Ethnoveterinary utilization of

medicinal plants in Ghamot

National Park Western Himalayas of
Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan
Muhammad Jahangeer, Muhammad Siddique Awan,
Muhammad Shakeel Awan, Riaz Aziz Minhas, Mir Muhammad
Saleem, Usman Ali and Abid Sudhzoi
Correspondence

Muhammad Jahangeer*1, Muhammad Siddique Awan*1,Muhammad Shakeel Awan2, Riaz Aziz Minhas1, Mir Muhammad
Saleem1, Usman Ali3 and Abid Sudhzoi1

1Department of Zoology, University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir Muzaffarabad, 13100 Azad Kashmir, Pakistan
2Department of Botany, University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir Muzaffarabad, 13100 Azad Kashmir Pakistan
3Department of Zoology, Mirpur University of Science and Technology Mirpur Azad Kashmir, Pakistan

*Corresponding Authors: [email protected] : [email protected]

Ethnobotany Research and Applications 28:24 (2024) - http://dx.doi.org/10.32859/era.28.24.1-17

Manuscript received: 30/09/2023 – Revised manuscript received: 28/01/2024 - Published: 29/01/2024

Research

Abstract
Background: The local communities in Pakistan possess extensive traditional knowledge about indigenous medicinal plants,
which has been passed down through generations for centuries. However, this invaluable ethnic knowledge is currently
facing a threat to its preservation. In Pakistan, research on medicinal plants predominantly centers on documenting the local
flora and its applications. The indigenous population, with ancestral wisdom, holds traditional insights into the uses of
regional plants. Ethno-veterinary medicine encompasses the collective beliefs, expertise, techniques, and customs within
communities concerning animal welfare, particularly prominent in rural settings where it serves as a primary approach to
livestock treatment. This study aims to address the existing knowledge gap by documenting ethno-veterinary knowledge
from this untapped area. The specific objectives are focused on recording the essential ethno-veterinary applications of local
plant species by mountain populations in treating livestock ailments and disorders.

Methods: Data regarding the use of ethno-medicinal plants for treating livestock ailments were gathered through a semi-
structured questionnaire, one-on-one interviews, and group discussions. From 2022 to 2023, we interviewed 124 individuals
about 28 plant species, with the majority of ethno-veterinary data coming from respondents in the 40–69 age groups. The
frequency of citation was determined to assess how often a specific plant species was mentioned for treating veterinary
diseases. Additionally, the Use Value (UV) for each species was computed using UV = FC/N.

Results: The research identified 28 medicinal plants from 22 different plant families used for treating 23 distinct livestock
ailments. These plants comprised 21 herbs (75% of the total), 5 shrubs (17.85%), and 2 trees (7.14%). The dominant plant
family was Asteraceae (3sp.). Roots (46%) were the primary plant part used in medicines, and paste (19 sp.) was the most
common herbal formulation method. Most medicinal plants (8) were employed to cure digestive system diseases such as
dysentery and indigestion. A comparison of the collected medicinal plants and related indigenous medicinal knowledge was
made with previously published work on surrounding areas.
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 2

Conclusion: This study assumes a vital role in preserving indigenous plant-based knowledge from potential oblivion and
introduces new ethno-veterinary applications in the region. Further investigations involving phytochemical and
pharmacological assessments are necessary to isolate active compounds and evaluate plant efficacy against specific
veterinary diseases, both in vitro and in vivo. Comprehensive toxicological studies are also imperative to ensure the safe and
secure utilization of documented ethno-medicines.

Keywords: Ethno-veterinary, Medicinal plants, Western Himalayas, Ghamot National Park

Background
In Pakistan, a substantial majority (60.78%) of the population resides in rural areas, grappling with challenges such as poverty,
illiteracy, limited healthcare awareness, and restricted access to quality services (Popovic et al. 2016). The healthcare system,
divided into public and private sectors, contends with issues like underutilization, political interference, shortages in human
resources, and insufficient facilities (Gwalwanshi et al. 2014, Popovic et al. 2016). The private sector, comprising recognized
and unrecognized healthcare entities, is often preferred by the local population due to its accessibility, affordability, and
societal influence, especially for conditions like depression, epilepsy, infertility, and psychosomatic troubles (Jan et al. 2019).

Medicinal plant research in Pakistan primarily concentrates on documenting ethnic values, capitalizing on the extensive
traditional knowledge passed down through generations (Popovic et al. 2016). Nevertheless, this knowledge is under the
threat of diminishing interest among younger generations (Popovic et al. 2016). The Western Himalayan Mountains of the
Kashmir region, characterized by rich biodiversity, host a mosaic of diverse niches and habitats (Alam et al. 2011, Hamayun
et al. 2006). The agro-pastoral semi-nomadic lifestyle of rural mountain communities in Kashmir, relying on livestock rearing
and subsistence agriculture, further underscores the importance of indigenous knowledge (Sher & Hussain 2011).

This invaluable indigenous knowledge, pivotal for ethno-veterinary practices, faces the risk of erosion amidst rapid
socioeconomic changes, environmental shifts, and technological advancements (Jan et al. 2020). While existing research
extensively covers ethno-medicinal applications for human health (Alam et al. 2011, Ahmed et al. 2015, Forman & Birdson
2013), a substantial knowledge gap persists concerning ethno-veterinary applications of local herbs in the Kashmir region
(Bhatia et al. 2014, Shah et al. 2016).

Despite limited studies on indigenous ethno-veterinary practices in various parts of Pakistan (Farooq et al. 2019, Mangestu
et al. 2008, Shah et al. 2016), the western Himalayan mountain region of Kashmir has remained largely unexplored due to
its remoteness, harsh climatic conditions, and rugged terrain. The present study aims to address this knowledge gap by
documenting ethno-veterinary knowledge from this unexplored area, with specific objectives focused on recording the
essential ethno-veterinary applications of local plant species used by the mountain populations in treating livestock ailments
and disorders. This study will help familiarize the local and surrounding communities with the novel medicinal uses of already
known medicinal plants as well as newly reported medicinal plants.

Materials and Methods

Study area
Ghamot National Park (GNP) is situated in the upper Neelum valley, a part of the inner Himalayas, positioned 170 km north
of Muzaffarabad, the capital of Azad Jammu and Kashmir. The designated area encompasses the Sharda Range, specifically
Sharda Forest Division's Surgan block compartments numbered 16 and 17, covering a total expanse of 27,271 hectares
(67,388 acres). Originally declared as a Game Reserve on July 28, 1982, under the AJK Wildlife Act 1975, this region was
subsequently upgraded to a National Park (GNP) through a government notification (no SJ-F-O-02(14)/08-1212/2004) dated
April 15, 2004. The primary objective of this designation is to ensure sustainable conservation and management of the area's
natural resources, with active participation from local communities. The study area is positioned between latitude 35° 24 N
and longitude 73° 57 E, spanning an elevation from 2439 to 4949 meters above sea level. GNP is located on the periphery of
Surgan Nullah, approximately 25 km away from Sharda. To its west lies the Kaghan Valley in NWFP, while to the east is Indian-
occupied Jammu & Kashmir. The National Park encompasses two forest compartments, namely 16 and 17, falling within the
Sharda Forest Range (Baig 2012, GoAJ&K 2018, Jahangeer et al. 2023, Khan et al. 2010, Qamar et al. 2005, Qamar et al. 2008)
(Figure 1).
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 3

Figure 1. Location map of study area

Topography
The research area encompasses mountainous terrain characterized by sheer and irregular topography, fragile geology, and
a climate marked by snowfall and rainfall. It is nestled within deep valleys and high ridges, featuring slopes that are
exceptionally steep, reaching up to 100% incline at numerous sites and extending for hundreds of meters. The region
experiences common occurrences of landslides and glacier slides due to loose rocks, steep slopes, inadequate land use
practices, diminished vegetation, and substantial rainfall. Dotted throughout the area are 25 freshwater springs, and it is
traversed by four perennial streams, Hula Bhaik, Sora, Kali Jander, and Saralfed by cold and clear water originating from the
melting snow on mountain peaks. These streams converge to form Surgan Nullah, and upon reaching the union council
Sharda, it joins the Neelum River (Jahangeer et al. 2023, Qamar et al. 2005) (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Land Topographical map of study area

Climate
The Neelum Valley region is situated within the climatic zone of sub-tropical highlands. While the climate in the area
fluctuates with altitude, the forested regions generally encompass moist temperate forests, dry temperate forests, sub-
alpine scrub, and alpine pastures. Winters are characterized by extremely cold temperatures and heavy snowfall; with high
peaks retaining their snow cover until June or even longer, including glaciers. Summers bring a pleasant and cool climate.
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 4

Despite some rainfall during the summer, the majority of precipitation occurs in the form of snowfall during the winter
season. Meteorological data for the Neelum Valley is not available from the Pakistan Meteorological Department. Instead,
data from the nearby Muzaffarabad district is utilized as a representative, recognizing that Muzaffarabad is at significantly
lower elevations than the lowest point in the study area. The recorded average rainfall in Muzaffarabad from 2017-2019 is
1529.86 mm. Monthly daytime temperatures in Muzaffarabad vary from 9°C in January to 29°C in June and July, while the
yearly daytime temperature fluctuates between 18°C and 24°C (Jahangeer et al. 2023, Qamar et al. 2005, Qamar et al. 2008).
Indicator Flora
In previous studies (Jahangeer et al. 2023, Ishtiaq et al. 2013, Qamar et al. 2010) conducted in the Neelum Valley, findings
indicated the presence of seven gymnosperm species, 404 angiosperm species, 46 grass species, 33 fern species, and 14
fungi species. The forest working plan for the Sharda forest range offers a comprehensive description of the various forest
types within the study area. Noteworthy wildlife species identified include Cedrus deodara, Pinus willichiana, Abies pindrow,
Picea smithiana, Aesculus indica, Vibernum nervosum, Sassurea lappa, and Pyrus pashia (Ahmad et al. 2017, Qamar et al.
2005) (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Land cover and land use map of study area

Indicator Wildlife Species

The study area is strategically located at the convergence of three renowned mountain systems, namely the Hindu Kush,
Karakorum, and Himalaya. Serving as a natural boundary for environmental zones within these mountainous regions, this
distinctive arrangement contributes to a rich floral and faunal biodiversity. In addition to hosting numerous economically
significant plant and animal species, the study area serves as a habitat for rare and globally valuable wildlife. A prior study
(Qamar et al. 2005) reported the presence of 12 mammals, 35 bird species, including notable wildlife species such as the
Snow leopard (Uncia uncia), Common leopard (Panthera pardus), Himalayan ibex (Capra ibex), Musk deer (Moschus
chrysogaster), Black Bear (Ursus thibetanus), Brown Bear (Ursus arctos), Monal pheasant (Lophophorus impejanus), and
Himalayan Griffon Vulture (Gyps himalayensis) (Abbas et al. 2014, Ali et al. 2018, Jahangeer et al. 2023, Khan et al. 2010,
Khan et al. 2012, Nawaz 2007).

Socio-economic situation
Seven settlements, comprising a total population of approximately 61, 31, and 734 households with an average household
size of 8.13, rely on the natural resources within the study area, as reported in the District Census Report of 2017. The male-
to-female ratio stands at 49:51, and the entire population is uniformly Muslim, with an overall literacy rate of 17 percent.
Ethnic diversity characterizes the community, including groups such as Butt, Loan, Sayyed, Mir, Khawaja, Mughal, Minhas,
Chaudhry, Swati, Raja, and Kayani (DCR 2017). The challenging environmental conditions prompt dependent settlements to
gravitate towards forested areas, ensuring easy access to grazing lands and forest resources. The local economy hinges on
livestock rearing and agriculture, with livestock serving household needs for milk, meat, and wool. Surplus animals and their
products are sold for income generation. Cultural and linguistic diversity prevails, with Hindko, Kashmiri, Gojri, Shina, and
Pashtu being commonly spoken languages (Jahangeer et al. 2023).
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 5

The area grapples with low-standard and limited healthcare facilities, as seven out of eight settlements lack basic health
services. Surgan village hosts the sole Basic Health Unit (BHU), and the absence of first aid facilities becomes critical,
particularly during winter when heavy snowfall blocks roads. Residents often travel to Sharda, Kel, Athmuqum, or
Muzaffarabad for serious health issues, presenting life-threatening challenges due to inadequate healthcare (Jahangeer et
al. 2023, Khan et al. 2022).

Limited livelihood opportunities exist in Neelum Valley, especially for pastoralists in the mountainous region of Azad Jammu
& Kashmir (AJ&K) and farmers in highly fertile lands. Livestock rearing, a centuries-old tradition plays a vital role in providing
farmyard manure, rural transport, and a source of milk and meat. Livestock also contributes to local entertainment through
sports like polo and holds a significant position in the rural economy, offering income and employment to smallholder
farmers and individuals in impoverished communities (Jahangeer et al. 2019). The use of easily accessible ethno-veterinary
medicinal plants proves cost-effective for treating various diseases. Due to the inadequacies of modern veterinary health
systems, residents often resort to traditional ethno-veterinary practices, and economic constraints limit access to allopathic
drugs, resulting in diminished livestock production and financial losses. The promotion of ethno-veterinary medicines as
alternative treatments empowers individuals to utilize local remedies, potentially alleviating poverty by enhancing livestock
well-being (Rafique et al. 2021).

Data Collection
Ethics statement
The data collection adhered to the Code of Ethics of the International Society of Ethnobiology (2008), available at
http://ethnobiology.net/code-of-ethics/. Given that the focus of data collection was on animals, individuals closely
interacting with the animals became the primary targets. Informants in the localities where data was collected received
comprehensive briefings about the research's purpose, and verbal consent was obtained due to the prevalent illiteracy
among most informants, making written consent impractical.

For the gathering and documentation of demographic information, well-informed individuals from the relevant area were
engaged in interviews and group discussions, employing standardized questionnaires developed for this specific purpose.
Ethno-veterinary information was collected during extensive field visits in 2022–2023, utilizing pre-planned questionnaires
as standardized data collection protocols (Martin et al. 2004, Ocvirk et al. 2013). Although Institutional Review Board (IRB)
permission was not mandatory for data collection, formal verbal approval from respondents was obtained at each locality.

The methods employed in this study aimed to extract valuable information on the ethno-veterinary uses of medicinal plants
among the natives of the Kashmir Himalaya, following established procedures (Martin et al. 2004, Ocvirk et al. 2013). Field
surveys covered various localities, including Ghomat village, Kundi, Kaly Jander, Habib Bahak, and Kamakhodari. Interviews
primarily involved elderly and experienced members of tribes, locally referred to as 'Budhair' (aged), typically above the age
of forty. The surveyed population included farmers, shepherds, pastoralists, traditional healers, gardeners, shopkeepers, and
plant collectors possessing knowledge of veterinary practices. During interviews, plant specimens were presented for
authentication of information related to preparation methods, usage, and dosage of each medicinal plant species. Cross-
verification of information across different localities was conducted to enhance accuracy (Figure 4).

Plants identification Preservation and herbarium deposition

Specimens were predominantly gathered from the wild, and no specific permits or permissions were required for collection.
The majority of the collection took place on public land, which is state property, obviating the need for formal permission
from the forest department. In instances where data collection extended to private lands, verbal consent was obtained from
the landowners before initiating the collection at each site. Each specimen of medicinal plants, collected from various
localities, was assigned a unique collection number for future reference and complemented by checklists for inventory
purposes.

The collected plant specimens underwent processing at the Herbarium Department of Botany, University of Azad Jammu &
Kashmir in Muzaffarabad. Subsequently, these specimens were identified with the assistance of available literature (Aziz et
al. 2018, Dilshad et al. 2010, Nasir et al. 1970). The appropriately processed plant specimens were then deposited in the
Herbarium Department of Botany at the University of Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Muzaffarabad (Nasir et al. 1970).
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 6

Figure 4. Questionnaire, plant collection and identification survey in study area

Data analysis
To evaluate the prominence of specific plant species in treating veterinary diseases within traditional medicinal practices,
we calculated the frequency of citation (FC) to determine how often a particular plant species was referenced in comparison
to all plant mentions. The relative frequency of citation (RFC) was computed using the formula RFC = FC/N, where FC stands
for the number of informants reporting the use of a specific plant species, and N represents the total number of informants
in the study (Hoareau 1999). RFC is essentially the citations for a particular species divided by the total citations for all species
(MS Awan et al. 2023). The frequency of citation for a specific species is then expressed as (Number of citations for that
species/Number of citations for all species) x 100.

Additionally, we calculated the Use Value (UV) measure to assess the importance and significance of individual plant species
in traditional medicinal practices. The formula used for UV is UV = FC/N, where FC is the frequency of citation for a specific
species divided by the total number of informants (N) participating in the study. To determine the relative importance of
each species, the formula UVs = XUVi Ni was employed, where 'UVi' represents the use value for a given species among
participating informants, and 'Ni' represents the sum of informants (Rafique Khan 2021).

Results and Discussion

In the study area, which encompasses a total of 8 villages with a combined population of 61, 31, and 734 households
averaging 8.13 individuals per household, field visits revealed that all permanent settlements are medium-sized. The
settlements vary in size from 30 to 90 households, with Surgan Bakwali and Ghamot having larger populations ranging from
115 to 155 households. The average household size varies across villages, with Samgam Mali having the maximum of 9.68
individuals and Ghamot having the minimum of 5.95 individuals. Surgan Bakwali recorded the highest human population
(2344; 38.23%), while Kundi had the lowest (108; 1.76%). The female population (3,103; 50.61%) outweighed the male
population (3,028; 49.38%), resulting in an average female-to-male ratio of 51:49 in the study area (Jahangeer et al. 2023).

Due to the relatively smaller population (61, 31) and study area (27,271 ha), a total of 124 participants were interviewed,
including local residents, nomadic Gujjar Bakarwal, and herbalists. Among these participants, the majority (n = 80; 64.5%)
were male, and the minority (n=44; 34.48%) were female. This gender distribution reflects cultural norms that limit female
participation, with older women being the primary participants in rituals on celebration days. The categorization of
respondents into age brackets revealed that a majority (n = 96; 77.41%) belonged to the older age group (41 and above),
while a smaller number (n=28; 22.58%) were in the younger age group (25 to 40). There was a noticeable decline in traditional
knowledge among informants aged 25 to 40, potentially influenced by modern lifestyle preferences and a smaller number
of informants above 70 years of age. Moreover, a decrease in traditional knowledge was observed with a higher literacy rate,
aligning with the trend of educated individuals favoring modern healthcare over traditional systems. The decline in the
popularity of plant-based therapies for various disorders was particularly evident among the younger generation, while older
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 7

respondents, belonging to the elderly age group, retained more ancestral knowledge often passed down through oral
tradition. The Nomadic and Pastoral Gujjar Bakarwal Tribes migrate to GNP during the summer season, staying within the
park from mid-June to October. They graze their livestock on alpine pastures within the park during the summer and use
forested areas as stopover sites on their way to the park. Each Bakarwal family unit, or 'dera,' typically consists of 2-3 brothers
or cousins, along with their wives and children. According to discussions held with Bakarwal tribes in August 2022, each dera
may have an average herd size ranging from 50-250 animals, primarily sheep and goats. Additionally, deras own horses,
donkeys, and shepherding dogs. During field visits and community discussions, the nomadic Gujjar tribes shared substantial
knowledge of ethno-veterinary medicine in the study area. This knowledge among the nomads may be linked to their
lifestyle, including seasonal migrations to the study area, remoteness, and the limited availability of resources in high
mountain regions such as allopathic medicine (Jahangeer et al. 2023) (Table 1).

Table 1. Demographic data of the individuals who took part in interviews within Ghamot National Park
Indicator Respondent
Gender Number Percentage
Male 80 64.5
Female 44 35.48
Age in years
20-35 28 22.58
36-51 43 34.67
Above 55 53 42.74
Profession
Farmer 63 50.80
Herbalist 4 3.22
Nomads 53 42.74
Educationist 4 3.22
Education
Illiterate 44 35.48
Primary-middle (1-8) 37 29.83
Matriculation (9-10) 26 20.96
Intermediate (11-12) 11 8.87
Bachelors (13-16) 4 3.22
Higher education 2 1.61

Taxonomic distribution and growth form of medicinal plants

In our present study, we identified 28 medicinal plants belonging to 22 different plant families, utilized for treating 27 distinct
livestock ailments, as detailed in Table 2. These plants comprised 21 herbs (75% of the total), 5 shrubs (17.85%), and 2 trees
(7.14%). The prevalence of herbs in the medicinal plant inventory may be attributed to their better adaptability to the climate
and geography of the research area. Herbs, being more potent and fast-growing compared to shrubs or trees often have an
advantage. Their easy availability and diverse bioactive compounds contribute to their adaptability to various climatic
conditions. Moreover, herbs typically exhibit a higher concentration of bioactive compounds and greater medicinal efficacy
than shrubs and trees, especially in high-altitude regions characterized by a more herbaceous flora (Haq et al. 2022, Haq &
Singh 2020, Malik et al. 2019, Shah & Rahim 2017).

Examining the plant families associated with these medicinal species, Asteraceae emerged as the most prominent,
contributing 3 different species. It was followed by Alliaceae (2 species), Polygonaceae (2 species), Apiaceae (2 species), and
Berberidaceae (2 species). The remaining 17 plant families each had one species associated with them (as listed in Table 2).
The widespread distribution of these families in the study area likely contributes to their dominance. Asteraceae, being the
most prevalent family in Pakistan, holds a significant presence in the study area. Its dominance is supported by various
studies in both the study area and surrounding regions. Similarly, the prevalence of Polygonaceae, Apiaceae, and
Berberidaceae families may be attributed to suitable habitats, favorable environmental conditions for their growth, and
increased interactions of local communities with these plants. Consequently, the traditional usage of these species is well-
known among the inhabitants (Abbas et al. 2017, Bhatia et al. 2014, Farooq et al. 2019, Rafique et al. 2021).
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 8

Parts of the plant used the method of preparation, and the categories of use
The data obtained from participants revealed the utilization of various plant parts in the preparation of remedies. Notably,
roots were the most frequently used (constituting 46%), followed by leaves (17.85%), aerial parts (10.71%), seeds (10%),
resins (7.14%), and fruits (3.57%) in the context of veterinary treatments.

The dominant use of roots in herbal recipes, reported in other studies from surrounding areas (Malik et al. 2019, Rashid et
al. 2015), raises conservation concerns as it may not be sustainable for the survival of plants (Bibi et al. 2022). Leaves, the
second most frequently used plant part (17.85%), align with findings from neighboring areas (Malik et al. 2019, Rashid et al.
2015, Rafique et al. 2021). Leaves, being the primary photosynthetic organ and rich in metabolites, are commonly employed
in herbal medicines, and their sustainable use has fewer negative consequences for plants (Rafique et al. 2021, Zahoor et al.
2017, Bano et al. 2014). The use of aerial parts, seeds, fruits, and resins in herbal medicine may be attributed to ease of
collection, availability, and the presence of diverse chemical constituents (Ahmad et al. 2016, Rafique Khan et al. 2021). The
frequent use of fruit in herbal recipes is associated with the high proportion of bioactive compounds found in fruits, which
often serve as storage organs in plants (Abidin et al. 2022, Malik et al. 2019, Rashid et al. 2015, Rafique et al. 2021).

The primary methods for preparing these remedies included mashing them in their raw state (in 19 species), cooking (in 15
species), making decoctions (in 3 species), and using them in powdered or resin form (one species each). The dominant mode
of administration was a paste, consistent with results from surrounding areas (Ishtiaq et al. 2015, Hassan et al. 2019). The
mountainous terrain of the study area contributes to a higher incidence of external wounds and injuries, making herbal paste
medications more popular, especially for physical trauma and skin problems (Akhtar et al. 2013). the second most common
method of administration was a powder, aligning with findings from neighboring areas (Butt et al. 2015, Rafique et al.2021).
Decoction was the third most common medication preparation technique, likely due to its simplicity and effectiveness (Malik
et al. 2019, Ullah et al. 2014). These findings were consistent with similar studies (Khan et al. 2019, Kayani et al. 2015).

Key informants identified 23 major therapeutic applications for these plants, including dysentery, indigestion, internal heat,
tonics, milk production, joint pain, post-delivery care, anti-salt treatments, uterus prolapse, goat pox, wound healing, repeat
breeding, goat pox, nephritis, strangles, constipation, and cough. The administration of medicinal plant remedies was
primarily through oral and topical means, with topical consumption (57%) being the most commonly used route, followed
by oral consumption (43%). This prevalence of topical application is in line with other studies (Rashid et al. 2018, Wali et al.
2021), with topical use considered ideal for treating conditions such as skin disorders, joint pains, wounds, and muscular
pains, while oral use is preferred for internal disorders (Hussain et al. 2022, Khan et al. 2019, Kayani et al. 2015, Tariq et al.
2014).

The utilization of indigenous plant species for ethno-veterinary purposes holds paramount importance in the lives of
Himalayan mountain communities within the Kashmir region. Livestock farming serves as a linchpin in the local economy,
offering vital support for livelihoods. Among semi-nomadic populations, there exists a preference for traditional ethno-
medicine over conventional allopathic remedies due to its cost-effectiveness and easy accessibility (Tariq et al. 2014).

Our research uncovered the extensive use of a substantial number of locally abundant plants, totaling 39 different species
(detailed in Table 2), by local communities to uphold the health of their livestock. These medicinal plant species, employed
in livestock care, flourish in diverse habitats ranging from valley plains to temperate mountain forests and alpine pastures,
covering a broad altitudinal range from 2400 to 4400 meters (Azam et al. 2012, Murad et al. 2014). Intriguingly, our
observations revealed that older population groups, especially females, possess a more profound understanding of ethno-
botanical knowledge. This is ascribed to their deeper engagement in traditional agro-pastoral lifestyles compared to the
younger generation (Heinrich et al. 2009).
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 9

Table 2. The arrangement of medicinal plants based on their taxonomy their medicinal uses and Part used for Ethno-veterinary
Voucher Botanical name Local name Family Habit Animals Animal disease Part used In the form of
Number treated
5133 Allium cepa L. Piaaz Alliaceae Herb All types of Abdominal pain Bulb Crushed paste
cattle
5134 Allium sativum L. Thoam Alliaceae Herb Cows To increase body heat Rhizome Rrhizome mixed with
Pregnant cows flour
5135 Ajuga bracteosa Wall. Jan-e-Adam Lamiaceae Herbs Cattle internal heat Roots Uncooked roots
ex Benth.
5136 Aesculus indica (Wall. Bunkahoor Hippocastanaceae Tree Horse, cattle Tonic, indigestion/warm Fruits Mashed
ex Camb.) Hook.f. effect
5137 Angelica cyclocarpa Choora Apiaceae Shrub Cattle indigestion Roots Uncooked roots
(Norman) Cannon
5138 Aconogonon molle (D. Chukroo Polygonacea Herb Lamb Cure dysentery Roots Boiled roots
Don) H. Hara
5139 Arnebia benthamii Gaw-Zuban Boraginaceae Herb Goat/horse Joint pain Rhizome Mashed Powder
(Wall. ex G. Don)
I.M.Johnst.
5140 Berberis lycium Sunmbloo Berberidaceae Shrub Cattle Internal injuries and for Roots Boiled roots used
body warmth
5141 Brassica compestris L. Sarson Brassicaceae Herb Goat Flatulence Seeds (oil) Oil
5142 Bistorta amplexicaulis Maslon Polygonaceae Herb feeble cattle Tonic Roots Cooked roots
var.
5143 Berberis aitchisonii Sumbaloo Berberidaceae Shrub Cattle Wound healing Roots Mashed powder
Ahrendt
5144 Bupleurum candollei Kali-Boti Apiaceae Herb Goat Increase Milk Roots Mash powder mixed
Wall. ex DC production with flour
5145 Cedrus deodara (Roxb. Pluddaar Pinaceae Tree All cattle Skin Wound healing Resin Resin
ex D.Don) G.Don
5146 Chenopodium album Bathwaa Chenopodiaceae Herb cow Dysentery Leaf Uncooked leaf
L.
5147 Dipsacus inermis Wall. Pilhaa Dipsaceae Herb Cattle Post-delivery treatment Roots Mashed and cooked
ex Roxb. in cattle
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 10

5148 Dryopteris wallichiana Kunjii Dryopteridaceae Herb Cattle Indigestion, purgative Young Young shoots are cooked
(Spreng.) Hylander, shoots as pot herbs
5149 Euphorbia wallichii Harvi Euphorbiaceae Herb Buffalos Against worms, as Latex Latex
Hook.f. cathartic, purgative and
diaphoretic.
5150 Hylotelephium ewersii Lonslooni Crassulaceae Herb goats and sheep Effects of over dozed Whole plant Whole mashed
(Ledeb.)H. Ohba salts uncooked
5151 Helianthus annuus L. Gul-e-Aftab Asteraceae Shrub cattle Tonic to the general Seed Crushed seed (Powder)
weakness.
5152 Phaseolus lunatus Moothi Papilionaceae Goat Goat Pox Seeds Boiled in water
Linn.
5153 Rheum webbianum Chotyal Polygonaceae Herb Cattle. Indigestion and Roots Mashed roots
Royle constipation
5154 Saussurea lappa Kutth Asteraceae Herb sheep and goats Expel worms and also Roots Crushed roots
(Dcne.) Sch. Costus believed as tonic
(Falc. Lipsch.)
5155 Saussurea costus Kutth Asteraceae Herb cattle Release of placenta Roots Powder
(Falc.) Lipsch). after birth
5156 Trigonella Sinjii Fabaceae Herb Cattle Cure prolapse of uterus Leaf Leaf
foenumgraecum Linn.
5157 Urtica dioica L. Kairi Urticaceae Herb Cattle Set into heat cycle Leaves Leaves
Repeat Breeding
5158/5559 Verbascum thapsus L. Gadikan Saxifragaceae Herb Cattle Relieve pain in case of Leaves Leaves are cooked and
injury Increase milk added to soups
secretion
5160 Viburnum cotinifolium Ukloon Caprifoliaceae Shrub horses and To cure constipations Tips of the Tip of plant
D.Don. buffalos plants
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 11

Relative frequency of citation and use value

For assessing the local significance of each plant, we employed the Use Value (UV) metric, as proposed by Phillips and Gentry
(Haq et al. 2022). It's important to note that low UV values for medicinal plants don't necessarily indicate lower importance;
rather, they may signal a risk to the knowledge associated with these plants or a limited availability of the specific medicinal
plant (Shinwari et al. 2017).

In our present study, Viburnum cotinifolium exhibited the highest UV (0.33), while Verbascum thapsus had the lowest use
value (0.04) (Table 3). Consistent with our findings, Khan et al. (2020) also reported Viburnum cotinifolium as a high UV
medicinal plant and Verbascum thapsus with the lowest UV in Neelum valley. The elevated UV of medicinal plants in the
study region can be attributed to their widespread distribution, and local communities are well-acquainted with their
medicinal uses (Adnan et al. 2014). A higher use value suggests greater importance of the particular plant species. However,
it's essential to note that UV alone doesn't distinguish whether a plant is used for a single or multiple ailments (Ahmad et al.
2016). Additionally, we computed the Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) for the medicinal plants, with values ranging from
37 to 7.32 (as displayed in Table 3). Viburnum cotinifolium had the highest RFC (7.32), followed by Verbascum thapsus (6.61)
and Verbascum thapsus (6.43). Conversely, Dryopteris wallichiana had the lowest RFC (0.89) (as shown in Table 3). The
prevalence of Viburnum cotinifolium in higher reaches may explain its high RFC, as it is a well-known medicinal plant
commonly used for treating various diseases (Kayani et al. 2014). RFC indicates the popularity of a specific plant species in
an area based on its relative use. Furthermore, it reflects the efficacy and wide-ranging usage of plants with minimal or no
side effects (Hussain et al. 2018). Our findings align with a previous study (Khan et al. 2020, Munir et al. 2022). Evaluating
and demonstrating the pharmacological activity of ethnomedicinal species with high UVs and RFCs values is crucial (Yaseen
2019). While plants with low UVs are indeed important (Amjad et al. 2017), their low values suggest that locals may not be
aware of their benefits, hindering the dissemination of information to potential users (Table 3).

Table 3. Relative frequency of citation and use value of plants in Ghamot National Park
Scientific name FC UV RFC
Allium cepa L. 27 0.21 4.28
Allium sativum. 7 0.06 1.25
Ajuga bracteosa 9 0.07 1.61
Aesculus indica 9 0.07 1.61
Angelica cyclocarpa 13 0.10 2.32
Aconogonon molle 12 0.10 2.14
Arnebia benthamii 16 0.13 2.86
Berberis lycium 18 0.14 3.21
Brassica compestris 28 0.22 5.0
Bistorta amplexicaulis 20 0.16 3.57
Berberis aitchisonii Ahrendt 13 0.10 2.32
Bupleurum candollei 19 0.15 3.39
Cedrus deodara 15 0.12 2.68
Chenopodium 25 0.20 4.46
Dipsacus inermis. 14 0.11 2.50
Dryopteris wallichiana 5 0.04 0.89
Euphorbia wallichii. 6 0.05 1.07
Hylotelephium ewersii 7 0.06 1.25
Helianthus annuus 11 0.09 1.96
Phaseolus lunatus 18 0.14 3.21
Rheum webbianum 6 0.05 1.07
Saussurea lappa 7 0.06 1.25
Saussurea costus. 6 0.05 1.07
Trigonella foenumgraecum 12 0.10 2.14
Urtica dioica 6 0.05 1.07
Verbascum thapsus . 5 0.04 6.61
Viburnum cotinifolium 37 0.29 7.32
 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 12

Conclusion
The findings from this research clearly underscore the rich floristic and cultural diversity in the study area, contributing to
the local population's extensive Ethno-veterinary knowledge. Given the predominantly mountainous and remote nature of
the study area, coupled with a lack of modern health facilities, the reliance on medicinal plants by the local community
becomes evident. This study primarily emphasizes the significant indigenous Ethno-veterinary knowledge intertwined with
the local medicinal flora.

It is noteworthy that this invaluable indigenous Ethno-veterinary knowledge is at risk of extinction, with waning interest from
the younger generation. The local population traditionally passes down this wealth of knowledge orally, a practice that
significantly contributes to the loss of such valuable information across generations. Through our survey, we meticulously
documented 28 medicinal plant species from 22 families, along with their associated indigenous Ethno-veterinary
knowledge. Asteraceae emerged as the most dominant plant family, comprising 3 species. Roots, accounting for 46%, stood
out as the most frequently used plant part in medicinal formulations, with herbal pastes (utilized in 19 species) being the
predominant method of preparation. Notably, a majority of the medicinal plants (18 species) were employed in treating
digestive system ailments, such as dysentery and indigestion. The older age group, particularly those above 40, played a
substantial role in sharing this knowledge. Preserving this traditional knowledge for future generations, safeguarding it by
making it publicly accessible, and utilizing it as a foundation for further research and conservation initiatives are critical
aspects highlighted in this documentation. To authenticate this indigenous knowledge, we recommend future investigations
in phytochemistry and pharmacology, as these plants hold potential for the discovery of new drugs. Additionally, rigorous
toxicological examinations are imperative to ensure the safe and secure utilization of the documented ethno-medicines.

Declarations
List of abbreviations: RFC= relative frequency of citation, UV= use value, FC= Frequency of Citation
Ethics approval and consent to participate: Code of ethics of International Society of Ethnobiology (2008) was followed
during data collection (http://ethnobiology.net/code-of-ethics/). As the data collection was about the animals, therefore,
the people who were in close interaction with the animals were targeted. After complete briefings to the informants about
the purpose of this research work, verbal consents were taken from all the localities from where the data was collected. As
most of the informants were illiterate and it was not possible to take written consent from them.
Information was obtained from the participants. All informants were orally consented.
Consent for publication: Oral permission was given from all persons shown in figures to have their images published.
Availability of data and materials: The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding
author upon request.
Competing interests: We declare that there is no conflict of interest.
Funding: No funding
Authors' contributions: MJ and MS designed the study; MJ, MSA conducted the fieldwork, RIM, MMS,UA and AS conducted
the main statistical analysis; MJ wrote the manuscript; all authors read, corrected, and approved the manuscript.

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