ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

2 ab
5

COMMUTATIVE
a*b=b*a
2 ab 2ba
=
5 5
∴ is commutative

Associative
(a*b)*c=a*(b*c)
2 ab a∗2 bc
∗c=
5 5

2 ( 2abc
5 )
=
2a
2bc
5
5 5

4 abc 1 4 abc 1
⋅ = ⋅
5 5 5 5
4 abc 4 abc
=
25 25
∴ is associative

ISOMORPHISMS
<Q,+> w/ <Q,+> where ∅

Math major
Science major
English major

Academic performance

Multiple intelligences
Deoquino, Ivy C. BSED-Math 3 Abstract Algebra Module 2: Learning task 1
In Exercises 1 through 9 compute the given arithmetic expression and give the answer in the
form a + bi for a, b ∈ ℝ.

1. i 3=i 2 × i=(−1)×i=−i

2. i 4 =(i 2)2=(1)2=1

3. i^23=(i^4)^5×i^3=1^5×(−i)= −i
4. (−i)^35 =(i)^35 =i^34×i =(i^4)^8×i =1^8×i =i
5. (4−i)×(5+3i)
= (4×5)+(4×3i)−(i×5)−(i×3i)
=20+12i−5i−3i^2
=20+7i−3(−1)
=23+7i
6. (8+2i)×(3−i)
=24−8i+6i−2(i^2)
=24−8i+6i−2(−1)
=24-2i+2
=26-2i
7. (2−3i)×(4+i)+(6−5i)
=8+2i−12i−3(i^2)+6−5i
=8+2i−12i+3+6−5i
=17−5i
8. (1+i^3) = 1−i

9. (1−i)^5 ¿ ( 1−i ) ( 1−i ) (1−i )( 1−i )( 1−i )

¿ ( 1−i−i+i 2 ) ( 1−i−i+i 2 ) ( 1−i )

¿ (−2 i )(−2 i )( 1−i )

¿ ( 4 i 2) ( 1−i )

¿ ( 4(−1) ) ( 1−i )

¿ (−4 ) ( 1−i )

¿−4 +4 i
 10. Find |3 — 4i| ¿ √ 32 +(−4)2=√ 9+16=√ 25=5

11. Find |6 + 4i| = ¿ √ 62 +(4)2= √ 36+16=√ 52=2 √ 13

So, the magnitude of 3+4= |3 — 4i| is 5, and the magnitude of 6+4=|6 + 4i| is 52*52.
15.

In Exercises 12 through 15 write the given complex number z in the polar form | z | (p + qi)
where |p + qi | = 1.

12.

13.

14.
In Exercises 16 through 21, find all solutions in ℂ of the given equation.

16.) z 4 =1; z=1 ,−1, i ,−i

17.) z 4 =−1; z=i ,−i
18.) z 3=−8 ; z=−2 ,
19.) z 3=−27 i ; z=−3 i

20.) z 6=1 ; z=1 ,−1 , i ,−i , + √ i , − √ i

1 3 1 3
2 2 2 2

21.) z 6=−64 ; z= √ 3+1 ,−( √ 3+1)

In Exercises 22 through 27, compute the given expression using the indicated modular
addition.
22.) 10+¿ 17 16 :10+16=26 mod 17=9 ¿
23.) 8+¿ 10 6 :8+ 6=14 mod 10=4 ¿
24.) 20.5+¿ 25 19.3=(20.5+19.3) mod 25=39.8 mod 25=14.8 ¿

1
25.) +¿1 =
2
7
8 ( 12 + 78 )mod 1= 118 mod 1= 38 ¿
26.)
3π
4
+ ¿2 π
3π
2
=(3π 3π
4
+
2 )
mod 2 π=
3π 6π
4
+
4 (
mod 2 π = )
9π
4
π
mod 2 π= ¿
4

27.) 2 √ 2+¿ √32 3 √2= ( 2 √2+3 √ 2 ) mod √32=5 √2 mod √32=−5 i √30 ¿

28. Explain why the expression 5+¿ 6 8 ¿ in R6 makes no sense.

The expression 5+¿ 6 8 ¿ in R6 appears to be a confusion of mathematical notation.

The symbol + typically denotes a binary operation, often addition in standard

arithmetic or modular arithmetic. However, + doesn't have a well-defined meaning in
the context of R6 where R represents the real numbers.

The notation R6 isn't standard notation in mathematics. It seems to mix the real
numbers with some kind of operation that involves the number 6, but the meaning isn't
clear.

In standard mathematics, real numbers are usually operated upon using arithmetic
operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. If you have a specific
 operation or context in mind, it would be helpful to clarify it further. Otherwise, the
expression 5+¿ 6 8 ¿ doesn't make sense in conventional mathematical language.

In Exercises 29 through 34, find all solutions x of the given equation.

29. ) x + ¿15 7=3∈Z 15 ¿
x=( 3−7 ) mod 15

¿−4 mod 15

x=11

3π 3 π
30. ) x + ¿2 π = ∈ R2 π ¿
2 4

x= ( 32π − 34π )mod 2 π

−3 π
¿ ​mod 2 π
4
5π
x= ​
4

31. ) x + ¿7 x =3∈Z 7 ¿
x=( 1+7 ) mod 7

¿ 8 mod 7

x=1

32. ) x + ¿7 x +¿7 x=5∈Z 7 ¿ ¿

x=( 5+7 +7 ) mod 7

¿ 19 mod 7

x=5

33. ) x + ¿12 x=2∈Z 12 ¿

x=( 1+12 ) mod 12

¿ 13 mod 12

x=1
34. ) x + ¿4 x +¿ 4 x +¿ 4 x =0∈Z 4 ¿ ¿ ¿
x=( 0+ 4+ 4+ 4 ) mod 4

¿ 12 mod 4

x=0

35. )Recall the power series expansions from calculus. Derive Euler’s formula

e =cos ( θ ) +i sin(θ) formally from these three series expansions.

x

2 3 4 n
x x x x x
e =1+ x + ​+ = +...+ +.. .
2! 3 ! 4 ! n!
3 5 7 2 n−1
x x x n−1 x
sinx=x − + − + …+ (−1 ) +… ,∧¿
3 ! 5! 7 ! ( 2 n−1 ) !
2 4 6 2n
x x x n x
cos x=1+ ¿ ​+ − +...+ (−1 ) +… ¿
2! 4! 6! (2 n ) !
Deoquino, Ivy C. BSED-Math 3 Abstract Algebra Module 2: Learning task 2

Computations
Exercises 1 through 4 concern the binary operation ∗ defined on S = {a, b,c, d, e} by
means of Table 2.26.
1. Compute b ∗ d, c ∗ c, and [(a ∗ c) ∗ e] ∗ a.
 b∗d=e
 c∗c=b
 [(a∗c)∗e]∗a=[(c∗a)∗e]∗a=(b∗e)∗a=d∗a=e
2. Compute (a ∗ b) ∗ c and a ∗ (b ∗ c). Can you say on the basis of this computations
whether ∗ is associative?
 (a∗b)∗c=(b∗c)∗c=(e∗c)∗c=c∗c=b
 a∗(b∗c)=a∗(a)=b
Since (a∗b)∗c≠a∗(b∗c), the operation ∗ is not associative.

3. Compute (b ∗ d) ∗ c and b ∗ (d ∗ c). Can you say on the basis of this computation
whether ∗ is associative?
 b∗d)∗c=(e∗d)∗c=b∗c=a
 b∗(d∗c)=b∗(e)=c
Since (b∗d)∗c≠b∗(d∗c), the operation ∗∗ is not associative.

4. Is ∗ commutative? Why?
Yes, ∗ is commutative. For example, a∗b=b∗a because a∗b=b and b∗a=b. This
holds for all pairs of elements in S. Therefore, the operation ∗ is commutative.

5. Complete Table 2.27 so as to define a commutative binary operation ∗ on S = {a, b,

c, d}.
 1.a∗d=d∗a. Since d∗a=d, we have a∗d=d.
2.c∗b=b∗c. Since c∗b=a, we have b∗c=a.
3.d ∗b =b∗d. Since b∗d=c, we have d∗b=c.
4.d ∗c =c∗d. Since c∗d=b, we have d∗c=b.

5. Table 2.28 can be completed to define an associative binary operation ∗ on S = {a, b,

c, d}. Assume this is possible and compute the missing entries.
In Exercises 7 through 11, determine whether the binary operation ∗ defined
is commutative and whether ∗ is associative.
12. Let S be a set having exactly one element. How many different binary
operations can be defined on S? Answer the question if S has exactly 2
elements; exactly 3 elements; exactly n elements.
13. How many different commutative binary operations can be defined on a set of 2
elements? on a set of 3 elements? on a set of n elements?
Concepts
In Exercises 14 through 16, correct the definition of the italicized term without reference
to the text, if correction is needed, so that it is in a form acceptable for publication.
14. A binary operation ∗ is commutative if and only if a ∗b = b ∗ a.

15. A binary operation ∗ on a set S is associative if and only if, for all a, b, c ∈ S, we have (b ∗
c) ∗ a = b ∗ {c ∗ a).

16. A subset H of a set S is closed under a binary operation ∗ on S if and only if (a ∗ b) ∈ H

for all a, b ∈ S.

Corrected:

14.) A binary operation ⋆ is commutative if and only if a⋆b=b⋆a.

15.) A binary operation ⋆ on a set S is associative if and only if, for all a,b,c∈S, we have
(b⋆c)⋆a=b⋆(c⋆a).
16.)A subset H of a set S is closed under a binary operation ⋆ on S if and only if (a⋆b)∈H for
all a,b∈S.

In Exercises 17 through 22, determine whether the definition of ∗ does give a binary
operation on the set. In the event that ∗ is not a binary operation, state whether Condition
1, Condition 2, or both of these conditions on page 23 are violated.
17. On ℤ+, define ∗ by letting a ∗ b =a - b.
18. On ℤ+, define ∗ by letting a ∗ b =ab .
19. On ℝ, define ∗ by letting a ∗ b =a - b.
20. On ℤ+, define ∗ by letting a ∗ b = c, where c is the smallest integer greater than both a
and b.

To determine whether the given definition of ⋆ gives a binary operation on the set, we need
to verify if the operation satisfies the conditions of a binary operation

Condition 1:

For all a,b in the set, a⋆b is uniquely defined.

Condition 2:

The operation ⋆ must be closed under the given set

Let's analyze each case:

17) On Z^+, define ⋆ by letting a⋆b=a−b.

  This operation violates Condition 2 because a−b may not always be a non-negative
integer (an element of Z^+).

18) On Z^+, define ⋆ by letting a⋆b=ab.

 This operation satisfies both Condition 1 and Condition 2. ab is always a non-

negative integer.

19) On R, define ⋆ by letting a⋆b=a−b.

 This operation satisfies both Condition 1 and Condition 2. a−b is a real number for
all a,b in R.

20) On Z^+, define ⋆ by letting a⋆b=c, where c is the smallest integer greater than both a
and b.

 This operation violates both Condition 1 and Condition 2 because the result c might
not always be in Z^+, and it's not always uniquely defined.

In summary:

 Operation ⋆ defined as a⋆b=ab on Z^+ and ⋆ defined as a⋆b=a−b on R satisfy the

conditions of a binary operation.

 Operations ⋆ defined as a⋆b=a−b on Z^+ and ⋆ defined as a⋆b=c, where c is the

smallest integer greater than both a and b on Z^+ do not satisfy the conditions of a
binary operation.
Deoquino, Ivy C. BSED-Math 3 Abstract Algebra Module 2: Learning task 3

In all the exercises, + is the usual addition on the set where it is specified, and ⋅ is the usual
multiplication.

Computations

1. What three things must we check to determine whether a function ∅: S → S′ is an

isomorphism of a binary structure 〈S,∗〉 with 〈S′,∗ ′〉?
In Exercises 2 through 8, determine whether the given map ∅ is an isomorphism of the first
binary structure with the second. (See Exercise 1.) If it is not an isomorphism, why not?

2. 〈ℤ, +〉 with 〈ℤ, +〉 where ∅(n) = -n for n ∈ ℤ

3. 〈ℤ, +〉 with 〈ℤ, +〉 where ∅(n) = 2n for n ∈ ℤ

4. 〈ℤ, +〉 with 〈ℤ, +〉 where ∅(n) = n + 1 for n ∈ ℤ

5. 〈ℚ, +〉 with 〈ℚ, +〉 where ∅(x) = x/2 for x € ℚ

6. 〈ℚ,⋅ 〉 with 〈ℚ,⋅ 〉 where ∅ (x) = x 2 for x € ℚ

7. 〈ℝ,⋅ 〉 with 〈ℝ,⋅ 〉 where ∅ (x) = x 3for x € ℝ

+¿ ¿
8. 〈ℝ, +〉 with 〈 R ,⋅〉 where ∅ (r) = 0.5r for r € ℝ
Theory

9. Prove that if ∅ : S → S' is an isomorphism of 〈S,∗〉 with 〈S′,∗ ′′〉 and ψ : S′ → S′′ is an
isomorphism of

〈S′,∗ ′〉 with 〈S′′∗ ′′〉, then the composite function ψ ∘ ∅ is an isomorphism of 〈S,∗〉 with 〈S
′,∗ ′′〉.
Deoquino, Ivy C. BSED-Math 3 Abstract Algebra Module 2: Learning task
4

EXERCISES 4

Computations

In Exercises 1 through 6, determine whether the binary operation ∗ gives a group

structure on the given set. If no group results, give the first axiom in the order G 1

,G2, G3, from Definition 4.1 that does not hold.

1. Let ∗ be defined on ℤ by letting a ∗ b = ab.
2. Let ∗ be defined on 2 Z= { 2 n|n∈ Z } by letting a∗b=a+b .

+¿ ¿
3. Let ∗ be defined on R by letting a∗b=√ ab .

4. Let ∗ be defined on ℚ by letting a ∗ b = ab.

 ¿
5. Let ∗ be defined on the set R of nonzero real numbers by letting a ∗ b = a/b.
6. Let ∗ be defined on a∗b=|ab|.

7. Give an example of an abelian group G where G has exactly 1000 elements.

One simplest example of an abelian group I can give from the lesson I
learn earlier is the additive group of integers modulo n, denoted as Z1000 . In
this case, we want the group to have exactly 1000 elements, so we can choose
n = 1000.
This group consists of the integers from 0 to 999, where the operation
is addition modulo 1000. In other words, if we take any two elements a and b
in this group, their sum a + b is computed modulo 1000. The group operation
is commutative, satisfying the abelian property.

Thus, Z1000 is an abelian group with exactly 1000 elements.

8. We can also consider multiplication modulo n in f. For example, in because

5*6=30=4(7)+2. The set {1,3,5,7,} with multiplication modulo 8 is a group.
Give the table for this group.
9. Show that the group ⟨ U ,⋅ ⟩ is not isomorphic to either ¿ or⟨ R ¿ , ⋅ ⟩. (All the
three groups have the cardinality |R|.)

10. Let n be a positive integer and let n Z={ nm|m∈ Z } .

a. Show that ¿ is a group
 b. Show that ¿

Ivy C. Deoquino BSED-Math 3

Real-Life Application of Abstract Algebra: GROUP THEORY ON RUBIK’S CUBE

The Rubik's Cube is a great example of a problem that can be analyzed using abstract
algebra, specifically group theory. But before diving into the mathematical framework based
on group theory concept, let’s see the common series of steps and algorithms. Here’s a
simplified version of a common method, known as the Layer-By-Layer method:

1. First Layer (White Cross): Start by making a cross on one face of the cube, usually the
white face. The edge pieces of the cross should match the center pieces on the adjacent
faces.
2. First Layer (White Corners): Next, solve the corners of the white face. This can be done
intuitively or by using specific algorithms.
3. Second Layer: After the first layer is complete, solve the middle layer by moving the
appropriate edge pieces into their correct positions.
4. Third Layer (Yellow Cross): Start the third layer by forming a yellow cross on the opposite
face from the white face. There are specific algorithms to help with this.
5. Third Layer (Yellow Edges): Once the cross is complete, orient the yellow edges so that
the colors of the edge pieces match the colors of the center pieces on the adjacent faces.
6. Third Layer (Yellow Corners): Next, move the yellow corners into their correct positions.
7. Third Layer (Orient Yellow Corners): Finally, orient the yellow corners correctly to
complete the cube.

Each of these steps involves learning and applying specific algorithms, which are
sequences of moves designed to achieve a particular result without disturbing other solved
parts of the cube. The exact algorithms used can vary depending on the specific method being
used to solve the cube.

And now, let’s break down how you can approach solving a Rubik’s Cube using group theory:

1. Group Elements: Each possible move on the Rubik's Cube (like turning the front face
clockwise by 90 degrees) can be considered as an element of a group¹. The set of all possible
configurations of the Rubik's Cube forms a group under the operation of combining moves².

2. Group Operation: The operation in this group is the composition of moves. For example, if
"F" represents a 90-degree clockwise turn of the front face and "R" represents a 90-degree
clockwise turn of the right face, then the operation "F ∗ R" represents first doing move "F",
then doing move "R"².

3. Identity Element: The solved state of the Rubik's Cube serves as the identity element of the
group. Any sequence of moves followed by the reverse of that sequence will return the cube
to its original state3.

4. Inverses: Every move on the Rubik's Cube has an inverse, which is simply the same move
performed in the opposite direction. For example, the inverse of a 90-degree clockwise turn
of the front face is a 90-degree counterclockwise turn of the front face4.

5. Associativity: The group operation is associative. This means that for any three moves A, B,
and C, the result of first performing A, then the result of performing B and C (i.e., (A ∗ B) ∗ C),
is the same as the result of first performing A and B, then performing C (i.e., A ∗ (B ∗ C)) 5.

By understanding these concepts, you can develop systematic methods for solving
the Rubik’s Cube. Many popular methods for solving the Rubik’s Cube are based on these
group theory concepts2. However, it’s important to note that while group theory provides a
mathematical framework for understanding the Rubik’s Cube, solving the cube also requires
practice and familiarity with the cube’s movements and patterns.

References:

Group Theory and the Rubik's Cube - Harvard University.

https://people.math.harvard.edu/~jjchen/docs/Group%20Theory%20and
%20the%20Rubik%27s%20Cube.pdf.

abstract algebra - Order of the Rubik's cube group - Mathematics Stack ....
https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/1123838/order-of-the-rubiks-cube-
group.

"Solving the Rubik's Cube using Group Theory" by Courtney Cooke - RIC.
https://digitalcommons.ric.edu/honors_projects/162/.

abstract algebra - Could we solve a Rubik’s cube like this ....

https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/4860419/could-we-solve-a-rubik-s-
cube-like-this.

abstract algebra - Rubik Cube finite non-abelian group - Mathematics ....

https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/300228/rubik-cube-finite-non-
abelian-group.