Fuel 82 (2003) 1311–1315

www.fuelfirst.com

Exhaust emissions from a Diesel engine fueled with transesterified

waste olive oilq
M.P. Doradoa,*, E. Ballesterosb, J.M. Arnalc, J. Gómezc, F.J. Lópezd
a
Department of Mechanics and Mining, University of Jaén, EUP of Linares, C.Alfonso X el Sabio 28, Linares (Jaén) 23700, Spain
b
Department of Physical and Analytical Chemistry, University of Jaén, EUP of Linares, C.Alfonso X el Sabio 28, Linares (Jaén) 23700, Spain
c
Department of Mechanization, Junta de Andalucı́a, CIFA ‘Alameda del Obispo’, Apdo. 3092, Córdoba 14080, Spain
d
Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Córdoba, ETSIAM, Avda. Menéndez Pidal s/n, Córdoba 14080, Spain
Received 28 November 2002; revised 8 January 2003; accepted 28 January 2003; available online 3 March 2003

Abstract
The exhaust emissions of a Diesel direct injection Perkins engine fueled with waste olive oil methyl ester were studied at several steady-
state operating conditions. Emissions were characterized with neat biodiesel from used olive oil and conventional Diesel fuel. Results
revealed that the use of biodiesel resulted in lower emissions of CO (up to 58.9%), CO2 (up to 8.6%, excepting a case which presented a 7.4%
increase), NO (up to 37.5%), and SO2 (up to 57.7%), with increase in emissions of NO2 (up to 81%, excepting a case which presented a slight
reduction). Biodiesel also presented a slight increase in brake-specific fuel consumption (lower than 8.5%) that may be tolerated due to the
exhaust emission benefits. Combustion efficiency remained constant using either biodiesel or Diesel fuel. The proposed alternative for Diesel
fuel could significantly decrease the enormous amount of waste frying oil, furthermore becoming less dependent on fossil oil imports and
decreasing environmental pollution.
q 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Biodiesel; Pollution; Used frying oil

1. Introduction provides a fuel that can be utilized in unmodified Diesel

engines.
Alternative fuels for Diesel engines have become Moreover, several approaches have found that this new
increasingly important due to increased environmental fuel seems to emit far less of the most regulated pollutants
concerns, and several socioeconomic aspects. In this than standard Diesel fuel, among them is CO2. That means
sense, vegetable oils and animal fats represent a promising biodiesel contributes to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
alternative to conventional Diesel fuel. However, several compared to conventional Diesel [7 –11]. Also, the use of
chemical properties of oils and fats, among them are the biodiesel results in substantially lower emissions of
high viscosity and high molecular weight, cause poor fuel carcinogenic compounds, as compared to conventional
atomization and low volatility, leading to incomplete Diesel fuel. In this sense, Ryu et al. [12] found that methyl
combustion and severe engine deposits, injector coking soyate inhibits contamination by microorganisms, while
and piston ring sticking [1]. Research has shown that one bacteria presence increases in distillate water as well as in
way to improve the fuel properties of oils and fats is their Diesel fuel.
In other sense, nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide are
transesterification [2 – 6]. Transesterification is a chemical
very important in polluted air. Collectively designated
reaction which refers to the conversion of an organic acid
NOx, regionally high NO2 concentrations can cause severe
ester into another ester of the same acid, so-called biodiesel,
air quality deterioration. Practically all anthropogenic NOx
using an alcohol, in the presence of a catalyst. This process
enters atmosphere as a result of the combustion of fossil
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 34-953-026561; fax: þ 34-953-026508. fuels. Most NOx entering the atmosphere from pollution
E-mail address: [email protected] (M.P. Dorado). sources does so as NO generated from internal combus-
q
Published first on the web via Fuelfirst.com—http://www.fuelfirst.com tion engines. Like carbon monoxide, NO attaches to
0016-2361/03/$ - see front matter q 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0016-2361(03)00034-6
1312 M.P. Dorado et al. / Fuel 82 (2003) 1311–1315

hemoglobin and reduces oxygen transport efficiency. 2. Methods and equipment

However, the concentration of nitric oxide normally is
much lower than that of carbon monoxide so that the 2.1. Fuel description
effect on hemoglobin is much less [13]. Moreover,
Mittelbach and Tritthart [14] observed lower emissions Waste olive oil was collected from several Spanish
after the use of waste frying oil methyl ester, excepting hospital kitchens and filtered from solid impurities using a
NOx values which were higher compared with reference 27 mm diameter, paper no. 1305 from ALBET (Filtros
US-2D fuel. Anoia SA, Barcelona, Spain). Only hospital fryers were
Acid rain, caused by the deposition on the earth’s used as a source for uniformity reasons. The used oil was
surface of aqueous acids such as SO2, is mostly due to transesterified using methanol in the presence of KOH.
industrial operations and fossil fuel combustion. As a Waste olive oil methyl ester (100%) was used for the
result of its widespread distribution and effects, acid rain emission test. Some fuel properties of both used olive oil
is an air pollutant that may pose a threat to the global methyl ester and European Fatty Acid Methyl Ester
atmosphere [13]. (FAME) standard draft (prEN 14105) are shown in
According to economic reasons, used frying oil is also Table 1.
an interesting feedstock for biodiesel production [14,15].
In fact, in Spain, edible vegetable oil consumption is 2.2. Equipment
approximately 600,000,000 l/year. Most of this oil (70%)
is olive oil and is primarily used for deep-frying processes The fuel tests were performed with a 2500 cm3, three
[6]. According to the INE (Spanish National Institute of cylinder, four-stroke, water-cooled, 18.5:1 compression
Statistics) about 74,000,000 l of waste olive oil is ratio, direct injection Diesel engine Perkins AD 3-152.
collected per year, which is an approximate value since The maximum torque was 162.8 Nm at 1300 rpm, and the
most of the household waste frying oil is thrown through maximum engine power was 34 kW at 2250 rpm (DIN
the drainage. In this sense, transesterification of waste 6270-A). The engine was not new but reconditioned to
olive oil to produce biodiesel could decrease the waste original specifications.
disposal problem. In order to measure the emissions, combustion
Although several approaches have described the use of efficiency (comb. eff.) and BSFC during operation, the
biodiesel from vegetable oils or animal fats [2 – 5,7– 9], actual driving conditions on the road were simulated on
research concerning biodiesel from used frying oil, and the dynamometer. The engine dynamometer was an
from waste olive oil in particular, is insufficient, and electric Froment testing device (model XT200), with
nonexistent, respectively, and more research is needed. maximum engine power of 136 kW and ^ 1.44 kW of
In this sense, the aim of this work is to carry out a accuracy at 100% of the engine speed (reported by the
preliminary emission test of a Diesel direct injection engine National Institute of Agricultural Engineering, UK), as
fueled with biodiesel from waste olive oil at several steady- described by Dorado et al. [15]. The fuel was metered by
state operating conditions. Emissions data includes carbon a positive displacement gear type sensor, using a Froment
monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), oxides of nitrogen Electronic Fuel Flow Monitor (FM502), as described by
(NO, NO2 and NOx) and sulfur dioxide (SO2). This paper Dorado et al. [15].
also reports on the effect of waste olive oil methyl ester upon The engine speed was measured by the Froment testing
combustion efficiency and brake-specific fuel consumption device and monitored electronically to the nearest 5 rpm.
(BSFC). Data at a number of atmospheric conditions were collected

Table 1
Fuel properties of waste olive oil methyl ester and European FAME standard draft (prEN 14105)

Chemical property Method prEN 14105 Waste olive oil methyl ester

Density at 15 8C (kg/m3) EN ISO 3675 860–900 882.3

Kinematic viscosity at 40 8C (mm2/s) ASTM D445 p IP-71 p BS188 3.5–5.0 5.29
Flash point (8C) ASTM-D-2709 .101 169
Cetane index ASTM-D-4737/96a .51.0 58.7
Iodine value UNE 55.013 ,120–125 78
Cold filter plugging point (8C) IP-309/96 – 29
Cloud point (8C) ASTM-D-2500 – 22
Pour point (8C) ASTM-D-97 – 26
Gross heating value (MJ/kg) ISO 1928 – 39.67
 M.P. Dorado et al. / Fuel 82 (2003) 1311–1315 1313

in order to correct the BSFC and power, following the SAE while each parameter was measured and recorded, during
standard J1349 (June 1983). the last 3 min of each running step.
Emission tests were carried out with a portable pollution A first test was run with straight Diesel fuel at the
emissions monitor, model 9950, from Teledyne Brown beginning, followed by the waste oil methyl ester test run, in
Engineering, USA. It consists of a stainless steel probe order to compare exhaust emissions and BSFC with the two
which is connected to a monitor by a flexible hose. Once the fuels. Engine tests were run on the same engine and same
autozero is completed, the probe can be inserted into the day, in order to have almost the same atmospheric
sample stream. The model incorporates advanced micro- conditions within the three repetitions of each test.
processor technology which provides a menu-driven inter- To gain knowledge about the implications of the results,
face with all functions through front panel controls and a several statistical tests were performed. This process
large LCD display. The model provides an emission statistically compared each of the tested parameters between
analysis with an accuracy of better than ^ 3% of full used olive oil methyl ester and Diesel fuel.
scale. It measures SO2, O2, CO, NOx (NO þ NO2) and
calculates the concentration of CO2.
In addition, it also allows to calculate the net combustion 3. Results and discussion
efficiency. Combustion efficiency was calculated using the
indirect method which relies on knowing the heat value, 3.1. Emissions tests
measuring the waste heat in the exhaust gas, and attributing
the difference to lost efficiency. The equation for combus- Results concerning percent changes in emissions of the
tion efficiency is determined as follows Perkins engine fueled with used olive oil methyl ester
compared to Diesel fuel are shown in Fig. 1. The graph
100ðHfuel 2 Hexhaust gas Þ show percent changes as the ordinate and the step number of
Percent Efficiency ¼ ð1Þ
HVfuel the emissions test plan as the abscissa. These data show a
significant reduction in CO (up to 58.9%), CO2 (up to 8.6%,
where H is enthalpy, defined as energy þ (pressure £
excepting step no. 2, which presented a 7.4% increase), NO
volume), and HV is the maximum heat available from
(up to 37.5%) and NOx (up to 32%) for used olive oil methyl
burning the fuel. The Hexhaust gas is determined as follows
ester compared to Diesel fuel. Results showed also a
HCO2 þ HH2 O þ HSO2 þ HO2 þ HN2 significant reduction in SO2 (up to 57.7%), because
Hexhaust gas ¼ ð2Þ biodiesel contains little sulfur compared to Diesel fuel, as
w
found by Chang et al. [8] and Scharmer [10]. A reduction in
where w is the molecular weight of the fuel. SO2 emissions decreases the acid rain risk. However, NO2
increased up to 81%, excepting step no. 4, where presented a
2.3. Emission tests slight reduction. Reduction in CO2 emissions has an
immediate and positive impact on greenhouse gas emissions
The engine test cycle was tailored after the ‘8-mode reduction.
cycle’ for engine dynamometer operation, according to ISO In contrast to previous investigations with biodiesel
8178-4, approved by the current EU guidelines that forms from used frying oil [8,10,14], it is important to notice the
the legislative base for emissions standards [16]. Emissions NOx (NO þ NO2) emissions reduction. Although, it was
test plan adapted to Diesel engine Perkins AD 3-152 is observed a high increase in NO2 emissions compared to
shown in Table 2. Each running step was held for 10 min NO reduction. This is due to the bigger absolute values of
until exhaust emissions were stabilized and maintained NO emissions compared to those of NO2. Also, NOx
emissions are determined by oxygen concentration,
combustion temperature and time. While oxygen concen-
Table 2 tration increases up to 17.6%, however, combustion
Test plan for emissions test
temperature (stack temp. in Fig. 2) remained almost
Step number Engine speed ^1%a Load% ^ 2%a constant. This could be the explanation for the lower
(equivalence in rpm) (equivalence in Nm) exhaust NOx levels; however, more research is needed. In
this sense, it is important not to forget that this is the first
1 Rated (2390) 100 (530) time for biodiesel from waste olive oil to be tested so
2 Rated (2390) 75 (370)
results can differ from those using used frying oils from
3 Rated (2390) 50 (247)
4 Rated (2390) 10 (80) other origins. NO production is favored by high
5 Medium (1330) 100 (560) temperatures and by high excess oxygen concentrations.
6 Medium (1330) 75 (420) Unfortunately, a reduction of flame temperature to prevent
7 Medium (1330) 50 (281) NO formation decreases the efficiency of energy conver-
8 Low idle (600) –
sion, as calculated by the Carnot equation [13]. Low-
a
Allowed accuracy. excess-air firing is effective in reducing NOx emissions
1314 M.P. Dorado et al. / Fuel 82 (2003) 1311–1315

Fig. 1. Percent changes in exhaust emissions of a Perkins engine fueled with used olive oil methyl ester compared to Diesel fuel. No data were collected in steps
no. 1 and 5 for SO2 emissions. Percent change in NOx (NO þ NO2) indicates a decrease in NOx emissions using waste olive oil methyl ester instead of Diesel
fuel, while NO2 presents a generalized significant increase compared to NO reduction. This is due to the bigger absolute values of NO emissions compared to
those of NO2.

during the combustion. However, incomplete fuel burnout 3.2. Effect of used olive oil methyl ester on BSFC and
with the emission of hydrocarbons, soot, and CO appear. combustion efficiency
In addition, statistical analysis using the Kolmogorov
and Smirnov method showed that data are sampled from As shown in Fig. 1, the oxygen concentration increased
populations that follow Gaussian distributions. Also, the up to 17.6%, thus providing more oxygen for combustion.
unpaired t-test showed that emissions differences between Combustion efficiency did not drop during testing and
biodiesel from used olive oil and Diesel fuel were not remained almost constant using either used olive oil methyl
significant, except results concerning CO and NO2 which ester or Diesel fuel. The engine was efficient with both used
were considered significant and very significant, olive oil methyl ester and Diesel fuel.
respectively. Results revealed a slight increase in BSFC, lower than
At this point, it is important to notice that the Perkins 8.5%, as shown in Fig. 2. However, this little increase may
Diesel engine used is old and rather different from new be tolerated due to the exhaust emission benefits. In
‘state of the art’ engines that have much lower emissions. addition, statistical analysis showed no significant BSFC
For this reason, this work not includes the actual exhaust and combustion efficiency differences between biodiesel
emissions values, because our main target was to give a from used olive oil and Diesel fuel. Engine performance of
broad indication of the benefits of the approach adopted in used olive oil methyl ester was similar to Diesel fuel and no
this paper. changes in operation were noticed. However, the exhaust
 M.P. Dorado et al. / Fuel 82 (2003) 1311–1315 1315

Fig. 2. Percent changes in combustion efficiency and BSFC of a Perkins engine fueled with used olive oil methyl ester compared to Diesel fuel.

gases had a slightly different odor, and a slight fried food [5] Zhen D, Hanna MA. Preparation and properties of methyl esters of
smell was detected. beef tallow. Bioresour Technol 1996;57:137 –42.
[6] Dorado MP, Ballesteros E, de Almeida JA, Schellert C,
Smoke emissions were visually observed and appeared
Löhrlein HP, Krause R. An alkali-catalyzed transesterification
extremely low. We can conclude from this field trial that used process for high free fatty acid waste oils. Trans ASAE 2002;45(3):
olive oil methyl ester can provide an alternative to Diesel fuel 525–9.
from fossil origin that significantly decreases most of the [7] Ali Y, Hanna MA. Alternative diesel fuels from vegetable oils.
regulated exhaust emissions. To prove the quality of this fuel, Bioresour Technol 1994;50(2):153– 63.
however, a long term engine test is required. [8] Chang DYZ, Van Gerpen JH, Lee I, Johnson LA, Hammond EG,
Marley SJ. Fuel properties and emissions of soybean oil esters as
diesel fuel. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1996;73:1549 –55.
Acknowledgements [9] Peterson C, Reece D. Emissions characteristics of ethyl and methyl
ester of rapeseed oil compared with low sulfur diesel control fuel in a
Special thanks are given to Delegación Provincial de la chassis dynamometer test of a pickup truck. Trans ASAE 1996;39(3):
Seguridad Social de Córdoba (Spain), which provided the 805–16.
[10] Scharmer K. Biodiesel from set-aside land. A story of success?
waste vegetable oil samples for testing; to REPSOL-YPF
Sustainable agriculture for food, energy and industry. London: James
that performed analytical analysis to determine biofuel & James; 1998. p. 844 –48.
specifications; to CIFA ‘Alameda del Obispo’, and to [11] McDonnell K, Ward S, Leahy JJ, McNulty P. Properties of rapeseed oil
Teledyne Analytical Instruments for their efficient and kind for use as a Diesel fuel extender. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1999;76:539– 43.
technical support. [12] Ryu D, Katta SK, Bullerman LB, Hanna MA, Gennadios A. Viability
in methyl soyate of microbial contaminants from farm fuel storage
tanks. Trans ASAE 1996;39:2001 –4.
References [13] Manahan SE. Environmental chemistry, 7th ed. London/Boca Ratón,
FL: Lewis/CRC Press; 2000, chapter 11.
[1] Bagby MO. Vegetable oils for diesel fuel: opportunities for [14] Mittelbach M, Tritthart P. Diesel fuel derived from vegetable oils, III.
development. ASAE Paper No. 87-1588. St Joseph, MI: ASAE; 1987. Emission tests using methyl esters of used frying oil. J Am Oil Chem
[2] Peterson CL, Reece DL, Cruz R, Thompson J. A comparison of ethyl Soc 1988;65(7):1185 –7.
and methyl esters of vegetable oil as diesel fuel substitute. Liquid-fuels [15] Dorado MP, Arnal JM, Gómez J, Gil A, López FJ. The effect of a
from renewable resources. Proceedings of Alternative Energy Con- waste vegetable oil blend with diesel fuel on engine performance.
ference. American Society of Agricultural Engineers; 1992. p. 99–110. Trans ASAE 2002;45(3):519– 23.
[3] Isigigür A, Karaosmanoglu F, Aksoy HA. Methyl ester from safflower [16] Directive 97/68/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of
seed oil of Turkish origin as a biofuel for diesel engines. Appl 16 December 1997 on the approximation of the laws of the Member
Biochem Biotechnol 1994;45:103 –12. States relating to measures against the emission of gaseous and
[4] Muniyappa PR, Brammer SC, Noureddini H. Improved conversion of particulate pollutants from internal combustion engines to be installed
plant oils and animal fats into biodiesel and co-product. Bioresour in non-road mobile machinery. Official Journal of the European
Technol 1996;56:19–24. Communities 27 February 1998;41:L 59/86.