UNIT 2: OPTICS

B.Tech/MBATech- Semester I-A.Y. 2022-23

CONTENTS:
I. Interference: Introduction, Necessary conditions for interference, coherent
waves and its production methods, thin film interference,
interference in wedge shaped film, Newton’s rings and
applications of interference.
II. Diffraction: Concept of diffraction, Fraunhoffer and Fresnel diffraction,
Fraunhoffer diffraction at single slit, double slit, and multiple
slits, Characteristics of diffraction grating and its applications.
___________________________________________________________________________

Part I:
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT

“When two light waves superimpose, then the resultant amplitude/intensity in the region of
superposition is different than the amplitude of individual waves. This modification in the
distribution of intensity in the region of superposition is called interference.”

Conditions for sustained interference of light waves

 Two sources should continuously emit waves of same wavelength or frequency.
 The amplitudes of the two interfering waves should be equal or approximately equal in
order to reduce general illumination.
 The sources of light must be coherent sources.
 Two sources should be very narrow as a broad source is equivalent to large number of
narrow sources lying side by side which causes loss of interference pattern resulting
general illumination.
 Two sources emitting set of interfering beams must be placed very close to each other
so that wavelength interact at very small angles.

COHERENT SOURCES
 Two sources are said to be coherent if they emit light waves of the same frequency,
nearly the same amplitude and always have a constant phase difference between
them.
 Therefore, two sources must emit radiations of the same wavelength/color.
 In practice, it is impossible to have two independent sources which are coherent.
  For experimental purposes tow virtual sources formed from a single source can act as
coherent sources.
 The two sources must be narrow and close to each other because the wavelengths of
light waves are extremely small (of the order of 10-7 m).

CONDITION FOR MAXIMA AND MINIMA:

 Maximum intensity of light is observed at a point where the phase difference between
the two waves reaching the point is a whole number multiple of 2π or the path
difference between the two waves is a whole number multiple of wavelength (λ).

 Minimum intensity of light is observed at a point where the phase difference between
the two waves reaching the point is an odd number multiple of π or the path difference
between the two waves is an odd number multiple of half wavelength (λ/2).

Relation between Phase Difference and Path Difference

 If the path difference between the two waves is λ, the corresponding phase difference
is 2π
 Hence, for path difference x, the phase difference δ = 2πx/λ
Or
Phase difference, δ = (path difference) * (2π/λ)

GENERATION OF COHERENT SOURCES

In practice, Coherent sources are obtained by following two methods:

(1) Division of Wavefront

 The wavefront originating from a source of light is divided into two parts which serves
the purpose of coherent sources.
 These two parts of the same wavefront travel unequal distances and reunite at some
angle to produce interference bands.
 E.g. Young’s double slit expt., Fresnel biprism.
 Path difference = ∆ = xd/D, where x is the distance between two consecutive bright/dark
fringes, d is the distance between two slits and D is the distance between source and
screen.
 The spacing between any consecutive maxima or minima is expressed by fringe width
().
 = D/d
(2) Division of Amplitude
 The amplitude of the beam is divided into two parts by partial reflection or refraction
methods.
  The waves corresponding to the divided parts travel different paths and hence produce
interference.
 E.g. Interference due to thin films, wedge shaped film interference, Newton’s rings.
 The path difference, ∆ = 2μtcosr, where t is the thickness of thin film, r is the angle of
reflection and μ is the refractive index of the material of film.

Interference by Division of Amplitude

THIN FILM INTERFERENCE
 The varied colors observed when white light is incident on thin films of soap or oil on
surface of water result from the interference of waves reflected from the opposite surfaces
of thin film.

 When light impinges on the first surface

of a transparent film, a portion of the
incident wave is partially reflected and
partially transmitted.

 The transmitted portion is then reflected

from a second surface and emerges back
out of the film.

 Thus, emerging from the thin film are

two waves:

(1) wave reflected from front surface and

(2) wave reflected from rear surface.

 The two waves have different optical path lengths that is determined by the width of
the film.
 The two waves will eventually interfere, and the interference pattern observed will
depend upon the thickness of the film.
 INTERFERENCE FROM A THIN PARALLEL FILM IN REFLECTED LIGHT

 Consider a thin transparent film of thickness t and refractive index μ (Shown in fig.)
 A ray PA incident on the upper surface of the film is partly reflected along AR1 and partly
refracted along AB. At the point B, a part of it is reflected along BC and finally after partial
refraction it emerges out along CR2
 The difference in path between the two rays AR1 and CR2 can be calculated
 Draw CN normal to AR1 and AM normal to BC.
 The angle of incidence is i and angle of refraction is r.
 Also, produce CB to meet AQ produced at Q. Here, ∟AQC = r.

 The optical path difference between the rays AR1 and CR2 is,
∆ = μ(AB + BC) – AN
Now from Snell’s Law, μ = sini/sinr = (AN/AC)/(CM/AC) = AN/CM
AN = μ.CM
Therefore, the optical path difference, ∆ is
∆ = μ(AB + BC) – μCM
= μ(AB + BC – CM)
= μ(QB + BC – CM) [since, AB = QB]
= μ(QC – CM)
= μQM
In ∆AQM, cosr = QM/AQ
Therefore, QM = AQcosr = 2tcosr
QM = 2tcosr
Hence, the path difference, ∆ = 2μtcosr
But, using Stokes’ Law in Optics, viz., “A light ray reflected from a denser medium suffers
a phase change of π or path difference of λ/2”

Therefore, the effective path difference is Δ = 2μt cos r ± λ/2

Condition for bright fringe

Path difference = nλ or 2μt cos r + (λ/2) = nλ, where n =0,1,2…

2μt cos r = (2n-1)(λ/2) Or 2 μ xθ = 2μt = (2n -1) (λ/2)

Condition for dark fringe

Path difference = (2n+1)λ/2 or 2μt cos r + (λ/2) = (2n+1)λ/2, where n =0,1,2…

2μt cos r = nλ or 2 μ xθ = 2μt = nλ

COLOURS IN THIN FILMS

 When a thin film is exposed to white light source, different colors are observed.
 The incident white light on the film will break up by reflection at the top and bottom
surface of the film.
 These rays will interfere and produce colors.
 The bright and dark appearance of the reflected light depends upon μ, t and r.
 For white light if t and r are made constant, μ varies with the wavelength. At a fixed
point of the film and for a fixed position of the eye, the interfering rays of only certain
wavelengths will have a path difference satisfying the conditions of a bright fringe.
Hence only these wavelengths will be present.
 The colors for which the condition for minima is satisfied are absent.
 Similarly, if the same point is observed with the eye in different positions or different
points of the film are observed with the eye in the same position, different set of colours
are observed due to change in r.
Two special cases of Thin Film Interference
A) FRINGES PRODUCED BY WEDGE SHAPED THIN FILM
 Consider two glass slides placed with a piece of paper between them at one end.
 Fringes are seen from above. If we assume that the slides are coated so that no reflection
occurs at the top of the top slide or bottom of the bottom slide, this is essentially like a thin
film (of air) but of varying thickness.
 Let a light of wavelength λ incident from above.
 Some light reflects at the bottom of the top slide and some at the top of the bottom slide.

 Interference occurs between the rays reflected from the upper and lower surface of the film.

Following the approach of interference from a thin parallel film, we can find the total path
difference Δ between the two interfering rays BR1 and DR2 as

The path difference, Δ = 2μt cos (r+θ), where t be the thickness of the film at a distance x
from the edge.

But if the rays are incident normally, r = 0

If θ is very small, θ = 0

Also from the diagram t = xθ

Hence, the effective path difference = 2μxθ = 2μt

“A ray reflected from a denser medium suffers a phase change of π or path difference of λ/2”
[ STOKES’ Law in Optics ]

Fringe width (β)

If xn is the distance of the nth dark fringe from the edge and

xm is the distance for (n+m) th dark fringe, then

xn = nλ/2μθ and xn+m = (n+m)λ/2μθ

Therefore, Fringe width β = xn+m - xn = mλ/2μθ

For m = 1, β = λ/2μθ

If the two surfaces forming the wedge-shaped film are optically plane, then the fringes of
equal thickness will be straight.

B) NEWTON’S RINGS

 When two glass plates are kept inclined to each other, a wedge-shaped air film is formed
and bright and dark fringes are observed when the plates are illuminated by
monochromatic light.
  If a glass plate and a plano convex lens is used, again a wedge-shaped air film is formed
but with circular geometry.
 The illumination by monochromatic light will produce bright and dark rings.

 This phenomenon was explained by Newton and hence known as Newton’s rings.
 A plano convex lens with its convex surface is placed on a plane glass plate; an air film
with gradually increasing thickness is produced between the two surfaces.
 At the point of contact of the lens and plane surface, the thickness of the film is zero
and becomes maximum at the edge of the lens and plane surfaces.
 A monochromatic source, incident normally is used to obtain bright and dark concentric
rings around a point of contact between lens and the glass plate.

EXPLANATION OF THE FORMATION OF THE RINGS

 Newton’s rings are formed due to interference

between the two rays 1’ and 1’’ as a result of
reflection from the top and bottom surfaces of
the air film formed between the lens and the
plate.
 Monochromatic ray 1 of light falls normally on
the lens-plate sustem at the point A.
 At the point B on the glass-air boundary, the
light gets partially reflected out as ray 1’ without any phase change.
 The remaining part is refracted along BC and reflected at the point C with a phase
change of π radians and emerges out as ray 1’’.
 The two reflected rays are derived from the same ray 1 and hence produce interference.
  For a very small wedge angle θ, and for normal incidence, r = 0, the total path
difference Δ between the two reflected rays 1’ and 1’’ is

Δ = [2μt cos (r+θ) + λ/2], where λ/2 term is due to Stokes law.

 At the point of contact t = 0 and for air film μ = 1 so the path difference is (λ/2).
 This is the condition for minimum intensity and hence the central spot is dark.

 The condition for nth maxima is:

2t + λ/2 = nλ or 2t = (2n+1) λ/2, where n = 1,2,3…….

 Similarly, we can show

 The condition for nth minima is:

2t = nλ, where n = 0,1,2,3…….

Expressions of diameters of Newton’s rings in reflected light

 To calculate the diameter of dark and bright rings,

consider GCH to be the plano-convex lens placed on
a glass plate AB.
 Let R be the radius of curvature of the lens.
 Point C is the point of contact between plate AB and
lens GCH
 Regions GCA and HCB is the wedge-shape circular
air film.
 Newton’s rings are formed due to this air film.
 Let r be the radius of Newton’s rings corresponding to constant film thickness t, the
locus of which forms a locus of points of a circle with centre on point C.
 Now from the property of circle,
IE x IF = IC x ID
 But IE = IF = r, radius of the rings,
IC = t and ID = 2R –t
 Therefore, r x r = t x (2R – t)
r2 = 2Rt – t2
r2 = 2Rt [ t <<< R and hence t2 can be neglected compared to 2Rt]

 Now if Dn is the diameter of the nth ring, Dn = 2r

 Therefore, Dn2/4 = 2Rt Or 2t = Dn2/4R

 For Bright Rings For Dark Rings
2μt = (2n -1)λ/2 2μt = n λ
Dn2/4R = (2n -1)λ/2μ Dn2/4R = nλ/μ
Dn2 = (2n -1).2λR/μ Dn2 = 4nλR/μ
Dn α √2n-1 Dn α √n
Dn α √λ Dn α √λ
Dn α √R Dn α √R

 This shows that the diameter of the rings is proportional to square root of λ and R.

 Also the diameter of bright and dark rings is proportional to √2n-1 and √n respectively.

 Therefore, the diameter of the bright rings reduces faster than dark rings.

 So as the order of rings increases, thinner and sharper rings are obtained.

Applications of Newton’s Ring Experiment

1) TO DETERMINE WAVELENGTH OR RADIUS OF CURVATURE OF LENS:

Let the diameter of nth and ( n+m )th dark rings are Dn and Dn+m
Dn2 = 4nλR and D (n+m) 2 = 4(n+m)λR
D (n+m) 2 - Dn2 = 4(n+m)λR - 4nλR = 4mλR

λ = [D (n+m) 2 - Dn2]/ 4mλR and R = [D (n+m) 2 - Dn2]/ 4mλ

2) TO DETERMINE THE REFRACTIVE INDEX (μ) OF A LIQUID

In air medium, let the diameter of nth and (n+m)th dark rings are Dn and Dn+m
Dn2 = 4nλR and D (n+m) 2 = 4(n+m)λR
D (n+m) 2 - Dn2 = 4(n+m)λR - 4nλR = 4mλR
Now, let the diameter of dark rings with liquid of refractive index μ be
dn2 = 4nλR/μ and d(n+m)2 = 4(n+m)λR/μ
d(n+m)2 - dn2 = 4mλR/μ

μ = [D (n+m) 2 - Dn2]/[ d(n+m)2 - dn2]

NEWTON’S RINGS WITH WHITE LIGHT

 If we use white light like a mercury source, colored rings are obtained.

 In this case, the diameters of different rings are different for different colors as it
depends on √λ.

 So the first few colored rings are seen clearly, after which overlapping of colors occurs
and the rings cannot be seen distinctly.
Part II: DIFFRACTION
 If we look clearly at the shadow cast by an opaque object, close to the region of
geometrical shadow, there are alternate dark and bright regions just like in interference.
 This happens due to the phenomenon of diffraction.
 Diffraction is a general characteristic exhibited by all types of waves, be it sound waves,
light waves, water waves or matter waves.
 Since the wavelength of light is much smaller than the dimensions of most obstacles; we
do not encounter diffraction effects of light in everyday observations.
 However, the finite resolution of our eye or of optical instruments such as telescopes or
microscopes is limited due to the phenomenon of diffraction.
 Indeed the colors that you see when a CD is viewed is due to diffraction effects.

Definition:
When light falls on obstacles or small apertures whose size is comparable with wavelength
of light, there is a deviation from straight line, the light bends around the corner of the
obstacle/aperture and enters in geometrical shadow. This bending of light is called
DIFFRACTION.
OR
The bending of light waves around the edge of any obstacle/aperture whose size is
comparable to the wavelength of light is called DIFFRACTION.
The necessary condition to observe a good diffraction pattern is that the size of the aperture
(slit) should be comparable to the wavelength of the incident light

Two Kinds of Diffraction

Diffraction phenomenon can be classified into following two general classes:

FRESNEL’S DIFFRACTION FRAUNHOFER’S DIFFRACTION

 The source and the screen are placed  The source and the screen are
at finite distances from the aperture placed at infinity or optically at
of the obstacle having sharp edges. infinity.

 The incident wavefronts are either  The incident wavefront is plane.

spherical or cylindrical.
Difference between Interference and Diffraction

INTERFERENCE DIFFRACTION
1. The interaction takes place 1. The interaction takes place between the
between two separate wave fronts secondary wavelets originating from
arising from two coherent sources. different points of the exposed parts of
2. In interference pattern the regions the same wave front.
of minimum intensity are perfectly 2. In diffraction pattern the regions of
dark. minimum intensity are not perfectly
3. The interference fringes are dark.
equally spaced. 3. The diffraction fringes are never
4. In interference pattern all bright equally spaced.
fringes are of equal intensity. 4. In diffraction pattern only first
maximum has maximum intensity and
the intensity decreases fast as the order
of maxima increases.

FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION AT SINGLE SLIT

 Let us assume that a plane wave is incident normally on the slit with width b and the
intensity distribution on the focal plane of lens L is to be calculated.
 The slit is considered to have a large number of equally spaced point sources A1, A2,
A3…..and each point on the slit is a source of Huygen’s secondary wavelets which
interfere with the wavelets emanating from other points.
 Let the distance between two consecutive points be ∆.
  Hence, for n number if point sources, b = (n-1) ∆.
 Now let us calculate the resultant field produced by these n sources at the point P, P
being an arbitary point receiving parallel rays making an angle θ with the normal to the
slit. (figure b).
 For an incident plane wave, the points A1, A2….. are in phase and, therfore the
additional path traversed by the disturbance emanating from the point A2 will be A2A2’
where A2 is the foot of perpendicular drawn from A1 on A2B2.
 If the diffracted rays make an angle θ with the normal to the slit then the path difference
would be
A2A2’ = ∆sin θ
2𝜋
Corresponding Phase difference is, ∅ = ∆𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝛌

 If the field at the point P due to the disturbance from the point A1 is 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 then the field
due to the disturbance from A2 would be acos⁡(𝜔𝑡 − ∅).
 The resultant field at point P would be given by
𝐸 = 𝑎[𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 + cos(𝜔𝑡 − ∅) + ⋯⁡+cos(𝜔𝑡 − (𝑛 − 1)∅)]
 Using the method of vector addition
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 + cos(𝜔𝑡 − ∅) + ⋯⁡+cos(𝜔𝑡 − (𝑛 − 1)∅)⁡
sin 𝑛∅⁄2 1
=⁡ cos⁡[𝜔𝑡 − 2 (𝑛 − 1)𝜑]
sin∅⁄2
1
 Thus, E = E0⁡cos⁡[𝜔𝑡 − 2 (𝑛 − 1)𝜑]

Where the amplitude of the resultant field is given by

sin 𝑛∅⁄2
𝐸𝜃⁡ =a sin∅⁄2

In the limit of (here n ∞, ∆ 0, but n∆ b we have

𝑛∅ 𝜋 𝜋
= ⁡ 𝑛∆𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 → 𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
2 𝛌 𝛌
and
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
∅ =⁡ ∆𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ⁡ ⁡→ 0
𝛌 𝛌 𝑛
Hence we can write,
𝜋𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑎 sin(𝑛∅⁄2) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
𝛌
𝐸𝜃⁡ ≈ ⁡ = na 𝜋𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ⁡𝐴
∅⁄2 𝛽
𝛌

𝜋𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Where A = na and 𝛽 = 𝛌
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
Hence E = 𝐴 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽)
𝛽
 The corresponding intensity distribution is given by
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
𝐼 = ⁡ 𝐼0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒⁡𝐼0 ⁡𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦⁡𝑎𝑡⁡𝜃 = 0
𝛽2

The figure shows the variation of the intensity with β.

Positions of Maxima and Minima
From the intensity equation, the intensity becomes zero when
𝛽 = 𝑚𝜋, 𝑚⁡ ≠ 0
𝜋𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Substituting the value of 𝛽⁡𝑖𝑛⁡⁡𝛽 = 𝛌

We obtain, bsinθ = m⁡𝝀 ; m = ±1, ±2, ±3 … . . (𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎)

This is the condition for minima.
In order to obtain the condition for maxima, we can differentiate the intensity equation with
respect to β and set it equal to zero
𝑑𝐼 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
= ⁡ 𝐼0 [ −⁡ ] = 0⁡
𝑑𝛽 𝛽2 𝛽3

Or 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽[𝛽 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽] = 0
The condition sinβ =0 or β = mπ corresponds to minima.
The condition for maxima are roots of the equation tanβ = β
FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION AT DOUBLE SLIT
 Consider the Fraunhoffer diffraction pattern produced by two parallel slits, each of
width b and separated by distance d.
 The resultant intensity distribution is a
product of the single slit diffraction
pattern and the interference pattern
produced by two-point sources
separated by a distance d.
 The intensity distribution due to
diffraction cab be calculated by similar
method used for the case of single slit.
 Let athe point sources be A1, A2, A3…
for the first slit and B1, B2, B3…. in the
second slit.
 The field produced by the first slit will be
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
E1 = 𝐴 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽)
𝛽
 The field produced by the second slit will be
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
E2 = 𝐴 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 − ⁡ ∅1 )
𝛽
2𝜋
where ∅1 = 𝛌
𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 represents the phase difference from two corresponding
points on the slits which are separated by distance d.
 Hence the resultant field can be given as
E = E1 + E2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
=𝐴 [cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽) − cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 − ⁡ ∅1 )
𝛽
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
Which represents the interference of two waves, each of amplitude 𝐴 and
𝛽
differing in phase by ∅1
 Hence,
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 1 1
E=𝐴 cosγ cos (𝜔𝑡 − 2 𝛽⁡ − 2 ⁡∅1 )
𝛽

∅1 𝜋
Where 𝛾 = ⁡ = ⁡ 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
2 𝛌
 The intensity distribution will be in the form
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
𝐼 = ⁡ 4𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛾
𝛽2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
where 𝐼0 represents the intensity, distribution produces by one of the slits.
𝛽2
 It can be seen from the equation that the intensity distribution is the product of two
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
terms; the first term ( ) represents the diffraction pattern produced by a single slit
𝛽2
of width b and second term 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛾 represents the interference pattern produced by two
point sources separated by a distance d.
 Positions for Maxima and Minima
 The path difference between the two diffracted beamsemanating from the first slit is:

∆= bsinθ

 If the path difference is odd number multiple of λ/2, then θ will give direction of
diffraction maxima.
 So the condition for diffraction maxima is :

bsinθ = (2m – 1)λ/2 where m = 0,1,2,3……

 If the path difference is whole number multiple of λ, then θ will give direction of
diffraction minima.
 So the condition for diffraction minima is :

bsinθ = mλ where m = 1,2,3………except zero.

FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION AT N- SLITS

 Let us consider the diffraction pattern produced
by N parallel slits, each of width b; the distance
between two consecutive slits is assumed to be
d.
 We assume that each slit consist of n equally
spaced point sources with spacing ∆ as shown in
figure.
  Hence, the field at an arbitrary point P will essentially be a sum of N term:
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
𝐸=𝐴 [cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽) − cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 − ⁡ ∅1 ) + ⋯ +
𝛽
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡+ cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 − (𝑁 − 1)∅1 )⁡]

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛾 1
E=𝐴 cos (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽⁡ − 2 ⁡9𝑁 − 1)∅1 )
𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾

∅1 𝜋
Where 𝛾 = ⁡ = ⁡ 𝛌 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
2

 The intensity distribution will be in the form

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑁𝛾
𝐼 = ⁡ 𝐼0
𝛽 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛾
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
where 𝐼0 represents the intensity, distribution produces by one of the slits.
𝛽2
 It can be seen from the equation that the intensity distribution is the product of two
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
terms; the first term ( ) represents the diffraction pattern produced by a single slit
𝛽2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑁𝛾
of width b and second term represents the interference pattern produced by N
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛾
equally spaced point sources separated by a distance d.

Positions of Maxima amd Minima

Center Intense maxima is obtained at 𝛾⁡ ≅ 𝑚𝜋 when the value of N is very large.
i.e when 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚λ ( m = 0, 1,2…)
Such maxima is known as Principal maxima.
The position of minima will be when 𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛λ ( n = 0, 1,2…)
Between two principal maxima there are (N-1) minima.
Between two such consecutive minima the intensity has to have a maximum; these maxima are
known as secondary maxima.
DIFFRACTION GRATING
 Diffraction Grating is an arrangement consisting of a large number of parallel slits
of same width separated by equal opaque spaces.
 Gratings are fabricated by ruling equidistant parallel lines on a glass plate with the help
of a fine diamond point.
 The lines act as opaque spaces and the incident light cannot pass through them.
 The space between the two lines is transparent to light and acts as a slit.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GRATING

Grating Spectrum
 For N slit diffraction pattern we have seen that the positions of the principal maxima
are given by
𝒅𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝒎λ ( m = 0, 1,2…)
 This relation is called as Grating Equation
 It can be used to study the dependence of the angle of diffraction θ on the wavelength
λ
 The zeroth principal maximum occurs at θ = 0 irrespective of the wavelength.
 If we are using a polychromatic source (white light) then the central maximum will be
of the same color as the source itself.
 For m other than zero the angles of diffraction are different for different wavelengths
and therefore, various spectral components appear at different positions.
 Thus by measuring the angles of diffraction for various colors one can determine the
values of the wavelengths.

Dispersive power of the Grating

The dispersive power of grating is defined as:
“The rate at which the angle of diffraction varies with wavelength”.
The factor (dθ/dλ) is called the dispersive power for that order.
 The diffraction of the nth order principal maximum for a wavelength λ is:
(a+b)sinθ = nλ
where: (a+b) is the grating element
n is the order of diffraction
θ is the angle of diffraction
 Differentiating the above equation w.r.t. λ, we get,

(a+b)cosθ dθ = ndλ
𝒅𝜽 𝒏
=⁡
𝒅𝝀 (𝒂 + 𝒃)𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
Resolving Power of the Grating
The Resolving power of grating is defined as:
“The ratio of the wavelength of any spectral line to the difference in the
wavelength between this line and a neighboring line such that the two lines appear to be
just resolved”.
Thus, the resolving power of grating = order of spectrum x total number of lines on grating
𝝀
Therefore, Resolving power, ⁡= nλ
𝒅𝝀
APPLICATIONS OF DIFFRACTION GRATING
Diffraction gratings are useful whenever light needs to be separated into its separate
frequencies (or wavelengths), for example in spectroscopy. They are an essential item in
spectroscopy in astronomy, where so much information is gained by analyzing spectra from
stars, etc.
Diffraction gratings can be used to produce monochromatic light of a required wavelength.

Another use is “wavelength tuning” in lasers. The laser output can be varied using a diffraction
grating.
UNIT 2: OPTICS
SEMESTER- I
.
UNIT 2:

• Part 1 – Interference
• Part 2 - Diffraction
Part I: INTERFERENCE OF
LIGHT
Part I: INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
• “When two light waves superimpose, then the resultant
amplitude/intensity in the region of superposition is different than
the amplitude of individual waves. This modification in the
distribution of intensity in the region of superposition is called
interference.”
Constructive interference
Destructive Interference
Conditions for sustained interference of light
waves
• Two sources should continuously emit waves of same wavelength or
frequency.
• The amplitudes of the two interfering waves should be equal or
approximately equal.
• The sources of light must be coherent sources.
• Two sources should be very narrow.
• Two sources emitting set of interfering beams must be placed very
close to each other so that wavelength interact at very small angles.
COHERENT SOURCES
• Two sources are said to be coherent if they emit light waves of the
same frequency, nearly the same amplitude and always have a
constant phase difference between them.
• Therefore, two sources must emit radiations of the same wavelength.
• In practice, it is impossible to have two independent sources, which
are coherent.
• For experimental purposes two virtual sources formed from a single
source can act as coherent sources
CONDITION FOR MAXIMA
• Maximum intensity of light is observed at a point where the phase
difference between the two waves reaching the point is a whole
number multiple of 2π
• Or
• the path difference between the two waves is a whole number
multiple of wavelength (λ).
CONDITION FOR MINIMA:
• Minimum intensity of light is observed at a point where the phase
difference between the two waves reaching the point is an odd
number multiple of π
• Or
• the path difference between the two waves is an odd number
multiple of half wavelength (λ/2).
Relation between Phase Difference and Path
Difference
• If the path difference between the two waves is λ, the corresponding
phase difference is 2π
• Hence, for path difference x, the phase difference δ = 2πx/λ
• Or
• Phase difference, δ = (path difference) * (2π/λ)
GENERATION OF COHERENT SOURCES
• Coherent sources are obtained by following two methods:
• (1) Division of Wavefront
• (2) Division of Amplitude
 (1) Division of Wavefront
Eg.: Young’s Double Slit
Experiment
(1) Division of Wavefront
• The wavefront originating from a source of light is divided into two
parts which serves the purpose of coherent sources.
• These two parts of the same wavefront travel unequal distances and
reunite at some angle to produce interference bands.
• E.g. Youngs’s double slit expt
• Path difference = ∆ = xd/D, where x is the distance between two
consecutive bright/dark fringes, d is the distance between two slits
and D is the distance between source and screen.
• The spacing between any consecutive maxima or minima is
expressed by fringe width ()
(2)Division of Amplitude
THIN FILM INTERFERENCE
(2)Division of Amplitude
• The amplitude of the beam is divided into two parts by partial
reflection or refraction methods.
• The waves corresponding to the divided parts travel different paths
and hence produce interference.
• E.g. Interference due to thin films
• The path difference, ∆ = 2μtcosr, where t is the thickness of thin film,
r is the angle of refraction and μ is the refractive index of the material
of film
Interference by Division of Amplitude
THIN FILM INTERFERENCE
• The varied colors observed when white light is incident on thin films
of soap or oil on surface of water result from the interference of
waves reflected from the opposite surfaces of thin film.
• When light impinges on the first surface of a transparent film, a
portion of the incident wave is partially reflected and partially
transmitted.
• The transmitted portion is then reflected from a second surface and
emerges back out of the film.
Interference by Division of Amplitude
THIN FILM INTERFERENCE
• Thus, emerging from the thin film are two waves:
• (1) wave reflected from front surface and
• (2) wave reflected from rear surface.
• The two waves have different optical path lengths that is determined
by the width of the film.
• The two waves will eventually interfere, and the interference pattern
observed will depend upon the thickness of the film.
INTERFERENCE FROM A THIN PARALLEL FILM
IN REFLECTED LIGHT
The optical path difference between the rays AR1 and CR2 is,

Now from Snell’s Law,

𝜇 = (𝐴𝑁/𝐴𝐶)/ (CM/AC)
𝜇 = (AN/CM)
AN= 𝜇. CM
Therefore, the optical path difference, ∆ is
• In ∆AQM,
• cosr = QM/AQ

• QM = AQcosr = 2tcosr
• QM = 2tcosr
• Hence, the path difference, ∆ = 2μtcosr
• But, using Stokes’ Law in Optics, viz., “A light ray reflected from a
denser medium suffers a path difference of λ/2”
• Therefore, the effective path difference is Δ = 2μt cos r ± λ/2
Condition for bright fringe
• Path difference = nλ
Or
• 2μt cos r + (λ/2) = nλ, where n =0,1,2…

• 2μt cos r = (2n-1)(λ/2)

Condition for dark fringe
• Path difference = (2n+1)λ/2
or
2μt cos r + (λ/2) = (2n+1)λ/2, where n =0,1,2…

2μt cos r = nλ
COLOURS IN THIN FILMS
• When a thin film is exposed to white light source, different colors are
observed.
• The incident white light on the film will break up by reflection at the
top and bottom surface of the film.
• These rays will interfere and produce colors.
• The bright and dark appearance of the reflected light depends upon
μ, t and r.
• At a fixed point of the film and for a fixed position of the eye, the
interfering rays of only certain wavelengths will have a path difference
satisfying the conditions of a bright fringe. Hence only these
wavelengths will be present.
COLOURS IN THIN FILMS
Why thick films don’t show interference patterns?
• Since interference can occur only when parts of same group of wave
trains overlap.
• Superposition of different wave trains cannot produce interference
because they will be incoherent and do not maintain constant phase
relationship.
• In thick film, different wave trains which are not coherent
superimpose and interference does not rise.
Two special cases of Thin Film Interference
• A) FRINGES PRODUCED BY WEDGE SHAPED THIN FILM
• B) NEWTON’S RINGS
A) FRINGES PRODUCED BY WEDGE SHAPED
THIN FILM
.
.

• Following the approach of interference from a thin parallel film, we

can find the total path difference Δ between the two interfering rays
BR1 and DR2
• The path difference, Δ = 2μt cos (r+θ), where t be the thickness of the
film at a distance x from the edge
• Assuming rays are incident normally,
• r=0
• If θ is very small,
• θ=0
• From the diagram,….. t = x.θ
.

• Hence, the effective path difference = 2μxθ = 2μt

.
.
Fringe width (β)
• If 𝑥𝑛 is the distance of the nth dark fringe from the edge and 𝑥𝑚 is the
distance for (n+m) th dark fringe, then
• 𝑥𝑛 = nλ/2μθ and
• 𝑥(n+m) = (n+m)λ/2μθ

• Therefore, Fringe width β = 𝑥(n+m) - 𝑥𝑛 = mλ/2μθ For m = 1, β =

λ/2μθ
B) NEWTON’S RING
Why rings become closure as we move away from
the central spot in a Newton’s rings setup?
• Diameter of dark ring is given by,
• 𝐷𝑛 = 2 𝑛𝑅
• The diameter of dark rings are proportional to the square root of the
natural numbers. Therefore, the diameter of the ring does not increase in
the same proportion as the order of the ring.
• For n=1, 2 𝑅
• For n=2, 2(1.4) 𝑅
• For n=3, 2(1.7) 𝑅

• Therefore, rings get closer as n increases. That is why rings are not evenly
spaced.
B) NEWTON’S RING
EXPLANATION OF THE FORMATION OF THE
RINGS
Why central spot in Newton’s ring is always
dark?
• The optical path difference between ray 1 reflected from the upper
surface and ray 2 reflected from lower surface of film is give by,

• Δ = 2μt cos (r+θ) ±
2
• At centre, t=0

• Δ=±
2
• This is the condition for minimum. Therefore, in reflected system
central spot is always dark.
Expressions of diameters of Newton’s rings in
reflected light
Expressions of diameters of Newton’s rings in
reflected light
• Now from the property of circle,
• IE x IF = IC x ID ...... (From Theorem of internal division of chords)
• But IE = IF = r, radius of the rings,
• IC = t and ID = 2R –t

• r x r = t x (2R – t)
• r^2 = 2Rt – t^2
• r^2 = 2Rt
Expressions of diameters of Newton’s rings in
reflected light
• Now if 𝐷𝑛 is the diameter of the nth ring, 𝐷𝑛 = 2r
• Therefore, 𝐷𝑛2 /4 = 2Rt
Expressions of diameters of Newton’s rings in reflected light
Expressions of diameters of Newton’s rings in reflected light
Applications of Newton’s Ring Experiment
• 1) TO DETERMINE WAVELENGTH OR RADIUS OF CURVATURE OF LENS:
2) TO DETERMINE THE REFRACTIVE INDEX (μ) OF A LIQUID
NEWTON’S RINGS WITH WHITE LIGHT
• If we use white light like a mercury source, colored rings are obtained.
• In this case, the diameters of different rings are different for different
colors as it depends on √λ.
• So the first few colored rings are seen clearly, after which overlapping
of colors occurs and the rings cannot be seen distinctly.
Anti-reflection coating
• When light is incident on lens, part of part of incident light is reflected
away and light is lost and wasted.
• When more surfaces are there, number of reflection will be large and
quality of image produced by device is poor.
• For eg Solar cells, which operate on sunlight, electrical energy
produced is less because of loss of part of light energy due to
reflection at cell surface.
• It is found that coating the surface with thin transparent film of
suitable refractive index can reduce such loss of energy due to
reflection at surface. Such coatings are called Antireflection coatings
Part II: DIFFRACTION
DIFFRACTION
• When light falls on obstacles or small apertures whose size is
comparable with wavelength of light, there is a deviation from
straight line, the light bends around the corner of the
obstacle/aperture and enters in geometrical shadow. This bending of
light is called DIFFRACTION.
Two Kinds of Diffraction:
• FRESNEL’S DIFFRACTION
• FRAUNHOFER’S DIFFRACTION
Difference between Interference and
Diffraction
FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION AT SINGLE SLIT
FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION AT SINGLE SLIT
FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION AT SINGLE SLIT
• For n number of point sources, b = (n-1) ∆
• additional path traversed by the disturbance emanating from the
point A2 will be A2A2’
• If the diffracted rays make an angle θ with the normal to the slit then
• Path difference would be A2A2’ = ∆sin θ
2𝜋
• Corresponding Phase difference is,∅ = ∆𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝛌
.

• If the field at the point P due to the disturbance from the point A1 is
𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
• Then the field due to the disturbance from A2 would be acos (𝜔𝑡 − ∅)
E=a

Where the amplitude of the resultant field is given by

.

• .
.
Positions of Maxima and Minima
• From the intensity equation, the intensity becomes zero when
𝛽 = 𝑚𝜋, 𝑚 ≠ 0
𝜋𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
• Substituting the value of 𝛽 𝑖𝑛 𝛽 =
𝛌
• We obtain, bsinθ = m 𝝀 ……………..; m = ±1, ±2, ±3 … . . (𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎)
• This is the condition for minima.
• For Intensity 𝐼 to be maximum, β should be equal to zero,
.

𝜋𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
• i.e; 𝛽 = =0
𝛌
•  𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0 or 𝜃= 0
• Thus the maximum value of 𝐼 is 𝐼0 and this principal maximum is
formed at 𝜃= 0
DIFFRACTION GRATING
DIFFRACTION GRATING
• Diffraction Grating is an arrangement consisting of a large number of
parallel slits of same width separated by equal opaque spaces.
• Gratings are fabricated by ruling equidistant parallel lines on a glass
plate with the help of a fine diamond point.
• The lines act as opaque spaces and the incident light cannot pass
through them.
• The space between the two lines is transparent to light and acts as a
slit.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GRATING
Grating Spectrum:

• For N slit diffraction pattern, the positions of the principal maxima are
given by 𝒅𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝒎λ ……( m = 0, 1,2…)
• This relation is called as Grating Equation
CHARACTERISTICS OF GRATING
Grating Spectrum:

• Grating equation (𝒅𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝒎λ) can be used to study the dependence of

the angle of diffraction θ on the wavelength λ
• The zeroth principal maximum occurs at θ = 0 irrespective of the
wavelength.
• If we are using a polychromatic source (white light) then the central
maximum will be of the same color as the source itself.
• For m other than zero the angles of diffraction are different for different
wavelengths and therefore, various spectral components appear at
different positions.
• Thus by measuring the angles of diffraction for various colors one can
determine the values of the wavelengths.
Dispersive power of the Grating
• The dispersive power of grating is defined as: “The rate at which the
angle of diffraction varies with wavelength”. The factor (dθ/dλ) is
called the dispersive power for that order.
• The diffraction of the nth order principal maximum for a wavelength λ
is: (a+b)sinθ = nλ
• where: (a+b) is the grating element
• n is the order of diffraction
• θ is the angle of diffraction
Dispersive power of the Grating
• Differentiating (a+b)sinθ = nλ equation w.r.t. λ, we get,
Resolving Power of the Grating
• The Resolving power of grating is defined as: “The ratio of the
wavelength of any spectral line to the difference in the wavelength
between this line and a neighboring line such that the two lines
appear to be just resolved”.
• Thus, the resolving power of grating = order of spectrum x total
number of lines on grating
• Therefore, Resolving power,

N
APPLICATIONS OF DIFFRACTION GRATING
• Diffraction gratings are useful whenever light needs to be separated
into its separate frequencies (or wavelengths), for example in
spectroscopy.
• They are an essential item in spectroscopy in astronomy, where so
much information is gained by analyzing spectra from stars, etc.
• Diffraction gratings can be used to produce monochromatic light of a
required wavelength.
• Another use is “wavelength tuning” in lasers. The laser output can be
varied using a diffraction grating.
 Unit 2:Optics
Semester I
Derivation (Fraunhofer Diffraction at Single Slit, Fraunhofer Diffraction
at Double Slit, Fraunhofer Diffraction at N- Slits)
FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION AT SINGLE SLIT
• Let us assume that a plane wave is incident normally on the slit with
width b and the intensity distribution on the focal plane of lens L is to
be calculated.
• The slit is considered to have a large number of equally spaced point
sources A1, A2, A3…..and each point on the slit is a source of
Huygen’s secondary wavelets which interfere with the wavelets
emanating from other points.
• Let the distance between two consecutive points be ∆.
FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION AT SINGLE SLIT

Figure (a)
FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION AT SINGLE SLIT

Figure (b)
For Student’s Reference:
In triangle A1A2A2’,
A1
opposite
sin=
hypotenuse

A2A2’
sin=
∆ ∆

A2A2’= ∆sin
A2’
 Path difference = ∆sin
A2
∆sin 2𝜋
Phase difference = Path difference
𝛌
2𝜋
 Phase difference = ∆𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝛌
FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION AT SINGLE SLIT
• For n number of point sources, b = (n-1) ∆
• Now let us calculate the resultant field produced by these n sources at the
point P, P being an arbitrary point receiving parallel rays making an angle θ
with the normal to the slit. (figure b).
• For an incident plane wave, the points A1, A2….. are in phase and,
therefore the additional path traversed by the disturbance emanating from
the point A2 will be A2A2’ where A2 is the foot of perpendicular drawn
from A1 on A2B2.
• If the diffracted rays make an angle θ with the normal to the slit then
• Path difference would be A2A2’ = ∆sin θ
2𝜋
• Corresponding Phase difference is,∅ = ∆𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝛌
.

• If the field at the point P due to the disturbance from the point A1 is
𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
• Then the field due to the disturbance from A2 would be acos (𝜔𝑡 − ∅)
E=a

Where,
.

• .
.

Therefore, E is the amplitude of the resultant field

Positions of Maxima and Minima
• From the intensity equation, the intensity becomes zero when
𝛽 = 𝑚𝜋, 𝑚 ≠ 0
𝜋𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
• Substituting the value of 𝛽 𝑖𝑛 𝛽 =
𝛌
• We obtain, bsinθ = m 𝝀 ……………..; m = ±1, ±2, ±3 … . . (𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎)
• This is the condition for minima.
• For Intensity 𝐼 to be maximum, β should be equal to zero,
.

𝜋𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
• i.e; 𝛽 = =0
𝛌
•  𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0 or 𝜃= 0
• Thus the maximum value of 𝐼 is 𝐼0 and this principal maximum is
formed at 𝜃= 0
FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION AT DOUBLE SLIT
.

R
.

𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝛽 ∅
𝑅2 = 4𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
𝛽2 2
.
Condition for maxima and minima
• For minimum intensity,
• (a + b) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜆/2 …………n=0,1,2,3 (n=order)

• For maximum intensity,

• (𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION AT N- SLITS
• Let a parallel, collimated beam of monochromatic light of wavelength ‘’ be
incident normally on N-parallel slits (grating) each of width ‘b’ and separated by a
opaque distance ‘a’. The rays making an angle 𝜃 with the direction of incidence
are focused at a point P.

d =a+b
.

• We may consider that the each slit in the grating is equivalent to an

individual coherent source which is placed at the middle of each slit
𝑠𝑖𝑛
and sending a single wave of amplitude A at angle  with the

direction of wave propagation.
𝜋
• Here 𝛽 = 𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝛌
• If 𝑆1 𝐾1 be the perpendicular on 𝑆2 𝐾1 , then the path difference
between the waves originating from 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 is given by
𝑆2 𝐾1 = (𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
2𝜋
• The corresponding phase difference would be (a+b)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃=2 (say)
𝛌
The resultant amplitude and intensity at point P due to the waves from
N slits can be obtained by vector addition method and is given by,
sin 𝑁 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 sin 𝑁 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
• 𝐸 = 𝐸0 = 𝐴 ……..(since from single slit theory 𝐸0 = 𝐴 )
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽
Condition for minima and maxima
• Condition for principal maxima,
• (𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆 ……..n=0,1,2,3 (n=order)

• Condition for minima

• N(𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆…….(n can have all integral values except
0,N,2N,……nN)
• Between two principal maxima there are (N-1) minima.
• Between two such consecutive minima the intensity has to have a
maximum; these maxima are known as secondary maxima
UNIT 2-OPTICS B.TECH/MBATECH-SEMESTER 1-A.Y. 2022-23
Interference Numerical Solutions:

1. A parallel beam of light of wavelength 5890 Å is incident on a glass plate having refractive
index μ = 1.5 such that the angle of refraction in the plate is 600. Calculate the smallest
thickness of glass plate for which it will appear dark in reflected light.
Solution:

Given:
= 5890 Å = 5890 x 10−10 m
μ = 1.5
r= 600

To find: smallest thickness (t min )

Formula: 2μtcosr = nλ ……..(condition for dark fringes)

Calculation:

2μtcosr = nλ
nλ
t min =
2μcosr

1 x 5890 x 10−10
t min = ….(For n=1)
2 x 1.5 x cos 60 

t min = 3.92 x 10−7 m

t min = 0.3926 µm
Result: smallest thickness, tmin = 0.3926 µm, for n =1

2. White light falls normally on a soap film of 4 x 10(-7) m thickness. If the refractive index is
1.33 which wavelength is reflected strongly in the visible region?
Solution:

Given:

Thickness(t) = 4 x 10(-7) m
μ = 1.33
i= 0  , r = 0  ……..(since white light falls normally on soap film)

To find: ′λ′ that is reflected strongly in the visible region

Formula: Strong Reflection means condition for bright fringes,

λ
2μtcosr = (2n − 1) 2
… … . (condition for bright fringes)

Calculation:
λ
2μtcosr = (2n − 1)
2
 2 x 2μtcosr
λ= (2n−1)

For n=1,
2 x 2x 1.33x4 x 10−7 x cos(0 )
λ= (2(1)−1)
= 21280 Å

For n=2,
2 x 2x 1.33x4 x 10−7 xcos(0 )
λ= (2(2)−1)
= 7093 Å

For n=3,
2 x 2x 1.33x4 x 10−7 x cos(0 )
λ= (2(3)−1)
=4256 Å

Result: Wavelengths 7093 Å and 4256 Å fall in visible spectrum and are reflected strongly.

3. A 0.4 µm thick soap film is viewed at an angle of 450. If the refractive index of the soap film
is 1.33, calculate the wavelength of the light which will be absent from the reflected light in
the visible spectrum.
Solution:
Given:
Thickness(t)= 0.4 µm = 0.4 x 10−6 m
Incident Angle (i) = 450
μ = 1.33

To find: wavelength (λ) which will be absent

Formula:
sin i
μ= sin r
…….(From Snell’s Law)

2μtcosr = nλ ……(condition for dark fringes)

Calculation:
sin i
μ= sin r
sin i
sin r = μ

sin 450
sin r = 1.33

r = sin−1 (0.53)

r = 320

The absence of certain wavelengths in reflected light is due to destructive interference. The
condition for destructive interference is,

2μtcosr = nλ …………(Equation 1)
To find out the missing wavelength, we have to use different ‘n’ values into (Equation 1) and find out
which of them lie in the visible region (4000 Å - 7000 Å)

For n=1,
2μtcosr 2x 1.33x 0.4 x 10−6 x cos320
λ1 = = = 9023 Å
n 1

For n=2,
2 x 1.33 x 0.4 x 10−6 x cos320
λ2 = 2
= 4511 Å

For n=3,
2 x 1.33 x 0.4 x 10−6 x cos320
λ3 = 3
=3007 Å

For n=4,
2 x 1.33 x 0.4 x 10−6 x cos320
λ4 = 4
=2255 Å

Result: wavelength of the light which will be absent from the reflected light in the visible
spectrum is 𝛌𝟐 = 4511 Å

4. The refractive index of a thin soap film is 1.33 and it is illuminated by white light. In the
reflected pattern, two consecutive dark fringes of wavelengths 550nm and 540 nm are found
overlapping. Calculate the thickness of the film if the angle of incidence is 450.
Solution:
Given:
μ = 1.33
i = 450
λ1 = 550nm = 550 x 10−9 m
λ2 = 540nm = 540x10−9 m

To find: thickness of film (t)

Formula:
sin i
• μ= sin r
……..(from Snell’s Law)
• 2μtcosr = nλ ……(condition for dark fringes)

Calculation:
sin i
sin r = μ

sin 450
sin r = 1.33
= 0.531

r = sin−1 (0.531)

r = 320

For nth dark fringe of λ1

2μtcosr = nλ1 …………(Equation 1)

 For (n + 1)𝑡ℎ dark fringe of λ2

2μtcosr = (n + 1)λ2 …………(Equation 2)

As nth dark fringe of λ1 and (n + 1)𝑡ℎ dark fringe of λ2 coincide,

nλ1 = (n + 1)λ2
nλ1 = nλ2 + λ2
λ2 540x10−9
n=λ = (550 x 10−9 )−(540x10−9 ) =54
1 −λ2

substitute n= 54 in (Equation 1) we get,

nλ
1 54x 550 x 10−9
t = 2μcosr = 2x 1.33x 0.847

t= 1.31x10−5m

Result: Thickness of the soap film is t= 1.31x𝟏𝟎−𝟓 m

5. A drop of liquid of volume 0.2 cc is dropped on a surface of a tank of water of area 1 sq. meter.
The film spreads uniformly over the whole surface and white light which is incident normally,
is observed through a spectrometer. The spectrum is seen to contain one dark band whose
centre has wavelength 5.5 x 10-5 cm in air. Find the refractive index of oil.
Solution:
Given:
volume = 0.2 cubic.cm
area = 1 sq. meter = 1x104 sq.cm
λ =5.5 x 10-5 cm
r = 0 …..(white light is incident normally)

To find: Refractive index of oil (μ)

Formula:
• Thickness of film = volume/area
• 2μtcosr = nλ ……(condition for dark fringes)

Calculation:

Thickness of film = volume/area

Thickness of film(t) = 0.2 /(1x104 )

t = 2x10−5 cm
Now,
2μtcosr = nλ
nλ
μ = 2tcosr

1x 5.5 x 10−5
μ = 2x 2x 10−5 x cos 00
μ = 1.375

Result: Refractive index of oil is 𝛍 = 1.375

6. Fringes of equal thickness are observed in a thin glass of refractive index 1.52. The fringe
spacing is 0.1 mm, wavelength of light being used is 5893 Å. Calculate the wedge angle.
Solution:
Given:
μ = 1.52
Fringe spacing ()= 0.1 mm = 0.1x10−3 m
λ = 5893 Å= 5893x10−10 m

To find: wedge angle ()

Formula:
λ
• β=
2μθ
λ
θ = 2μβ

Calculation:
λ
θ= 2μβ

5893x10−10
θ=
2x 1.52x 0.1x10−3

θ = 0.001938 Radians
180
θ = 0.001938 x degrees


θ = 0.111 degrees
Result: The wedge angle is 𝛉 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟗𝟑𝟖 𝐑𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐧𝐬 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝐝𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐞𝐞𝐬

7. Light beam of wavelength 6000 Å falls normally on a thin wedge-shaped film of refractive
index 1.4, forming fringes that are 2 mm apart. Find the angle of the wedge.

Solution:
Given:
λ = 6000 Å= 6000x10−10 m
μ = 1.4
Fringe spacing ()= 2 mm = 2x10−3 m

To find: wedge angle ()

Formula:
λ
β= 2μθ
 λ
θ = 2μβ

Calculation:
λ
θ= 2μβ

6000x10−10
θ= 2x 1.4 x 2x10−3

θ = 0.986 x10−4 radians

Result: Angle of the wedge is 𝛉 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟕𝟏 𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐧𝐬

8. In Newton’s ring arrangement, if a drop of water having refractive index 1.33 is placed between
the lens and the plate, the diameter of the 10th ring is found to be 6 x 10-3m. Obtain the radius of
curvature of the face of lens in contact with the plate. The wavelength of light used is 600 nm.
Solution:
Given:
μ = 1.33
D10 = 6x10−3 m
λ = 600nm= 600x10−9 m

To find: radius of curvature (R)

Formula:
4nλR
D2n = μ

μD2n
R = 4nλ

Calculation:
μD2n
R= 4nλ
2
1.33x(6x10−3 )
R= 4x10x600x10−9
…………(n=10)

R= 1.99 m

Result: Radius of curvature of the face of lens in contact with the plate is R= 1.99 m

9. Newton’s rings are formed by light reflected normally from convex lens of radius of curvature
of 90 cm and a glass plate with liquid in between them. The diameter of n th dark ring is 2.25
mm and that of (n + 9)th dark ring is 4.5 mm. Calculate the refractive index of the liquid.
Given λ = 6000 Å.

Solution:
Given:
radius of curvature (R)=90cm=90x10−2m
Dn = 2.25mm = 2.25x10−3 m
Dn+9 = 4.5mm = 4.5x10−3m
λ = 6000 Å=6000x10−10m

To find: refractive index (μ)

4mλR
Formula: D2n+m − D2n = μ

4mλR
Calculation: μ = D2n+9 −D2n

4x9x6000x10−10 x 90x 10−2

μ= (4.5x10−3 )2 −(2.25x10−3 )2

Result: Refractive index of liquid µ = 1.28

10. A Newton’s ring arrangement is used with a source emitting two wavelengths 𝛌𝟏 = 6 x 10-5
cm and 4.5 x 10-5 cm and it is found that the nth dark ring due to 𝛌𝟏 coincides with (n + 1)th
dark ring for 𝛌𝟐. If the radius of curvature of the curved surface is 90 cm, find the diameter
of nth dark ring.
Solution:
Given:
radius of curvature(R)=90cm
λ1 = 6 x 10-5 cm
λ2 =4.5 x 10-5 cm

To find: diameter of nth dark ring (Dn )

Formula: Dn2 = 4nR λ

Calculation:

Condition for dark rings:

2μt = n1 λ1 …………(1)

2μt = n2 λ2 … … … (2)

n1 λ1= n2 λ2

n x 6 x 10-5 = (n + 1) x 4.5 x 10-5

n=3

D2n = 4nR λ

Dn = √4nR λ

Dn = √4x3x90x10−2 x 6 x 10−5
Dn = 0.254cm
Result: The diameter of nth dark ring is 𝐃𝐧 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟒𝐜𝐦
11. A glass microscope lens (µ=1.5) is coated with magnesium fluoride (µf = 1.38) film to increase
the transmission of normally incident light λ = 5800 Å. What minimum film thickness should
be deposited on the lens?
Solution:
Given:
µ=1.5
µf = 1.38
λ = 5800 Å=5800x10−10m

To find: minimum film thickness (t min )

λ
Formula: t min =
4μf

Calculation:
λ
t min = 4μf

5800x10−10
t min = 4x 1.38
= 1051 Å

Result: Minimum film thickness that should be deposited on the lens 𝐭 𝐦𝐢𝐧= 1051 Å

12. Can a thin film of water (µf = 1.33) formed on glass window pane (µg = 1.52) act as a non-
reflecting film? If so, how thick should be the water film?

Solution:
Given:
µf = 1.33
µg = 1.52

Formula:

• µf = √µg
λ
• t min = 4μf

Calculation:

A film of refractive index µf can act as antireflecting film on a substrate having refractive index µg , if
µf = √µg

Here, √µg = √1.52 = 1.23

As the refractive index of water is 1.33, it is nearer to √µ𝐠 , it can act as Antireflecting Film on
glass.

The minimum thickness of the film is given by,

λ
t min =
4μf

As human eye is more sensitive to green, it may be assumed that λ = 5500 Å,

 5500
t min = = 1034 Å
4x1.33

Result: (1) As the refractive index of water is 1.33, it is nearer to √µ𝐠 , so it can act as
Antireflecting Film on glass.

(2) 𝐭 𝐦𝐢𝐧 = 1034 Å

 UNIT 2-OPTICS B.TECH/MBATECH-SEMESTER 1-A.Y. 2022-23
Diffraction Numerical:

1. In a single slit Fraunhofer diffraction experiment using monochromatic light of 589.3 nm

wavelength and a slit width of 6 µm, calculate the angular separation between first order
minima on either side of central maximum.

Solution:
d sinθ = m
m 1x 589.3x10−9
sinθ = = = 0.0982
d 6x 10−6

θ = sin−1 (0.0982)
θ= 5.63 degree

2. A light of 500 nm wavelength is incident normally on a single slit. The first minimum of
Fraunhofer diffraction pattern is observed to lie at a distance of 5 x 10(-3) m from the
central maximum on a screen placed at a distance of 2 m away from the slit. What is the
width of the slit?

Solution:
 = 500 x 10−9 m
Distance of screen from slit (D) = 2m

Distance of first minimum from centre of screen (X) = 5 x 10−3 m

Distance between the slits = d
For first minima, n=1
Xd
n = D

nD 1x500x 10−9 x2

d= =
X 5x 10−3

d = 2 x 10−4 m

3. In Fraunhofer diffraction due to narrow slit, a screen is placed 1 m away from the lens to
obtain the pattern. If the slit width is 0.1 x 10(-3) and the first minimum lies 5.0 x 10(-3) m
on either side of the central maximum, find the wavelength of light. If the source is
replaced by another light for which the first minimum lies at 5.89 x 10(-3) m, find the
wavelength of light.
Solution:

a
θ

Distance between screen and lens (L) = 1m

Slit width (d) = 0.1 x 10-3 m
For first minimum, m=1
d sinθ = m
a1 5.0 x 10−3
For very small , sinθ1  tanθ1 = =
L 1

d sinθ1 0.1 x 10−3 x 5.0 x 10−3

1 = =
m 1

1 = 500nm

a2 5.89 x 10−3
For very small , sinθ2  tanθ2 = =
L 1

d sinθ2 0.1 x 10−3 x 5.89 x 10−3

2 = =
m 1

2 = 589 nm

4. A parallel beam of monochromatic light is allowed to be incident on a plane grating

having 6000 lines/cm and second order spectral line is found to be diffracted through 460.
Calculate the wavelength of light used.

Solution:

Given: N = 6000 lines/cm, θ = 460 , m = 2

1 1
b+d = N = 6000 = 1.66 x 10−4 cm

(b + d) sinθ = m
 (b+d) sinθ
 = m

1.66 x 10−4 x sin460

 = = 5.97x10−5 cm
2

 = 5970 A0

5. Monochromatic light of λ = 6560A0 falls normally on the grating 2 cm wide. The first
order spectrum is produced at an angle 190 from the normal. What is the total number of
lines on the grating?

Solution:

Given: λ = 6560A0 , L = 2cm, m = 1, θ = 190

To find: N=?
Calculation: d sinθ = m
m
d = sinθ

1 sinθ sin190
Number of lines/cm = = = 1x 6560x10−8 = 4962 lines/cm
d m

Total number of lines on the grating = 2cm x 4962 lines/cm = 9925 lines

6. A plane grating has 15000 lines per inch. Find the angle of separation of the 5048A0 and
5016 A0 lines of helium in second order spectrum.
7. Calculate the angles at which the first dark band and the next bright band are formed in
the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of a slit 0.3 mm wide. (λ = 589nm)

8. A plane diffraction grating has the value of grating constant equal to 15 × 10-4 cm.
Calculate the position of the third order maximum for λ = 2.4 × 10-4cm.

9. A grating has 15 cm of the surface ruled with 6000 lines / cm. what is the resolving
power of the grating in the first order?

10. In a grating spectrum, which spectral line in 4th order will overlap with 3rd order line of
5491 Å ?
 11. A plane transmission grating has 15000 lines per inch. Find the resolving power and
the smallest wavelength difference that can be resolved with light of wavelength 6000Å
in second order.

Solution:
Given: Number of lines in a grating (N) =15000, order (m) = 2
Resolving Power (RP) = mN
RP = 2 x 15000 = 30000

RP = d
 6000
d = = 30000
RP

d = 0.2 Å

12. Light beam from a sodium lamp ( λ = 5893 Å) is a doublet of 6 Å. Calculate the
minimum number of lines needed on the grating to resolve the doublet in the third
order.

Solution:

Resolving Power (RP) = = mN
d
 5893
N= =
m d 3x6

N= 327 lines/cm
UNIT 2-OPTICS B.TECH/MBATECH-SEMESTER 1-A.Y. 2023-24
Theory QUESTION BANK
_______________________________________________________________
1. Explain the phenomena of interference. What are the necessary conditions for
producing sustained interference fringe pattern?
2. What are coherent sources? How are they obtained in practice?
3. Write the conditions to obtain interference fringe patterns with a thin parallel film.
4. Explain the theory and formation of wedge-shaped films. Obtain the expression for
fringe width in a wedge shaped thin film.
5. Give any two applications of wedge-shaped film.
6. Explain in brief the changes in the fringe pattern if the thickness of the obstacle placed
in a wedge-shaped film increases.
7. Derive the conditions for maxima and minima for interference in a thin film of uniform
thickness in reflected light.
8. Why thick films don’t show interference patterns?
9. Why soap bubble looks colourful when viewed in reflected white light?
10. If energy is always conserved, how come the interference maximum has amplitude
more than the sum of individual interfering rays?
11. What are Newton’s rings? Derive the conditions to get bright and dark rings.
12. Why a Plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature is used in Newton’s rings?
13. Why central spot in Newton’s ring is always dark?
14. Why rings become closure as we move away from the central spot in a Newton’s
rings setup?
15. In the Newton’s ring experiment prove that in reflected light the diameter of the dark
rings is proportional to the square root of its order number.
16. Describe the method for determination wavelength of light using Newton’s rings.
17. How can the refractive index of a liquid be determined using Newton’s rings? Explain
18. Explain the use of thin film as anti-reflection coating.
19. Explain in brief phenomenon of diffraction.
20. Differentiate between Fraunhoffer and Fresnel classes of diffraction.
21. Differentiate between interference and diffraction.
22. Discuss the Fraunhoffers’ diffraction from a single slit. Give the conditions for maxima
and minima. Also give the expression for intensity at a point on the screen, giving the
intensity distribution curve.
23. What is a diffraction grating? Define grating element.
24. Explain the construction and working of plane diffraction grating of N-parallel slits
and explain the formation of spectra by it.
25. Define dispersive power and resolving power of a grating.
 UNIT 2-OPTICS B.TECH/MBATECH-SEMESTER 1-A.Y. 2023-24
Interference Numerical:
1. A parallel beam of light of wavelength 5890 Å is incident on a glass plate having
refractive index μ = 1.5 such that the angle of refraction in the plate is 600. Calculate the
smallest thickness of glass plate for which it will appear dark in reflected light.
Formula: 2𝝁𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒓 = 𝒏𝝀
[Ans.: smallest thickness, tmin = 0.3926 µm, for n =1 is]

2. White light falls normally on a soap film of 4 x 10(-7) m thickness. If the refractive index
is 1.33 which wavelength is reflected strongly in the visible region?
Formula: 2𝝁𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒓 = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏)𝝀/𝟐
[Ans.: Wavelengths 7093 Å and 4256 Å fall in visible spectrum and are reflected
strongly]

3. A 0.4 µm thick soap film is viewed at an angle of 450. If the refractive index of the soap
film is 1.33, calculate the wavelength of the light which will be absent from the reflected
light in the visible spectrum.
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊
Formula: 𝝁 = and 2𝝁𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒓 = 𝐧𝝀,
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓

[Ans.: absent light from the reflected light is 450 nm]

4. The refractive index of a thin soap film is 1.33 and it is illuminated by white light. In the
reflected pattern, two consecutive dark fringes of wavelengths 550nm and 540 nm are
found overlapping. Calculate the thickness of the film if the angle of incidence is 450.
Formula: 2𝝁𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒓 = 𝒏𝝀 & Snell’s law [Ans. 9.45µm]

5. A drop of liquid of volume 0.2 cc is dropped on a surface of a tank of water of area 1 sq.
meter. The film spreads uniformly over the whole surface and white light which is incident
normally, is observed through a spectrometer. The spectrum is seen to contain one dark
band whose centre has wavelength 5.5 x 10-5 cm in air. Find the refractive index of oil.
Formula: 2𝝁𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒓 = 𝒏𝝀, find t using area and volume [Ans. µ =1.375]

6. Fringes of equal thickness are observed in a thin glass of refractive index 1.52. The fringe
spacing is 0.1 mm, wavelength of light being used is 5893 Å. Calculate the wedge angle.
𝝀
Formula: 𝜷 = [Ans.: wedge angle θ = 0.001938 Radians = 0.1109 degree]
𝟐𝝁𝜽

7. Light beam of wavelength 6000 Å falls normally on a thin wedge shaped film of
refractive index 1.4, forming fringes that are 2 mm apart. Find the angle of the wedge.
Formula: λ = 2 θ µβ [Ans: θ = 1.07 x 10-4 radian]
8. In Newton’s ring arrangement, if a drop of water having refractive index 1.33 is placed
between the lens and the plate, the diameter of the 10th ring is found to be 6 x 10-3m.
Obtain the radius of curvature of the face of lens in contact with the plate. The wavelength
of light used is 600 nm.
𝟒𝒏𝝀𝑹
Formula: 𝑫𝟐𝒏 = [Ans.: R = 2m]
𝝁

9. Newton’s rings are formed by light reflected normally from convex lens of radius of
curvature of 90 cm and a glass plate with liquid in between them. The diameter of nth dark
ring is 2.25 mm and that of (n + 9)th dark ring is 4.5 mm. Calculate the refractive index of
the liquid. Given λ = 6000 Å.

𝑫𝟐𝒏+𝒎 −𝑫𝟐𝒏
Formula: 𝑹 = [Ans: Refractive index of liquid µ = 0.781]
𝟒𝒎𝝀𝑹

10. A Newton’s ring arrangement is used with a source emitting two wavelengths 𝜆1 = 6 x
10-5 cm and 4.5 x 10-5 cm and it is found that the nth dark ring due to 𝜆1 coincides with
(n + 1)th dark ring for 𝜆2. If the radius of curvature of the curved surface is 90 cm, find
the diameter of nth dark ring.
Formula: Dn2 = 4nR 𝜆 [Ans. 0.254 cm]

11. A glass microscope lens (µ=1.5) is coated with magnesium fluoride (µf = 1.38) film to
increase the transmission of normally incident light λ = 5800 Å. What minimum film
thickness should be deposited on the lens?

𝝀
Formula: 𝒕𝒎𝒊𝒏 = [Ans: tmin = 1051 Å]
𝟒𝝁𝒇

12. Can a thin film of water (µf = 1.33) formed on glass window pane (µg = 1.52) act as a non-
reflecting film? If so, how thick should be the water film?

Formula: 𝝁𝒇 = √𝝁
𝝀
𝒕𝒎𝒊𝒏 = [Ans: tmin = 1034Å]
𝟒𝝁𝒇
 UNIT 2-OPTICS B.TECH/MBATECH-SEMESTER 1-A.Y. 2023-24
Interference Numerical:
1. A parallel beam of light of wavelength 5890 Å is incident on a glass plate having
refractive index μ = 1.5 such that the angle of refraction in the plate is 600. Calculate the
smallest thickness of glass plate for which it will appear dark in reflected light.
Formula: 2𝝁𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒓 = 𝒏𝝀
[Ans.: smallest thickness, tmin = 0.3926 µm, for n =1 is]

2. White light falls normally on a soap film of 4 x 10(-7) m thickness. If the refractive index
is 1.33 which wavelength is reflected strongly in the visible region?
Formula: 2𝝁𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒓 = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏)𝝀/𝟐
[Ans.: Wavelengths 7093 Å and 4256 Å fall in visible spectrum and are reflected
strongly]

3. A 0.4 µm thick soap film is viewed at an angle of 450. If the refractive index of the soap
film is 1.33, calculate the wavelength of the light which will be absent from the reflected
light in the visible spectrum.
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊
Formula: 𝝁 = and 2𝝁𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒓 = 𝐧𝝀,
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓

[Ans.: absent light from the reflected light is 450 nm]

4. The refractive index of a thin soap film is 1.33 and it is illuminated by white light. In the
reflected pattern, two consecutive dark fringes of wavelengths 550nm and 540 nm are
found overlapping. Calculate the thickness of the film if the angle of incidence is 450.
Formula: 2𝝁𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒓 = 𝒏𝝀 & Snell’s law [Ans. 9.45µm]

5. A drop of liquid of volume 0.2 cc is dropped on a surface of a tank of water of area 1 sq.
meter. The film spreads uniformly over the whole surface and white light which is incident
normally, is observed through a spectrometer. The spectrum is seen to contain one dark
band whose centre has wavelength 5.5 x 10-5 cm in air. Find the refractive index of oil.
Formula: 2𝝁𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒓 = 𝒏𝝀, find t using area and volume [Ans. µ =1.375]

6. Fringes of equal thickness are observed in a thin glass of refractive index 1.52. The fringe
spacing is 0.1 mm, wavelength of light being used is 5893 Å. Calculate the wedge angle.
𝝀
Formula: 𝜷 = [Ans.: wedge angle θ = 0.001938 Radians = 0.1109 degree]
𝟐𝝁𝜽

7. Light beam of wavelength 6000 Å falls normally on a thin wedge shaped film of
refractive index 1.4, forming fringes that are 2 mm apart. Find the angle of the wedge.
Formula: λ = 2 θ µβ [Ans: θ = 1.07 x 10-4 radian]
8. In Newton’s ring arrangement, if a drop of water having refractive index 1.33 is placed
between the lens and the plate, the diameter of the 10th ring is found to be 6 x 10-3m.
Obtain the radius of curvature of the face of lens in contact with the plate. The wavelength
of light used is 600 nm.
𝟒𝒏𝝀𝑹
Formula: 𝑫𝟐𝒏 = [Ans.: R = 2m]
𝝁

9. Newton’s rings are formed by light reflected normally from convex lens of radius of
curvature of 90 cm and a glass plate with liquid in between them. The diameter of nth dark
ring is 2.25 mm and that of (n + 9)th dark ring is 4.5 mm. Calculate the refractive index of
the liquid. Given λ = 6000 Å.

𝑫𝟐𝒏+𝒎 −𝑫𝟐𝒏
Formula: 𝑹 = [Ans: Refractive index of liquid µ = 0.781]
𝟒𝒎𝝀𝑹

10. A Newton’s ring arrangement is used with a source emitting two wavelengths 𝜆1 = 6 x
10-5 cm and 4.5 x 10-5 cm and it is found that the nth dark ring due to 𝜆1 coincides with
(n + 1)th dark ring for 𝜆2. If the radius of curvature of the curved surface is 90 cm, find
the diameter of nth dark ring.
Formula: Dn2 = 4nR 𝜆 [Ans. 0.254 cm]

11. A glass microscope lens (µ=1.5) is coated with magnesium fluoride (µf = 1.38) film to
increase the transmission of normally incident light λ = 5800 Å. What minimum film
thickness should be deposited on the lens?

𝝀
Formula: 𝒕𝒎𝒊𝒏 = [Ans: tmin = 1051 Å]
𝟒𝝁𝒇

12. Can a thin film of water (µf = 1.33) formed on glass window pane (µg = 1.52) act as a non-
reflecting film? If so, how thick should be the water film?

Formula: 𝝁𝒇 = √𝝁
𝝀
𝒕𝒎𝒊𝒏 = [Ans: tmin = 1034Å]
𝟒𝝁𝒇