫ y 2 dy
1 1

Standard Results 0 1
= ∫ ( −2 x 2 + 3 x − 1)dx − ∫ y 2 dy
1. div (f F) = f div F + F ⋅grad f or ∇ . f F = f ∇ ⋅ F + 1 0

F ⋅∇f  2 3  1 −1
=  − + 1 − =
2. curl (f F) = ∇f × F + f curl F 3 2  3 6

Chapter 01.indd 21 5/31/2017 12:37:09 PM

 2.22 | Part II ■ Engineering Mathematics

Surface Integral Let S be a closed surface, then the normal Example 19

surface integral ∫s FN ds is called the flux of F over S. If A = x i + x j + xk and
3 2

Cartesian Form Let F ( r ) = F1 i + F2 j + F3 k , where, F1, F2, B = − xi + x 2 j + x 3 k , then find the values of
F3, are continuous and differentiable functions of x, y, z. d d
(i) ( A ⋅ B ) and (ii) ( A × B ).
If cosα, cosb and cosg be the direction cosines of the unit dx dx
normal N, then
Solution
N = i cos α + j cos β + k cos γ . d d d
(i) ( A ⋅ B) = A ⋅ ( B) + B ⋅ ( A)
dx dx dx
∴ ∫S F ⋅ N ds = ∫S ( F1 cos α + F2 cos β + F3 cos γ )ds
d
= ( x i + x j + xk ) ⋅ ( − xi + x 2 j + x 3 k )
3 2
But then ds cosa, ds cosb and ds cosg are the projections dx
of ds on yz, zx and xy planes. If dx, dy, dz are the differentials d
along the areas then + ( − xi + x 2 j + x 3 k ) ⋅ ( x 3 i + x 2 j + xk )
dx
ds cosa = dy dz; ds cosb = dz dx; ds cosg = dx dy.
∴ = ( x i + x j + xk ) ⋅ ( − i + 2 x j + 3 x 2 k )
3 2  
∫S
F ⋅ N ds = ∫ ∫ ( F1dy dz + F2 dz dx + F3 dx dy )
S
+ ( − xi + x 2 j + x 3 k ) ⋅ (3 x 2 i + 2 x j + k )
NOTE = - x3 + 2x3 + 3x3 - 3x3 + 2x3 + x3 = 4x3.
If R1 is the projection of S on xy-plane, then d dB dA
dxdy (ii) ( A × B) = A × + ×B
dx dx dx
∫S F ⋅ Nds = ∫R1 ∫ F ⋅ N cos γ
d
= ( x 3 i + x 2 j + xk ) × ( − xi + x 2 j + x 3 k )
dxdy
= ∫∫ F ⋅N ⋅ (| N ⋅ k | = cos γ ) dx
S
| N ⋅ k | d
+ ( x 3 i + x 2 j + xk ) × ( − xi + x 2 j + x 3 k )
Equivalently, dx
dydz dzdx = ( x 3 i + x 2 j + xk ) × ( − i + 2 x j + 3 x 2 k )
∫∫ F ⋅ Nds = ∫ ∫ F ⋅ N
| N ⋅ i |
= ∫∫ F ⋅N
| N ⋅ j | + (3 x 2 i + 2 x j + k ) × ( − xi + x 2 j + x 3 k )
S R2 R3

i j k i j k
Volume Integral
x2 y2 z2 = x3 x2 x + 3x 2 2x 1
∫x1 ∫y1 ∫z1 f ( x, y, z )dz dy dx
−1 2 x 3 x 2 −x x2 x3

x2 y
2 z2 = i(5 x 4 − 3 x 2 ) − j (6 x 5 + 2 x ) + k (5 x 4 + 3 x 2 )
= ∫ ∫ ∫ f (x, y, z) dz dy dx
x1 y1 z1 Example 20
If f = x3 - 6xy² - 9xyz is a scalar function, then find
Gauss’ Divergence Theorem ∂2 f ∂2 f
, .
∂x 2 ∂x∂y
If F is continuously differentiable vector function in the
region bounded by a surface S, then ∫ ∫ F ⋅ N ds =∫∫∫ div Fdv Solution
S V
where N is the unit normal to the surface. f = x3 - 6xy² - 9xyz
∂f
Green’s Theorem If P and Q are scalar point functions, ∴ = 3 x 2 − 6 y 2 − 9 yz
possessing continuous derivatives of the first order, in a re- ∂x
gion S of the xy plane bounded by a closed curve C then ∂2 f
∴ = 6x − 0 = 6x
 ∂Q ∂P  ∂x 2
∫C Pdx + Qdy = ∫ ∫S  ∂x − ∂y  dxdy. ∂f
= −12 xy − 9 xz
Stoke’s Theorem If S is an open surface bounded by a  ∂y
closed curve C and F is a continuously differentiable vec- ∂2 f ∂  ∂f  ∂
=   = ( −12 xy − 9 xz )
tor point function, then ∫ F ⋅ d r = ∫ curl F ⋅ Nds, where N ∂x∂y ∂x  ∂y  ∂x
C S
is unit outward drawn normal at any point on the surface. = - 12y - 9z.

Chapter 01.indd 22 5/31/2017 12:37:14 PM

 Chapter 1 ■ Calculus | 2.23

Example 21 ⇒ y² + xz² + (r - 2) 3xyz² = 0 at (1, -1, 1), div p = 0

If f ≡ x3 + y3 + z3 - 3xyz, then find the value of grad f at ⇒ (-1)² + (1)² + (r - 2) 3 (1) (-1) (1)² = 0
(2, 1, 1). 8
⇒ 1 + 1 − 3r + 6 = 0 ⇒ r = .
Solution 3
∂φ  ∂φ  ∂φ
Grad φ = i +j +k (by definition) Example 24
∂x ∂y ∂z P = ( y 2 + 2 xz )i
Find the value of a, if
∂ ∂  
= i ( x 3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3 xyz ) + j ( x 3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3xyz ) + ( z + 2 xy ) j + ( x + ayz )k is irrotational.
2 2

∂x ∂y
∂ 3 Solution
+ k ( x + y 3 + z 3 − 3 xyz ). The vector P is irrotational
∂z
= 3[i( x 2 − yz ) + j ( y 2 − xz ) + k ( z 2 − xy )] ⇒ curl P = 0 ⇒ ∇ × P = 0
i j k
\ grad f at (2, 1, 1)
= 3[i( 4 − 1) + j (1 − 2) + k (1 − 2)] ∂ ∂ ∂
⇒ =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 9i − 3 j − 3k .
y 2 + 2 xz z 2 + 2 xy ayz + x 2
Example 22
 ∂ ∂ 
If P = x 2 yi − x 3 j + xyz 2 k , then find div p and curl p. ⇒ i  ( x 2 + ayz ) − ( 2 xy + z 2 ) 
 ∂y ∂z 
Solution  ∂ ∂ 
− j  ( x 2 + ayz ) − ( y 2 + 2 xz ) 
(i) div P = ∇ ⋅ P  ∂x ∂z 
∂ ∂ ∂  ∂ ∂ 
= ( x 2 y ) − ( − x 3 ) + ( xyz 2 ) + k  ( z 2 + 2 xy ) − ( y 2 + 2 xz )  = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂x ∂ y 
= 2xy - 0 + 2xyz = 2xy (1 + z)   
⇒ i( az − 2 z ) + j ( 2 x − 2 x ) + k ( 2 y − 2 y ) = 0
i j k
⇒ i z ( a − 2) = 0 = 0 i ⇒ z ( a − 2) = 0
∂ ∂ ∂
(ii) curl P = ∇ × P = ⇒ a-2=0⇒a=2
∂x ∂y ∂z
x 2 y − x3 xyz 2 Example 25
 ∂ ∂   ∂ ∂ 2  Find the angle between the surfaces xy² z = 3x + z² and 3x²
= i  ( xyz ) 2 − ( − x 3 )  −  j ( xyz 2 ) − ( x y)  - y² + 2z = 1 at (1, -2, 1).
 ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂Z 
Solution
 ∂ ∂ 
+ k  ( − x 3 ) − ( x 2 y )  Let f = xy²z - 3x - z² = 0 and
 ∂x ∂y  g = 3x² - y² + 2z - 1 = 0.
= xz i − yz j + k ( −3 x − x 2 )
2 2 2
\ grad f = i( y 2 z − 3) + j ( 2 xyz ) + k ( xy 2 − 2 z )
= xz 2 i − yz 2 j − 4 x 2 k .
grad g = i(6 x ) + j ( −2 y ) + k ( 2)
Example 23 But, angle between two surfaces at a point is equal to angle
between the normals to the surfaces at that point.
Find the value of r if,
\Let n1 = grad f at (1, − 2, 1) and n2 = grad g at (1, − 2, 1)
p = xy 2 i + xyz 2 j + ( r − 2) xyz 3 k is solenoidal at (1, - 1, 1). respectively
\ n1 = (grad f ) at (1, − 2, 1)
Solution
p is solenoidal ⇒ div p = 0 ⇒ ∇⋅ p = 0 = i[( −2) 2 1 − 3] + j[2(1)( −2)1]
+ k [1( −2) 2 − 2(1)] = i − 4 j + 2k
∂p1 ∂p2 ∂p3
⇒ + + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z n2 = (grad g ) at (1, − 2, 1)

∂ 2 ∂ ∂ = i[6 ( A)] + j[−2( −2)] + k ( 2) = 6i + 4 j + 2k

⇒ xy + ( xyz 2 ) + [( r − 2) xyz 3 ] = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z Let the angle between the normals n1 and n2 be q.

Chapter 01.indd 23 5/31/2017 12:37:20 PM

 2.24 | Part II ■ Engineering Mathematics

So, n1 ⋅ n2 = | n1 || n2 | cos θ ⇒ 6 − 16 + 4 2
2  −Z 3  −8
∴ ∫ F ⋅ dr = ∫ − z 2 dz =   =
= ( 1 + 16 + 4 )( 36 + 16 + 4 ) cos θ PQ 0
 3 0 3
−6 −3 3 (3) Along QR:
∴ cos θ = = =
21 56 7 6 7 6 y = 2, dy = 0 and x changes from 3 to 0
0
0
 x2  −27
\ θ = cos −1  3  ∴ ∫ F ⋅ dr = ∫ 3 x dx =  3  =
7 6 
QR
3  2 3 2

Example 26 (4) Along RO:

x = 0,
If F = ( x 2 + y 2 )i − 2 xy j evaluate ∫ F ⋅ d r along the
dx = 0 and y varies from 2 to 0.
straight line C from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 2, 3). 0
0  z3  8
Solution ∫RO ⋅ = ∫2 − = −   =
2
\ F dr z dz
The equation of the line joining (0, 0, 0) and (1, 2, 3) is  3 2 3
x y z 27 8 27 8
= =
1 2 3
= (t ). Thus ∫C
F ⋅ dr = − − + =0
2 3 2 3
Then along the line C, x = t, y = 2t, z = 3t.
Example 28
\ r = xi + y j + zk = t i + 2t j + 3tk (( ))
Evaluate by Green’s theorem ∫ ∫ (xy + y²) dx + x² dy, where
d r = i + 2 j + 3k C is the closed curve of the region bounded by y = x and y
= x².
Given F = ( x 2 + y 2 ) i − 2 xy j
Solution
And along C , F = [t 2 + ( 2t ) 2 ] i − 2t ( 2t ) j = 5t 2 i − 4t 2 j ∂P
Here P = xy + y 2 ∴ = x + 2y
\ F ⋅ d r = (5t² - 8t² + 0) dt = –3t² dt ∂y
at (0, 0, 0), t = 0 and at (1, 2, 3), t = 1. ∂Q
Q = x2 ∴ = 2x
1  −3t  3 1
∂x
\ ∫c F ⋅ d r = ∫t = 0 −3t dt =   = −1 .
2

 3 0 Hence by Green’s theorem,

Example 27 ∫ C
( xy + y 2 )dx + x 2 dy = ∫ ∫ ( 2 x − x − 2 y )dx dy
S

If F = 3 xi − z 2 k , , evaluate ∫ F ⋅ dr , where the curve C is = ∫ ∫ ( x − 2 y )dx dy = ∫  ∫ ( x − 2 y )dy  dx

x 1

the rectangle in the xz bounded by z = 0, z = 2, x = 0, x = 3. S  y−x

x −0  

Solution y

Since the integration takes place in xz-plane (y = 0)

(1, 1)
\ ∫ F ⋅ dr = ∫ f dx + f dz = ∫ 3x dx − z dz
2
0 0 1 2 0 (0, 0)
x
∫ C F ⋅ d r = ∫OP F ⋅ d r + ∫PQ F ⋅ d r + ∫QR F ⋅ d r + ∫RO F ⋅ d r y=x
(i) Along OP: y = x2
z = 0, dz = 0 and x varies from 0 to 3
1 1
=∫ [ xy − y 2 ]xy = x dx = ∫
2

3  3x 2  27
3
( x 3 − x 4 )dx
∫ F ⋅ dr = ∫0 3x dx =  2  = 2
x =0 x =0

1
0
 x 4 x5  1 1 1
= −  = − =
Z 2 4 5
(0, 2)  0 4 5 20
R Q(3, 2)

Example 29
O P X By applying Gauss theorem, evaluate ∫ ∫ (x 3 dy dz + x 2 ydz
(3, 0) S

dx + x 2 zdx dz ), where S is the closed surface consisting of

(ii) Along PQ:
x = 3, dx = 0 and z changes from 0 to 2. the cylinder x² + y² = a² and the circular discs z = 0 and z = b.

Chapter 01.indd 24 5/31/2017 12:37:25 PM

 Chapter 1 ■ Calculus | 2.25

Solution π
5a 4 b  sin 4θ  2
We have = θ−
F1 = x3; F2 = x²y; F3 = x²z 2  4  0

∂F1 ∂F2 ∂F3 5a 4 b  π  5π 4

\ = 3x 2 , = x2 , = x2 = − 0 = ab
∂x ∂y ∂z 2  2  4
∂F1 ∂F2 ∂F3
\ + + = 3x 2 + x 2 + x 2 = 5 x 2 Example 30
∂x ∂y ∂z
\ Using Gauss theorem,
Evaluate ∫ F ⋅ dr
c
by Stokes theorem,
If F = ( x 2 + y 2 )i − 2 xy j , where c is the rectangle formed
∫∫S
F1dy dz + F2 dz dx + F3 dx dy
by the lines x = ± a, y = 0 and y = b.
 ∂F1 ∂F2 ∂F3 
= ∫∫ ∫  + +  dx dy dz Solution
V
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
F = ( x 2 + y 2 )i − 2 xyj
∴ ∫ ∫ x 3 dy dz + x 2 ydz dx + x 2 zdx dy
S
By Stoke’s theorem,
a a2 − x 2 b
= ∫∫ ∫ 5 x dx dy dz = 20 ∫ ∫
2
∫
2
x dx dy dz
V x =0 y =0 z =0
∫ (∇ × F ) ⋅ N ds = ∫ F ⋅ d r
c
2 2
a a −x
= 20 ∫ ∫
2
x b dx dy. i j
x =0 y =0 k
a ∂ ∂ ∂
= 20b ∫ x 2 a 2 − x 2 dx ∇× F = = −4 yk
0
∂x ∂y ∂z
[Let x = a sin q; dx = a cos q dq x2 + y2 −2 xy 0
π
Upper limit: x = a ⇒ a sin q = a ⇒ q = ⋅

2 ∴ ∫ (∇ × F ) ⋅ ( N ⋅ k )ds
Lower limit: x = 0 ⇒ a sinq = 0 ⇒ q = 0]
π
= 20b ∫ 2 a 2 sin 2 θ a 2 (1 − sin 2 θ ) a cos θ dθ
= ∫ ( − 4 ky ) ⋅ N ds = ∫ − 4 y ( N ⋅ k ) ds ∫ ∫ − 4 y dx dy
R
0
π Since N ⋅ k ds = dx dy
= 20 a 4 b ∫ 2 sin 2 θ cos 2 θ dθ And R is the region bounded by the rectangle.
0

π b
1  − 4 y2 
= 20 a 4 b ∫ 2 sin 2 2θ dθ
a b a

0 4
=∫ ∫ ( − 4 y )dy dx = ∫   dx
x =− a y = 0 −a
 2 0
π
 1 − cos 4θ 
= 5a 4 b ∫ 2  dθ
a
= −2 ∫ (b 2 − 0)dx = −2b 2 [ x ]−a a = − 4 ab 2 .
0
 2  −a

Exercises
3. Evaluate lim (x − [x]), where [x] is the greatest inte-
1. lim {3 x − 9 x 2 − x } = ______. x→2.7
x →∞ ger less than equal to x.
1 (A) −0.3 (B) 0.7
(A) (B) 3 (C) 4.7 (D) 2
6
1
(C) 6 (D) None of these 4. Evaluate lim 189 .
x →0 x
 24 cos x − 24 + 12 x 2 − x 4  (A) 0 (B) ∞
2. lim  = (C) −∞ (D) None of these
x →0  24 x 6 
1/ x
1 −1  2 x + 3x 
(A) (B) 5. lim   =
720 120 x →0  2 
(A) 1 (B) 3
1 −1
(C) (D) (C) 6 (D) 2
120 720

Chapter 01.indd 25 5/31/2017 12:37:32 PM

 2.26 | Part II ■ Engineering Mathematics

6. lim |x - 2| + [ x - 2] = R. there exists c ∈(1, 3) such that f ′(c) = 0 which of the

x→2
above statements are true?
(A) 0. (A) P, Q only (B) Q, R only
(B) only left limit exists. (C) P, R only (D) P, Q, R
(C) only right limit exists.
14. A function f : R → R is such that f (x + y) = f (x) ⋅ f (y)
(D) limit does not exist.
for all x, y in R and f (x) ≠ 0 for any x in R. If f(x) is dif-
7. Let the function f (x) = [x]. Where [x] is the greatest ferentiable and f ′(0) = 2, then
integer less than or equal to x. Which of the following (A) f ′(x) = 2f (x) (B) f (x) = 2f ′(x)
is/are true? (C) f (x) = f ′(x) (D) f ′(x) = -f (x)
(A) f (x) has jump discontinuity at all x ∈ Z.
15. Which of the following statement(s) is/are true?
(B) f (x) has removable discontinuity at all x ∈ Z.
(A) y = x2 has a minimum value at x = 0
(C) f (x) is continuous at all irrational values.
(D) both (A) and (C). (B) y = | x − 3 | has a minimum value at x = 3
1
(C) The maximum value of the function y = is 1
 5x − 4 0<x≤ 1 + x2
8. f ( x ) =  2 at x = 1 (D) All of these
4 x − 3x 1 < x < 2
16. The maximum and minimum values of f (x) = 3 sin2 x +
(A) Left hand continuous at x = 1.
4 cos2 x is
(B) Right hand continuous at x = 1.
(A) {-4, -3} (B) {7, 3}
(C) continuous at x = 1.
(C) {4, -3} (D) {4, 3}
(D) None of these
17. If the function f (x) = 2x - 9ax2 + 12a2 x + 1, where a >
3
x sin x 0, attains its maximum and minimum at x = p and x = q
9. The function f ( x ) = is
( x 2 + 2) respectively such that p2 = q, then the value of ‘a’ is
(A) continuous for all x. 1
(B) discontinuous for all x. (A) 2 (B)
4
(C) constant function. 1
(C) (D) 4
(D) discontinuous only at x = ±2. 8
10. Check the continuity of the following function Direction for questions 18 and 19:
 The sum of the hypotenuse and one side of a right angled
 2
 sin ax when x ≠ 0 triangle is given as a units.
f ( x) =  , at x = 0
 x
2 when x =0 18. When the area is maximum the ratio of the side and the
 a 2 hypotenuse is ______.
(A) 2 : 1 (B) 1 : 3
(A) continuous at x = 0 (C) 1 : 2 (D) 2 : 3
(B) discontinuous at x = 0
(C) discontinuous of first kind 19. When the area is maximum, find the angle between the
(D) None of these hypotenuse and the other side is ______.
(A) 60° (B) 30°
7 x < 5, (C) 45° (D) None of these

11. If f ( x ) = ax + b 5 < x < 7, 20. Consider f (x) = |x2 - 3|, 0 ≤ x ≤ 6 and g(x) =
11 x > 7 is c continuous on R  3x , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
  . Then Rolle’s theorem can be applied
then the values of a and b are 4 − x, 1 < x ≤ 3
(A) a = 2, b = 3 (B) a = −2, b = 3 in the respective intervals
(C) a = 3, b = −2 (D) a = 2, b = −3 (A) to both f (x) and g(x).
12. Let f (x) = max(1 - x, x - 1). Then f is
2 (B) only to f (x).
(A) not continuous at x = 1, -2. (C) only to g (x).
(B) continuous and differentiable everywhere. (D) neither to f (x) nor to g (x).
(C) not differentiable at x = -2, 1. 21. If the function f (x) = px2 + qx2 + rx + s on [0, 1], satis-
(D) continuous but not differentiable at x = 1, -1. fies the mean value theorem, then the value of c in the
1 1 interval (0, 1) is
13. Consider the function f ( x ) = + defined in 1 1
x −1 3 − x (A) (B)
the interval [1, 3] 2 3
P. f is continuous on [1, 3] 2 2
(C) (D)
Q. f is differentiable on (1, 3) 3 3 3

Chapter 01.indd 26 5/31/2017 12:37:34 PM

 Chapter 1 ■ Calculus | 2.27
2
x
22. f (x) = increases in 30. Which of the following function/s is/are integrable but
x +1 not continuous on (0, 10)?
(A) (- 2, 0) (A) f (x) = [x] (greatest integer function)
(B) [- 4, -2] (B) f (x) = |x - 3|
(C) (-∞, - 2] ∪ [0, ∞) (C) f (x) = |x - 5| + |x - 2|
(D) (- ∞, - 2) ∪ (0, ∞) (D) f (x) = x2 + 5x + 9

23. Let f (x) = eax and g(x) = e−ax be two functions defined 31. ∫ sec3 x dx = ______.
in [ p, q], If the functions satisfies Cauchy mean value sec x tan x
theorem then the value of ‘c’ is ______. (A) + log (sec x + an x )
3
p+q
(A) p + q (B) sec 2 x tan x 1 π 
2 (B) + log tan  + x 
3 3  4 
(C) 2( p + q) (D) None of these
sec x tan x 1 π x 
∂z (C) + log tan  + 
24. If x = cos (z + y2), then = 2 2  4 2
∂y
(D) None of these
(A) 1 (B) y
π /2
(C) 2y (D) -2y
6
32. ∫ sin 4 x cos6 xdx = ______.
0
4 x + 4 y  ∂u ∂u
25. If u =  6  , then x + y = 3π 2π
 x + 6 y  ∂x ∂x (A) ⋅ (B) ⋅ c

128 425
u 4
(A) (B) 3π 3π
2 u (C) ⋅ (D) ⋅

2560 512
(C) 4u (D) 6u
33. Area bounded by the curve y = −3x2, x = 2 and the two
26. The stationary points of the function f (x, y) = x3 + y4 − coordinate axes is ______ sq units
27x + 32y + 100 is/are (A) 2 (B) 3
(A) (3, 2), (3, −2) (C) 6 (D) 8
(B) (−3, 2), (−3, −2) 34. The volume of the solid obtained by revolving the area
(C) (3, 2), (−3, −2) bounded by the parabola y2 = x - 4, x-axis and the lines
(D) (3, −2), (−3, −2) x = 4 and x = 7, about x-axis is ______ cubic unit
27. For the function f (x, y) = 2x2 + 4y2 + 4xy + 2x + 9 11
(A) π ⋅ (B) π ⋅

10y + 7. 2 2
(A) Local maximum exists, but no local minimum. 13 15
(B) Local minimum exists, but no local maximum. (C) π ⋅ (D) π ⋅

2 2
(C) Neither local minimum nor local maximum exists.
35. The length of arc of the curve y = ln (cos x) from x = 0
(D) Both local minimum and local maximum exists.
π
28. For the function xyz, if x + y + z = 3, then the local to x = is ____.
⋅

4
maximum occurs for xyz at the point ______.
(A) ln (1 + 2 ) (B) ln ( 2 − 1)
 1 1
(A)  4, , 
 2 2 (C) ln ( 2 + 3 ) (D) ln ( 2 − 3 )
(B) (5, -1, -1)
(C) (1, 1, 1) π /4 π /4

(D) (7, -3, -1) 36. Evaluate ∫ ∫ (3 cos θ + 4 sin θ )dθ dφ ______.
0 0
29. The ratio of the dimensions of a rectangular box of vol-
ume 64 cubic units and open at the top that requires  2 −1  ( 4 2 − 1)π
(A)   π (B)
least material for its construction is  2  4 2
(A) 2 : 2 : 1 (B) 2 : 4 : 5
(C) 2 : 3 : 4 (D) 1 : 2 : 3 ( 4 2 − 1)π ( 4 2 − 1)π
(C) (D)
2 4 2

Chapter 01.indd 27 5/31/2017 12:37:39 PM

 2.28 | Part II ■ Engineering Mathematics

1 1− x 2 42. The volume of the solid bounded by the planes x = 0, y

dxdy = 0, z = 0 and x + y + z = 4 is ______ cubic units.
37. Evaluate ∫ ∫ 1 − x2 − y2
0 0 32 64
(A) (B)
π 3 3
(A) ⋅ (B) 0
4 (C) 32 (D) 64
π 43. The acute angle between the vectors 3i + j + 2k and i - j
(C) ⋅ (D) 1
2 + k is q, then the value of cosq is
38. By changing the order of integration, the integral 8 8
∞ x −2 (A) (B)
21 21
∫∫ f ( x, y )dxdy becomes ______.
2 0 8
∞ y+2 ∞ ∞ (C) 21 8 (D)
21
(A) ∫∫ f ( x, y )dxdy (B) ∫∫ f ( x, y ) dxdy
44. If r is the position vector of a particle which passes
0 2 0 y+2

∞∞ ∞ 1
along the curve x = 3 sin 4t, y = 3 cos 4t, and z = 5t
(t > 0). The magnitude of its velocity and acceleration
(C) ∫ ∫ f ( x, y)dxdy (D) ∫∫ f ( x, y )dxdy
respectively are
0 0 1 y+2
(A) 13, 45 (B) 12, 48
39. By changing the variables in the double integral (C) 13, 48 (D) 12, 45
dxdy
∫ ∫ xy , where x = eu+v and y = uv, it changes to
⋅

45. f (t ) be a vector function and f ×

df
= 0 implies
R
dt
∫ ∫ φ (uv)dudν then f(u, v) is (A) f is a vector function with constant magnitude.
R (B) 
f is a vector function both in direction and
R eu + v magnitude.
(A) (B)
(e u + v ) (uv ) uv (C) f is a vector function of constant direction.
(D) Either A or C.
1 1 1 1
(C) + (D) − 46. The directional derivative of f = x3 y + y3 z + z3 x in the
v u v u
direction of i + 2 j + 2 k at (0, 1, -1) is
40. By changing the variables from x, y to u, v where x = u
5 4
+ 2v and y = 4u + 3v, the given integral ∫ ∫ f ( x, y )dxdy ⋅ (A) (B)
R
3 3
changes to ∫∫ f (u + 2v, 4u + 3v )ψ (u, v )dud v then Y
(C)
−4
(D)
−5
R 3 3
(u, v) is ______.
(A) 5 (B) -5 47. If r = x iˆ + y ĵ + z k̂ and | r | = r, then ∇ rn =
1 1
(C) (D) − (A) n(n - 1)rn-1 r (B) n(n - 2)rn-2 r
5 5
(C) n ⋅ rn-2 × r (D) n(n - 1) r
41. The area bounded by the circle x2 + y2 = 6 and the
parabola y = x2 is given by:
2 x 2 −6
Direction for questions 48 and 49:
(A) ∫ ∫ dydx Two equations f = x y2 z - 2y + z2 and g = x2 + yz - x - 2
represents two surfaces
x =−2 y = x

2 6− x2 48. Find normal vector to ‘g’ at (1, -1, 2)

(B) ∫ ∫ dydx (A) i + 2j + 2k (B) i + 2j - k
x =− 2 y = x
(C) 2 i - j - k (D) i - j - 2k
2 x 2 −6
49. The acute angle between the surfaces f and g at (1, -1,
(C) ∫ ∫ ( x 2 + y 2 )dydx 2) is
x =−2 y = x
 15   15 
2 6− x2 (A) cos–1   (B) cos–1  
(D) ∫ ∫ ( y − x 2 )dxdy  390   390 
x =− 2 y = x (C) 60° (D) 30°

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 Chapter 1 ■ Calculus | 2.29

50. The magnitude of maximum directional derivative of

f = 2xy2 - xyz + y2 z in the direction from the point
60. Compute ⋅
∫ x 2 y 2 ds around the circle x = cos t and y =
S
(1, - 1, 1) is sin t.
(A) 62 (B) 52 π
(A) ⋅ (B) 0
(C) 62 (D) 56 4
π
51. The directional derivative of a scalar point function is a (C) ⋅ (D) p
function of 2
(A) only direction (B) only position 61. If F = y2iˆ - 2xy ĵ, compute the circulation ⋅
∫ F dr
(C) either A or B (D) both A and B C
where C is the rectangle bounded by y = 0, y = 1, x = 0
52. The values of div r and curl r respectively when r =
and x = 2.
2x iˆ - y ĵ + 3z k is (A) 3 (B) 4
(A) 4; iˆ (B) 0, 0 (C) -4 (5) -3
(C) 4, 4 k (D) 4, 0 62. A particle in the force field F = 2x2 i + (y - 3xz)j + 2z k
is moving along a space curve defined by x = 2t, y = t2, z
53. The necessary and sufficient condition that the force
= 3t2 - 2. Find the work done by F in moving a particle
field F(x, y, z) is conservative is
along the straight line from A(0, 0, 0) to B(2, 1, 1).
(A) (curl F ) = - F (B) div F = 0
107 121
(C) curl F = F (D) curl F = 0 (A) (B)
30 30
54. Which of the following is/are true? 113 109
(C) (D)
(A) ∇( r × a ) = 0 30 30
(B) Grad ( r ⋅ a ) = a
63. Evaluate ∫ (x2ydx + xy2 dy) using greens theorem where
⋅

(C) ∇ × ( r × a ) = −2a C
C is the triangle with vertices (0, 0), (2, 0) and (2, 1).
(D) All of these
11 11
55. Compute the value of div(∇f × ∇f  ). (A) (B)
24 12
(A) ∇f curl (∇f) (B) ∇f curl (∇f)
−11 11
(C) curl (∇f × ∇f  ) (D) 0 (C) (D)
6 4
56. For what value of p the vector f = (2x + 3y)i + (z + 2y) j
+ (x - pz) k is solenoidal? 64. Find the area of the region in the first quadrant bounded
(A) 4 (B) -4 1 x
by the curves y = 4x, y = and y = using green’s
(C) 2 (D) 0 x 4
theorem.
57. For what values of p, q and r the vector f = (x + ry - z) 1
(A) log 2 (B) log 2
i + (3x - y + qz)j + (px + y - z) k is irrotational? 2
(A) p =1, q = -1, r = 3 (C) log 4 (D) log 16
(B) p = -1, q = 1, r = 3
(C) p = -1, q = 1, r = -3
⋅
∫∫
65. Evaluate F nds where F = 2xziˆ - yz ĵ + yxk where S
s
(D) p =1, q =1, r = -3 is the cube bounded by x = 0, x = 3, y = 0, y = 3 and z =
0, z = 3.
58. If ∇f = yziˆ + zx ĵ + xy k̂, then f(x, y, z) =
(A) xyz + f (y, z); f ≠ constant 27 81
(A) (B)
(B) xyz + g(x, z); g ≠ constant 2 4
(C) xyz + h(x, y); h ≠ constant 27 81
(C) (D)
(D) xyz + k; k is a constant 4 2
59. If F = (5xy - 6x2)iˆ + (2y - 4x) ĵ, compute the line inte- 66. For the force field F = x2 i + xyj in the square region in
gral ∫ F d r where C ≡ y = x3 in the xy-plane joining
⋅
the xy-plane bounded by the lines x = 0, y = 0, x = 2, y
C = 2. Using stokes theorem, find the value of ∫ F , dr . ⋅

(1, 1) and (2, 8). C

(A) 35 (B) -32 (A) 4 (B) 6
(C) 12 (D) 18 (C) 8 (D) 2

Chapter 01.indd 29 5/31/2017 12:37:51 PM

 2.30 | Part II ■ Engineering Mathematics

67. Evaluate the volume integral ∫ div N dv, where N is the ⋅

∞
1
V 69. ∫ 1.0001 dx = ______.
outward drawn normal to the surface described by x² + 1x
(y - 5)² + (z - 8)² = 12.
(A) 1000 (B) 100000
(A) 8p (B) 12p
(C) 10000 (D) 1000000
(C) 48p (D) 24p
68. If S is a closed surface and n is unit normal to the sur- 3
1
face ‘S’ then ⋅
∫ ∫ r nds = ______.
70. ∫ ( x − 2)4 / 5 dx = ______.
0
S
(A) 4V (B) 3V (A) 5 - 21/5 (B) 5 + 21/5
(C) 2V (D) V (C) 5(1 - 2)1/5 (D) 5 1 + 21/ 2 

Previous Years’ Questions

∞ 7. Given function
sin t
1. Evaluate ∫ t dt  [GATE, 2007] F(x, y) = 4x2 + 6y2 - 8x - 4y + 8. The optimal value of
0 f(x, y) [GATE, 2010]
π
(A) p (B) 10
(A) is a minimum equal to
⋅

2
3
π π
(B) (D)
10
⋅ ⋅

4 8 (B) is a maximum equal to

3
2. A velocity vector is given as v = 5 xyi + 2 y 2 j + 3 yz 2 k .
The divergence of the this velocity vector at (1, 1, 1) 8
(C) is a minimum equal to
is  [GATE, 2007] 3
(A) 9 (B) 10 8
(C) 14 (D) 15 (D) is a maximum equal to
3
3x
3. The value of ∫ ∫ (6 − x − y)dx dy is [GATE, 2008] 8. What is the value of the definite integral,
00 a
x
(A) 13.5 (B) 27.0 ∫ x + a−x
dx ?  [GATE, 2011]
(C) 40.5 (D) 54.0 0

4. The inner (dot) product of two vectors P and Q is a

(A) 0 (B)
zero. The angle (degrees) between the two vectors is 2
 [GATE, 2008] (C) a (D) 2a
(A) 0 (B) 30
(C) 90 (D) 120 9. If a and b are two arbitrary vectors with magni-
5. For a scalar function f (x, y, z) = x2 + 3y2 + 2z2, the  2
gradient at the point P(1, 2, -1) is [GATE, 2009] tudes a and b, respectively, a × b will be equal to
     
(A) 2i + 6 j + 4 k (B) 2i + 12 j − 4 k  [GATE, 2011]
 
   (A) a 2 b 2 − ( a ⋅ b) 2
(C) 2i + 12 j + 4 k (D) 56
 
2 (B) ab − a ⋅ b
sin   x  
6. The lim  3  is [GATE, 2010] (C) a 2 b 2 + ( a ⋅ b) 2
x →0 x  
(D) ab + a ⋅ b
2
(A) (B) 1
3 10. For the parallelogram OPQR shown in the sketch,
3 OP→ = ai + bj and OR → = ci + dj. The area of
(C) (D) ∞
2 the parallelogram is

Chapter 01.indd 30 5/31/2017 12:37:55 PM

 Chapter 1 ■ Calculus | 2.31

2x
Q  1
16. lim 1 +  is equal to [GATE, 2015]
x →∞  x
(A) e-2 (B) e
R
(C) 1 (D) e2
17. While minimizing the function f (x), necessary and
P sufficient conditions for a point, x0 to be a minima
are: [GATE, 2015]
(A) f ′(x0) > 0 and f ″(x0) = 0
O (B) f ′(x0) < 0 and f ″(x0) = 0
(C) f ′(x0) = 0 and f ″(x0) < 0
 [GATE, 2012]
(D) f ′(x0) = 0 and f ″(x0) > 0
(A) ad - bc
18. The directional derivative of the field u(x, y, z) = x2 -
(B) ac + bd
3yz in the direction for the vector ( iˆ + ˆj − 2kˆ ) at point
(C) ad + bc
(D) ab - cd (2, -1, 4) is _______. [GATE, 2015]
19. The optimum value of the function f(x) = x2 - 4x + 2
11. There is no value of x that can simultaneously sat-
is [GATE, 2016]
isfy both the given equations. Therefore, find the least
(A) 2 (maximum) (B) 2 (minimum)
square error solution to the two equations, i.e., find
(C) -2 (maximum) (D) -2 (minimum)
the value of x that minimizes the sum of squares of the
errors in the two equations 20. The quadratic approximation of f(x) = x3 - 3x2 - 5 at
2x = 3 the point x = 0 is [GATE, 2016]
4x = 1 [GATE, 2013] (A) 3x2 - 6x - 5 (B) -3x2 - 5
π /6 (C) -3x2 + 6x - 5 (D) 3x2 - 5
12. The solution for ∫ cos 4 3θ sin 3 6θ dθ is[GATE, 2013] xy
0 21. What is the value of lim ? [GATE, 2016]
x →0 x2 + y2
y →0
1
(A) 0 (B) (A) 1 (B) -1
15
(C) 0 (D) Limit does not exist
8
(C) 1 (D) 22. The area between the parabola x2 = 8y and the straight
3
line y = 8 is _____. [GATE, 2016]
 x + sin x  23. The area of the region bounded by the parabola y = x2
13. lim   equals is [GATE, 2014]
x →∞  x  + 1 and the straight line x + y = 3 is [GATE, 2016]
(A) -∞ (B) 0 59 9
(A) (B)
(C) 1 (D) ∞ 6 2
10 7
xα − 1 (C) (D)
14. The expression lim is equal to [GATE, 2014] 3 6
x →0 α

(A) lnx (B) 0 24. The angle of intersection of the curves x2 = 4y and y2
(C) xlnx (D) ∞ = 4x at point (0, 0) is [GATE, 2016]
(A) 0° (B) 30°
15. With reference to the conventional cartesian (x, y)
coordinate system, the vertices of a triangles have the (C) 45° (D) 90°
following coordinates: (x1, y1) = (1, 0): (x2, y2) = (2, ∞ 1 ∞ sin x
2): and (x3, y3), = (4, 3). The area of the triangle is 25. The value of ∫0 1 + x 2 dx + ∫0 x
dx is
equal to  [GATE, 2014]
 [GATE, 2016]
3 3 π
(A) (B) (A) ⋅ (B) p
2 4 2
4 5 3π
(C) (D) (C) ⋅ (D) 1
5 2 2

Chapter 01.indd 31 5/31/2017 12:37:58 PM

 2.32 | Part II ■ Engineering Mathematics

Answer Keys

Exercises
1. A 2. D 3. B 4. D 5. C 6. D 7. D 8. C 9. A 10. A
11. D 12. C 13. B 14. A 15. D 16. D 17. A 18. C 19. B 20. D
21. A 22. D 23. B 24. D 25. A 26. D 27. B 28. C 29. A 30. A
31. C 32. D 33. D 34. A 35. A 36. B 37. C 38. B 39. D 40. A
41. B 42. A 43. D 44. C 45. C 46. D 47. C 48. B 49. A 50. C
51. D 52. D 53. D 54. D 55. D 56. A 57. B 58. D 59. A 60. A
61. C 62. D 63. C 64. C 65. D 66. A 67. C 68. B 69. C 70. D

Previous Years’ Questions

1. B 2. D 3. A 4. C 5. B 6. A 7. A 8. B 9. A 10. A
11. 0.875 12. B 13. C 14. A 15. A 16. D 17. D 18. -5.72 to -5.70 19. D
20. B 21. D 22. 85.33 23. B 24. D 25. B

Chapter 01.indd 32 5/31/2017 12:37:58 PM