EDUC 4 (MAAM TACAISAN)

CHAPTER 1
 LEARNING - defined as any change in the behavior of the learner
- any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience”
“it is not learning if the change is brought about maturation”

 BURN ( 1995 ) - learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior ( including

both observable activity and internal processes)
 SANTROCK ( 2012, p. 217) - learning is a relatively permanent influence on
behavior, knowledge, and thinking skills through experience
DEFINITION OF LEARNING COVERS THE FOLLOWING :
A. It is a long term change
B. Change is brought about by experience
C. It does not include changes that are physiological
D. Involves mental representation or association
 WOOLFOLK ( 2016) - learning occurs when (including practice) experience causes a
relatively permanent change in an individual’s knowledge, behavior, or potential for
behavior.
 ORMOND (2015) - learning is a long-term change in mental representations or
associations as a result of experience

TYPES OF LEARNING
 MOTOR LEARNING - for one to maintain and go through daily life activities
(activities involve motor coordination)
 VERBAL LEARNING - the use of spoken language as well as the communication
device
 CONCEPT LEARNING - requires used of higher-order mental processes
 DISCRIMINATION LEARNING - differentiate stimuli and responding appropriately
 LEARNING PRINCIPLES - related to science, mathematics, grammar/show
relationship between concepts
 PROBLEM SOLVING - higher-order thinking process / requires of cognitive abilities
 ATTITUDE LEARNING - predisposition which determines and predicts behavior

 LEARNING THEORY - an organized set of principles explains how individual acquire,

retain, and recall knowledge
 LEARNER - CENTERED - the perspective that focuses on individual learners

LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

 COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS
1. NATURE OF THE LEARNING PROCESS
2. GOALS OF THE LEARNING PROCESS
3. CONSTRUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE
4. STRATEGIC THINKING
5. THINKING ABOUT THINKING
6. CONTEXT OF LEARNING
 MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS
7. MOTIVATIONAL AND EMOTIONAL INFLUENCES IN L;EARNING
8. INTRINSIC MOTIVATION TO LEARN
9. EFFECTS OF MOTIVATION ON EFFORT
 DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS
10. DEVELOPMENTAL INFLUENCES ON LEARNING
11. SOCIAL INFLUENCES ON LEARNING
 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTORS
12. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING
13. LEARNING AND DIVERSITY
14. STANDARDS AND ASSESSMENT
SANTROCK (2011) identifies some learner-centered instructional strategies
1. PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING - strategy emphasizes real-life problem-solving
2. ESSENTIAL LEARNING - caused the students to think, and provoke their curiosity
3. DISCOVERY LEARNING - where students explore and figure out things for themselves

THEORIES OF LEARNING
 BEHAVIORISM - a worldview that assumes the learner is essentially passive,
responding to environment stimuli ( emerged through the research of IVAN PAVLOV
& EDWARD THORNDIKE)
APPLICATION: drill/rote work, giving bonus points, giving of rewards, giving feedback,
repetitive practice

 COGNITIVISM/ COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM - human mind is seen as a “black

box” and it is necessary to open for better understanding (learners are active
learners)
APPLICATION : linking concepts, discussions, problem-solving, analogies,
imagery/providing pictures

 SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM - learning is an active constructive progress (interaction

with the environment)
APPLICATION : case studies, research projects, problem-solving, brainstorming, discovery
learning

BASIC THEORIES
1. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY - was espoused by Albert Bandura ( suggests that people
learn within social context and that learning is facilitated through concepts)
2. SOCIO- CONSTRUCTIVISM - emphasized the significant role of context particularly
social interaction in learning
3. EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING - builds on social and constructivist theories of learning but
situate experience at the core of learning process (CARL ROGERS)
4. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE - HOWARD GARDNER ( learning is a universal process that
individuals experience according to same principles
5. SITUATED LEARNING THEORY AND COMMUNITY OF PRACTICE - (developed by JEAN
LAVE AND ETTIENE WENGER) recognizes that there is no learning that is not situated
6. 21ST CENTURY LEARNING SKILLS - emerged about transforming goals and daily
practice to meet demands of 21st century as knowledge and technology driven
CHAPTER 2

 YOUNG LEARNERS/ CHILD LEARNING

- they can learn through talking about themselves, families, and their lives
- they are curious to learn and discover new concepts on their own
- their attention span is very short, they need engaging and entertaining activities
- they naturally need to touch, see, hear, and interact to learn
- they like to use their imagination and discover things
- they like to cooperate and work in groups
- they need support and encouragement while learning
- they need to be guided
 ADOLESCENT LEARNING
- they are in search for personal identity
- they are In need of activities that meet their needs and learning expectations
- they become disruptive when they lost interest of the lesson
- they need help and support from teacher and to be prouded with constructive
feedback
- they can draw upon a variety of resources in the learning environment including
personal experience, the local community, and the internet
- they need teacher to build bridges between the syllabus and their world of interests
and experiences
- they can learn abstract issues and do challenging activities
- their personal initiative and energy are moved into action

MALCOLM KNOWLES - theorist on adult learning who popularized the concept of

ANDRAGOGY
 ANDRAGOGY - the art and science of helping adult learn
 PEDAGOGY - the art and science of teaching learning

 ADULT LEARNERS CHARACTERISTICS ACCORDING TO MALCOLM

- SELF CONCEPT
- ADULT LEARNER EXPERIENCE
- READINESS TO LEARN
- ORIENTATION TO LEARNING
- MOTIVATION TO LEARN
CHAPTER 3

CATEGORIES OF KNOWLEDGE :
 DECLARATIVE KNOWLEDGE
 PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE
 FUNCTIONAL KNOWLEDGE

 DECLARATIVE KNOWLEDGE
- information acquired that one can speak about
- associated with task that require greater amount of attention

THREE SUBTYPES :
1. LABELS AND NAMES
2. FACTS AND LISTS
3. ORGANIZATIONAL DISCOURSE

 PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE
- refers to what one can do and what one is able to do
- knowledge that a person knows to do by doing it

 FUNCTIONAL KNOWLEDGE
- any piece of stored information that can be adopted and applied to different
circumstances, or are transferable to different things

OTHER WAYS OF CLASSIFYING KNIOWLEDGE

 EPISODIC KNOWLEDGE - refers to biological memory reflecting not only what
happened but also where and when it happened
 SEMANTIC KNOWLEDGE - deals with memories and information but not tied to
personal biographies, organized knowledge about facts, concepts, generalization,
and associations

THREE SUBTYPES OF SEMANTIC

1. DECLARATIVE - truth that deals with what we know about the world (what)
2. PROCEDURAL - knowledge about how things done (how)
3. CONDITIONAL - (when)

DIMENSION OF KNOWLEDGE :
 CONCEPTUAL KNOWLEDGE - knowledge of classification, principles, generalizations,
theories, models, situations, pertinent to a particular discipline
 METACOGNKTIVE KNOWLEDGE - awareness of one’s own cognition and particular
cognitive process
 FACTUAL KNOWLEDGE - basic to specific disciplines like science or math
CHAPTER 4
DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIO-CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING
 SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM - refers to the emphasis on the social contexts of
learning and the idea that knowledge is mutually built and constructed.
 CONTEXT - the surrounding circumstances or conditions or the environment upon
which learning occurs
 COMMUNITY OF PRACTICE - group of people who share common interests or goals
and regularly interact and coordinate their efforts
 AUTHENTICITY - closeness or resemblance to real-life situations and real world task
and problems
 SCAFFOLDING - the help and support provided by an expert to a person or a
student while in process of learning
 CULTURE - characteristics of an individual or society of some subgroup within a
society
THE SOCIO-CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW OF LEARNING
 LEV VYGOTSKY
- social constructivism is based on the idea that learners construct new knowledge

KEY IDEAS AND CONCEPTS IN VYGOTSKY’S THEORY :

1. Some cognitive processes are seen in variety of species, but some are unique to
human beings.
2. Through both informal conversation and formal schooling, adults convey to children
the ways in which the culture interprets and responds to the world.
3. Every culture not only teaches its members how to interpret their experiences but
also passes along the physical and cognitive tools
4. Thought and language become increasingly interdependent the first few years of life
5. Complex mental processes emerge out of social activities
6. Children appropriate their culture’s tools in their own idiosyncratic manner
7. Children can accomplish more difficult task if they are assisted by people more
advanced and competent than they are
8. Challenging task promote maximum cognitive growth {ZONE OF PROXIMAL
DEVELOPMENT (ZPD) - identifies the range of tasks that children cannot yet perform
independently but can perform to the maximum, if there is help, support and guidance}
9. Play allows children to cognitively “stretch” themselves

 PARTICIPATION - gradual entry into adult activities

 APPRENTICESHIP - a guided participation where a novice works with an expert
mentor for a certain period to learn how to perform complex tasks in a particular
domain
KINDS OF APPRECENTICESHIPS:
 MODELING - mentor performs the task at the same time thinking aloud or talking
about the process while the learners listen
 COACHING - mentor frequently gives suggestions, hints and feedback as learner
performs the task
 SCAFFOLDING - mentor provides different forms of support for the learner
 ARTICULATION - learner explain what he is doing and why, allowing the mentor to
examine or analyze the learners knowledge
 REFLECTION - mentor ask the learner to compare his performance with that of
experts
 INCREASING COMPLEXITY AND DIVERSITY OF TASKS - mentor presents more
complex and challenging and varied tasks
 EXPLORATION - mentor encourages the learner to frame questions and problems
on his own
 ACQUISITION OF TEACHING SKILLS - children acquire and gain new and first-hand
information and skills from experienced members of the community
 DYNAMIC ASSESSMENT - requires first the identification of tasks that children
cannot do independently, the provide in-depth instruction, and practice in
developing cognitive behaviors
THERE ARE CERTAIN TEACHING METHODOLOGIES, APPROACHES, AND TECHNIQUES

 PEER TUTORING - involves allowing students to act as tutors and tutee

 COOPERATIVE LEARNING - giving opportunity for students to work in small groups
and help each other to learn
 GROUP DISCUSSION - task may be assigned to a group, and the group can develop
its own structure on how to solve the problem

SITUATED LEARNING THEORY - exemplifies the view that learning is a product of cultural
context where one lives or exist
SITUATED LEARNING - deriving and creating meaning from real activities of daily living

 JEAN LAVE - a sociologist- anthropologist and learning theory (one of the notable
proponents of situated learning theory)
HIGHLIGHTS OR THE MAIN IDEAS OF THE SITUATED LEARNING THEORY :
A. Knowledge is socially- constructed
B. Knowledge evolves naturally as a result of individuals participating in and negotiating
their way through new situations
C. Knowing, learning, and cognition are socially- constructed
D. Construction of meaning is tied to specific contexts and purposes
E. Learning is fundamentally social and inseparable from the practice
F. Learning is situated within authentic activity, context, and culture
G. Situated cognition is a way of naming the kind of learning
H. Learning is a part about increased participation
I. Cultural models are not held by individuals but live in the practices of a community
J. Designing learning experiences from situated learning perspectives starts with some
assumptions
K. Knowledge undergoes construction and transformation through continues use

COLLINS & DUGUID (1989) further rationalize the importance of authentic in situated
learning:
1. Knowledge is a product of making and creating meanings, and cannot be separated
from its context
2. Learning is a continuous life long process
3. The tools of learning and their usage reflect the particular accumulated insights of
communities of practice
4. Learning is a process of enculturation
CHAPTER 5
SOCIAL INTERACTIONS, INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS, AND COMMUNICATION IN THE
LEARNING PROCESS

 SOCIAL INTERACTION
- an exchange between two or more individuals by interacting with one another
- dynamic changing sequence of social actions between individuals or groups
- provide the foundation or bases for social cultures and structures
- refer to how people act, and how they react to people around them

ERVIN GOFFMAN (a sociologist)

Identifies FIVE (5) TYPES OF SOCIAL INTERACTIONS :
1. EXCHANGE - the most basic type of social interaction (for some type of reward or
equal social behavior is exchange or greater value)
2. COMPETITION - a social process by which two or more people attempt to attain a
goal, which only one can
3. COOPERATION - a process by which people work together to attain a common goal
4. CONFLICT - happens when there is disagreement or dissent on certain points among
group members
5. COERCION - the process of persuading someone to do something or to cooperate,
using force, threat, or intimidation

 INTERPERSONAL RELATION
- something to do with close, deep or strong association or acquaintance between two
or more people that may range in duration from brief to enduring ; a bond or close
association that exists between two or more people who may share common interest or
goal

TYPES OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS:

1. FRIENDSHIP - an unconditional interpersonal relationship which individuals enter into
by their own choice and will.
2. LOVE - a relationship characterized by love, intimacy, trust and respect between
individuals and might end up in marriage
3. PLATONIC RELATIONSHIP - relationship between individuals but without feelings of
desire for each other.
4. FAMILY RELATIONSHIP - refers to relationship of individuals related to each other by
blood or marriage
5. WORK RELATIONSHIP - relationship of individuals who work for the same
organization

 COMMUNICATION
- refers to the exchange in meanings between individuals through a common system of
symbols, signs, and behavior
- a two way process of reaching understanding in which participants not only exchange
information, news, ideas or feelings but also create and share meaning
- means to connect people and places

THE COMMON ELEMENTS IN SOCIAL INTERACTION, INTERPERSONAL RELATION, AND

COMMUNICATION have to do with the concepts of: “exchange”, “relationship”, and
“bond”
CHAPTER 6

 MAN BY NATURE - social being, his nature has been studied and used as bases to
explain many of his behaviors
 PROOF OF VERACITY OF THEORIES - can be obtained with the conduct of
researchers and studies
 RESEARCH - a systematic and orderly way of studying and looking for new
information meant to add and build up existing knowledge

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH FINDINGS ON DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIO- CULTURAL

DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING:
- to gather more data on the developmental and socio-cultural dimensions of learning
- enable practitioners to analyze and evaluate for themselves what is the best practices
to apply in their teaching tasks

FINDINGS # 1 (PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT)

PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT - a general term, that describes parents participation or

parents engagement on their child’s study
 SCHNEIDER AND COLEMAN
“PARENTS WITH HIGHER EDUCATION ARE MORE LIKELY TO TGHINK AND BELIEVE THAT
PARENTS WITH LOWER EDUCATION”
 COTTON AND WIKELUND
“PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT AND ENGAGEMENT AS POSITIVELY RELATED TO STUDENTS
ACHIEVEMENT”
 PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN EDUCATION
“THE MORE INTENSIVELY PARENTS ARE INVOLVED IN THEIR CHILDRENS LEARNING THE
MORE BENEFICIAL ARE THE ACHIEVEMENT EFFECT”
 VINOGRAD-BAUSSELL & BAUSSELL (1987)
“THE STUDENTS TAUGHT BY PARENTS AT HOME SIGNIFICANTLY PERFORM BETTER IN
WORD-RECOGNITION”

WORD RECOGNITION - refers to the ability to identify and understand words quickly
and accurately

FINDINGS # 2 (PARENTING STYLE AND CHILD REARING)

 WIGFIELD ET. AL
FOUND THE FOLLOWING PARENTING SERVICE TO RESULT IN IMPROVED MOTIVATION
AND ACHIEVEMENT

PARENTING SERVICE :
1. KNOWING ENOUGH ABOUT THE CHILD TO PROVIDE THE RIGHT AMOUNT OF
CHALLENEGE AND THE RIGHT AMOUNT OF SUPPORT
2. PROVIDING A POSITIVE EMOTIONAL CLIMATE WHICH MOTIVATES CHILDREN TO
INTERNALIZE THEIR PARENTS VALUES AND GOALS
3. MODELING MOTIVATED ACHIEVEMENT BEHAVIOR - WORKINHG HARD AND
PERSISTING WITH EFFORT AT CHALLENGING TASKS

 DIANA BAUMRIND
- PARENTING STYLES IS ALSO RELATED TO ACHIEVEMENT AND CERTAIN SOCIAL
BEHAVIOR

FOUR PARENTING STYLES AND THE OUTCOMES OF EACH OF THESE STYLES

1. AUTHORITATIVE STYLES
- tend to have children who are high achievers and who interact with peer using
competent social skills , while authoritative parents set rules and boundaries
2. CHILDREN OF AUTHORITARIAN PARENTS
- perform worse academically, less independent and generally unhappy
3. CHILDREN OF INDULGENT PARENTS
- encounter more problems in relationships and interaction
4. CHILDREN OF UNINVOLVED OR NEGLECTFUL PARENTS
- tend to be more impulsive and cannot regulate their emotions

- the result showed that AUTHORITATIVE PARENTING STYLE, is the best.

- similar results obtained in the study of MUNYI (2013) and KINGSLEY NYARKO , THEY
FOUND OUT THAT CHILDREN WITH AUTHORIATIVE PARENTS PERFORM WELL
ACADEMICALLY OPPOSITE FOUND IN ADOLSCENTS RAISED BY PARENTS EITHER
INDULGENT OR UNINVOLVED.

FINDING # 3 (PROVISION FOR SPECIFIC EXPERIENCE AT HOME

 WIGFIELD AND ASHER, 1984

- THE KIND OF EXPERIENCES AND RESOURCES, MADE AVAILABLE TO THE CHILDREN BY
THEIR PARENTS AT HOME ARE ALSO FOUND TO INFLUENCE STUDENTS INTEREST AND
MOTIVATION TO PURSUE VARIOUS ACTIVITIES

 ENTWISLE & ALEXANDER , 1993

- IT WAS FOUND THAT WORK HABIT AND SKILLS OF CHILDREN WHEN THEY ENTER
KINDERGARTEN BEST PREDICT ACADEMIC MOTIVATION AND PERFORMACE IN SCHOOL

 SANTROCK, 2011
- PARENTS EMPHASIZE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OR SPORTS AND PROVIDE
OPPORTUNITIES AND RESOURCES FOR THEIR CHILDREN PARTICIPATE IN ACTIVITIES

 MARIAH EVANS AND ASSOCIATES

- THEY FOUND THAT HAVING BOOKS AT HOME IS TWICE AS IMPORTANT PARENTAL
EDUCATION IN DETERMINING CHILDRENS ACADEMIC AND EDUCATIONAL LEVEL

FINDINGS # 4 (PEER INFLUENCE)

 DODGE, 2010; CROESNO ET. AL. 2008

- HAVING DISRUPTIVE FRIENDS WAS LINKED TO LOWER LIKELIHOOD OF GRADUATION
- HAVING FRIENDS WHO ARE ACADEMICALLY ORIENTED IS LINKED TO HIGHER
ACHIEVEMENT

 KIRK JOHNSON
- PEER EFFECT IS PARTICULARLY A STRONG EFFECT ON ACHIEVEMENT ESPECIALLY ON
FOURT GRADERS
- PEER EFFECT IS INDEPENDENT OF OTHER VARIABLES LIKE ETHNICITY, GENEDER,
INCOME
- FAMILY BACKGROUND FACTORS ALSO PLAY A BIG HAND IN EXPLAINING ACHIEVEMENT

 LIU (2010)
- SHE FOUND THAT PEER INFLUENCE AND ACADEMIC OUTCOMES IN READING AND
MATHEMATICS WERE STRONGLY RELATED
FINDINGS # 5 (TEACHERS)

 PERRY, DONAHUE, AND WEINSTEIN

- FOUND THAT INSTRUCTIONAL AND SOCIO-EMOTIONAL SUPPORT WERE LINKED TO
ACHIEBVEMENT
- STUDENTS VIEWS ON THE QUALITIES OF GOOD RELATIONSHIPS WITH THE TEACHERS

 WENTZEL 1997
- STUDENTS, CONSIDERED TEACHERS INSTRUCTIONAL BEHAVIORS IN EVALUATING HOW
MUCH THEIR TEACHERS CARED FOR THEM

 MUNTNER 2008
- IDENTIFIED TEN IMPORTANT FACTORS THAT SHOULD BE CONSIDEREDIN CLASSROOM
TO IMPROVED TEACHERS-STUDENTS INTERACTION: PARENTING STYLES, CHILD-
REARING PRACTICES, PROVISIONS OF MATERIALS AT HOME , PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT IN SCHOOL, PEERS
- THE TEN WAS CLASSIFIED INTO THREE : EMOTKIONAL SUPPORT, CLASSROOM
ORGANIZATION, INSTRUCTIONAL SUPPORT

CHAPTER 7

 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF SOCIO-CULTURAL AND OTHER CONTEXTUAL

THEORIES
- OMROD 2015 (listed down some educational implications of VGOTSKY’S THEORY and
other contextual perspective
A. Learners can think more effectively when they acquire the basic cognitive tools of
various activities and academic disciplines
B. Children learn and remember more when they talk about their experience
C. Children should have opportunities to engage in activities that closely resemble those
that they will later encounter in the adult world
D. Children often acquire better strategies when they collaborate or work with adults on
complete tasks
E. Challenging task, especially when sufficiently scaffolded tend to hasten cognitive
development
F. Technology based software and application can effectively scaffold many challenging
tasks
G. Children abilities should be assessed under a variety of work conditions
H. Group learning activities can help children internalize cognitive strategies

PEER INTERACTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES

1. CLASS DISCUSSION
-The members usually engage in discussions
2. RECIPROCAL TEACHING
- this involves teacher and students taking turns to lead the discussions and asking
questions
3. COOPERATIVE LEARNING
- cooperative learning is not just about grouping, learning to be successful, some
structure must be in place such that cooperation is not just helpful, but necessary for
academic success.
4. PEER TUTORING
- students who have mastered the topic and know it by heart teaches those who haven’t
5. COMMUNITIES OF LEARNERS
- For peer interactive methods, a sense of community is needed, this means teachers
and students have shared goals, respect and support of one’s effort, and that each one
makes an important contribution to classroom learning