TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No.

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNITY BASED ORGANIZATIONS............ 3

2.0 ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE........................................................ 4
2.1 Definition of organization................................................................................ 5
2.2 Why Study Organization…....5

2.3 Formal and Informal Organizations.................................................................

2,4 Theories of Organizations ................................................................................. 8
3.0 ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE.............................................................. . 13

3.1 Objectives of Organization Structure.............................................................. 13

3.2 Levels of Organization..................................................................................... 13
3.3 Elements/Dimensions of Organizational Structure...................................... 14
3.4 Principles of Organization............................................................................... 17
3.5 Policy in Community Based Organizations.................................................... 18
3.6 Classification of Organizations...................................................................... 20
4.0 ORGANIZATION GOALS.......................................................................... 23
4.1 Importance of organizations goals in society.................................................. 23
4.2 Classification of Organization Goals............................................................. 24
4.3 Evaluation of Organization Goals................................................................... 26
4.4 Organization Culture....................................................................................... 30
4.5 Types of organizational culture....................................................................... 30
5.0CHANGE IN COMMUNITY BASED ORGANIZATIONS.......................... 33
5.1 Causes of Change in an Organization............................................................ 33
5.2 Causes of resistant to change in an organization........................................... 34
5.3 Techniques of Managing Change in an Organization................................... 35
6.0 LEADERSHIP IN COMMUNITY BASED ORGANIZATIONS [CBOs)... 38
6.1 Types of Leaders............................................................................................... 39
6.2 Functions of a Leader...................................................................................... 39
7.0 MOTIVATION IN COMMUNITY BASED ORGANIZATION................... 42
7.1 Importance of Motivation................................................................................ 46
 7.2 Challenges of Motivation on CBO.................................................................. 47
8.0 MANAGEMENT OF COMMUNITY BASED ORGANIZATIONS............. 48
8.1 Theories of Management................................................................................. 48
8.2 Management Functions......................................................................., ....... 51
8.3 Strategic Planning........................................................................................... 52
8.4 Organizing Function........................................................................................ 53
9.0 PARTNERSHIP IN CBO'S......................................................................... 56
9.1 Types of Partnerships....................................................................................... 56
9.2 Strategies of Forming Partnership., ............................................................... 56
9.4 Impact of Partnership on Community Activities ............................................ 58
10.0 CAPACITY BUILDING IN CBOs .............................................................. 60
10.1 Importance of Capacity Building in CBO.................................................... 60
10.2 Types of Capacity Building............................................................................. 60
10 3 Impact of Capacity Building in Community Organizations.......................... 61
1.0 CONFLICT IN COMMUNITY BASED ORGANIZATION........................ 63
11.1 Consequences of Conflict....................................................................:.v....... 65
11.2 Psychological Defensive Responses to Conflict............................................. 66
12.0 POWER AND POLITICS IN COMMUNITY BASED
ORGANIZATIONS......... 68
12.1 Nature of Power and Politics.......................................................................... 68
12.2 Sources of Power............................................................................................. 68
12.3 Political Tactics............................................................................................... 69
12.4 Acquisition and Effective use of Power ......................................................... 70
15.0 EMERGING TRENDS IN CBOs............................................................... 72
14.0 REFERENCES................................................................................................... 76

TOPIC ONE:
INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNITY BASED ORGANIZATIONS.

Definition
Community - A community can be used to refer to a geographic locality and its
residents. Jonasen 1959 mentions that a community is used in everyday language to
refer n a number of persons who have similar interests e.g. the sporting community or
the business community. Kaufman (1972 - 78-79) indicates that the term community
refers to the local community or locality. Wilson (1912) saw communities as a complex
of economic and social processes in which individuals find the satisfaction that are not
supplied within their home. Organization - Warren (1955: 292) points out that
organizations are resources which enable members of a community to work together to
meet their needs.
Wiledon (1970:171) views an organization as individuals in a given situation who
mutually agree to work together for attainment of certain objectives. Organizations are
also viewed as a collection of individuals formed into a coordinated of specialized
activities for the purpose of achieving certain goals over some led period of time even
though individual membership may change.
Community based organizations - these are social agencies that consist of a collection
of individuals formed into a coordinated system of specialized activities for the purpose
of achieving certain goals over some extended period of time even though individual
memberships may change and they are specifically based in a community.

Historical Background of Community Based Organizations (CBO's)

CBO"s have its roots in American social work where social work schools initially taught
case work, group work and community organizations. Smith (1979:52) notes that case
work was also taught by social school in Britain, but interest in community organizations
came from field work practice rather than from social work theory.
Biddle and Biddle (1965) notes that the emphasis of community organizations is
structured in the sense that it perceives the community as made up of groups and
organizations whose operations need to be coordinated. CBO's are concern with both
public and private welfare of individuals in the community. CBO's also emphasizes on fc
raising of funds to support their work,
Rothman points out that it was not until 1947 that senior’s analysis of the theoretical
aspects of community organizations was started which later gave rise to NGO's and
CBO's.
In Kenya CBO's emerged from the social welfare organization which was established in
IW6, It was headed by a Mr. Tom Askwith as commissioner for social welfare. In 1954,
Ac social welfare organization become one of the departments of the then newly created
Ministry of Community Development. It remained in this Ministry until around 1963.
This department encouraged self-help groups. CBO's rose to take control of most of the
self-help groups. CBO's are well organized organizations and work for the benefit of the
community they work in. Some of the activities carried out by CBO's include: -
• Community betterment
• Health and social welfare
• Home improvements
• Better business
• Young people's interests
• Better farming
• Social enjoyment.
In Kenya CBO's are registered by the department of Social Services. The department is
currently within the Ministry of Gender, Sports and Social services.
Characteristics of Community Based Organizations
• CBO's are permanent non-profit making organizations.
• They are community owned - their survival depends on the support offered by
communities they serve.
• CBO's must register with the Ministry of Gender, Sports and social services in their
respective district offices • they initiate new and small scale projects.
• They emphasize community participation.
• They are autonomous
• They are efficient and effective.
• They foster people's self-reliance
• They develop human resources, including local leadership and organizations
• They focus on community level development.

TOPIC TWO:
 ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE

2.1 Definition of organization

Farnham and Horton define organizations as social constructs created by groups in to
achieve specific purposes by means of planned and coordinated activities. Activities
involve using human resources to act in association with their inanimate: i.e. in order to
achieve the aims of the organization.
Organization are also defined as a collection of individuals, formed into a coordinated • of
specialized activities for the purpose of achieving certain goals over some period of time
even though individual's membership may change.
An organization's culture defines the proper way to behave within the organization. This culture
consists of shared beliefs and values established by leaders and then communicated and reinforced
through various methods, ultimately shaping employee perceptions, behaviors and understanding.
Organizational culture sets the context for everything an enterprise does. Because industries and
situations vary significantly, there is not a one-size-fits-all culture template that meets the needs of all
organizations.

A strong culture is a common denominator among the most successful companies. All have consensus
at the top regarding cultural priorities, and those values focus not on individuals but on the
organization and its goals. Leaders in successful companies live their cultures every day and go out of
their way to communicate their cultural identities to employees as well as prospective new hires. They
are clear about their values and how those values define their organizations and determine how the
organizations run.
2.2 Why Study Organization
1. They pervade social life, people are born brought up, live and die in organizations
i.e. hospitals, families e.t.c
2. People are socialized and reared in organizations. Man cannot avoid organizations,
whenever people think of alternatives to organizations; those alternatives turn out
to be organizations. They come into being in one or two ways.
3. They enable objectives to be achieved that could not be achieved by the efforts of
individuals on their own.
Organizations are an integrated part of society involving both public and private sectors.
There are many different types of organizations which are set up to serve a number of
different purposes and to meet a variety of needs. Organizations come in all forms,
shapes and sizes. The structure, management and functioning of organizations vary
because of differences in the nature and type of organization, their perspectives goals
and objective and the behaviour of people who work with them.
Common factors in organizations
Despite the differences among various organizations, there are at least three common
factors in any organization.
• People
• Objectives
• Structure is the interaction of people who help achieve objectives which form the
basis of an organization. Some form of structure is needed by which people's
interactions and efforts are channeled and coordinated. However, some process of
management is required so that the activities of the organization, and the efforts of
its members, are directed and controlled towards the pursuit of objectives. The
actual effectiveness of the organization depends upon the quality of its people, its
objectives and structure, and the resources available to it. There are two broad
categories of these resources.
• Non-human - physical asset, materials and facilities
• Laws - guiding principles for the people and operations.

23 Formal and Informal Organizations

Formal Organization

This is the planned coordination of the activities of a number of people for the
achievement of some common, explicit purpose or goal through division of labour and
function and through hierarchy of authorities and responsibility. The forma organization

Deliberately planned and created Concern with the coordination of activities.

Hierarchically structured with stated objectives, and Based on certain principles such as
the specification of tasks, and defined relationships of authority and responsibility.

The formal organization can be seen as a coalition of individuals with a number of sub-
coalition. Membership of the coalition depends upon the type of organization but could
include managers, administrators, workers, union officials, leaders of interest groups, ;
customer clients, patrons, donors, specialists, consultants and representatives of external

Practically, all the large organizations of the modem society such as factories, office,
complexes supermarkets and schools, are formal structures. To an extent, formal
organizations in modern societies have taken over supplemented functions previously
performed by family, kinship and community groups.
Informal organizations
Informal organizations develop and exist within all formal organizations. They are freely
created by social group's relationships outside and inside formal organizations. They
arise from interaction of people working in the organization, their psychological and
social needs and the development of groups with their own relationships and norms of
behaviour irrespective of those defined with the formal structure.
• The formal organization is flexible and loosely structured
• Relationships may be left undefined
• Membership is spontaneous and with varying degrees of involvements
Functions of an informal organization
 It provides satisfaction of the members’ social needs, and serve of personal identity
and belonging.
 It provides for additional channels of communication for example through the
grapevine" information of importance to particular members is communicated
Quickly.
 It provides a means of motivation - for example, though status, social interaction,
variety in routine or tedious jobs and informal methods of work.
 It provides a feeling stability and security and through informal 'norms' of
behaviour can exercise a form of control over members.
 It provides a means of highlighting deficiencies or weaknesses in the formal
organization — for example, areas of duties or responsibilities not covered in job
descriptions or outdated systems and procedures. Its may also be used when formal
methods would take long, or not be appropriate, to deal with an unusual or
unforeseen situation.
The informal organization therefore has an important influence on the morale,
ion; job satisfaction and performance of staff. It can provide members with
opportunity to use their initiative and creativity in both personal and ional
development.
Components of an organization
Any organization can be described, broadly in terms of an operating component and an
administrative component.
The operative component - This comprises of the people who actually undertake ihe
work of producing the products or services.
  The administrative component - comprises of managers and analysts and is
concerned with supervision and co-ordination. Using the description of the two
components, the work organization can be grouped in terms of five basic
components.
 The operational core - This is concerned with direct performance of the
technical and productive operations and the carrying out of actual task activities
of the organization. E.g. people teaching a classroom, treating a patient, cooking
meals in a hotel, serving in a bank, repairing a hole on the road etc.
 Operational support - it’s concerned with the technical or productive process but
closely related to the actual flow of operational work, for example people
working in quality control, work study, progress planning, store keeping,
technical services, works maintenance etc.
 Organizational support - It is concerned with provision of services for the whole
organization including the operational core but which are usually outside the
actual flow of operational work, for example people working in personnel,
medical services, canteen, management accounting, office services etc.
 Top management - is concerned with broad objectives and policies, strategic
decisions, the work of the organization as a whole and interactions with external
environment for example, Managing Director, Governors, Management Team,
Chief Executive, Board of Directors and council members.
 Middle management - is concerned with co-ordination and integration of
activities and providing links with operational support staff and organizational
support staff, and between the operational core and top management.

Comparison of formal and informal organizations

characteristics Formal organization Informal organization

Structure
a. Origin Planned Spontaneous
b. Rationale Rational Emotional
c. Characteristics Stable Dynamic

2. Position terminology Job Role

3. Goals Profitability or service to society Member satisfaction

4. Influence
a. Base Position Personality
b.Type Authority Power
c. Flow Top-down Bottom-up
5. Control mechanisms Threat of firing, demotions Physical r social sanctions (norms)
6. Communications
a. Channels Formal channel Grapevine
b. Networks Well defined, follow formal linesPoorly define, cut across regular
Channels
c. Speed Slow Fast
d. Accuracy High Low
7. Charting the Organization chart
Organization
8. Miscellaneous
a. Individuals included All individuals in work group Only those acceptable
b. Interpersonal relations Prescribed by job description Arise spontaneously
c. Leadership role Assigned by organization Result of membership agreement

d. basis of interaction Functional duties or positions Personal characteristics, ethnic

Backgrounds, status
e. Basis of attachment
Cohesiveness
30 ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE

This is the division of work among members of the organization, and the coordination of
their activities so they are directed towards the goals and objectives of the organization.

Structure is the pattern of relationship among positions in the organization and among
members of the organization. Structure makes possible the application of the process of
management and creates a frame work of order and command through which the
activities of the organization can be planned, organized, directed and controlled. The
structure defines tasks and responsibilities, work roles and relationships, and channels of
communication.
It is always important to continually review the structure of any formal organization to
ensure that it is the most appropriate form for the particular organization, and in keeping
with its growth and development.
3.1 Objectives of Organization Structure

The economic and efficient performance of the organization and the level of resource
utilization.
• Monitoring the activities of the organization.
• Accounting for areas of work undertaken by groups and individual members of the
organization.
• Coordination of different parts of the organization and different areas of work.
• Flexibility in order to respond to future demands and developments, and to adapt to
changing environmental influences.
• The social satisfaction of members working in the organization.

Levels of Organization
Organizations are layered. Different responsibilities, authority and policy
and decision making are carried out by different people at varying levels of
seniority throughout the organization structure. There are three inter- related levels
in an organizations hierarchical structure.

i) The Technical Level: - This level is concerned with specific operations and
discrete risks. with the actual job or tasks to be done, and with performance of
technical function For example, the physical production of goods in a
manufacturing firm or the actual process of teaching in an educational
establishment.
ii) The Managerial Level:- It is concerned with the coordination and integration
of work at the technical level i.e. decision at the managerial level relate to the
resources necessary for performance of the technical function and to the
beneficiaries of the product or services provided.
Members of the organization at this level are concerned with:
- Mediating between the organization and its external environment such as the
users of the organization's product and the procurement of resources,
- The administrative of the internal affairs or the organization including the
control of the operations of the technical function.
iii) The Community Level; - This level is concerned with broad objectives and the
work of: organization as a whole. The managerial level interrelates with this
level. It is also referred to as institutional level. Decisions at this level will be
concerned with the selection of operations and the development of the
organization in relation to external agencies and the wider social environment.
3.4 Principles of Organization

These are guidance on the structuring of organizations. Proper application of the

principles of organization can help improve organizational performance. These
principles

:-
 The principles of the objective-Every organization and every part of the
organization must be an expression of the purpose of the undertaking
concerned, or it is meaningless and therefore redundant.
 The principle of specialization:- The activities of any member of any organized
group should be confined, as far as possible to the performance of a single
function.
 The principles of co-ordination:- The purpose of organizing per se, as
distinguished from the purpose of undertaking, is to facilitate co-ordination; unity
of effort.
 The principle of authority: - In any organized group the supreme authority must
rest somewhere. There should be a clear line of authority to every individual in the
group.
 The principle of responsibility: - The responsibility of the superior for the acts of
the subordinate is absolute.
 The principle of definition: - The content of each position, the duties, the authority
and responsibility contemplated and the relationship with other position should be
clearly early defined in writing and published to all concerned.
 The principle of span of control: - No person should supervise more than five, or
at the most, six direct subordinates whose work interlocks.
 The principle of balance:- It is essential that the various units of the organization
should be kept in balance.
 The principle of continuity:- Re-organization is a continuous process: In every
undertaking, specific provision should be made for it.

These principles were formulated by a leading authority in the UK at the time, Lvndall
3.5 Policy in Community Based Organizations

Kenya, CBO's are required to conform to the requirements of the law. This means that
CBO’s are formed they have to observe the constitutional, legal and statutory -
requirements if they are to operate.

The CBO's are formed, the members as well as their leaders have an obligation to
register with the relevant department in the Ministry of Gender Sports and Social
services
The registration of CBO's is a process that involves various stages:
 The CBO's must first develop a constitution which stipulates how the conduct of
members and activities will be carried out in order to achieve set objectives.
 The minutes of meeting that culminated into the formation of the organization be
well kept, as well as list of group members.
 The list of the members, their identity card numbers and their signatures should be
submitted to the social development office. In Kenya registrations of CBO's takes
place in the district of origin.
 Members should pick registration forms from the relevant offices and fill in the
required information.
 The team leader should make five copies of the registration form and to each attach
the following:
 The constitution of the CBO
 Minutes
 List of members, ID Numbers and
their signatures
 A registration fee.

Organization Constitution
CBO Constitution is the supreme law (it establishes the main organs of the CBO).
It outlines the:
o Name of the CBO
o Location of the CBO.
o Purposes Main objectives
o Membership.
o Subscription
o Obligation of the members
 o Rights of members
o Suspension
o Termination of membership.
o Meetings procedures
o Management committee (composition, terms of reference, their election).
o Eligibility
o Funds and Assets/sources, use and control.
o Accounts and Audits
o Rules and By-laws.
o Arbitration
o Amendment of the constitution
o Dissolution of the CBO
o Conclusion
It is however important to note that the CBO constitution must be in conformity with the
laws. It should not be inconsistent or in conflict with the constitution of the
Guiding Principles of CBO's
These are values that are intended to guide or describe the CBO's in their operations.
Those principles comply with applicable state laws. This code of conduct was formulated
Council of NGO's in 1995.
Probity: - This refers to whole-hearted honesty and virtue. It requires CBO's and
NGO's to perform their duties honestly and fairly, not to abuse any privilege or
provide favour to any person.
Self regulation;- This term means taking commands from one authoritative source,
the self, and rejecting all attempts to override ones independence. This code requires
NGO's and CBO's in the existence of self regulation to strive for personal and
political independence; to appraise and evaluate their conduct periodically; to be
open to learning and chanse:

Importance of Self Reliance of CBO's

• It protects the independence of the CBO sector from the state and other members of
the society who do not belong to that sector.
• It establishes ethical standards and the manner of disciplining those who do not abide
by the established standards. «
It enables an organization to achieve its own mission and visions.
(iii) Justice:- Anything that measures up to truth and reality is what is widely
interpreted as justice, it means fair representation of facts and making available to
everyone that which is his or her due. According to this principle, NGO's and
 CBO's are required to uphold the rights of all and particularly the disadvantaged.
They should practice fairness and equality of opportunity for all regardless of
nationality, ethnic, gender and religious backgrounds. The organization's action
should be need-oriented, impartial and just.
(iv) Service:- Service means performance of labour for the benefit of another. This is
the desire to promote the happiness of mankind through, a commitment to do kind
and charitable work. CBO's and NGO's should be seen to exercise this principle
through doing the following:

(i) Striving to improve their service delivery

(ii) Promoting community organization and participation.
(iii) Educating the public through sharing information
(iv) Fastening opportunities for those being served to influence both thetype and
delivery of services.
(v) Cooperation - This refers to the act of operating together within the organization
in order to achieve a common goal. This principle emphasize a fellowship in gain
and loss, in honour and dshonour, in victory and defeat. This is called partnering.
Information and experience should be shared. All CBOs should strive for unity,
collaboration, reaprocity and team "work. Amicable resolution of conflict is highly
valued as well as unproductive duplication of activities should be avoided.
(vi) Prudence - All NGCTs in exercise of this principle are expected to act
after careful consideration and caution. Well-informed and sensible decisions
should be given priority. Good management practices, creativity, innovation,
should be upheld.
(vii) Respect - This means the recognition of the work, rights and potentially
of others. It is holding and treating one another in high esteem. NGO's and CBO's
have to observe the honour, national security, power and independence of the
Republic of Kenya. Also national and international policies of the government and
the Republic of Kenya should be respected e.g. standing up while the national flag
is being raised in a NGO or CBO members meeting or conference.
TOPIC THREE:

CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIZATIONS

Classification of organizations enables us to relate the management and

organizational bahaviour to one particular type of organization as distinct from
another. It enable generalizations to be made on the basis of certain
characteristics features of organization within a particular grouping.
Rations can be distinguished by their nature, type, goods or services provided,
size, aims objectives and the people who are employed by or who work in them.
Classification of organizations;
a. Classification by major purpose
This is a common classification. It consists of
Business firms (economic organizations)
Armies, trade unions and police forces (protective organizations)
Clubs and societies (associative organizations)
Local authorities and hospitals (public service organizations Churches
(religious organizations).
However, this distinction tends to lack refinement and not all organizations
can fit simply in one classification. Many organizations serve more than
one goal.
b. Classification by forms of power/ system of compliance and involvement.
Etzioni classify organizations according to power and involvement
Power:-He identifies three forms of power
- Coercive:- This kind of power lies on the use of threats, or physical sanctions
or force in case an individual fails to comply e.g. controlling the need for food
or comfort organizations under the kind of power include; juvenile
detentions, law prison, law enforcement agency etc.
- Remunerative/ utilitarian: - This kind of power involves the manipulation of
material resources and rewards for example through salaries and wages.
Organizations under this kind of power include; post offices, restaurants, retail
stores, trade associates etc.
 - Normative power: - This kind of power relies in the allocation and manipulation
of symbolic rewards, for example esteem and prestige. Organizations under this
kind of power include; churches, civil rights organizations, local political
parties, local authority recreation department.
c. Classification by function of the organization
 This is associated with Talcot Parsons, Daniel and Robert Khun. Economic
function organizations: - They engage in economic activities that help in
earning a living in society. They can be engaged in business or not. Business
oriented organizations include; trading, commercial, industrial or other direct
services. Non-business oriented economic organizations include farming and
gardening for subsistence.
 Political Function Organizations: - They are concerned with changing or
adopting circumstances pertaining to achieving certain goals in a particular
society. They seek to assure. They increase the society's capacity to
accomplish desired ends. Examples include: legislators, police, judiciary etc.
These organizations seek to co-ordinate activities in society and maintain
peace and stability.
 Integrated Function Organizations:-These serve to settle conflicts in the
society. They direct motivations towards fulfillment of institutionalized
expectations and to ensure that the parts of a society work together. They
facilitate achievements of organizational goals and ensure that a good climate
exists to carry out the organization's activities. There basic rule is to ensure
justice, peace and stability. Examples include; prisons, law-courts and police
station.
 Pattern maintenance organizations: - They provide societal continuity through
educational, cultural and expressive activities. They are concerned with long
term societal values, behavioral patterns, creation of knowledge culture etc.
They create and maintain value systems, the furthering of knowledge and
making suitable life patterns. They are associated with honesty fairness, and
acquisition of the socialization. Examples are; schools, churches, soccer teams.

d. Classification based on primary beneficiary:

Were formulated by Blau and Scott. They are four and are classified on the basis of who
benefits, that is, which of the four categories is the prime beneficiary.
 - Mutual organization: - This is where the primary beneficiary is the
membership, as political parties trade unions i.e. COTU. Professional
association's i.e. L.S.K, religious sects, ethnic associations i.e. GEMA.
- Business organizations: - This is where the primary beneficiaries. Their concern is
the not the nature of the output. Their aim is achieving maximum gain with
minimal They include industrial and other firms privately owned and operated for
profit, i, hotels, newspapers, quarry, restaurants, retail stores etc.
- Service organizations - This is where the client group is the primary beneficiary
Example of these kinds of organizations include, hospitals, schools, welfare
agencies, rights organizations, insurance companies, juvenile detention centres
etc.
- Common Wealth organizations - This is where the primary beneficiary is the
public. They are designed to give goals and services to the general public
regardless of economic status. They include, the police, post office, the armed
services, central government departments, municipal councils, airports, general
hospitals, prisons, fund agencies etc.

It is important to note that it is not easy to find a comprehensive classification into

which organizations can be simply and satisfactorily categorized; and a degree of
realization, assumption and qualification is required. However, the classifications of
Etizioni Parsons, Daniel and Robert Khan and Blau and Scott provide useful
classification organizations.
TOPIC FOUR:

ORGANIZATION GOALS

A goal is a future expectation, some desired future state. It is something the

organization is striving to achieve. The meaning of a goal is however subject to
number interpretations.
 A goal in a broad sense: - This refers to the overall purpose of the organizations
e.g. to -reduce television sets.
 A goal in a specific sense: - Refers to more specific desired accomplishments,
e.g. to produce and sell a given number of a range of television sets within a
given period of time..
 A goal of the organization will determine the nature of its input and output, the
series; the activities through which the outputs are achieved, and interactions
with its external environment.
Importance of organizations goals in society

 Goals provide a standard of performance. They focus attention on the activities of

the organizations and the direction of the efforts of its members.

 Goals provide a basis for planning and management control related to the activities
of the organization,

 Goals provide guidelines for decision making and justifications for actions taken.
 They reduce uncertainty in decision making and give a defence against possible
criticism.
 Goals influence the structure of the organization and help determine the nature of
technology employed. The manner in which the organization is structured will
determine what is being achieved,
 Goals help us to develop commitment of individuals and groups to the activities of
the organization. They focus attention on purposeful behavior and provide a basis
of motivation and reward.
 Goals show how the organization is really like, its true nature and character both
for members and the external public.
 Goals serve as a basis for the evaluation of change and organization
development.
  Goals are the basis for formulation of policies of the organizations.

Formulation of organizational goals.

Goals are important feature of work organizations. To be effective goals should be
emphasized, clearly stated and communicated to all members of the organization. The
clarification and formulation of goals is the basis for corporate planning and
programming, budgeting systems (PPBS) approach to decision making. In order to be
successful, the primary goals of the business organization may be seen as follows:
To continue in existence, that is to survive
To maintain growth and development
To make profit
Drucker has suggested eight key areas in which goals should be set in terms of
performance and results.
 Market Standing:- For example; share of market standing range of products and
markets; distribution, pricing, customer loyalty and satisfaction. Productivity: -
For example; optimum use of resources, use of techniques such as operational
research to help guide alternative course of action, the ration of contributed
value to total revenue.
 Innovation; - For example; innovation to reach marketing goals, developments
arises from technological advancement, new processes and improvements in all
major areas of organizational activity.
 Physical and financial resources; for example, physical facilities such as plant,
machines, office and replacement of facilities, supply of capital and budgeting;
planning for the money needed; provision of supplies
 Manager performance and development:- For example; the direction of
managers and setting up their jobs. The structure of management, the
development of future managers.
 Profitability: - For example; profitability forecasts and anticipated timescales;
capital investment policy.
 Works performance and attitude:- For example; union relations, the
organization of work; employee relations
 Public responsibility: - For example; demands made upon the organization,
such as by law or public opinion, responsibility to society and public interest.
Classification of Organization Goals
Classification by the concept of compliance
Etzioni classifies goals in terms of their relationship with the concept of compliance.
These include;
(i) Order goals:- He says that they are negative and attempt to place
some kind of restaurant upon members of the organizations; and to
prevent certain fourths of behavior.
(ii) Economic goals: - They are concerned with the production of goods
and services for the external public
(iii) Cultural goals: - They are concerned with symbolic objects and with
creating or maintaining value system in society. Social goals which
serve the various needs of members in an organization are classified
under cultural goals.
Classification of goals as the outcome of bargaining.
According to Lyert and March, goals result from the outcome of bargaining among
members of a coalition. They identify five organizational goals related specifically to
business firm.
1. Production goal: - related to minimizing variations in the range of production:
operations over a given period of time and to the overall level of production.
2. Inventory goal: -relates to aspirations levels of completed goods. These goals act
as a buffer between production and scales.
3. Sales goals - These are related the levels of sales, either in monetary terms,
number :: units or both, the sales goal provide some general criteria of sales
effectiveness. Market share goals — Concerned with a measure of sales
effectiveness or with comparative success.
4. Profit goals - it is linked to accounting procedures for determining profits and
loss. The profit goal may be an aspiration relating to amount of monetary profit
or profit
.-hare or return on investment
Classification of organizational goals through a system view.
In this classification four main types of organization goals are identified:-
i) Consumer goals - this refers to the nature of the output in terms of the
market to be served and consumer satisfaction. Examples of this kind of
goals include, consumer products, educational services, healthcare e.t.c
 ii) Product goals - These refers to the nature and characteristics of the output
themselves that is the goods or services provided. This is an area where the
organization tries to distinguish themselves from other organizations. For
example in the range, design, quality and availability of their products.
iii) Operational goals - this relates to the series of activities involved in
providing outputs, and to the operation and functioning of the organization.
For example, the management of opportunities and risks, the choice of
structure and nature of technology as well as management processes.
iv) Secondary goals - these are goals that are not the main aim of the
organization. They arise from how the organization runs its activities in
pursuit of its outputs, examples includes, political aims, aid to the
community, development of staff, and social responsibilities.

Classification through a general model.

This is identified by Gross and it gives a list appropriate to all types of organization.
• Satisfactions of interest — organizations exist to satisfy multiple interests of various
people, both members of the organization and outsiders. These interests are hard to
identify and overlapping. This category might be referred to as welfare, utility,
benefit or pay-off.
• Output of services or goals:- This involves the output of tangible and non-tangible
goods and services which the organization makes available to clients.
• Efficiency or profitability:- This involves the efficient use of the available, scarce
input to get the desired output. The relationship between input and output can be
calculated in so many ways- one of them being profitability where both output and
inputs can be expressed in monetary terms
• Investment in organizational viability:- This involves diverting the input from the
production of output to investment in physical, human and organizational assets in
order to maintain survival and growth.
• Mobilization of resources: - Organizations must mobilize resources for inputs in
order to produce goods and services or invest in viability.
• Observance of codes: - Codes include both formal and informal rules, developed by
organization and patterns of behaviour imposed by law, moral considerations and
standards of professional ethics. This kinds of goals are usually expressed in terms
of acceptable margins of deviation.
• Rationality: - These are goals expressed in terms of actions regarded as satisfactory
in considering desirability, feasibility and consistency. Rationality should be
applied in both technical and managerial considerations, organizations have
multiple goals and therefore, it is difficult to develop criteria of : rmance against
such broadly based goals and they need to be translated into more ;:fic goals
capable of measurement in any particular organization.
4.3 Evaluation of Organization Goals.

Goals are evaluated using the SWOT analysis or commonly known as 'WOTS UP' which
focuses on the strengths, weaknesses opportunities and threats facing the organization.
The SWOT study was developed by Ansoff.
The SWOT analysis provides convenient headings through which an organization can be
studied
• Strengths: - These are positive aspects or distinctive attributes or competencies
which provide a significant market advantage or through which an organization can
build. Strengths can include; effective management team, goodwill, motivation and
skilled employees.
• Weaknesses: - These are those negative aspects or deficiencies in the competencies
resources of the organization that limits the effectiveness of the organization and
which needs to be corrected to minimize their effects. They can include, outdated
equipment, a high proportion of fixed costs, a bureaucratic structure, shortage of
key managerial staff, high level of customer complaints and limited
accommodation.
• Opportunities: - These are favorable conditions that usually arise from the nature
of changes in the external environment. The organization needs to be sensitive to
the problems of business strategy and responsive to changes. Examples of
opportunities include; free market, new market, technology advances, improved
economic factors, or failure of competitors.
• Threats: - These are unfavorable situations which arise from external
developments likely to endanger the operations and effectiveness of the
organizations. Examples could include; competitors, restrictive law, political or
economic unrest, changing social conditions., actions of pressure groups etc.
The SWOT analysis is not the only way of evaluating organizational goals,
performance and effectiveness . Levine suggests that the new criteria of evaluating
strengths and goals of an organization will be in the area of quality results achieved
through people.
example of a SWOT analysis is in the case study below.
study.
SWOTANALYSIS OF AN AFRICAN AIRLINE, KENYA SKYWAYS 1998

Kenya Sky ways vision

To be a world class network airline.
To achieve common standard of excellence with our network partners.
To connect Kenya and Africa to the world through Nairobi.
To be sufficiently profitable, to finance our development whilst improving the
prosperity of shareholders, employers and the nation.
Key issues prioritized.
 People issues
 Quality
 Government support
 Growth and development
 Hub issues
 Kenya skyways - Alpha Airlines Alliance
' Public relative.
 Implementation
 Ensure our employees share our vision.

SWOT ANALYSIS Strengths

• Location
• Technically qualified and competent staff in some areas.
• Profitable airline.
• Low cost compared to our international competitors. .
• High utilization of aircrafts.
• Regional competitive edge.
• Relatively modern fleet.
• Designated national carrier. .
• Forex earner.
• Owns skyways cargo company (SCC)
• Third party handling.
 • Status and private company.
• Support from shareholders..
• Aviation safety and security.
• Existence of maintenance facilities.
• Distinctive product
• Alliance with Alpha airlines.
Weakness.
Lack of consistency in the way we do things
Equipment and supplies constraints.
Poor public relations /image.
 Unexposed to modern airline management technique.
 Underutilized experience.
 High training cost in technical areas.
 Managing staff expectations.
 Size - small airline.
 Financial control
 Management
 Too much bureaucracy.
 Lack of trust /culture of fear
 Poor internal /external communication
 Compartmentalized management
 Poor altitudes
 Lack of recurrent training.
 Lack of enthusiasm
 Grey areas in policy
 Management information
Turnover of qualified staff.
• Minimal consultation of user areas when making decisions.
• Underutilization of resource.
• Low productivity.
• Investor's relations.
• Industrial relations
 • In ability to solicit sufficient government support.
Opportunities.
• Nairobi as regional rub.
Alliance with alpha Airlines and the benefit. _ .
• Africa poorly served - by airline industry.
• Lucrative financial environment in Kenya.
• IT Development
Potential for diversification.
• Ground handling
• Training /consultancy.
• Catering /hotel
• Third party aircraft maintenance
• Housing
• Charter business.
 Competition
 Bilateral constraints
 Cost growth
 Success
 lack of timely adaptation technology loss of skilled staff.
 Political climate in Kenya

TOPIC FIVE:

ORGANIZATION CULTURE
Culture is the total of the inherited ideas, beliefs, values and knowledge which constitute
hared basis of social action. This include a total range of activities and ideas of a group
with shared traditions, which are transmitted and reinforced by members of the-T e.g.
artistic and social pursuit, expression and taste valued by the organization such .-
accepted and practiced manner, dress e.t.c

Culture can also be defined as the collection of traditions, values, policies, beliefs and
attitude that constitute a persuasive context for everything we do and think in an
organization.

4.4 Types of organizational culture

• Power culture - this type of culture involves a small number of senior executive who
have power to give directives. It is characterized by a belief in a strong and decisive
stance.
• Role culture - this is concerned with bureaucratic procedures such as rules,
regulations and clearly specified rules, regulations and clearly specified roles. It is
believed these procedures will stabilize the system.
• Support culture - this type of culture is based on the belief that there should be a
group or community support for people, which will foster integration and sharing of
values.
• Achievements culture - this culture dwells on the premise that there is an atmosphere
which encourages self-expression and a yearning for independence. Thus there is a
paradigm shift from " I am working for myself to that of "I am working for someone
else," and there is accent or emphasis on success and achievement. There is also a
recognition of and reward for positive contribution.
• Task culture - in this culture, there is utilization of knowledge and technical
competence. Thus, there is an apparent emphasis on project teams and a job matching
to skills

Factors influencing organization culture. assignment

History - this includes the reason and manner in which organization was formed, its
age, the philosophy and values of its owners and first senior managers, major
reorganizations, new generation of top management e.t.c these can influence culture
in that making changes can be difficult.
 Primary function and technology — the nature of the organization's business and its
primary function influences culture. Things that may influence culture here include: -
range and quality of products and services provided, the importance of reputation and
the type of customers. The primary function of the organization will determine the
nature of the technological processes and the methods of work to be undertaken,
which in turn also affects structure and culture.
3. Goals and objectives - goals and objectives influences culture because it is not very
easy to determine the extent to which emphasis is placed on long-term survival or
growth and development, how much attention is given to avoiding risks and
uncertainties and how much concern is shown for broader social responsibilities?
The combination of objectives and resultant strategies will influence culture and
may itself be influenced by culture.
4. Size - larger organizations usually have more formalized structures and cultures.
When the size of an organization is increased separate department and split — site
operations will emerge. This may cause difficulties in communication and poor
interdepartmental co-ordination. This implies that, a rapid expansion or decline in
size and rate of growth, and resultant changes in staffing will influence structure
and culture.
5. Location - Geographical and physical location of an organization can have an
outstanding influence on the nature of culture. When an organization is based in a
rural or urban centre, there can be influence on the type of customers, and the staff
employed, the nature of services provided, the sense of distinctive identity and
opportunities for development.
6. Management and staffing - usually top executive have considerable influence on the
nature of an organization's culture. However, all members of staff help shape the
dominant culture of an organization irrespective of what the top management fell
they should do,
7. The environment - in order to be effective, the organization must be responsible to
external environmental influences. For example, if the organization operates within
a dynamic environment, it requires a structure and culture that are sensitive and
readily adaptable to changes.

Importance of organization culture.

  Culture helps to account for variations among organizations and managers both
nationally and internationally.
 Culture helps to explain why different groups of people perceive things in their
own way and perform things differently from other groups.
 Culture can help reduce complexity and uncertainty
 It provides a consistency in outlook and values.
 Culture makes possible the processes of decision making, co-ordination and
control.
Impact of organizational culture on performance of personnel. -Challenge
• Organizational culture can lead to stress among many managers.
• Old cultural forms which may not be compatible with the new ideologies may make
the employees less effective.
• Leaders can lower the employees' perception of the organization culture by doing
the opposite of what the culture dictates hence reducing credibility.
• Culture that leads to the design of organization structure where there is a centralized
structure that reflects the belief that only the leader can determine what is best is not
good because the employees may feel they are not involved in the responsibilities
of the organization.
• Cultures can deter adoption of equitable personnel policies and procedures.
 Cultures can also prevent members of the organization from getting
opportunities for personnel developments on career advancement.

Measures
 There is need to integrate personal goals and organizational goals.
 Allow for democratic functioning of the organization with full opportunities for
participation.
 Provide the most appropriate organization structure based on the demands of
the socio-technical system.
 Practice mutual trust, consideration and support among different levels of the
organization.
 Discuss conflict with an attempt to avoid confrontation.
 Adopt a managerial behaviour and styles of leadership appropriate to a
particular work situation.
 There should be acceptance of psychological contract between the individual
and the organization.
 Recognition of people's needs and expectations at work and
individual differences and attributes is important.
 There should be equitable systems of rewards based on positive recognition.
 There should be concern for the quality of working life and job design.
 There should be opportunities for personal development and career
advancement.
 Employees should be encouraged to develop a sense of identity with, and
loyalty to, the organization and a feeling of being a valued member.
TOPIC SIX:

CHANGE IN COMMUNITY BASED ORGANIZATIONS.

Change is an alteration in the course of action or direction. Change is pervasive influence.

We are all subject to continual change of one for or another. Change is an inescapable."
part of both social and organizational life.

5.1 Causes of Change in an Organization

They are divided into two categories _

1. External factors
(a) Market place - At the market place of profit and even service organization
competitors introduce new products, increase advertising and reduce prices in
each of these cases the manager's response is expected unless he/she is content
to lose what his/her organization has acquired.
(b) Technology changes - new methods of processing materials and or information
may bring changes in the organization. Technological advancement is a
permanent fixture in contemporary society, and it will continue to demand
attention.
(c) Environmental changes include; economic (economic coordination's,
competition, inflation, threats, opportunities, strategies, weaknesses, strengths,
and rewards) legal, demographic, socio-cultural (taboos, religion, ethnicity,
language, customs, values, beliefs, rituals and ceremonies), physical (soil,
weather, typography and infrastructure) political (Government /party policies,
local politics and stability), and international aspect (politics, ideologies, wars,
technology and law). Change in these services seems to be occurring at an
accelerating rate.
2. Internal factors (forces)
These forces constitute internal factors of change which occur within the
organization and can be traced to methods and procedures, work standards,
interpersonal relationship, and distribution of responsibility, authority and
accountability for scarce resources. They can include:-
a) People, employees, owners /shareholders, directors, suppliers, clients,
government and general public.
 b) Structural factors - Responsibilities, authority, accountability, rules and
regulations, systems and procedures and policies.
c) Non -human resources - Buildings, equipment, machinery, money, land and
other assets.
most organization, the manager is faced with accelerating change in both the external
environment supra-systems and the other internal organizational sub-systems which :ts
managerial process. .manager is a central figure in organizational change. As a decision-
maker, he/she is he ultimate change agent in the organization.
5.2 Causes of resistant to change in an organization.

1. Lack of trust ~ Distrust can magnify the effect of other sources of resistance.
Even when there is no obvious threat, a change may be resisted if people imagine
there are hidden, ominous implications that will only become obvious at a later
time. Mutual resistance may encourage' a leader to be secretive about the change
thereby further increasing suspicions and resistance.
2. Beliefs that change is unnecessary - one of the reasons for resisting change is
the absence of an obvious need for it Change will be resisted if the current way of
doing things has been successful in the past and there is no clear evidence of
serious problems. If the top management has "been able to exaggerate how well the
organization is performing, then convincing people of the need for change will be
very difficult.
3. Belief that the change is not feasible - Even when problems are acknowledged
a proposed change may be resisted because it seems unlikely to succeed. Making a
change that is radically different from anything done previously will appear
difficult if not impossible to most people. Failure of earlier change programs
creates cynicism and makes people doubtful the next one will be any better.
4. Economic Threats - regardless of how a change would benefit the organization
it is likely to be resisted by people who would suffer personal loss of income,
benefits or jub security e.g. replacing man power with machine technology.
5. Relative high cost - Even when a change has obvious benefits. It always entails
some costs. Familiarroutines must be changed, causing inconvenience and requiring
more effort. Concern about costs in relation to benefits will be more difficult to
allay when it is not possible to estimate them with any accuracy.
 6. Fear of personal failure - Change makes some expertise obsolete and requires
learning new ways of doing things. People vrtvo lack self-confidence will be
reluctant to trade procedures they have mastered for new ones that may prove
difficult to master. A proposed change will be acceptance if it includes ample
provision for helping people learn new ways of doing things.
7, Loss of status and power - Major changes in organizations invariably result in
some shift in relative power and status for individuals and sub-units. New
strategies often require expertise not possessed by some of the people currently
enjoying high status as problem solver. People responsible for activities that will
be cut back or eliminated will lose status and power, making the more likely to
resist change.
8 Threats to values and ideas - Change that appears to be inconsistent with strong
values and ideas will be resisted. Threat to a person's values arouses strong
emotions that are resistance to change.
9. Resentment Interference - some people resist change because they do not want to
be controlled by others. Attempts to manipulate them or force change will elicit
resentment and hostility.
5.3 Techniques of Managing Change in an Organization

The rule of managing change is to adopt a strategy which minimizes resistance.

strategy which emphasizes shared authority has the greatest likelihood of minimizing
distance to change, as it involves the participation, of superiors and subordinate in the
entire process. There are some basic pre-conditions that must exist for the workers to
participate meaningfully in a change process, they include:
• Employees must want to become involved.
• Employees must be willing and able to voice their ideas; they 'must
also have expertise in some aspects of the analysis.
• The managers must be secure in their own positions. Insecure
managers would perceive any participation by employees as a threat
to their authority. They might view employee participation as a sign
of weakness or as undermining their status.
• The manager must be open to employees' suggestions.

When adopting a change strategy, one has to consider two phases: .

Recognition of the need for change: -
Whether it takes a whisper of a shout, the need for change must be recognized by some
means and the exact nature of the problem must be diagnosed. The managers have to be
provided with information of the magnitude of change efforts, otherwise :he process
may be viewed as a part of the control function, especially the corrective -action
requirement. Information is scrutinized from sources like financial statements, quality
control data, budget and standard cost information and personnel issues.

Diagnosis of the Problem

Before appropriate action can be taken, the symptoms of the problem must be
analyzed by managers in order to discover the problem itself. Three questions can
be asked to determine the problem.
What is the problem, as distinct from the symptoms of the problem?
What must be changed to resolve the problem?
What outcomes are expected from the change and how will the achievements be
measured.
Other ways of diagnosing the problem would be through attitude surveys where the vem is
pinpointed as perceived by the members of the organization.

There are however certain theories that describe a change process. These theories .:;be
a typical pattern of events that occur from the beginning of a change to the end. One
such theory is Lewkfs theory of force-field model [1951]. He proposed that the change
process can be divided into three phases;
a) Unfreezing Phase: - In the unfreezing phase, people come to realize that old ways
of doing things are no longer adequate. This recognition may occur as a result of an
obvious crisis, or it may result from an effort to describe threats and opportunities ~ ?t
yet evident to some people in the organization.
b) Changing Phase: - Lewin says that in this phase, people look for new ways of doing
things and select a promising approach.
c) Refreezing Phase:- In the refreezing phase, the new approach is implemented and it
becomes established.
Lewin says that all the three phases are important and an attempt to move directly to the
changing phase will be meet a strong resistance. He also indicates that lack of a
diagnosis and problem solving in the changing phase will result in a week change plan.
.According to Lewin change may be achieved by two types of actions:-
Increasing the driving forces toward change e.g. increase incentives or use positions of
power to force change.
Reducing restraining forces that create resistance to change e.g. reduce fear of failure to
economic loss. Lewin notes that unless restraining forces are reduced an increase in
driving forces will create an intense conflict over the change, and continuing resistance
will make it more difficult to complete the refreezing phase. Another theory of a change
process is by Jick. 1993: Woodward & Bucholz, 1987. Their
theory describes how people in organizations react to changes imposed upon them. The
theory builds on observation of reactions of people to sudden traumatizing events such
as death of loved ones, break-up of a marriage, or a natural disaster that destroys one's
They say that similar patterns of reactions occur in organizational change.
They view the pattern to be based on four stages:
(i) Denial stage: - in this stage the reaction of people towards a change plan is to deny that
change will be necessary.
ii) Anger stage: - in this stage people get angry and look for someone to blame. At
the same time, they stubbornly resist giving up accustomed ways of doing things,
iii) Mourning stage: - in this stage, people stop denying that change is inevitable
acknowledge what has been lost and mourn it.
iv) Adaptation stage: - in this stage, people accept the need to change and go on
with their lives.
They note that the duration and severity of each stage can vary. They also say that it is :
important for change leaders to understand these stages because they must learn to
be .Lent and helpful.

Impact of Change in Community Based Organizations

Effect of impacts of change in CBOs depend on the magnitude and type of change and
the people's capacity to tolerate change. A. Toffler in his article. The future shock,
(Bantum Books, 1971] stresses reactions due to limits to the amount of change that
the : human organism can absorb. According to him, the effects of change are:
Psychosomatic reactions:- this include actual physical impairment e. ulcers,
hypertension, migraine, allergy, hay fever etc.
Emotional disorders e.g. neurotic behaviour being uncoordinated
Normal physiological responses:- This includes stress that stimulates giant to make
hormones that can induce a kind of drunkenness, fatigue, overeaction, producing
hypertension and peptic ulcers etc.
Psychotic reactions [bizarre behaviour patterns characterized by
misinterpretation of reality]
Alcoholism [ a maladaptive response stress] and other addictions such ; drugs.
Absenteeism
Defensive behaviour such as xenophobia [ a hatred of strangers].

TOPIC SEVEN:

LEADERSHIP IN COMMUNITY BASED ORGANIZATIONS [CBOs]

Definition
Leadership: Leadership is a word that is very difficult to define and the more
numerous definition of leadership have little in common. The definitions differ in
many respects, including who exerts influence, the intended purpose of the influence, the
manner in which influence in exerted and the outcome of the influence attempt.
Different scholars have different definitions of leadership:-
1) Hemphill & Coons, 1957, p.7, define leadership as the behaviour of an individual
directing the activities of a group toward a shared goal.
2) D. Katz & Kahn, 1978, p.528, define leadership as the influential increment over
and above mechanical compliance with the routine directives of the organization,
3) Burns, 1978, p.18, defines leadership as a source of power exercised when
persons, mobilize institutional, political, psychological and other resources so as
to arouse, engage, and satisfy the motives of the followers.

4) Rauch & Behling, 1984, p.46, define leadership as the process of influencing the
activities of organized group toward goal achievement.
5) Jacobs & Jaques, 1990, p.281, define leadership as a process of giving purpose
[meaningful direction] to collective effort and causing willing effort to be
expended to achieve purpose.
6) E.H Schein, 1992, p.2, defines leadership as the ability to step outside the culture
to start evolutionary change processes that are more adaptive.
7) Drath & Palus, 1994, p.4, define leadership as the process of making sense of
what people are doing together so that people will understand and be committed.
8) Richards & Engle, 1986, p.266, view leadership as being about articulating
visions, embodying values, and creating the environment within which things can
be accomplished.
9) House et al, 199, p. 184, define leadership as the ability of an individual to
influence, motivate and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and
success of the organization.
10) Peter. O. Sagimo 2002, p. 108 defines leadership as an art of managing.
11) Connor 1968, p.23 points out that leadership is the ability to help people make
decisions and act upon them.
12) Tarcher 1966, p.20, defines leadership as the art of influencing the behaviour of
others through persuasion and guidance.
Role of Leadership in Community Based Organizations
 Leadership helps in arbitration [resolving disagreements or conflicts among members
of the organization.
 Leadership helps in suggestion of new ideas. This enhance a sense of participation
and dignity on the part of the members of the organization.
 Leadership is a vehicle through which the organization's objectives are supplied so as
to enhance the organization's effectiveness.
  Leadership provides a means of inspiration for subordinate workers who are
encouraged by the leaders to know what their work is and to accept
organizational objectives.
 Leadership is a form of security for the members of an organization in facing
problems.
 Leadership also provides a way through which an organization can'sell its image to
the outside public [public relations].

Types of Leaders

• Autocratic leader:- These are leaders who owing to personality and determination,
push themselves into leadership positions. They include outstanding political and
military leaders who may have been conquerors, dictators, and despots e.g.
Napoleon Bonaparte of France. This kind of leaders dominates the group or
organization and does everything possible to prevent other leadership from
emerging to take his or her place. Such leaders struggle to get themselves elected or
appointed to leadership positions.
« Democratic leader:- this is a leader who is part of the group and is chosen to help
the group to do its job. These kind of leaders are found in democratic political
societies, trade unions, professional association, and in some religious groups. Such
a leader is chosen by the group and they consider him/her one of them.

• The appointed leader; - this is a kind of leader who is usually found in

organizations and is usually appointed by the organization's board of directors or
trustees. The appointed leader in turn appoints lower level workers, guides and
supervises them in their work.
• A passive leader: - this is a kind of leader who occupies a leadership position but
fails to stimulate or be stimulated by the group. His or her efforts at leadership
always fail and unless corrected the entire group can fall apart.
• Coercive leader: - this is a leader who demands immediate compliance.
• Authoritative leader:- This is a leader who mobilize people towards a vision.
• Afflictive leader: - This is a leader who creates emotional bonds and harmony.
• Pace-setting leaders: - this is a leader who expects excellence and self-direction.

• Coaching leader: - This is a leader who develops people for the future.
 Functions of a Leader
Functions:
 Achieving objectives of the work group «
 Defining group tasks
 Planning the work
 Allocation of resource
 Organization of duties and activities
 Controlling quality and checking performance
 Reviewing progress

Team Functions
• Maintaining morale and building team spirit
• The cohesiveness of the group as a working unit

• Setting standards and maintaining performance

• Establishing systems of communication within the group

• Training the group
• Appointment of sub-leaders

Individual Functions
• Meeting the needs of individual members of the group
• Attending to personal problems
• Giving praise and status
• Reconciling conflicts between individual needs and the group needs
• Training the individual

Ways of Enhancing Leadership in Community Based Organization

Effective leadership in CBOs requires the following ways for its
improvement:-
 A leader should be interested in his leadership role and enjoy it.
 A leader should have a strong drive to get things done.
 A leader should have higher intelligence than his subordinates.
 To improve his leadership in CBOs a leader should be technically competent enough
to do some instructing and to develop more efficient methods of work.
 Leadership can be enhanced by establishing achievable but high performance
standards and goals.
  Leadership can be enhanced by a leader asserting his leadership. organization.
 Leadership can be enhanced by the leaders recognizing the good work of the
members of the organization for reinforcement and motivation.
 Leadership can be enhanced by having effective personnel policies and practices
including effective staffing or fair and equitable compensation programs.
Leadership is also enhanced by effective training and development.

 Leadership can be enhanced by a leader who conveys confidence in his/her

subordinates.

 Leadership is enhanced by all the members of an organization participating in

problem solving based on constructive suggestions.
 Leadership can be enhanced by integrating the organizational needs with the needs of
the individuals.
• A leader should use subordinates mistakes as an educational opportunity
rather than as an opportunity for punishment.
• Leaders can also enhance their leadership by being approachable and
friendly.

TOPIC EIGHT:

MOTIVATION IN COMMUNITY BASED ORGANIZATION

Motivation can be defined as the art of making somebody do something that requires a lot
effort. Motivation can also be defined as the direction and persistence of action.

Motivation can be considered to comprise an individual's effort, persistence and the

action of that effort. In simpler terms, motivation is the will to perform. The underlying
concept of motivation is some force within individual's by which they attempt to
achieve some goal in order to fulfill some need or expectation.
Theories of Motivation
I. ABRAHAM MASLOW - THEORY OF HIERACHY OF NEEDS
According to him, human beings have five set of needs presented in a hierarchy. He
argues that human needs develops from what he called satisfying extrinsic values to
more complicated ones which aims at satisfying intrinsic values. He argues that the
growth to next set of need is not possible if the present needs have not been fully met.

Needs in the Hierachy

1. Physiological needs: These include; food, shelter, clothing and other needs which
are physiological in nature [basic needs]. He argues that since these needs are
basic, society and our social networks should ensure that they are present. He
says that it this stage there should be a remote urge for satisfaction of intrinsic
values.
The urges he says are emotional.
2. Safety needs: These include; security, stability and structured environment. He
argues that individuals in the community at this stage are expected to pursue job
security, a comfortable working environment, freedom to organize to ensure
continuity of these benefits. The individual in the community cannot develop an
urge for these needs if the basic needs have not been met. At this stage, personal
motivation may include peace of mind which is only possible if the environment
has provided for the safety needs.
3. Relationship needs: Here, he argues that the individual tends to lean towards the
satisfaction of intrinsic values. Relationship needs include, socialization,
affection, love, companionship and friendships. He suggests that an organized
community should provide an environment where these relationships needs can
be met e.g. clubs.
4. Esteem needs: These include, feelings of adequacy competence, independence,
confidence, association and recognition. Here, the individual move more closer
to satisfying the needs that are more personal.
5. Self actualization: He argues that it is most difficult to define and explain self
actualization from the individual point of view. However he says that it is the
development and realization of one's full potential. He challenges community
workers to think of reasons why a rich person after becoming rich would like to
work on bis own without others, to satisfy needs that he sees are more personal.
 He argues that people who pursues self actualization are more accepting of
reality, themselves and others.
He says that organizations requirements may include opportunity for creativity and
growth The community worker should ensure there is a conducive environment for
individual who have reached their peak, to be creative.

Criticism of Maslow's Theory

• People do not only satisfy their needs, especially higher level ones just through
the work situation but also through other areas of their life as well.
• There is a doubt about the time which elapses between the satisfaction of a
lower-level need and the emergence of a higher level need.
• Some rewards or outcomes at work satisfy more than one need not only
one as suggested by Maslow.
• Even if people are in the same level of the hierarchy the motivating factorswill
not be the same because there are many ways in which people may seek
satisfaction of their various needs.
• Maslow viewed satisfaction as the main motivational outcome of behaviour, but
job satisfaction does not necessarily lead to improved work performance.

2. HERZBERG - TWO FACTOR THEORY OF MOTIVATION

Herzberg observed that there are two different sets of factors affecting motivation and work.
These factors include:
a) Hygiene or maintenance factors:- These are factors which in their absence,
dissatisfaction occurs. These factors are related to job context. They are concerned
 with job environment and are extrinsic to the job itself. Hygiene is used here as
analogous to the medical term meaning preventive and environmental. These factors
serve to prevent dissatisfaction.

b) Motivators or growth factors: These are factors which in their presence, serve to
motivate the individual to superior effort and performance. These factors are related
to job content, of the work itself. The strength of these factors will affect feelings of
satisfaction or, no satisfaction but no dissatisfaction.
Herzberg comments that proper attention to the hygiene factors will tend to prevent
dissatsfaction, but does not by itself create a positive attitude or motivation to work; it :rings
motivation up to a zero state.

He says that the opposite of dissatisfaction is not satisfaction but, simply no ^satisfaction.
He comments that to motivate workers to give their best, he manager v.ust give proper
attention to 'motivators or the growth factors".

Herzberg emphasizes that hygiene factors are not a 'second class citizen system'. This is to
say that, they are as important as the motivators but for different reasons. Hygiene factors
are necessary to avoid unpleasantness at work and to deny unfair treatment but the
motivators relate to what people are allowed to do and the quality of human experience at
work [they actually motivate]
Critisism of Herzberg's Theory
Some criticism about Herzberg's theory that suggest doubts about the clarity of
statement OF THE theory include:
• The theory has only limited application to 'manual' workers. It is claimed that
the theory applies least to people with largely unskilled jobs and whose work is
uninteresting, repetitive and monotonous, and limited to scope, yet these are he
people who often present management with the biggest problem of motivation.
• The theory is methodologically bound: It is claimed that the critical incident
method, and the description of events giving rise to good or bad feeling
influence the results.

CLAYTON ALDEFER [E.R.G] -EXISTENCE, RELATEDNESS AND

GROWTH THEORY
He argues that needs are hierarchical in nature just as Maslow, but his hierarchy is
on existence, relatedness and growth. He sees what he calls:-i p Existence needs ' ?
Relatedness needs :'
 Personal growth needs
a) Existence needs: These are needs that are satisfied by material substance or
conditions. It can be equated to Maslow's physiological needs. Just like Maslow he
agrees that existence needs are basic and must be satisfied first.
b) Relatedness needs: He says that they may be satisfied by communication or
exchange and interaction with other individuals. It may be equated to the needs of
relationship by Maslow
c) Personal Growth needs: He argues that they are fulfilled by personal involvement
that uses people's creativity and ability. It can be equated to Maslow's need of self-
actualization.

EXPECTATION THEORY BY VROOM

According to Vroom, this theory aims at specifically work motivation. His theory is :ed
on three variables; valence, instrumentality and expectancy. He found his theory :he idea
that people prefer certain outcomes from their behaviour over others.

They anticipate feelings of satisfaction should the preferred outcome be achieved.

(a) Valence: This is the feeling about specific outcomes. It is the attractiveness
of, or preference for, a particular outcome to the individual. He distinguishes
valence from value by saying that a person may desire an object but then
gain little satisfaction from obtaining it.

Alternatively, he says that a person may strive to avoid an object but finds,
subsequently that it provides satisfaction. From this he says that valence is
the anticipated satisfaction from an outcome while value is the actual
satisfaction provided by an outcome.
(b) Instrumentality: He says that instrumentality is the association between first
level outcomes and the second-level outcomes measured on a range
between+1.0 and -1.0.
He observes that the valence of an outcome derive from the instrumentality.

(i) First-level outcome:- They refer to the quantity of output or to the

comparative level of performance. They are performance-related. Some
people may seek to perform well 'for its sake' and without through to
expected consequences of their actions.
(ii) Second-level outcome:- They are derived through achievement of first-level outcomes,
that is through achieving higher performance. They are need-related. Many need-related
outcomes are dependent upon actual performance rather than effort expended e.g. people
generally receive rewards for what they have achieved, rather than for effort alone or through
trying hard.
Vroom observes that an outcome with a high valence is likely to be one which is perceived
to be instrumental in leading to the achievement of large number of need-related outcomes.

For example, if it is believed that a good work performance [a first-level outcome] always
results in a pay increase [ a second level-outcome], instrumentality will be constant at +10,
but if the person believes a pay increase is certain to be obtained without good performance,
or impossible even with it, instrumentality will be -10.

c) Expectancy: - When a person chooses between alternative behaviours which have

uncertain outcomes, the choice is affected not only by the preference for a particular
outcome but also by the probability that such an outcome will be achieved. People develop a
perception of the degree of probability that the choice of a particular action will actually lead
to the desired outcome. This is expectancy.

Expectancy is the relationship between a chosen course of action and its predicted outcome.
Expectancy relates effort expended to achievement of first-level outcomes. Their value
ranges between 0, indicating zero probability that an action will be followed by the outcome,
and 1, indicating certainty that the action will result in the outcome.

7.2 Importance of Motivation

Satisfaction of need: -needs vary and they involve mangers need, basic needs,
social needs and self-esteem needs
(i) Manager's needs: - This involves building a system of motivation based on
satisfying common needs, keeping it consistent with their experience of man, and
being flexible enough to respond to variations in individual reactions. (ii)
Basic needs: -
These include: food, clothing and shelter which are satisfied
through pay and secure terms of service job continuity.
 (iii) Social needs: - these refer status and group relatedness. Most people crave
for social approval and recognition e.g. promotion, need to relate to other
people, should also be encouraged.
(iv) Self esteem: - This refers to self fulfillment or self actualization. Self
esteem motivation system recognizes the ego needs by encouraging
conformity to acceptable standards of ethics, performance, dress, language
and valuation of merit and promotion
Saturation of basis needs: - Since satisfaction of higher needs will elicit more effort
once basic needs are largely fulfilled, greater rewards mainly applicable to the
satisfaction of basic needs would be ineffective as the needs are already saturated.
Release of work capacity: - People have immense reservoirs of physical and mental
capabilities untapped by employers. When a good motivational system is applied,
this resource will be realized.
Enhancing of the firm's image: - People prefer to work for an organization because
of its glamour. Motivation helps enhance the firm's image e.g. sympathetic
outlook, congenital co-workers, opportunities for growth etc and preferences that
can enhance productivity.

Designing Motivation Packages

sound motivation package must
be:
(i) Productive - it induces subordinates to work efficiently
(ii) Competitive - so that marginal cost - marginal revenue [MC=MR].
(iii) Comprehensive — to reflect those basic and higher needs
(iv) Flexible - in time and respect of individuals

When designing a motivation package there are three factors that have to be
looked a 1. Financial opportunities: - Although money in itself is not a
motivator, workers crave for it because financial independence equates with
personal freedom. To attain this basic value, there should be competitive salary,
low cost insurance, acquisition of an estate, stock purchase etc. It is what a person
does with money that motivates a person to work better.
2. Growth in statute and responsibility: - This is the most important aspect of the
motivational system once financial opportunities have been fulfilled. It is an
 outgrowth of man's desire for status and self development. Opportunities
should be present for individual manager's creativity and innovativeness. The
result for these two must be measurable and the rewards must be immediate
and public e.g. promotion, awards like medals etc.
5. Discipline and morale:- Discipline is achieved both by positive and negative
motivation by induced desired behaviour through rewards and punishments, and is
necessary for the future welfare of an organization. Quality of discipline depends on
faith and leadership.

On morale is the existing conducive environment which performance depends. Morale

will exist when employees see that their personal needs and goals are satisfied by their
organizational environment.

Maintaining Motivation
To maintain motivation levels in organizations the supervisors or managers have to do .
following:-
a) Recognizing achievement: - People usually like to feel important regardless of
the level of their work. A supervisor has to give feedback to the employees
regarding their work and give praise to the consistently good performer.
b) All for growth: - When an individual is motivated and does his or her work
well, more emerging responsibilities should be given to him or her for his
personal growth and the organization's. Staff members should be encouraged
to set their own goals.
c) Rewarding improvements in performance no matter how small. This is
particularly important when an employee is at the first level of maturity.
d) Criticizing the work and not the worker: - When there is need to criticize an
aspect of a person's work, it is the work that should be criticized and not the
staff member, e.g. by indicating that there is something wrong with the task
just finished.

7.3 Challenges of Motivation on CEO

• Frustrations: - These results from actions that do not succeed in obtaining

goals. When a person is frustrated, it is a manager's duty to minimize
frustrating situations in an organization.
 • Conflicts: - These can arise when the individual goals coincide with those
of organization or with those of the department. The consequence of
conflict situations are high turnover, waste, lower productivity, slow
down, lack of innovative and creative behaviour. It is the management's
duty to develop an organizational climate that will produce effective
motivation and satisfaction of these needs.
• Difficulty in changing people's perceptions, values and attitudes towards
certain activities of the organization.
• The degree of an individual's attachment to the desired goal is also a
motivational challenge.
• The strength of motivation
• The level and potency of the need.
• Building trust among the employees
• Job design is also a challenge on motivation.

TOPIC NINE:

MANAGEMENT OF COMMUNITY BASED ORGANIZATIONS

Definition
Management is the process of getting things done through others such as employees in
organization. It requires people to perform the functions of staffing, besides utilizing
resource like money, equipment etc, with the aim of achieving some goals for the of
the organization.

Theories of Management

8.1 Scientific Management Theory

 This was propounded by F.W. Taylor [1856 - 1917]. He was an American engineer.
He founded a movement known as "scientific movement".

According to Taylor and the scientific movement, "the principal object of

management should be to secure the maximum prosperity of each employee".
According to Taylor, the employee's maximum prosperity means his development to
enable him/her perform efficiently in his work besides getting higher wages in return.
He s that an employee's development can take place through a mental revolution in the
employee and change of his or her attitude towards the organization, employer, work
and change colleagues at work.
Taylor saw a state of mutual interdependence between management and workers and
hence the necessity to work together to achieve a common goal. He gave causes
of .antagonism and inefficiency at the work place to include:-
a) The false notion of employees that any increase in output would definitely
create a situation of unemployment
b) 'Systematic soldiering' by employees i.e. each worker restricting his/her
output as a necessary means to protect his/her working interest against the
defective system of management.
c) Inefficient rule of thumb effort-wasting methods of work.

He gave out the solutions to these problems as the application of scientific management
because of two reasons:-
(i) It would offer a systematic study of work to discover the most
efficient
methods of performing the job.
(ii) It would offer a systematic study of management with the objective
ofachieving the most efficient methods of controlling the workers. .
Taylor there are four great principles of management:-
1. The development of a true science of work:- This will be helpful for:
• The worker to know his adequacies versus what is expected of him
• The manager/employer to be able to measure job performance on "daily
task" basis of each worker.
• A proper rewarding scheme.
2. The scientific selection and progressive development of the worker
 3. The bringing together of the science of work and the scientifically selected and
trained men [division of work and responsibility].
4. The constant and intimate cooperation of management and workers to ensure
work is carried out in the prescribed way.

Taylors theory is criticized for being an "inhuman system", reducing workers to the
level of efficiently functioning machines.
8.2 Bureaucratic Theory

This theory was propounded by Max Weber 1864 - 1920. He was a German
sociologist but a layer by qualification. His concern was in bureaucratic
structures in his theory of authority structures. This theory tried to explain why
individuals obeyed commands and people do as they are instructed.
In his explanations for people's obedience to orders, he distinguished power from
authority He says that power is the ability to force people to obey, regardless of
their resistance authority is a situation where orders are voluntarily obeyed by
those commands.
According to Weber, those under authority see it as their role to obey and they see
it as function of those in authority to make them obey.

Weber identifies three types of organizational authority:

1. The charismatic authority:- this kind of authority is held by a person with
exceptional powers or qualities that makes him/her be seen as almost super
human or super natural.
2. The traditional authority:- This kind of authority is based on precedence and
continued usage. A person accepts the orders because that is the way things
have been and will be. There are two types of traditional authority:-
a) Patrimonial - this is a traditional authority system in which
officials are seen and treated as personal servants who are
dependent on the ruler for their remuneration.
b) Feudal - this is where officials are relatively more
autonomous with.
independent sources of income, but retain a traditional
relationship of loyalty to the leader
 3. The rational-legal authority:- This type of authority has made Weber be
known as the “father of bureaucracy”. This is where organizations are well
designed to perform specific functions and thus each, part of the
organization or legal system contributes to the achievement of the corporate
maximum performance. T\\e system is legal \ in that, it "has a system or
rules and procedures through which the authority is exercised.
(According to Weber, a bureaucratic organization is technically the most efficient form of
organizational system. He observes that in a bureaucratic organization,, there is an
arrangement of a series of officials with well-defined and written authority.
Weber gave out the characteristics of a bureaucracy to include:-
• The tasks of the organization are allocated as official duties among the various
positions.
• There is division of labour and a high level of specialization.
• There is a hierarchy of authority
• There are rules and regulations that governs behaviour in the organization.
• Employment is based on qualifications and constitutes a life long career for
the official
• Promotions are based on merits.

8.3 Human Relations Theory

The proponent of this theory is Elton Mayo. He was an Australian who spent most of his
working life at Havard University. He propounded this theory within his five year
investigation of the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company in Chicago 1927-
1932].
He has been referred to as the father of industrial sociology. His research at the Hawthorne
Electric Company used poor and proper lighting. He observed that when \ere was proper
lighting, the output increased as the environment was conducive to spontaneous cooperation.
He also observed groups in the organization and found out that the voluntary groups output
was more. He also experimented with breaks [rest pauses] and observed that where there were
breaks the output was increased and complaints were absent. He came
up with the concept of 'informal groups' as unofficial groups not recognized by
management and which arose due to emotions created by unconducive work environment He
found out that the working group was unhappy and they united against the
management. He also observed that the unhappy group produced little output and
there as no recognition to rules and procedures governing their state of work.
Significance of the Hawthorne Experiment
• The discovery of the existence of informal groups within the formal
organizations.
• The effect of group relationship on motivation and behaviour of individuals in
work place as the "human factor" in the work place.
• It is the management duty to create a conducive work environment to prevent conflicts
in organizations.
• The problem in management and employee communication is due to
inadequate communication system.
• There is need of personnel management in firms.

Management functions

a. Planning: - This is the strategy phase of management process and it is usually adopted
in the light of the forecast. It means making decisions on what to do, how to do it and
when to do it

Steps in Planning
• Self-auditing [determining the present status of organization]
• Surveying the environment
• Setting objectives
• Forecasting the future situation
• Stating actions and resource requirements
• Evaluating proposed actions
• Revising and adjusting the plan in light of control results and changing
conditions.
• Communicating [throughout the planning process]
b. Organizing - This comprises the implementation phase of the execution of the
management process. It is the arrangement of resources in the productive manner
for routing action
 Organizing entails
a) Developing organization charts to design the organization
structure
b) Defining relationships in an organization at different levels
Jon descriptions Steps in Organizing
1) Identify and define work to be performed
2) Break work down into duties
3) Group duties into positions
4) Define position requirements
5) Group position into manageable units
6) Assign work to be performed, and the extent of authority
7) Revise and adjust the organization as appropriate
8) Communicate throughout the organizing process

c. Staffing - This is the process through which the manager chooses competent people
for various positions in the organization. .

Steps in staffing
1) Determine the human resource required both in quality and number
2) Recruit potential employees taking selection from the recruits
3) Train and develop the human resources
4) Revise and adjust the quantity and quality of the human resource
appropriately with the changes in the organization

5) Communicate throughout the staffing process.

d. Directing - This is the process through which the manager provides effective
leadership bring about desired results by positively influencing the productive
employee's behaviour.
Directing entails:-
a) Motivation
b) Coordination
c) Inducing change

e. Controlling - This is the result phase whereby the manager must keep abreast with
egress performance. He/she must ensure progress towards desired goals. Controlling be
accomplished by:-
 1) Establishing systems of report through which feedback of performance and
progress can be obtained.
2) Measuring results by comparing them with the set standards to evaluate them.
3) Taking corrective actions.
Steps in Controlling
• Establishing standards
• Monitoring results and comparing them with standard
• Correcting deviations
• Revising and adjusting control results and changing conditions
• Communicate throughout the controlling process.

8.3 Strategic Planning

This is the use of the SWOTs theory of planning. It is the kind of planning which sets
goals ahead to meet them as planned. Strategy is defined as the formulation of the
basic organization mission, purpose and objective, policies and programmes to be achieved
and ~ methods needed to ensure that organizational ends are obtained. Strategic planning
involves pooling of resources to-wards achieving the set goals on the basis of the
SWOTs theory

Types of Strategies

(i) Retrenchment strategy: - This is the most common strategy in recessionary or

difficult times. It involves the reduction in the level of operation of the
organization, becoming captive to another organization and selling or dissolving
the organization.
(ii) Stability strategy: - This is used when the manager is satisfied with the present
course of action aimed at eliminating weaknesses and maintaining the status
quo. Organizations conditioned to stability strategy, have a difficulty
reactioning to sudden or radical change.
(iii) Growth strategy: - This is followed when the manager is satisfied with the
organization's effort to grow or expand as measured by sales, product line,
number of employees etc.
(iv) Combination strategy:- This involves combining strategies such as:
• Retrench and stability
• Retrench and growth
• Stability and retrench
 • Stability and growth • Growth and retrench
• Growth and stability

Levels of Strategy
(i) Corporate strategy: - This involves strategies at a corporate level, and
SWOTs analysis.
(ii) Business level strategy:- this refers to sources of a particular business
relativeto its composition. It involves:
• Identifying characteristics of each objective or target
• Identifying each target's substance value
• Evaluating the criteria to be used in evaluating the firm's progress towards
the target
• Evaluating the time frame threshold value.

(iii) Functional level: - This serves as a set of guidelines for the employees of
each of the firm's divisions to guide the behaviour of people in a way that
would put the other strategies in motion.

(iv) Matching opportunities with capabilities in pursuit of organizational

objectives.

Advantages of Strategic Planning

1. Strategic planning enables managers to become better decision makers [it enables
them to examine the problems that weaken the company and act on them.
2. Businesses "which practice strategic planning have satisfied employees than those
that do not.
3. It improves communication in an organization, allocation of resources coordination
of individual projects and helps in short range planning such as budgeting.
4. It is a worthwhile tool for better goal achievement which leads to better profit
margin and business survival.
5. It help to anticipate e future problem and opportunities because of the changes in
business organizations.
TOPIC TEN:
ORGANIZING FUNCTION
Meaning of Organizing
• This is the implementation phase or the execution of the management process
• It is the arrangement of resource in the productive manner for executing action.
Organizing defines and arrange the activities needed to accomplish the
objective of the organization and establishes the relationship among various
functions
Basis of Organizing Community Activities
a) Designing structure by developing an organization chart to create major
blocks [departments, minor blocks [sectors], and individual blocks
[positions].
b) Defining relationships between different positions to show who reports to
whom and who controls whom.
c) Position description [job description].
d) Establishing job specification [the human rements . This includes defining
qualities needed for the holder of each position e.g. experience, skills,
qualification, physique etc,

Factors Influencing the Basis of Organizing Communities

These factors also form part of the principle of organization.
1. Unity of Command;- This principle states that each staff should report to only
one boss. There should be a clear line or authority to every individual in the
organization.
2. Control:- The organization should be able to maintain a work force, which
they can monitor the progress and performance.
3. Delegation of responsibility:- This involves assigning new responsibilities to
subordinate and additional authority to carry them out
4. Line of communication; there should be clear lines of communication t all
levels of the organization
5. Line managers and staff:- line managers or people appointed to
submanagement positions by the manager. There should be a clear
distinction between line managers and staff.
6. Flexibility:- The managers must be aware of the change in conditions and
workloads in the organization and they should be able to make the changes in
job duties to accommodate the changing conditions.
Importance of Organizing Development Activities in Society
• Organizing helps in designing activities.
• Organizing helps in establishing a clear line of authority among different individuals in
the organization
• Organizing helps to obtain expertise in a work force through establishing job
specification for each holder of a position [specialization].
 • Organizing also helps in division of work; here, there will be production of better work
from the same effort.
• Organizing provides unity of direction. People will have one specific direction of any
activity with the same objectives,
• Organizing creates some order in the organization both social and material.
• Organizing has a dynamic nature which enables the manager to bring about change
and to absorb and accommodate change as need arises.
• Organizing creates a harmony and unity among members of the organization. Conflicts
will be minimized due to established line of authority, division of labour and job
specialization.
Challenges of Organizing Development Activities

1. External Limitations: - This include legal, ethical, political, moral, social and
economic considerations that make up our society e.g. fair employment practices.
2. Biological challenges: - Human beings do not have the capacity to do certain things.
No member of the organization is expected to do the impossible.
3. Internal challenges:
a) Competence of the organizing manager - this involves the manager's quality of
experience, management and know-how
b) Time available - an organizing manager needs quality time to organize the
activities of the organization e.g. Procedures, performance standards authority etc.
c) Competence and make-up of subordinates - the training possessed by the
subordinates is important because it will make the work of division of work and
specialization easier
d) Nature and importance of activities:- if the activities to be organized are
complicated, highly important and carry critical consequences, the work of
organizing will be slowed down
e) New technology:- The introduction of new technology in the organization can also
limit the work of organization,
f) Cultural diversity of the work force, within the organization can also limit the
organizing work because of organization members will.
 PARTNERSHIP IN CBO'S

Partnership is a relationship that exists between two or more persons jointly carrying
out business with the objective of making a profit. Each of the person is called a
partner z the business is referred to as a firm or an organization. '*»"

In a partnership each partner contributes money, property and labour and in return the
* partners share in the profit and losses of the business.

Types of Partnerships.

1. General partnership - in the general partnership, general partner has

unlimited liability for the firm's debts.
2. Limited partnership - here a limited partner has limited liability in the
partnership.
3. Active partnership - this is a kind of partnership in which the partners share
in every way the capital contribution, management and profit and losses of
the business.
4. Silent partnership - this is a kind of a limited partnership in which the
partners do not participate of the organization.
5. Secret partnership - this involves a partner who participates in the
management of the organization but is not disclosed, to the public as being
a partner.
6. Nominal partnership - this involves a situation in which a person is not one
of the owners of the firm but allows his name to be used in the business.
7. Quasi partnership - this involves a situation in which a person is presented
to the public and contributes to the capital but does not participate in the
management of the business.
8. Minor partnership - this involves a person serving as a partner while in the
under the statutory majority age of eighteen years.
1.2 Strategies of Forming Partnership

I. Focusing Partnership Goals

a) Identify the objectives for service partnerships. The objectives can be
social, economic, financial, physical, political or institutional.
 b) Establish approach to partnership development that contributes to the set
objectives. These approaches can include:-
• Participation and consultation
• Integrated planning at the strategic level
• Financially sound management
• Accountable and transparent actions
• Collaborative and innovative management.
c) Link partnership with other related activities
d) Develop partnership in relation to broader organizations obligations and
functions
• Create a strategic approach
• Agree on priorities through consultative
• Build on lessons of each partner e) Identify other actors, assets and
mechanisms involved in the delivery of service or goods you are interested in.
a) Explore the attributes and roles of actors in the partnership.
b) Identify potential roles and contribution of external actors i.e donors and
international funding agencies, specialist consultants and the customers.
c) Develop appreciation of the different characteristics that partners bring to the partnerships;
• Complementary skills and competencies
• Conflicting attitudes and approaches
d) Design mechanisms for partnering i.e. promoting effective interaction e.g.
• Creating a learning approach
• Ensuring adequate preparation
• Establishing clarity of and commitment to roles• Reviewing and
monitoring partner performance
• Building on assets and differences.
e) Consider the scope and content of the partnership framework, in terms of the
objectives
• Identify key components that respond to objectives
• Include these aspects in the partnership framework
f) Address physical objectives e.g. service coverage, service options and service quality.
g) Address social and political objectives e.g.
• Gender targeting of services and products
• Fair treatment of workers
 • Workers participation and capacity building
• Equity and access to improved services and products h) Address
financial and economic objectives e.g.
• Attracting private capital
• Ensuring effective risk management
• Establishing financial incentives i) Address institutional
objectives e.g.
• Skills transfer
• Technology transfer
• Capacity building
• Decision making structure
j) Consider the factors affecting the way the partnership should be structured k) Agree and
work towards the key principles of partnerships that include;
• Transparency and accountability
• Competition and contestability
• Legitimacy and legality
• Specificity
• Stakeholder participation
• Equity
• Clarity and predictability
• Risk management
• Economic financial and environmental sustainability.
|3. Enhancing capacity to implement partnership
a) Develop understanding of the operation context of the organization e.g. political,
economic, policy and administrative.
b) Develop understanding of the regulatory environment e.g. who is regulating
and what is being regulated.
c) Develop appropriate skills for developing, implementing and sustaining the
objectives.
d) Develop an organizational development strategy to respond to partnership strategy

• Identify key organization factors affecting partnering.

• Identify mechanisms for changes
e) Address management capacities
f) Address procedural constraints
 g) Address financial capacities to ensure strong financial base
and reliable partnership.

9 Impact of Partnership on Community Activities importance

1) Additional source of capital - in partnership a lot of capital will be obtained because each
partner will contribute.
2) Broader management base - each partner has expertise in different areas and this may be
used to increase performance and profitability.
3) Ease of expansion - expansion can be done easily through increasing the size of the
partnership.
4) Sharing of losses and liabilities - partnership enables the partners to share losses and
liabilities reducing the burden on an individual
5) Duration - partnership has longer duration than sole proprietorship because death or
retirement of one partner cannot interrupt the partnership.

Challenges:
1) Unlimited liability - the liability of general partners is unlimited i.e. the partners may be
obliged to pay the debts from their personal resources in case of insufficient assets.
2) Difficulty in decision making - decisions may be difficult to reach because of the partners
with divergent views.
3) Lack of continuity - partnership has limited and uncertain life. It can be terminated easily
if one partner dies or is incapacitated or because of disagreements.
4) Sharing of profits - benefits accruing from personal efforts of individuals in minimized
because profits are shared.
5) Frozen investment - it is difficult for a partner to withdraw his investment while in the
partnership.
Measures:
1) Establish a thorough participative and consultative exercise before
deciding to partner.
2) Develop appreciation of different characteristics that each partner
brings to the partnership.
3) Establish proper communication channels at all levels in the
organization.
4) Promote effective interactions
5) Provide training programs to all partners
6) Work towards key principles of partnership
7) Develop a partnership framework
TOPIC ELEVEN:
CAPACITY BUILDING IN CBOs
'It involves developing an individual's self-confidence and competence to undertake e tasks given.
Competence and confidence increase when people gain experience in organizational management and
acquire new knowledge and skills including capacity to generate knowledge.

10.1 Importance of Capacity Building in CBOs

1) Capacity building develops decision making skills in individuals and executing such
decisions e.g. design and planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation.
2) Capacity building develops new knowledge and skills in problem solving and in
understanding organization management as well as technical tastes related to area of
work. This will provide the individuals capacity to raise financial resources, capacity
to collect analyze and solve problems, the capacity to undertake new development
activities etc.
3) Capacity building also develops a person's confidence and self-concept. These are
psychological constructs that can be simply measured through behavioural
manifestations including new initiatives undertaken and self-ratings abilities. A
person who has developed self-confidence will express price increased strength and
competence.
4) Capacity building enhances new initiatives
5) Capacity building provides new leadership full of strength and competency.
6) Capacity building develops a sense of control of efficacy [I can change any
situation] in individuals.
10.2 Types of Capacity Building

1. Motivation - this is creating morale to do something. Getting somebody do

something. People are motivated through:
 • Giving moral support
• Giving them access to what they want
• Creating transparency and accountability
• Through material support
• Involving them in decision making
2. Mobilization - this involves bringing people together to do something.
Mobilization also involves the assembling of resources which would help in
doing something. Things that are mobilized include:-
• Land
• Money
• People
• Skills• time
Awareness creation - this is giving people knowledge or educating people on issues affecting
them. It can be done through training, provision of reading materials, through use of cinemas,
drama or through meetings. Community participation - this is the involvement of members of a
community in the activities of their development processes. The participation of community
members is important in development because it will give them the .will to develop themselves.

Planning Process in Capacity Building

Planning is the process of developing a framework to achieve organizational goals. A Capacity
building plan will describe what capacity is to be built, by whose capacities it be built, how the
capacity will be built, when the initiative will be undertaken and will pay for the capacity building
process. Capacity building plan requires a careful blend of technical assistance and training.

The plan needs to be designed and implanted well.

Steps in a Capacity Building Plan

1) Being aware of opportunity - this is a self-evaluation step. Find out your weaknesses
and strengths and vision of the future as an organization.
2) Establish objectives - set the organization target or future state of affairs. When
establishing the objectives one has to take into consideration the planning tools such
as time, resources, knowledge, data, and historical background.
3) Establishing plan assumptions - this involves delineation of environment in which
planning takes place such as the management decisions, policies, programs etc.
4) Determination of alternative course of action - this involves identifying and listing
the
 various ways and means of accomplishing the organizations objectives
5) Evaluate the alternative courses
6) Select courses of action - this is the stage at which the plan is adopted by actual
decision-making. One or more alternatives may be chosen.
7) Implementing the plan.

10.3 Impact of Capacity Building in Community Organizations.

• Top management
• Capacity building enables the members of the organization to acquire new knowledge
and skills including capacity to generate new ideas.
• Capacity building develops a sense of self confidence and self-concept that enables the
members of an organization to construct new initiatives and venture into new duties.
• Capacity building increases strength and competence in individuals hence making
them to work better.
• Capacity building leads to autonomy [control over resources and management
decisions] by the management.
• Capacity building develops a team spirit in members of the organization.
• Capacity building develops leadership skills in individuals
• Capacity building encourages changes to take place in the organization.

Challenges
• It is difficult to select a leadership style that will be in line with people's strong beliefs and
abilities.
• Conflicts between management and individuals if not resolved, can hamper capacity
building.
• The changes that take place in organizations can be undesirable.
• There may be little resources that can deter the process of capacity building
• It ineffective methods are used, it would be difficult to get people accept the idea
of capacity building.
TOPIC TWELVE:
CONFLICT IN COMMUNITY BASED ORGANIZATION.
Definition
Conflict refers to a situation or state of things not being right or fine. It indicates a stressful, unhappy,
distressing, depressing, annoying, frustrating state of affairs or even with one self or others. Conflict is an
inherent feature of organizations.

Conflict is not necessarily a bad thing. Properly managed conflict can nave potentially positive outcome. It
can be an energizing and revitalizing force in groups and in

Nature of Conflict.
Conflict occurs when an individual or group experience a decision problem. Conflict is
viewed in .three different types of responses:-
(i) Human conflict [primarily in a grisly or negative sense e.g. war, murder, rape]
(ii) Less violent terms [e.g. tension, bargaining, games, competition etc]

(iii) Positive in attitude e.g. an existing contest or adventure to the unknown.

Two conditions are usually present in all conflict situations:

a) That the people in dispute are associated in such a way that one person can
somewhat influence the other.
b) That the people associated in this way have similar needs which cannot be
completely met. This is a case where people want the same thing, but there
just isn't enough.
Conflict can a/so be viewed as:
a) Competitive conflict - these are conflicts that follow definite rules and are
not typically associated with angry feelings. There is ordinarily a victory for
one side only at the cost of defeat of the other.
b) Disruptive conflict - this kind of conflict involves irrational behaviour and
the use of violent acts. Parties here do not follow a mutually acceptable set
of rules and are not primarily concerned with winning. Instead, their
intention is to harm, defeat, reduce or drive away the opponent. The
atmosphere here is that of stress, anger and fear.

Conflict desirable and Undesirable

Desirability of Conflict
Conflicts have desirable functions too. Conflict can be seen as a constructive force and in
certain circumstances it can be welcomed or even encouraged. It can be an agent for
evolution and for internal and external change. Desirable conflict can lead to the following
positive outcome:

• Production of better ideas

• Stimulation of interest and creativity
• Prevention of stagnation
• Providing a medium through which problems can be aired and solutions arrived at.
• A chance for personal and social change
• Revitalization of existing group norms or helping emergence of new ones.
• Clarification of individual views.
Undesirability of conflict
Conflicts are usually hard to keep in control once they have begun. Once a conflict
escalates to a point which it is no longer under control, it almost yield to negative
results.
These negative results can include:
• People feeling demeaned and defeated
• The distance between people increased
• A climate of mistrust and suspicion develops
• Individuals and groups concentrate on their own narrow interests.
• Resistance developed rather than team work
 • An increase in employee turnover.

Sources of Conflict
• Differences in perception - perception are how we view things. We all view thing
differently. This implies that different people will give different meaning to the same
stimuli and this can lead to conflict.
• Limited resources - such resources include money, material, manpower etc. The desire
to win these resources creates conflicts [a win or lose situation].
• Role-based conflict - different groups may occupy different roles within an
organization that arc inherently antagonistic to each other. In organizations, many jobs
create conflicts by design e.g. finance and production manager.
• Introduction of change - this is caused by resistance to new changes because of various
reasons such as economic, loss of status, loss of power etc.
• Drive for power - this is the urge to get power. An example can be the rivalry between
the training manager and production manager which causes conflict.
• Poorly defined responsibilities — this could arise where two organizational units are
competing over new responsibilities. Poor job description can also easily create such
conflict.
• Organizational climate — an organization's character or personality could create
conflict with its culture and philosophy.
• Aggressive nature of man - biologically man is partly an aggressive and hostile animal.
This aggressive characteristics shows while he seeks expression of aggressive
impulses.
• Clashes of values of interest - those clashes might be union - management, generation
gap [old vs young], interdepartmental [incompatible goals and means], and
interdisciplinary
11.1 Consequences of Conflict

Functional consequences
• Bad elements in a situation may be removed and unity established.
• New leadership may emerge because the former is unsuitable.
• Old goals may be modified or replaced with new ones.
• Conflict may become institutionalized that is outlets may be established so that
people can often "breathe out hot air".
• Motivation and energy available to complete the tasks may be increased and act as
an energizer.
 • Conflict may lead to innovation because of greater variations of interests
ideas and divergent thinking.
• Each member may increase understanding of his/her own position in the group for
better membership role play
• Conflict may satisfy aggressive urges inherent in people.

Dysfunctional consequences
• Mental health of some combatants may be adversely affected.
• Conflict may result to misallocation of organizational resources
• Goals may be distorted with little or no achievements are realized.

Managing Conflict in an Organization

This is the way through which management can attempt to avoid the harmful effects of conflict.
• Isolation - this involves suppression and avoidance of conflict and where there is
no collaboration between parties. It represents a withdrawal from the reality of the
situation. It is normally easier to refrain than to retreat from an argument.
• Peaceful co-existence - this position represents a high degree of collaboration,
usually at the expense of self or group, combined with avoidance and suppression
of conflict. Collaboration here is limited only to the goals and problems on which
the parties 'see eye-to-eye'.

This position is often taken by groups in business and is most frequently applied
where there is a power differential between parties concerned e.g. between boss and
subordinate. In this situation there is emphasis on the extent to which the superior is
perceived as acceptant and encouraging subordinate disagreement. When the norms
of the organization are to avoid destroying the firm, the low power person or group is
seen as having the cooperative or else possibly lace the sack.
• War - total war is a consequence of no collaboration and total confrontation. This
results from the position that it is impossible to agree. Power between the
conflicting parties is usually equal and is used to defeat the other. Ones a war cycle
gets under way, it is usually difficult to intervene. Intervening in

this case can take the form of cooling off the conflicting groups by reducing the
level of confrontation and openness or in other words, trying to achieve an
understanding. Attempts can then be made towards, collaboration and
 communication probably through a third party. Left unchecked, war produces a
winner and a loser but the organization suffers. The loser will engage in
nonproductive activities, will become non-aggressive in his or her statements
and will fail to identify with the goals and objectives of the organization.
• Compromise - comprise take the middle position. Here, conflict is
acknowledged, but trust and collaboration are limited to funding a middle
ground, splitting the difference and maintaining the status quo. When trust and
collaboration are increased, there will emerge a situation of bargaining in good
faith with both parties benefiting.
• Problem-solving - this is the only means of dealing with conflict which
attempts to determine its root cause. Problem solving necessitates the resolving
of basic issues between parties. It entails joining diagnosis. emergent goals and
new and creative situation from which both parties and their organization will
benefit.
The issues which lead to the conflict and the views of the conflicting parties are
viewed objectively to create learning, progress and productivity. This approach
thrives where trust exists. The norms, value and structure of the organization
should permit this approach because it is the meaningful and realistic way of
freedom and democracy.
• Consequences - since different methods and styles of managing conflict have
different consequences it is important that the managers be aware of the
alternatives available, their consequences for the organization, their
appropriateness is different situation and the means of moving from one
position to another.

11.2 Psychological Defensive Responses to Conflict

• Compensation - here the individual devotes himself or herself with a lot of

effort to make up for some feeling or teal imagined inadequacy.
• Displacement - here the spent-up emotions are re-directed towards a person,
idea or object other than primary sources of the emotion, e.g. the staff becomes
angry with the customer after being scolded by the boss.
• Fantasy - this is day-dreaming or other forms of imaginative activity which
provides an escape from reality and crates imagined satisfactions.
 • Identification - this is a situation where an individual identifies with another
person who had previously suffered his misfortunes and internalizes the values
and beliefs of that person.
• Projection - this is whereby the individual attributes his or her undesirable or
unacceptable traits to another e.g. stealing and then accusing a colleague of
committing the offence.
 Rationalization - this is whereby the individual tries to justify his or her undesirable
behaviour, beliefs or statements by providing acceptable explanations to them.
 Reaction formation - this involves the suppression of unacceptable urges and instead
forming and expressing with considerable force, behaviour that are acceptable.
 Regression - this is a situation where an individual returns to an earlier and less mature
level of adjustments in the face of frustration [facing problems as you used to do when
you were a child].
 Repression - this is completely excluding from ones thoughts feelings and experiences
which are psychologically disturbing because they arouse a sense of anxiety.
 Withdrawal - this is completely leaving the field in which frustration anxiety or conflict
is experienced either psychologically or physically
 TOPIC THIRTEEN:

POWER AND POLITICS IN COMMUNITY BASED ORGANIZATIONS

12.1 Nature of Power and Politics.

Power — this is the capacity of one party to influence another party at a given point in
time. In politics, the political influence will be dependent upon the type of power that the
political leader can exercise over the followers. Power can be used in so many different
ways due to its flexibility:-
(i) The term may refer to the agent's influence over a single target person or over
multiple target persons,
(ii) Sometimes the term power refers to potential influence over things or events
as well as attitudes and behaviour,
(iii) Sometimes the power agent [the holder of the power] is a group
ororganization rather than an individual.
(iv) Sometimes power is defined in relative rather than absolute term, meaning that,
it is the extent to which the agent has more influence over the target than the
target has over the agent
. Characteristics of Power
• Power is flexible - it can be used in many different ways.
• Power is dynamic - it changes as conditions change
• The source of power is based o the perception of the subordinates on the
influence of the leader.
• Power is target-oriented - it has specific targets.
• Power has time duration - there is a time limit to a person exercising his
influence over others.
• Power has objectives — the person who exercises power usually has influence
objectives [what he/she wants to achieve by exercising that power].

12.2 Sources of Power

Within an organization, leadership influence will be dependent upon the type of power that
the leader can exercise over the follower. Five main sources of power upon which the
influence of this leader is based have been identified. They are also seen as types of power.
 1) Reward power - this is based on the perception of a subordinate that the leader
controls important resources and rewards desired by the subordinate. The
reward power depends normally on a manager's actual control over resources
and rewards, but also on the target person's perception that the agents have the
capacity and willingness to follow through on promises. Form of reward
power over subordinates include, promotion, pay rise, recognition, increased
responsibilities, granting of privileges, praise etc.
2) /'Coercive power [scrooge power] - it is based on fear and the subordinates 1
perception that the leader has the ability to punish or to bring about
undesirable outcomes for those who do not comply, with directives for
example, withholding pay rise, promotion or privileges, allocation of
undesirable duties or responsibilities withdrawal of support or friendship or
dismissal.
3) Legitimate power - this is based on the subordinates perception that the leader
has a right to exercise influence because of the leader's role or position in the
organization. It is based on authority. It is also referred to position power
because it is based on the role of the leader in the organization and not the
nature of a person's relationship with others.
4) Referent power [personal power] - it is based on the subordinate's
identification with the leader. The leader exercises influence because of
perceived attractiveness, personal characteristics, reputation or charisma.
5) Expert power - it is based on the subordinate's perception of the leader as
someone who is competent and who has some special knowledge or expertise
in a given area, e.g. we accept the advice of lawyers because we believe that
they are experts in legal matters.

12.3 Political Tactics

1. Rational persuasion — here the leader uses logical arguments and factual evidence
to show a proposal or request is feasible and relevant for attaining important task
objective. The success of this tactic depends on the target perception of the leader
as the credible and trustworthy source of information inferences and predictions.
2. Apprising — this is a situation whereby the leader explains to the subordinates or
target how carrying out a request or supporting a proposal will benefit the target
personally or help advance the target's career.
3. Inspirational appeal - this is a tactic in which the leader makes an appeal to values
and ideals or seeks to arouse the target person's emotion to gain commitment for a
request or proposal.
4. Consultation - the leader encourages the target to suggest improvements in
proposal or to help plan an activity or change for which the target person's support
and assistance are desired.
5. Exchange - here the leader offer incentive, suggests an exchange of favours or
indicates willingness to reciprocate at a later time if the target will do what the
leader wants.
6. Collaboration - here the leader offers to provide relevant resources and assistance if
the target carry out a request or approves a proposed change.
7. Personal appeals - the leader asks the target to carry out a request or support a
proposal out of friendship or asks for a personal favour before saying what it is.
8. Ingratiation - here the leader uses praise and flattery before or during an influence
attempt or expresses confidence in the target's ability to carry out a difficult task.
9. Legitimating tactics - the leaders seeks to establish the legitimacy of a request or to
verify authority to make it by referring to rules, formal policies or official
documents.
10. Pressure - here the leader uses demands, threats, frequent checking or persistent
reminders to influence the target person.
11. Coalition tactics - here the leader seeks to aid of others to persuade the target to do
something or uses the support of others as a reason for the target to agree.
12.4 Acquisition and Effective use of Power

There are two theories that explain how power is acquired and lost
1. Social Exchange Theory:- By Hallender [1958, 1979] and Jacobs [1970]
They assert that member expectations about what leadership role a person should have
in the group are influenced by the person's loyalty and demonstrated competence.

They say that the amount of power accorded to a person relates to his or her
contribution in the organization compared with others contribution. The contribution
may involve, control cover scarce resources, access to vital information or skill in
dealing with tactical problems. They emphasizes that a person who has shown value
judgement gains "idiosyncrasy credits" in which he or she is allowed to break from
the organization's norms. They also explain here that when a person's innovation is
successful, the group will develop trust in the person and even accord him more status
and influence.

When a leader's proposal leads to failure, then the negative results will be great
especially if the failure is due to poor judgement or incompetence. They also say that
when a leader acts for his personal gains rather than for the groups, then the failure
leads to greater blame. They say that the extent of a leader's loss of status after the
failure depends on how serious the failure is.

The social exchange theory asserts that innovation is very important to deal with serious
problems and obstacles and where there is lack of innovation; there will be loss of esteem and
influence. Social exchange theory emphasizes expert power and authority and other forms of
power do not receive much attention.

2. Strategic Contingencies Theory

This theory explains how some organizational sub-units gain or lose power to influence
important decisions such as selection of chief executive, determination of the organization's
competitive strategy and the allocation of resources among sub-units and activities. The
theory explains that the power of a sub-unit depends on three factors.
a. Expertise in coping with important problems
b. Centrality of the sub unit within the work force.
c. The extent to which the sub units expertise is unique rather than substi tutable.

The theorist explains that all organizations must cope with critical contingencies especially
technological problems and problems of adapting to different environmental changes. They
explain that successful solution to these problems will be a source of expert power for sub
units as well as for individuals in the organization, they say that the opportunity to show
expertise and gain power from it is important to sub units than solving the critical problem.

They say that a problem is critical if it is essential for the survival and prosperity of the
organization. They say that a person or group will gain more expert power if there is no one
else who can solve the critical problem in the organization. They observed that increased
expert power can result to increased legitimate power because people with valuable expertise
are likely to be appointed or elected to positions of authority.

Most experts agree that power tactics are a moral i.e. all types of power can be used for
good or bad. Greene and Elffers [1998] offers numerous examples of uses and abuses of
power in their book the 48 laws of power. Examples include:
Law 1 - never outshine the master. Bosses never like their subordinates to look better than
they do so do not outshine them.
Law 11 — learn to keep people dependent on you.
Law 16 - use absence to increase respect and honour.
Law 33 - discover each person's thumbscrew [weakness]
Law 42 - strike the shepherd and the sheep will scatter, take on the most powerful
person in the group and others will fear. . .
Law 46 - never appear too perfect.

LEGITIMIZING USE OF POWER

This involves making the use of power legitimate or right. It involves:
(i) Gaining more formal authority
(ii) Using symbols of authority
(iii) Getting people to acknowledge authority
(iv) Exercising authority regularly
.
(v) Following proper channels in giving orders.
(vi) Being sensitive to targets concern
(vii) Using punishments that are legitimate .
(viii) Informing the targets of rules and penalties
(ix) Keeping promises
(x) Not exceeding scope of authority
(xi) Explaining the reasons for a request
(xii) Making polite clear requests.
3. Trends in Technology
High technology especially the introduction of computers are ne ways of development that
different organizations must adopt to effectively achieve their goals.
Technology involves:
(i) The decline of traditional incentives with increased popularity of financially
rewarded careers:- the once respected incentives that encouraged people to
work, especially money and fear will be a thing of the past as people will
intend to have challenging jobs and jobs full of responsibility as elements of
career satisfaction. College enrollment in Arts and humanities will decline as
 students will prefer professional careers such as business and engineering
which are motivated by higher financial rewards.
(ii) Increased competition for promotions, but more flexibility in work positions
because of increased competition opportunities for promotions will decline and
therefore greater flexibility will be needed to accommodate people in these
positions. Such flexibilities will include; job sharing, flexible working hours,
part-time work and work-at-horne schedule.
(iii) More ability and need to centralize decisions, but more pressures to
decentralize. The use of computers and electronic technologies give managers
easy access to information and ability to process the information quickly and
efficiently. This however places employees in tightly controlled performance
standards. Pressures for greater employee participation and rights of self
determination will be generated with greater force.
(iv) Continued progress of Women at Work but lingering inequality in pay and
other benefits.
(v) More people will be working, but unemployment will still be higher. There
will be increased employment opportunities in technical areas but
unemployment will be high due to increased use of these technologies.
Mampeople will remain underemployed or working in jobs they have little
training in.

4. Trends in Conflict
Conflict is inevitable in all organizations. This is because mankind has innumerable and
changing needs. If one power system is destroyed, another emerges; if authority is
eradicated, men will compete for precedence.
There will always be some form of dissatisfaction, scarcity of commodities whether it be
money, power, prestige, love etc that will continue to set man against man.

Conflicts will still emerge in areas such as:

• Working conditions
• Mode of payments
• Changes in organizations
• Number of hours of work etc.
5. Trends in Management
The current and future managers' phase so many challenges that the pioneers
management did not face in their time. Certain conditions facing managers today are:
(i) Managers must make decisions with incomplete decisions.
(ii) Communication in organizations is usually not clear and is often misleading
(iii) Individual differences undermine clear and smooth organization.
programmes,
(iv) Managers need controls, but light controls also destroy the motivation employees
Top administrators often reject innovative ideas because they are a threat philosophies
or practices adhered to for years.
It is also viewed that the functions of management will be contingency-based. 1 approach
includes all situational factors including economic environment and technoloj
• Planning and decision-making - Planning and decision making in future v be
demanding because of the frequency and intensity of the changes tl managers
will be confronting.
• Organizing - The best organizational design is one which is in line with i
organization's objectives, technology, environment and managerial desig The
future manager will therefore have to utilize multiple and changi designs to
achieve the organization's objectives.
• Controlling - The future manager will time and again be confronted by 1 need
to evaluate the costs and benefits of each control. The future manaj; will have
to be more efficient and effective in this function in order to achie good
performance.
• Directing - it has been established that there is no one best way to direct,
motivate or to communicate. Future managers must be trained in flexibility fit
each situation.

6. Trends in Organizational Culture

Culture is a unique system of beliefs, perception and language symbols that influence
behaviour of a given population. It is difficult to distinguish an individual from his/r
cultural context. People tend to be very protective of their cultural identity and this will
continue even in future.

It is important for managers to recognize the aspect of culture in organization, it is even

very important for international managers who wish to benefit from favorat relationships
 with people of different cultures. Future managers will need to be sensitive to the fact that
people see and do thin differently. A sincere attempt to honour and recognize other
people's culture cultural sensitivity] is an aspect that can be learned.

Present and future managers have to learn to be culturally sensitive starting with respect of
one's language. Strategic planning and control are very important in international
management because geographically dispersed operations exaggerate differences.
7. Trends in Organizational Change
Organizational change is the planned attempt by management to improve the
performance of individuals, groups and organizations by altering structure,
behaviour technology.
Management of change is a systematic process divided into sub-processes or ; logically linked
in a sequence. The forces for change may be externally generate internally generated. The
forces of change within the organization can be trace processes and people. Future managers
will have to face the challenge of establish better ways of managing change in organizations.
The three types of changes that will have to look at include:
• Structural change
• Behavioural change
• Technological change

Changes in these three areas can lead to improvements for the organizations as a wl individuals
and groups. Changes in one element will affect changes in other elerr and this is why future
managers will have to be very carefully in establishing strategies for managing change. They
will have to remember that the change technique chosen will be affected b> leadership climate,
the formal organization structure and the organizational culture.

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Prof. F.N. KIBERA, 1996, INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS. A Kenyan

Perspective. Kenya Literature Bureau, Nairobi.
GoK, Republic of Kenya, 1991, Kenya Gazette supplement Acts 1991,
NGO's COORDINATION ACT, Government Printer, Nairobi.

Nike .0. Donnell, 1997, Introduction to Sociology, fourth edition, London,

Britain.
Janelle Plummer, 2002, focusing Partnerships, Earthscan Publishers,
UK. Oneko Chitere and Robert Mutiso, 1991, WORKING WITH
RURAL COMMUNITIES, A Participatory Research Perspective in
Kenya, Nairobi. Oneko Chitere, 1994, COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT, Its conception and practice with emphasis on Africa,
Gideon S. Were Press, Nairobi.
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