Electrical Machines - 1

Electrical Machines -1
Lecture Notes
Prepared By
Prof.K.Subhas
Director, Department of EEE
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Malla Reddy College of Engineering & Technology

Maisammaguda, Dhullapally, Secunderabad-500100
2021-22
CONTENTS
Syllabus:
UNIT-I: D.C GENERATORS
UNIT-II: D.C. MOTORS
UNIT-III: TESTING OF D.C. MACHINES
UNIT-IV: SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS
UNIT-V: TESTING OF TRANSFORMERS AND POLY-PHASE
TRANSFORMERS
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
II YEAR B.Tech EEE –I SEM L/T/P/C
3/0/0/3
(R20A0202) ELECTRICAL MACHINES - I
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
1. To understand the basic working principle, constructional details and operational features of DC
Generators.
2. To study and understand the various characteristics DC Generators.
3. To learn the various methods of speed control of DC Motors.
4. To introduce the concept of regulation and its calculations.
5. To learn the concepts of single phase and three phase transformers
circuits UNIT – I
D.C GENERATORS: Principle of operation - constructional features - Action of commutator –
armature windings – lap and wave windings – simplex and multiplex windings – use of laminated
core – E. M.F Equation – Problems, Armature reaction – Cross magnetizing and de-magnetizing
AT/pole – compensating winding - Commutation – reactance voltage – methods of improving
commutation. Methods of Excitation – separately excited and self- excited generators – build-up of
E.M.F - critical field resistance and critical speed - causes for failure to self-excite and remedial
measures. Load characteristics of shunt, series and compound generators
UNIT – II
D.C. MOTORS: Principle of operation – Back E.M.F. - Torque equation – characteristics and
application of shunt, series and compound motors – Armature reaction and commutation. Speed
control of D.C. Motors - Armature voltage and field flux control methods. Motor starters (3 point
and 4-point starters).
UNIT – III
TESTING OF D.C. MACHINES: Losses – Constant & Variable losses – calculation of efficiency
condition for maximum efficiency. Methods of Testing – direct, indirect and regenerative testing –
brake test – Swinburne’s test – Hopkinson’s test – Field’s test – Retardation test – separation of
stray losses in a DC Motor test.
UNIT – IV
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS: Principle of operation - constructional features -Types -
minimization of hysteresis and eddy current losses- EMF equation - operation on no load and on
load - phasor diagrams. Equivalent circuit - losses and efficiency – regulation - All day efficiency -
effect of variations of frequency & supply voltage on iron losses.
UNIT – V
TESTING OF TRANSFORMERS AND POLY-PHASE TRANSFORMERS: OC and SC tests - Sumpner’s test -
predetermination of efficiency and regulation-separation of losses test- parallel operation with
equal and unequal voltage ratios - auto transformers- equivalent 73
circuit - comparison with two winding transformers. Poly-phase transformers – Poly-phase
connections - Y/Y, Y/Δ, Δ/Y, Δ/Δ and open Δ
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Electric machinery – A.E. Fitzgerald, C.Kingsley and S.Umans, Mc Graw Hill Companies,
2. A. E. Clayton and N. N. Hancock, “Performance and design of DC machines”, CBS

Publishers,2004.
3. M. G. Say, “Performance and design of AC machines”, CBS Publishers, 2002.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Electric Machinery Fundamentals, Stephen J. Chapmen, Tata Mc Graw –Hill Publishers.
2. A. S. Langsdorf, “Alternating current machines”, McGraw Hill Education, 1984.
3. P. C. Sen, “Principles of Electric Machines and Power Electronics”, John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
4. Electrical Machines, P.S. Bimbra, Khanna Publishers.
5. Electric Machines by I.J. Nagrath & D.P. Kothari, Tata Mc Graw –Hill Publishers.
COURSE OUTCOMES:
At the end of this course the student would get
1. Explain the Constructional features of DC Generators, DC motors and transformers.
2. Understand different excitation and starting methods of DC machines.
3. Summarize Testing of different types of DC Generators and DC motors.
4. Carry out different testing methods and assess the performance of transformers.
5. Analyze single phase and three phase transformers.

Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: D C Generators
UNIT – I
D.C GENERATORS
CONTENTS:
 Principle of operation- Constructional features
 Action of Commutator
 Armature windings – lap and wave windings – simplex and
multiplex windings
 Use of laminated core –
 E. M.F Equation – Problems,
 Armature Reaction – Cross magnetizing and demagnetizing
AT/pole – compensating winding
 Commutation – reactance voltage – methods of improving
commutation.
 Methods of Excitation – separately excited and self- excited
generators – build-up of E.M.F - critical field resistance and
critical speed - causes for failure to self-excite and remedial
measures.
 Load characteristics of shunt, series and compound generators
 Important concepts and Formulae:
 Illustrative examples
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Introduction:
A DC generator is a rotating machine which converts mechanical energy into DC

electrical energy. It requires a prime mover like a Diesel engine, wind turbine or a
steam turbine to rotate the DC generator. An EMF is induced in a DC Generator
when there is a relative motion between a Magnetic field and a set of electrical
conductors. The EMF induced is called a dynamically induced EMF or motional
EMF . Normally the magnetic field is stationary and is obtained from stationary
field coils placed on the Stator poles and the conductors are placed on a rotating
shaft called Rotor. The basic constructional features of a DC generator and a DC
Motor are same, and the same DC machine can work either as a DC generator or
a DC motor.
The conversion of Mechanical energy into Electrical energy in DC generator is

based on the principle of electromagnetic Induction. According to Faradays laws
of Electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor moves in a magnetic field a
dynamically induced EMF is produced across the conductor. When the terminals
of the conductor are connected to an electrical load the induced EMF enables a
current flow through the load. Thus a mechanical energy in the form of a
rotational motion given to a conductor is converted into Electrical energy. The
EMF induced in a single conductor is very small. Hence a large set of conductors
are used in practical generators and such a set of conductors placed on a rotating
round shaft is called an armature.
Principle of operation of DC Machines:
Let us consider a single turn of coil ABCD mounted on a cylindrical shaft and
rotated in an anticlockwise direction at constant angular velocity of ‘ω‘ rad/sec
within a uniform magnetic field of flux density B webers/mtrs2 as shown in the
figure below .
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Let l be the length and b be the breadth of the rectangular coil in meters.
According to Faradays law the emf induced in a conductor is given by e =
− N.dØ/dt where e is the induced emf , N is the number of conductors , Ø is the
flux linkage and t is the time. The flux linkage Ø is given by : Ø = B.area of the
coil.cos ωt = B.l.b.Cos ωt
Since we are considering only one conductor the induced emf in the conductor is
given by:
e = -dØ/dt = -d(B.l.b.Cos ωt)/dt = B.l.b.ω .Sin ωt = Em Sin ωt where Em =

B.l.b.ω
As can be seen from the above equation for induced emf the voltage in a given
generator can be increased by either increasing the flux density ‘B’ or the
rotational speed ’ω’ .
The induced emf ‘e’at any position of the coil as a function of time ‘t’ as derived
above is then given by : e = Em Sin ωt where Em = B.l.b.ω. As can be seen
dØ/dt i.e rate of change of flux linkage is minimum (=0) when the coil is at
perpendicular position to the flux lines and hence the induced voltage e is also
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minimum (=0) . We will call this as position Ѳ = 00 at the instant of say t = 0 sec.
And dØ/dt is maximum when the coil is at parallel position to the flux lines and
hence the induced voltage e is also maximum( = Em = B.l.b.ω) and this position
will then be Ѳ = 900 .When Ѳ = 1800 the induced emf is again zero and when Ѳ =
2700 the emf induced is again maximum but now it would be negative. When Ѳ =
3600 the coil is back to the original position and the induced emf is again equal to
zero. For the two pole generator shown in the figure one complete cycle of
change takes place in one rotation of the coil. A plot of the induced emf ‘e’ as
function of coil position Ѳ is an alternating voltage as shown in the figure below.
Fig: emf induced in a single turn generator in one full revolution
When the two terminals of the coil are connected to an external load (resistance
in this case) through two separate rings (called slip rings) mounted on the
armature current flows through the resistance and the current also would be
sinusoidal.
Action of commutator: We have seen that the output from a simple single turn
generator in one full revolution is a sinusoidal in nature (AC). Commutator is the
most important part of a DC Generator which converts the AC to DC. The current
flowing through the external load can be made unidirectional by replacing the
two slip rings with two split rings as shown in the figure below which is the basis
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for the operation of a commutator in a practical DC Machine with more number

of Poles and multiple coils .
One slip ring is split into two equal segments P and Q which are insulated from
each other and the armature shaft. The two coils AB and CD are connected to the
two segments P and Q .Two fixed (stationary) brushes B1 and B2 sliding along
these two split rings will be collecting the current from the generator. During the
first half of the revolution segment P is positive and current flows along
ABPLMQCD through brush B1 which is positive and into brush B 2 into segment Q
which is negative. Next during the other half cycle, the location of the segments
AB & CD will reverse along with the respective segments P and Q . Now
conductor CD and segment Q are positive and current flows along DCQLMPBA
through the Brush B1 which is again positive and into the brush B2 which is again
negative as shown in the figure below.
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In each half revolution the positions of the conductors AB & CD and the segments
P &Q reverse but the brushes B1&B2 are stationary and continue to collect current
from the Positive side and deliver current to the Negative side respectively. Hence
the voltage across the load will be a unipolar voltage as shown in the waveform
above. The changeover of brushes B1&B2 between segments P &Q takes place
when the voltage is minimum so as to avoid or minimize the arcing between the
split segments. In practical generators there will be more number of conductors
and also more number of Pole pairs and hence more number of split segments
are required and such a set of more number of split segments is called
commutator.
Constructional features of a DC Generator:
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Fig: A simplified diagram of a dc machine:
Major parts of a DC generator:
 Main frame or Yoke

 Poles
 Armature
 Commutator
 Brushes ,bearings and shaft
The physical structure of the machine consists of two parts: the stator and the
rotor.
The stationary part consists of the main frame (yoke), and the pole pieces, which
project inward and provide a path for the magnetic flux. The ends of the pole
pieces that are near the rotor spread out over the rotor surface to distribute its
flux evenly over the rotor surface. These ends are called the pole shoes. The
exposed surface of a pole shoe is called a pole face, and the distance between the
pole face and the rotor is the air gap.
There are two principal windings on a dc machine:
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 The armature windings: the windings in which a voltage is induced (rotor)

 The field windings: the windings that produce the main magnetic flux
(stator)
Because the armature winding is located on the rotor, a dc machine’s rotor is
mostly called an armature.
The terminal characteristic of a DC Machine is a plot of the output parameters of
the Machine against each other. For a DC Generator the output quantities are the
Terminal Voltage and the Line (Load) current.
Figure: Cross sectional view of a DC Machine
The air-gap is kept very small to keep the reluctance of the magnetic circuit low.
The armature is a laminated cylinder and is mounted on a shaft. The armature
laminations are about 0.4–0.6 mm thick and are insulated from one another. The
armature is laminated to reduce the eddy-current loss in the core. Slots are
stamped on the periphery of the armature laminations. The armature slots house
the armature windings. The stator core, the yoke and the poles may not be
laminated as they encounter DC flux.
Due to the presence of slots on the armature surface, there is flux pulsation at the
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Stator pole-face. The stator pole shoes, therefore, should be laminated to reduce
the eddy-current loss. However, for mechanical reasons, in many cases the whole
of the pole core is laminated. In DC Machines of high ratings slots are cut on the
pole-faces to house a separate winding called the compensating winding. The
compensating winding is connected in series with the armature winding and
neutralises the effect of armature reaction. To neutralize the effect of armature
reaction in the space in between two poles, smaller poles, called interpoles, are
fixed on the yoke as shown in Fig. 2.2.
Figure: Cross sectional view of a DC Machine showing Interpoles
As mentioned earlier, the armature winding is placed inside the armature slots.
The slots are lined with tough insulating material. This slot insulation is folded
over the armature conductors. The conductors in the slots are secured in their
places by hard wooden wedges or fiber glass wedges. The armature windings are
first made on formers and then placed on slots.
Enamel insulated copper wires are used for the armature winding. Each armature
coil end is connected with each segment of the commutator.
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A commutator is a cylindrical body mounted on the shaft along with the

armature. In fact, the armature core and the commutator form one single unit
mounted on the shaft. Brushes are placed on the commutator surface to supply
or collect current to the armature coils through the commutator segments. The
commutator segments are insulated from each other.
The function of the commutator is to convert alternating currents induced in the
armature conductors into direct currents in the external circuit in case of a DC
Generator operation. In the case of a dc motor the function of the commutator is
to produce a unidirectional torque. The commutator is of cylindrical structure and
is built up of a wedge-shaped segment of hard-drawn copper. Mica insulation is
provided between commutator segments. Brushes are made of carbon and are
housed in brush-holders.
A spring in the brush-holder maintains the desirable pressure on the carbon
brushes so that proper contact is maintained between the brushes and the
commutator surface.
Armature windings:
The armature windings are vital part of a DC Machine. This is where emf is
induced in the case of a Generator and and force is developed that results in the
turning of the rotor in the case of a Motor. The design of the armature winding is
more critical than the design of other parts of a DC machine. The armature
winding is housed in slots made on the armature surface. Formed coils are placed
on slots. The ends of the coils are joined with commutator segments.
Commutator: The commutator is made up of a number of commutator
segments. Coil-ends are connected to each commutator segment. The segments
of the commutator are made of hard-drawn copper and are separated by thin
sheets of mica or micanite ( insulator) .
The induced emf per conductor in a DC machine is small. The problem is how
these conductors are to be connected together so as to form a complete winding.
Figure below shows the cross-sectional view of the armature of a four-pole
machine.
For ease of understanding, a developed diagram of armature of Fig. (a) below is

drawn as shown in Fig. (b). Conductors should be so connected that the total emf
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is maximum. Therefore, conductor 1 should be connected to conductor 6 shown

by dotted line as conductor 6 is placed below conductor 5 so that they occupy
identical positions under two adjacent poles. Similarly conductor 3 should be
connected with conductor 8 and so on.
Figure : (a) Cross-sectional view of the armature of a 4-pole DC Machine (b)

Incomplete developed diagram of the armature winding
Figure below shows the developed winding diagram of the 16 armature

conductors of Fig. (a) Shown earlier.
Figure: Armature winding of a DC Machine
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The average pitch Ya, back pitch Yb, and the front pitch Yf are calculated as:
Ya = 16/4= 4
Ya = (Yb + Yf) /2
Yb – Yf = ±2
For progressive lap winding
Yb – Yf = 2
Yb = 5, Yf = 3
Figure gives the details of end connections of the conductors, connection of coils
with commutator segments, and the position of brushes on the
commutatorsurface with their polarities. This type of winding is called lap
winding. In the winding shown in Fig. 2.11, single-turn conductors are used. As
many as 16 conductors make eight coils. The coils are 1-6, 3-8, 5-10, 7-12, 9-14,
11-16, 13-2 and 15-4. The design of a lap winding of the type shown in Fig. 2.11 is
described as follows.
2.3.2 Lap Winding
In a lap winding, the finishing end of one coil is connected via the commutator
segment to the starting end of the adjacent coil situated under the same pole. In
this way all the coils are connected. The winding is known as lap winding because
the sides of successive coils overlap each other (see Fig. below). A coil may consist
of any number of turns. The number of slots required on the armature is equal to
the number of coil sides if two coil-sides are placed in each slot. With two coil-
sides in each slot, a two layer winding is obtained. While making a winding
diagram in a two-layer winding, all top coil-sides are numbered odd whereas the
bottom coil-sides are numbered even (shown by dotted lines) as shown in Fig..
For an eight-coil armature, therefore, eight slots are required on the armature
surface. The following terminologies are required to be understood for preparing
an armature winding diagram.
Pole Pitch: It is equal to the number of coil-sides per pole. For a single turn, eight
coil, four-pole armature pole pitch is calculated as:
Pole pitch ( Ya) = (No. of coils x 2)/ No. of poles = (8 x 2) /4 = 4
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Figure: Position of coil-sides in slots of a two-layer armature winding
Coils and Coil-sides: The DC armature windings are double-layer type having at
least two coil-sides per slot. Each coil consists of an upper coil-side at the top of
one slot and a lower coil-side situated at the bottom of another slot. The distance
between the two coil-sides of a coil is approximately equal to the pole pitch. A coil
may be of single turn or of many turns. If two coil-sides are placed in one slot,
then the number of slots required on the armature for housing the coils is equal
to the number of coils of the winding. For low-speed high-voltage winding,
however, the number of coil-sides per slot is more than two. This is because the
winding will have a large number of coils and it may not be possible to have an
equal number of slots on the armature.
Back Pitch: The distance measured in terms of the number of armature
conductors (coil sides) between the two coil-sides of a coil measured around the
back of the armature, i.e., away from the commutator end of the armature is
called the back pitch, Yb.
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(a) Lap winding (b) Wave winding

Figure: Shows back pitch Yb , front pitch yf resultant pitch Yr, and
commutator pitch Yc in (a) lap winding (b) wave winding
Front Pitch: The distance between two coil-sides connected to the same
commutator segment is called the front pitch, Yf .
Resultant Pitch: It is defined as the distance in terms of the number of coil-sides
between the start of one coil and the start of the next coil to which it is
connected.
Commutator Pitch: It is defined as the distance measured in terms of
commutator segments between the segments to which the two ends of a coil are
connected.
For calculating back pitch Yb and front pitch Yf for a lap winding, the following
relations are used:
(i) Yb – Yf = ± 2m Also, Yb = (Z/P)± 1
where m = 1 for simplex winding
= 2 for duplex winding
When Yb is greater than Yf , the winding is a progressive one, i.e., it progresses
from left to right. If Yb is less than Yf , the winding is called a retrogressive one,
i.e., it progresses from right to left.
(ii) The back pitch and front pitch must be odd.
(iii) The average pitch, Ya = (Yb + Yf)/2 should be equal to the pole pitch,
i.e., equal to Z/P, where Zis the number of coil sides.
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(iv) The commutator pitch is equal to m, i.e., equal to 1, 2, etc. for simplex, duplex
etc. type of winding.
(v) The number of parallel paths in the armature winding for a simplex lap winding
is equal to the number of poles, P.
(vi) The resultant pitch is always even, being the difference of two odd numbers.
Example 1 : Prepare a layout winding diagram for a simplex lap-type DC armature

winding. The winding is for 4 poles. The armature has 16 slots and 16
commutator segments.
Solution: Number of armature coils = Number of commutator segments = 16
Number of coil-sides (conductors) Z = 16 × 2 = 32
Back pitch Yb =(Z/P) ±1 = (32/4) ±1 = 9 or 7
Yb – Yf = 2
Yf = Yb – 2 = 9 – 2 (using Yb = 9) = 7
Yb = 9
Yf = 7
Since Yb > Yf , the winding is a progressive one.
As there are 32 coil-sides and 16 slots, the number of coil-sides per slot is 2. The
connection scheme of the coil-sides is shown in Figure . below
Figure: Scheme for connections of the coil-sides of a DC armature windings
Coil-side 1 is connected to coil-side 10 on the other side of the commutator (since

Yb is 9, coil-side 1 is connected to coil-side 1 + 9, i.e., 10). Coil-side 10 is connected
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to coil-side 3 on the commutator end (Since Yf is 7, coil-side 10 is connected to

coilside10–7, i.e., 3). The winding progresses according to the above scheme. It
may be noted that each coil is used once and the winding is a closed one.
The layout diagram of the winding along with commutator connections and brush
positions is shown below.
Connections of the coil-sides are made as follows: for connections at the back end
of the armature, add the back pitch with the coil-side which is to be connected.
Thus coil-side 1 is to be connected with coil-side 1 + Yb, i.e., 1 + 9 = 10. On the
commutator end side, coil-side 10 is connected to coil-side 3. This is achieved by
subtracting Yf , i.e., 7 from coil-side number 10 (10 – 7 = 3). Coil-side 3 is now
connected to 3 + Yb = 3 + 9 = 12. In this way the winding is completed.
The positions of the four poles are also shown in Fig. 2.15. Eight coil-sides placed
in four slots are under each pole. Assuming a direction of rotation of the
armature, say anticlockwise in Fig. 2.15, the direction of the induced emf in the
armature conductors is determined by applying Fleming’s right-hand rule. The
direction of the current in the coil-sides under north poles will be downward and
under south poles upward as shown in Fig. 2.15.
The position of brushes can be determined by tracing the directions of current in
various coil-sides. From Fig. 2.15, it can be observed that directions of current in
coil-sides 1 and 8 are downward and they are connected to commutator segment
1. A brush placed on commutator segment 1 will have positive polarity. Similarly
in coil-sides 9 and 16, the current is upwards. The two coil-sides are connected to
commutator segment 5. The brush placed on commutator segment 5 will have
negative polarity. Similarly the positions of the other two brushes are fi xed. Two
positive brushes and two negative brushes are joined together to output
terminals A and B respectively.
The number of parallel paths of the armature winding across the output terminals
is four (equal-to the number of poles) which can be examined as follows: Redraw
the armature winding of Fig. 2.15 in a simplifi ed manner as shown in Fig. 2.16.
Between terminals A and B there are four parallel paths shown as M, N, O and P.
The total emf generated in the machine is equal to the emf generated in one
parallel path.
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Figure: Lay out diagram for a Lap winding given in example -1

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Figure: (a) Armature winding of a dc machine shown in a simplified manner

(b) Shows the number of parallel paths in the armature
Equalizer Connections in Lap Winding: As mentioned earlier, a simplex lap

winding has as many number of parallel paths as there are poles. The emf induced
in each parallel path may not be exactly equal due to a number of reasons, such
as the difference in the lengths of the air-gap under each pole, the difference in
the field strength due to some error in putting field windings, etc.
Unequal values of emf generated in the parallel paths will circulate a considerable
amount of current in the armature circuit without doing any useful work. This
circulating current will be large as the armature circuit resistance is generally very
low. This circulating current will generate heat and while circulating through the
brush contacts will cause commutation diffi culties (like sparking on the
commutator surface).
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To overcome this problem arising from the circulating current, equalizer

connections are made in lap wound armatures. These equaliser connections or
equalisers are low-resistance copper conductors which connect those points in
the winding which under ideal conditions should be at equal potential. The
difference in potential between these points created due to reasons mentioned
earlier will be equalised as a result of flow of current through these low resistance
conductors which will bypass the current from flowing through the brushes.
2.3.3 Wave Winding

In a wave winding a coil-side under one pole is connected to a second coil-side
which occupies approximately the same position under the next pole through
back connection. The second coil-side is then connected forward to another coil-
side under the next pole (in the case of lap winding the second coil is connected
back through the commutator segment to a coil-side under the original pole). The
difference in lap and wave winding connections has been illustrated in Fig. 2.13(a)
and (b).
The characteristics of a wave winding are:
(i) Average pitch, Ya = (Yb ± Yf)/2 = (Z ±2)/P
If Ya is taken equal to Z/P, as is the case in a lap winding the winding after one
round will close itself without including all the coils which is not desirable.
Hence the product of the average pitch and the number of pairs of poles must be
two greater or less than the number of coil-sides.
Average pitch should be a whole number.
(ii) Both back pitch and front pitch should he odd numbers.
(iii) To make the average pitch a whole number, wave winding is not possible with
any number of coil-sides. For example if Z = 32 and P = 4,
Ya = (Z±2)/P = (32±2)/4 = 8 ½ or 7 ½
Thus wave winding is not possible with 32 coil-sides. In this case the number of
effective coil-sides needs to be 30.
Example-2 : Prepare a winding diagram for a 4 pole wave-connected armature of

a dc generator having 22 coil sides.
Ya = (Z ±2)/P = (22 ±2)/4 = 6 or 5
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If Ya is taken to be odd, i.e., 5, then the front pitch and back pitch will be equal.
Thus, Ya = Yb = Yf = 5.
Connections of the coil sides will be as shown in figure. The connection diagram is
achieved by adding Yb and Yf with the coil numbers progressing in the forward
direction. Coil-side 1 is connected at the back with coil side 6 (1 + Yb = 6). Coil side
6 is connected at the front with coil-side 11 (6 + Yf = 11) and so on.
Figure: Connection diagram of the coil-sides for a DC wave winding
In Fig. 2.17 it is to be noted that coil-side 19 is connected with coil-side 2. This is

obtained by adding Yb to 19 which gives 24. Coil-side 24 does not exist as there
are in all 22 coil-sides. Therefore after 22 count two more numbers starting from
1. This gives coil-side 2. Similarly it can be seen that coil-side 20 is connected in
the front with coil-side 3. By adding Yf (= 5) to 20, the number 25 is obtained.
After 20 fi ve numbers are counted as 21, 22, 1, 2, and 3. Thus coil-side 20 should
be connected to coil-side 3. In this way, the whole winding is completed by
connecting all the coil-sides with one another. The actual layout diagram of the
winding along with the position of the poles and the direction of induced emf in
the coil-sides for a particular direction of rotation of the armature are shown in
Fig. 2.18. The positions of the four brushes are also shown in the figure.
The positions of brushes are fixed as follows: for ease of understanding, the
connection diagram of Fig. 2.17 is reproduced in Fig. 2.19. The directions of
current in the coil-sides are also shown by observing the directions from Fig. 2.18.
By carefully examining the directions of current in the coil-sides it is seen that
between points P and Q current gets divided in two parallel paths. From point P
the current fl ows to Q via two paths, viz. through 11-16-21- ... 6-11-18-13-
The point P in Fig. 2.19 is the separating point of the emf in the two sections of
the winding and therefore corresponds to the position of one of the brushes, viz.
the negative brush. For placing of the positive brush, it is seen from Fig. 2.19 that
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at point Q current is coming out from both the coil-sides. Therefore, point Q
corresponds to the position of the positive brush.
Figure: Layout diagram for the wave winding of example 2.2
It may be noted from Fig. 2.18 that coil-sides 6 and 17 lie in the interpolar region.
The direction of current in these coil-sides will depend upon the direction of
current in the other coil side of the respective coils, viz. coils 1-6 and 17-22.
Dummy Coils: As mentioned earlier wave winding is possible with a particular
number of coil-sides. But if standard stampings with a definite number of slots are
to be used, the number of coil-sides needed to be placed in all the slots may be
more than the required number. In such a case, the extra coils are left
unconnected. These coils are called dummy coils. Dummy coils are used so as to
make the armature dynamically balanced. They, otherwise, do not contribute to
the induced emf or developed torque.
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Example-3 : Calculate the winding pitches and draw developed and sequence
diagrams of the winding for a four-pole wave connected armature winding of a dc
generator having seven coils. In the diagram, show the position of poles and the
position and polarity of brushes.
Solution:
Number of coil-sides = 7 × 2 = 14
Ya = (Z ±2)/P = (14 ±2)/4 = 3 or 4
Ya should be an integer, Yb and Yf should be odd numbers.
Therefore, we choose
Ya = Yb = Yf = 3
The sequence and layout diagrams of the winding are shown in Fig. 2.20.
Figure: Layout and sequence diagram for a wave wound DC armature
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Simplex and Multiplex windings:
Rotor (armature) windings are further classified according to the plex of their
windings. A simplex rotor winding is a single, complete, closed winding wound on
a rotor. A duplex rotor winding is a rotor with two complete and independent sets
of rotor windings. If a rotor has a duplex winding, then each of the windings will
be associated with every other commutator segment. One winding will be
connected to segments I, 3, 5, etc., and the other winding will be connected to
segments 2, 4, 6, etc. Similarly, a triplex winding will have three complete and
independent sets of windings, each winding connected to every third commutator
segment on the rotor. Collectively, all armatures with more than one set of
windings are said to have multiplex windings.
Use of laminated core :

Faraday's law is the fundamental property of magnetic fields involved in
transformer operation. The effect of Lenz's law in transformers is to predict the
polarity of the voltages induced in transformer windings.
Faraday's law also explains the eddy current losses mentioned previously. A time-
changing flux induces voltage within a ferromagnetic core in just the same
manner as it would in a wire wrapped around that core. These voltages cause
swirls of current to flow within the core, much like the eddies seen at the edges of
a river. It is the shape of these currents that gives rise to the name eddy currents.
These eddy currents are flowing in a resistive material (the iron of the core), so
energy is dissipated by them. The lost energy goes into heating the iron core. The
amount of energy lost to eddy currents is proportional to the size of the paths
they follow within the core. For this reason, it is customary to break up any
ferromagnetic core that may be subject to alternating fluxes into many small
strips, or laminntions, and to bui ld the core up out of these strips. An insulating
oxide or resin is used between the strips. so that the current paths for eddy
currents are limited to very small areas. Because the insulating layers are
extremely thin, this action reduces eddy current losses with very little effect on
the core's magnetic properties. Actual eddy current losses are proportional to the
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square of the lamination thickness, so there is a strong incentive to make the

laminations as thin as economically possible.
EMF Equation:
This being very important for understanding of a Generator performance we will

derive a detailed expression for the exact induced emf in a generator in terms of
all the following DC Machine parameters.
Ø The flux from a pole (webers)
Z The total number of conductors on the armature
a The number of parallel paths
 In a practical machine all the conductors are not connected in series. They
are divided into groups of parallel conductors and then all the groups are
connected in series to get higher voltage. In each group there are ‘a’
conductors in parallel and hence there are ‘a’ parallel current paths and
each parallel path will have Z/a conductors in series.
N The Speed of rotation (RPM)
ω The speed (Radians/sec)
P The number of poles
Now consider one conductor on the armature. As this conductor makes one
complete revolution it cuts PØ webers of flux.
Since the induced emf in a conductor is its rate of cutting of flux lines ( Rate of
change of Flux linkage ) the emf ‘e’ induced in such a single conductor is equal to
e = PØ/ Time for one revolution in seconds = PØ/(60/N) = NPØ/60 volts
There are Z/a conductors in series in each parallel path.
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∴ the total induced emf ‘E’ = (Z/a) NPØ/60 = ( NPØ Z )/ (a. 60)
EA = (Ø ZN/60).( P/a)
The armature conductors are generally connected in two methods. Viz. Lap
winding and Wave winding.
In Lap wound machines the number of parallel paths ‘a’ = P
∴ ‘E’ = (Ø ZN/60)
In Wave wound machines the number of parallel paths ‘a’ = 2
∴ ‘E’ = (Ø ZN/60).( P/2)
In general the emf induced in a DC machine can be represented as EA = Ka. Ø.N
Where Ka = ZP/60.a
Sometimes it is convenient to express the emf induced in terms of the angular

rotation ω (Rad/sec) and then the expression for emf becomes:
EA = (Ø ZN/60).( P/a) = (ZP/a). Ø. N/60 = (ZP/.a). Ø. (ω/2π) = (ZP/2πa).Ø.ω =

Ka. Ø.ω
(since N/60 RPS = 2π. N/60 Radians /sec = ω Radians /sec and ∴ N/60 = ω/2π)
Where Ka is the generalized constant for the DC machine’s armature and is given
by :
Ka = (ZP/2πa)
Where Ø is the flux/per pole in the machine (Webers), N is the speed of rotation
(RPM) ω is the angular speed (Radians/sec) and Ka is a constant depending on
the machine parameters.
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And thus finally EA = Ka. Ø. ω and we can say in general, the induced voltage in
any DC machine will depend on the following three factors:
1. The flux Ø in the machine
2. The angular speed of rotation ω and
3. A constant representing the construction of the machine. (ZP/2πa)
(i.e. the number of conductors ‘Z’, the number of poles ‘P’ and the number of
parallel paths ‘a’ along with the other constant ‘2π’)
Armature Reaction:
If the magnetic field windings of a DC machine are connected to a power supply

and the rotor of the machine is turned by an external source of mechanical
power,then a voltage will be induced in the conductors of the rotor. This voltage
wilI be rectified into a DC output by the action of the machine's commutator.
Now connect a load to the terminaIs of the machine, and a current will flow in its
armature windings. This current flow will produce a magnetic field of its own,
which will distort the original magnetic field from the machine's poles. This
distortion of the flux in a machine as the load is increased is called armature
reaction.
It causes two serious problems in real DC machines.
The first problem caused by armature reaction is neutral-plane shift. The
magnetic neutral plane is defined as the plane within the machine where the
velocity of the rotor wires is exactly parallel to the magnetic nux lines, so that e ind
in the conductors in the plane is exactly zero.
To understand the problem of neutral-plane shift, examine Figure 8- 23. Figure 8-
23a shows a two-pole dc machine. Notice that the flux is distributed uniformly
under the pole faces. The rotor windings shown have voltages built up out of the
page for wires under the North Pole face and into the page for wires under the
South Pole face. The neutral plane in this machine is exactly vertical.
Now suppose a load is connected to this machine so that it acts as a generator.
Current will flow out of the positive terminal of the generator, so current will be
flowing out of the page for wires under the North Pole face and into the page for
wires under the South Pole face. This current flow produces a magnetic field from
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the rotor windings, as shown in Figure 8- 23c. This rotor magnetic field affects the
original magnetic field from the poles that produced the generator's voltage in
the first place. In some places under the pole surfaces, it subtracts from the pole
flux, and in other places it adds to the pole flux. The overall result is that the
magnetic flux in the air gap of the machine is skewed as shown in Figure 8- 23d
and e. Notice that the place on the rotor where the induced voltage in a
conductor would be zero (the neutral plane) has shifted.
For the generator shown in Figure 8- 23, the magnetic neutral plane shifted in the
direction of rotation. If this machine had been a motor, the current in its rotor
would be reversed and the flux would bunch up in the opposite corners from the
bunches shown in the figure. As a result, the magnetic neutral plane would shift
the other way.
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Figure 8-23: The development of armature reaction in a DC generator. (a)

Initially the pole flux is uniformly distributed, and the magnetic neutral plane is
vertical (b) the effect of the air gap on the pole flux distribution (c) the
armature magnetic field resulting when a load is connected to the machine (d)
both rotor and pole fluxes are shown indicating points where they add and
subtract (e) the resulting flux under the poles. The neutral plane has shifted in
the direction of motion.
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In general, the neutral-plane shifts in the direction of motion for a generator and
opposite to the direction of motion for a motor. Furthermore, the amount of the
shift depends on the amount of rotor current and hence on the load of the
machine.
So what's the problem with neutral-plane shift? It 's just this: The commutator
must short out commutator segments just at the moment when the voltage
across them is equal to zero. If the brushes are set to short out conductors in the
vertical plane, then the voltage between segments is indeed zero until the
machine is loaded. When the machine is loaded, the neutral plane shifts, and the
brushes short out commutator segments with a finite voltage across them. The
result is a current now circulating between the shorted segments and large sparks
at the brushes when the current path is interrupted as the brush leaves a
segment. The end result is arcing and sparking at the brushes. This is a very
serious problem, since it leads to drastically reduced brush Iife, pitting of the
commutator segments, and greatly increased maintenance costs. Notice that this
problem cannot be fixed even by placing the brushes over the full-load neutral
plane, because then they wouId spark at no load.
In extreme cases, the neutral-plane shift can even lead to flashover in the
commutator segments near the brushes. The air near the brushes in a machine is
normally ionized as a result of the sparking on the brushes. Flashover occurs
when the voltage of adjacent commutator segments gets large enough to sustain
an arc in the ionized air above them. If flashover occurs, the resulting arc can even
melt the commutator's surface.
The second major problem caused by armature reaction is called flux weakening.
To understand flux weakening, refer to the magnetization curve shown in Figure
8-24. Most machines operate at flux densities near the saturation point.
Therefore, at locations on the pole surfaces where the rotor magnetomotive force
adds to the pole magnetomotive force, only a small increase in flux occurs. But at
locations on the pole surfaces where the rotor magnetomotive force subtracts
from the pole magnetomotive force, there is a larger decrease in flux. the net
result is that the total average flux under the entire pole face is decreased (see
Figure 8- 25).
Flux weakening causes problems in both generators and motors. In generators,
the effect of flux weakening is simply to reduce the voltage supplied by the
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generator for any given load. In motors, the effect can be more serious. As the
early examples in this chapter showed, when the flux in a motor is decreased, its
speed increases. But increasing the speed of a motor can increase its load,
resulting in more flux weakening. It is possible for some shunt dc motors to reach
a runaway condition as a result of flux weakening, where the speed of the motor
just keeps increasing until the machine is disconnected from the power line or
until it destroys itself.
Figure 8-24: A typical magnetization curve shows the effects of pole saturation
where armature and pole magnetomotive forces add.
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Reactance voltage:
The voltage rise in the short circuited coil due to inductive property of the coil,
which opposes the current reversal in it during the commutation period, is called the reactance
voltage. It is given by :
Reactance voltage = Coefficient of self-inductance(L) x Rate of change of current
(di/dt).
We know that the coil undergoes commutation when the two commutator
segments get short-circuited by the brush. During this period the current say I
changes from +I to -I . That means di= change in current = 2I.
The time taken for this change in current is given by dt = (Wb-Wc)/v where
Wb =Width of the brush (cms)
Wm =Width of the mica insulator between the commutator segments (cms)
V = peripheral (linear) velocity of the commutator (armature) (cm/sec)
Then reactance voltage = L.di/dt = L .2I.v/(Wb-Wc)
This reactance voltage also causes sparking at the brushes resulting in the same phenomenon as
that produced by neutral phase shifting due to armature reaction.
We can produce reversing e.m.f in two ways. By brush shifting. By using inter-poles or
commutating poles.
Methods of improving commutation:
Shifting of Brushes: By shifting the brushes to the new MNA, sparking due to
commutation can be avoided. The brushes are to be shifted by the same angle by
which the MNA has shifted due to loading. They are to be shifted in the forward
direction (in the direction of rotation) in a generator, and backward in a motor.
The disadvantage with this method is that the angle of shift will depend upon the
load on the machine and therefore is practically difficult to shift the brushes
continuously with change in load.
Commutating poles or Interpoles: The basic idea behind this approach is that if
the voltage in the conductors undergoing commutation can be made zero, then
there will be no sparking at the brushes. To accomplish this, small poles, called
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commutating poles or interpoles, are placed midway between the main poles.
These commutating poles are located directly over the conductors being
commutated. By providing a suitable amount of flux with proper polarity from the
commutating poles, the voltage in the coils undergoing commutation can be
exactly canceled. If the cancellation is exact, then there will be no sparking at the
brushes. Exact cancellation of the voltage in the commutator segments is
accomplished for all values of loads by connecting the interpole windings in series
with the windings on the rotor, as shown in the figure below.
The commutating poles do not change the operation of the machine, because
they are so small that they affect only the few conductors about to undergo
commutation. The armature reaction under the main pole faces is unaffected,
since the effects of the commutating poles do not extend that far. This means
that the flux weakening problem in the machine is not solved by the commutating
poles.
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Figure: Connection of commutating poles in a DC Generator
As the load increases and the rotor current increases, the magnitude of the
neutral-plane shift and the size of the L dildt effects increase too. Both these
effects increase the voltage in the conductors undergoing commutation.
However, the interpole flux increases too, producing a larger voltage in the
conductors that opposes the voltage due to the neutral-plane shift. The net result
is that their effects cancel over a broad range of loads. Note that interpoles work
for both motor and generator operation, since when the machine changes from
motor to generator, the current both in its rotor and in its interpoles reverses
direction. Therefore, the voltage effects from them still cancel.
The interpoles must induce a voltage in the conductors undergoing commutation

with such a polarity that is opposite to the voltage caused by neutral-plane shift
and L dildt effects. In the case of a generator, the neutral plane shifts in the
direction of rotation, meaning that the conductors undergoing commutation have
the same polarity of voltage as the pole they just left (see Figure 8- 29).
Figure : Compensating windings used to neutralize the effect of armature

reaction
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To oppose this voltage, the interpoles must have the opposite flux, which is the
flux of the upcoming pole. In a motor, however, the neutral plane shifts opposite
to the direction of rotation, and the conductors undergoing commutation have
the same flux as the pole they are approaching. In order to oppose this voltage,
the interpoles must have the same polarity as the previous main pole. Therefore,
1. The interpoles must be of the same polarity as the next upcoming main pole in
a generator.
2. The interpoles must be of the same polarity as the previous main pole in a
motor.
The use of commutating poles or interpoles is very common, because they correct
the sparking problems of dc machines at a fairly low cost. They are almost always
found in any dc machine of 1 hp or larger. It is important to realize, though, that
they do nothing for the flux distribution under the pole faces, so the flux-
weakening problem is still present. Most medium-size, general-purpose motors
correct for sparking problems with interpoles and just live with the flux
weakening effects.
Compensating windings: For very heavy, severe duty cycle motors, the flux-
weakening problem can be very serious. To completely cancel armature reaction
and thus eliminate both neutral-plane shift and flux weakening, a different
technique was developed. This technique involves placing compensating windings
in slots carved in the faces of the poles parallel to the rotor conductors, to cancel
the distorting effect of armature reaction. These windings are connected in series
with the rotor windings, so that whenever the load changes in the rotor, the
current in the compensating windings also changes. Figure 8- 30 shows the basic
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concept. In Figure 8-30(a), the pole flux is shown by itself. In Figure 8-30(b), the
rotor flux and the compensating winding flux are shown. Figure 8-30(c) represents
the sum of these three fluxes, which is just equal to the original pole flux by itself.
The major disadvantage of compensating windings is that they are expensive,
since they must be machined into the faces of the poles. Any motor that uses
them must also have interpoles, since compensating windings do not cancel
L di /dt effects. The interpoles do not have to be as strong, though, since they are
canceling only L di /dt voltages in the windings, and not the voltages due to
neutral-plane shifting. Because of the expense of having both compensating
windings and interpoles on such a machine, these windings are used only where
the extremely severe nature of a motor's duty demands them.
Important features of DC Generators:
 The terminal characteristic of a DC Machine is a plot of the output

quantities of the Machine against each other. For a DC Generator the
output quantities are the Terminal Voltage and the Line (Load) current.
 The various types of Generators differ in their terminal characteristics
(Voltage-Current) and therefore to the application to which they are suited.
 The DC Generators are compared by their Voltages, Power ratings, their
efficiencies and Voltage regulation. Voltage Regulation (VR) is defined by
the equation: VR = [(Vnl − Vfl) / Vfl ].100 % Where Vnl is the No load
terminal voltage and Vfl is the Full load terminal voltage. It is a rough
measure of the Generator’s Voltage- Current Characteristic. A positive
voltage regulation means a drooping characteristic and a negative
regulation means a rising characteristic.
 Since the speed of the prime movers affects the Generator voltage and
prime movers can have varying speed characteristics, The voltage
regulation and speed characteristics of the Generator are always compared
assuming that the Prime mover’s speed is always constant.
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Methods of excitation: (The method by which the field current is generated)
The performance characteristics of a dc machine are greatly inﬂuenced by the

way in which the field winding is excited with direct current. There are two basic
ways of exciting a dc machine.
1. Separate excitation: The field is excited from a separate and independent DC

source as shown in fig(a) below. It is flexible as full and independent control of
both Field and Armature circuits is possible.
2. Self- excitation: The field is excited either from its own armature voltage
(Shunt Excitation: fig-b) or own armature current (Series excitation : fig-c)
The dc machine excitation is also classified in three other ways:
1. Shunt excitation : Here the field winding is excited in parallel with armature
circuit and hence the name shunt excitation. It is provided with a large number
(hundreds or even thousands) of turns of thin wire and therefore, has a high
resistance and carries a small current. Since the armature voltage of a dc machine
remains substantially constant, the shunt field could be regulated by placing an
external series resistance in its circuit.
2. Series excitation : Here the field winding has a few turns of thick wire and is
excited with armature current by placing it in series with armature, and therefore
it is known as series field winding. For a given field current, control of this field is
achieved by means of a diverter, a low resistance connected in parallel to series
winding. A more practical way of a series field control is changing the number of
turns of the winding by suitable tappings which are brought out for control
purpose.
3. Compound Excitation: In compound excitation both shunt and series fields are
excited. If the two fields aid each other such that the resultant air gap flux per
pole is increased (their ampere turns are additive), then the excitation is called
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cumulative compound excitation as shown in Fig. (d). If the series field flux
opposes the shunt field flux such that the resultant air gap flux per pole is
decreased, then the excitation is called differential compound excitation as
shown in Fig. (e). The series field is so designed that the increase or decrease in
ﬂux/pole is to a limited extent.
Further there are two types of compounding connections. Long Shunt and Short
shunt . In long shunt compound of Fig. (f ) the shunt field is connected across the
output terminals. In short shunt compound, the shunt field is connected directly
across the armature as shown in Fig. (g). There is no significant difference in
machine performance for the two types of connections. The choice between
them depends upon mechanical consideration or the reversing switches.
Figure below shows the physical arrangement of shunt and series field windings
on one pole of a machine.
Fig: Arrangement of shunt and series field windings on one pole of a machine.
Excellent and versatile ways of controlling the shunt and series excitations are
now possible by use of solid-state devices and associated control circuitry.
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In showing the excitation diagrams of a dc machine, the field winding is shown to

be at 90° (electrical) with respect to the armature circuit which is the actual
spatial orientation of the magnetic fields produced by the field and armature
circuits in a DC machine.
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Magnetization characteristics of DC Generators:
No load or Open circuit magnetization characteristic of any DC Machine is a plot

of the Field flux versus the magnetizing current. Since measurement of field flux is
difficult we use the relation for the emf induced in a DC machine EA = K. Ø.N from
which we can see that the induced voltage is proportional to the Flux in the
machine when the speed is maintained constant. Hence we conduct a test on the
given DC machine to obtain data on the induced voltage as a function of the field
current.
The diagram of the test setup required to obtain the above data is shown in the
figure below.
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Fig: Test setup with a DC machine to obtain the No load magnetization

Characteristic
The prime mover gives the required mechanical energy to the DC Machine and it
can be a small Diesel engine. The rheostat connected between the DC Input and
the field winding is used to adjust and get the required field current. The field
current is initially set to Zero and the Armature volatage is measured. Then the
field current is gradually increased and the corresponding values of Armature
voltage are measured until the output voltage saturates. Next the field current is
brought back to zero gradually and the corresponding Armature voltages are
measured at a few points. The corresponding data on Armature voltage is plotted
against field current and is shown in the figure below.
IF
Fig: No load magnetization curve (or OCC) of a DC Machine ( Plot of Armature

Voltage Ea Vs.Field current IF)
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Though the field current is zero we get a small value of Armature voltage as seen
at point 1 due to the residual magnetism present in the field coil. Subsequently
armature voltage increases with field current upto some point 3 and then the rate
of rise decreses. Finally at poin 4 field flux gets saturated and hence the emf also
gets saturated. The plot of armature voltage vs.field current is not same during
the field current reduction as that during the field current increase and this is due
to the property of magnetic hysteresis in the Ferro magnetic materials. In the
return path the induced volatage at zero field current is higher than that during
the field current increase. This is due to the combined effect of Hysterisis and the
residual magnetism.
Different Types of DC Generators and their Terminal ( or Load ) Characteristics:
The DC generators are classified according to the manner in which the field flux is
produced. Let us consider the following important types of DC Generators and
their characteristics along with their equivalent circuits.
The following notation is used uniformly in all the following

circuits/characteristics:
 VT = Generator’s Terminal Voltage

 IL = Load or line current
 IA = Armature current
 EA = Armature voltage
 RA = Armature Resistance
 IF = Field current
 VF = Field voltage
 RF = Field Resistance
Separately Excited Generator: In this type the field flux is derived from a separate
power source which is independent of the Generator. The equivalent circuit of
such a machine along with the governing equations is shown in the figure below.
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Fig: Equivalent circuit of a separately excited DC Generator
The terminal characteristic of this type of Generators is a plot of VT vs. IL for a

constant speed ω and the governing equations are :
 The Load or line current IL = The armature current IA

 Generator’s Terminal Voltage = VT = (EA − IARA)
 IF = VF / RF
Since the internally generated voltage is independent of IA ,the terminal

characteristic of a Separately Excited Generator is a straight line as shown in the
figure below.
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Fig: The terminal Characteristics of a Separately Excited DC Generator
When the load supplied by the generator increases, the load current IL increases
and hence the armature current IA also increases. When the armature current
increases, the IARA drop increases, so the terminal voltage of the generator droops
(falls). It is called a drooping characteristic.
Shunt Generator: In this the field flux is derived by connecting the Field directly
across the Armature terminals. The equivalent circuit of such a generator is
shown in the figure below along with the governing equations.
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Fig: The equivalent circuit of a DC Shunt generator along with the relevant
governing equations
As could be seen, in this machine the armature current supplies both the load
current and the field current. Using the Kirchhoff’s voltage law the terminal
voltage is seen to be same as that of a separately excited voltage i.e. VT = (EA −
IARA ). In this the advantage is that no external supply is required for the field
circuit. But this leaves an important question. If the generator supplies its own
field current how does it get the initial field flux that is required to start the
machine and generate voltage when it is first turned on? This is explained below.
Build‐up of E.M.F, Critical Field Resistance and Critical Speed :
Voltage build up in a Shunt Generator :
The voltage build up in a shunt generator depends upon the presence of a

residual flux in the poles of the generator. When a Shunt generator first starts to
turn on an internal voltage is generated which is given by EA = k. Øres. ω. This
voltage( which may be just one or two volts ) appears at the generator terminals.
This causes a current to flow in the generator’s field coil IF = VT / RF. This produces
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a m.m.f. in the poles which in turn increases the flux in them. The increase in the
flux causes an increase in EA = k.Ø↑. ω which in turn increases the terminal
voltage VT . When VT rises, IF increases further, increasing the flux more which
increases EA and so on. This voltage build up phenomenon is shown in the figure
below.
Fig: Voltage build up on starting in a DC Shunt generator
It is to be noted here that it is effect of magnetic saturation in the Pole faces

which eventually limits the build of the terminal voltage.
The voltage build up in the figure above shows up as though it is building up in

discrete steps. It is not so. These steps are shown just to make it clear the
phenomenon of positive feedback between the Generator’s internal voltage and
the field current. In the DC Shunt generator both EA and IF increase simultaneously
until the steady state conditions are reached.
Critical Resistance: For understanding the terms critical Resistance and critical
speed, the open circuit characteristic (OCC) or the magnetization characteristic of
a DC machine is shown again in the figure below along with air gap line and Rf
line. The extension of the liner portion of the magnetization curve, shown dotted
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in the figure below is known as the air-gap line as it represents mainly the
magnetic behavior of the machine’s air-gap.
Fig: Open Circuit Characteristic of DC machine along with Air gap and Rf lines
As already explained in the topic Build up of EMF in a DC shunt generator: At the

instant of switching on the field after the armature has been brought to rated
speed, the armature voltage corresponds to a small residual value which causes a
small field current to flow. If the field is connected such that this current increases
the field mmf and therefore the induced emf, the machine voltage cumulatively
buildups and settles at a final steady value because of the saturation
characteristic of the machine’s magnetic circuit.
Since the generator is assumed to be on no-load during the build-up process, the
following circuit relationships apply with reference to the machines’ equivalent
circuit shown in the figure below.
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Fig: The equivalent circuit of DC shunt generator
Ia = If
V = E a – I f Ra
The field current in a shunt generator being very small, the voltage drop IfRa can
be neglected so that : Vo= Ea(If) (magnetization
characteristic)
And for the field circuit:
Vo = I f Rf
which is a straight line relationship, called the Rf -line as shown in the OCC plot
earlier. The no-load terminal voltage is the solution of the above two eqations for
Vo.Thus the intersection point P of the Rf -line with the magnetization
characteristic as shown in the OCC gives the no-load terminal voltage (V0) and the
corresponding field current. Further, it is easy to visualize from this figure that the
no-load voltage can be adjusted to a desired value by changing the field
resistance.
It can be seen in the figure below that as the field resistance is increased the no-
load voltage decreases.
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Fig: Variation of No load voltage with field resistance

The no-load voltage is undefined for a field resistance (Rf3 = Rfc) whose line
coincides with the linear portion of the magnetization curve. With field resistance
even slightly more than this value, the machine does not excite to any appreciable
value and would give no-load voltage close to the residual value. The machine
with this much resistance in the field fails to excite and the corresponding
resistance is known as the critical resistance (Rfc).
Critical speed: Consider now the operation with fixed Rf and variable armature
speed as illustrated in the figure below. It can be observed that as the speed is
reduced, the OCC proportionally slides downwards so that the no-load voltage
reduces. At a particular speed, called the critical speed, the OCC becomes
tangential to the Rf line and as a result the generator would fail to excite.
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Fig: Effect of speed on No load voltage
Causes of failure to excite in a Shunt Generator:
A shunt generator may not get excited in certain conditions. The causes of such
failure to excite, the method of detection and the corresponding remedial
measures are given in the table below.
S.No Cause Method of Remedy

detection
1 Absence of residual Zero reading on Operate the
magnetism due to ageing Voltmeter after Generator as
rotating the separately excited
machine machine first and
then as separately
excited
2 Wrong field winding Voltmeter reading Interchange the field
connections. Due to this the decreases rather connections
flux gets produced in than increasing as
opposite direction to that of the field current is
the residual flux and they increased
cancel each other.
3 Field resistance is more than Voltmeter shows Field resistance to be
the Critical field resistance. zero reading reduced using
suitable field diverter
4 Generator is driven in This wipes out the Generator to be
opposite direction residual flux and driven in the proper
the machine fails direction
to excite
Terminal characteristics of a shunt generator :
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The terminal characteristics of the shunt generator differ from that of the
separately excited generator because the amount of field current depends on its
terminal voltage. As the generator load is increased, the load current IL increases
and so IA = IF + IL↑ also increases . An increase in IA increases the IARA drop
causing VT = (EA -- IA ↑RA ) to decrease. This is precisely the same behavior we
have seen in the case of separately excited generator. However, in the shunt
generator when VT decreases the field current decreases ,hence the field flux
deceases thus decreasing the generated Voltage EA . Decreasing the EA causes a
further decrease in the terminal voltage VT = (EA↓ --IA RA ). The resulting
characteristic is shown in the figure below.
Fig: Terminal Characteristic of DC Shunt Generator
It can be noticed that the drop with load is steeper than that of a separately
excited motor due to the field weakening affect. This means that the regulation of
a Shunt Generator is worse than that of a Separately Excited Generator.
DC Series Generator: In this the field flux is derived by connecting the Field coil in
series with the Armature of the Generator as shown in the figure below.
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Fig: Equivalent circuit of DC Series Generator along with the governing

equations
As shown, the armature current, load current and field current are same in a DC
series generator. i.e IA = IF = IL . Since the mmf produced by the fields is
given by = NI and the field current is more in the DC series generator , the
fileld winding is wound with lesser number of turns and also with a thicker gauge
so as to offer less field resistance since full load current flows through the field
winding .
The terminal characteristic of a DC Series Generator looks very much like the
magnetization curve of any other type of generator and is shown in the figure
below.
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Fig: Terminal Characteristic of DC Series Generator
At no load however since there is no field current,armature voltage EA and also

the terminal voltage VT are very small ( generated by the small amount of
residual flux.) As the load increases ,field current rises hence EA also increases
rapidly. The IA (RA+RF ) drop also goes up but this rise is less predominant
compared to the rise in EA initaially and hence VT also rises initially. After some
time field flux gets saturated and hence the induced voltage EA will be constant
without any further rise. At this stage the resistive drop predominates and hence
the terminal voltage VT starts drooping.
DC Compound generator:
As we know in DC shunt Generator the terminal Voltage falls and in a DC series

generator the terminal voltage increases on loading. A compound DC Generator is
the one in which there will be both Series and shunt field coils. If they are wound
such that they aid each other then it is called a Cumulative Compound DC
Generator and if they are wound such that the two fields oppose each other, then
it is called a differential Compound DC Generator. The equivalent circuit diagram
of such Cumulative DC Generator along with relevant governing equations is
shown in the figure below.
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Fig: Equivalent circuit of a Cumulative compound DC Generator
The circuit diagram is shown with standard dot convention on the field windings.
i.e. The current flowing into the dot side of the winding produces a positive mmf
.
And as can be seen that both IF in the shunt winding and IA in the series winding
flow into the dot side and hence both produce magnetic fields which are positive
and hence aid each other.
When the two fields are aiding each other we get a characteristic which will have
the combined effect of drooping (due to the shunt coil) and rising (due to the
field coil). Whichever coil current is more its effect will be more predominant. The
terminal characteristics of a cumulative compound DC Generator are shown in
the figure below for all the three cases.
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Fig: Terminal Characteristics of a DC Compound Generator
1. If the Series field effect is more dominating than that of the Shunt field coil
then we get the Over compounded characteristic where the full load
terminal voltage is higher than the no load terminal voltage.
2. If the Series field effect is equal to that of the Shunt field coil then we get
the Flat compounded characteristic where the full load terminal voltage is
equal to the no load terminal voltage.
3. If the Shunt field effect is more dominating than that of the Series field coil
then we get the Under compounded characteristic where the full load
terminal voltage is lower than the no load terminal voltage.
The normal shunt characteristic is also shown in the figure for comparison.
Important concepts and Formulae:
 Voltage generated in a DC machine: EA = (Ø ZN/60). (P/a) and in terms

of angular speed ω :
EA = Ka Ø ω where Ka = ZP/2πa
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Illustrative Examples:
Ex.1: Calculate the e.m.f. generated by a 6 pole DC Generator having 480
conductors and driven at a speed of 1200 RPM. The flux per pole is 0.012 webers.
(a) When the machine is lap wound (b) When the machine is wave wound
Solution: We know that the e.m.f. generated by a DC Generator is given by
EA = (Ø ZN/60)( P/a) where
Ø Flux per pole (webers) = 0.012Wb
Z Total number of conductors on the armature = 480
a The number of parallel paths = No of Poles P ( = 6 ) when Lap wound and
= 2 when
wave wound
N Speed of rotation of the machine (RPM) = 1200 RPM
P The number of poles = 6
(a) For Lap wound machine a = P = 6
Ea = [ (0.012 x 480 x 1200 ) / 60 ] [ 6/6] = 115.2 Volts
(b) For wave wound machine a = 2
Ea = [(0.012 x 480 x 1200 ) / 60 ] [ 6/2] = 345.6 Volts
Ex.2 : A 50 Kw ,250 V shunt generator operates at 1500 RPM .The armature has 6
poles and is lap wound with 200 turns. Find the induced e.m.f and the flux per
pole at full load given that the armature and the field resistances are 0.01 Ω and
125 Ω respectively.
Solution:
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Output line current = Output power / Line voltage = 50 x 1000 / 250 =

200 A
Field current = Line Voltage / Field resistance = 250 / 125 = 2 A
Armature current in a shunt generator: = Il + If = 200 + 2 = 202 A
Induced e.m.f Ea : = Line Voltage + Armature drop (IaRa drop)
= 250 + 202 x 0.01 = 252.02 V
But we know that armature voltage in terms of the basic machine parameters
is also given by
EA = (Ø ZN/60)( P/a) where

Ø c: Flux per pole (webers) = To be determined
Z : Total number of conductors on the armature = Number of turns x 2 (
since each turn has two conductors ) = 200 x 2 = 400
a : The number of parallel paths = No of Poles P ( = 6 ) (since Lap wound )
N : Speed of rotation of the machine (RPM) = 1500 RPM
P : The number of poles = 6
∴ Ø = (EA x 60 x a/ ZNP) = 252.02 x 60 x 6 / 400 x 1500 x 6 = 0.025202 Wb
Ex.3: A shunt generator connected in parallel to supply mains is delivering a

power of 50 Kw at 250 V while running at 750 RPM. Suddenly its prime mover fails
and the machine continues to run as a motor taking the same 50 Kw power from
250 V mains supply. Calculate the speed of the machine when running as a motor
given that Ra = 0.01 Ω, Rf = 100 Ω and brush drop is 1 V per brush.
Solution:
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First let us calculate the Voltage generated by the machine while running as a
generator under the given conditions:
Output line current = Output power / Line voltage = 50 x 1000 / 250 = 200 A
Field current = Line Voltage / Field resistance = 250 / 100 = 2.5 A
Armature current : Il + If = 200 + 2.5 = 202.5 A
Induced e.m.f Ea : = Line Voltage + Armature drop (IaRa drop)+ Brush

drop(two brushes )
= 250 + 202.5 x 0.01 + 2 x1 = 254.025 V
Next let us calculate the Voltage generated by the machine while running as a
motor under the given conditions :
Input line current = Input power / Line voltage = 50 x 1000 / 250 = 200 A
Field current = Line Voltage / Field resistance = 250 / 100 = 2.5 A
Armature current : Il - If = 200 - 2.5 = 197.5 A
Induced e.m.f or back e.m.f Eb : = Line Voltage - Armature drop(IaRa drop)

- Brush drop(two brushes )
= 250 – 197.5 x 0.01 - 2 x1 = 246.025 V
We know that the voltage induced in the machine is proportional to the speed
i. e
Generator armature voltage is proportional to Generator speed : E a 𝖺 NG

and similarly
Motor back e.m.f is proportional to Motor speed : E b 𝖺 NM
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Hence Ea / NG = Eb / NM or NM = (Eb / Ea )NG = (246.025 / 254.025) x

750 = 726 RPM
Example 4 : The following figures give the open-circuit characteristics of a dc

shunt generator at 300 rpm:
If (A) 0 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Voc (V) 7.5 93 135 165 186 202 215
The field resistance of the machine is adjusted to 354.5 W and the speed is 300
rpm.
(i) Determine graphically the no-load voltage.
(ii) Determine the critical field resistance.
(iii) Determine the critical speed for the given field resistance.
(iv)What additional resistance must be inserted in the field circuit to reduce the
no-load voltage to 175 V.
Solution:
Step-1 : Let us draw the Field resistance line corresponding to 354.5 Ω on the
OCC ( magnetization characteristic). This can be done by identifying a point
corresponding to a Voltage and current below the OCC corresponding to 354.5
Ω and extending the line joining this point with the origin.
1. V No load : This is the voltage corresponding to the point of intersection of the

OCC and the Rf line corresponding to 354.5 Ω and is seen to be = 195 V
2. Rf critical : To obtain this draw a line tangential to the OCC starting from the
Voltage at If = 0 A. Note down the voltage at which the tangential deviates
from the OCC and the corresponding If. Dividing this voltage by the
corresponding If we get the critical resistance viz. 90/0.2 = 450 Ω
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3. Critical Speed: We know that as speed reduces the armature voltage reduces.
i.e. the OCC leans down wards with decrease in speed and becomes
tangential to the existing Rf line itself. So to find out the critical speed we have
to find out the new Ea from the OCC corresponding to the lesser speed which
deviates from the existing Rf line. This is done by dropping a vertical
perpendicular line from the point of deviation of the critical resistance line
from the original OCC and identifying its intercept on the existing R f line. Then
by drawing a line parallel to the If axis from this point and locating its
intercept with the Voltage axis, the new Ea is found out.
Then Critical speed = Original RPM x new Ea / Original Ea = 300 x71/90 =
236.7 RPM
4. To find out the additional resistance to be introduced into the field to get a
new no load voltage of 175 V first we have to find out the value of If
corresponding to the new no load voltage. This can be directly read from the
OCC and then from these voltage and current values we can directly get the
new value of Rf and thus the additional value of R f to be introduced into the
field circuit.
Thus new Rf = 175/0.44 = 397.7 Ω and
The additional resistance to be introduced into the field = 397.7 – 354.5 =
43.2 Ω
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Electrical Machines -1 (EM-1): Lecture Notes:
(Prof.K.Subhas)
UNIT – II
D.C. MOTORS
CONTENTS:
 Principle of operation
 Back E.M.F - Torque equation
 Characteristics and application of shunt, series and compound
motors
 Armature reaction and commutation.
 Speed control of D.C. Motors - Armature voltage and field flux
control methods.
 Motor starters (3 point and 4-point starters)
 Important concepts and Formulae
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(Prof.K.Subhas)
Principle of operation: DC Motors are DC machines used as motors. A DC Motor

converts the input DC power into output rotational mechanical power from the
following principle. A current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field
experiences a mechanical force given by F= i (l X B).
When a group of such conductors is placed on a rotor and are connected

properly the force experienced by the all the conductors together gets translated
into a torque on the rotor (armature) and it starts rotating. We will derive an
expression for such a Torque developed by a DC Motor from the first principles
and its equivalent circuit by equating the Electrical power given to the motor
(excluding the losses) to the mechanical power developed by the motor.
Torque developed by a DC Motor:
Consider the equivalent circuit of a DC motor as shown in the figure below.
Fig: Equivalent circuit of a DC motor
In this figure, the armature circuit is represented by an ideal voltage source EA and
the armature resistance RA. The field coils, which produce the magnetic flux in
the motor, are represented by inductor LF and the field resistance RF. The
separate external variable resistor used to control the amount of current in the
field circuit is also combined with the field resistance and is together shown as RF.
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(Prof.K.Subhas)
We know from the earlier study of generators that the voltage generated in a DC
Machine when It’s armature is rotating in a magnetic flux of Ø webers/pole is
given by EA = KA. Ø.ω where KA is given by:
KA = (ZP/2πa)
Now in the DC Motor also, when it is rotating, from the same fundamental
principle of Generator a Voltage is generated across the armature and it is now
called back EMF and is normally shown as Eb to distinguish it from the voltage
generated in the armature of a generator which was shown as EA .
The governing equation of the DC Motor armature circuit now becomes:
VT = Eb+ IaRA or Eb= VT - IaRA
(as against VT = EA - IaRA in the case of a generator where IA flows from armature
towards the external terminals i.e external load )
Since now an external voltage VT is applied to the motor terminals , direction of

armature current changes i.e. now it flows from external terminals towards the
armature.
The power delivered to the motor is given by : Pin = VT . Ia . From this, the loss of
power in the armature is equal to I 2aRA and hence the net power given to the
motor armature is given by :
Pm = VT . Ia - Ia2RA = Ia (VT - IaRA ) = Ia . Eb
Pm = I a . E b
This net electrical power is converted into mechanical power. We know that in
mechanical rotational systems the power is equal to Torque times the speed. In
the SI system of units which is the present Industry standard it is given by :
P mech (watts ) = τ (Nw.mtrs ).ω (Radians/second )
For simplification if we ignore the mechanical losses in the motor,then :
Pm = Ia . Eb = P mech = τ .ω
i.e. τ .ω = Ia . Eb = Eb . Ia
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(Prof.K.Subhas)
Substituting the value of EA = KA . Ø . ω we got in generators here for Eb since

they are the same induced emfs we get τ .ω = Ia . KA. Ø.ω or
τ = KA. Ø . Ia
It is to be noted that this expression for the torque induced in a motor is similar to
the voltage induced in a DC Generator except that the speed ω in the DC
Generator is replaced by the Armature current Ia . The constant KA is same and is
given by KA = (ZP/2πa)
In general, the torque τ in the DC motor will depend on the following 3 factors:
1. The flux Ø in the machine
2. The armature current Ia in the machine
3. The same constant KA representing the construction of the machine
Types of DC Motors and their output (or terminal) Characteristics:
There are three important types DC Motors: DC separately excited, Shunt and
Series motors. We will explain their important features and characteristics briefly.
The terminal characteristic of a machine is a plot of the machine’s output

quantities versus each other. For a motor, the output quantities are shaft torque
and speed, so the terminal characteristic of a motor is a plot of its output torque
versus speed. (Torque/Speed characteristics)
They can be obtained from the Motor’s Induced voltage and torque equations we
have derived earlier plus the Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the armature circuit
and are again given below for quick reference.
 The internal voltage generated in a DC motor is given by: Eb = Ka. Φ.ω

 The internal Torque generated in a DC motor is given by: τ = Ka. Φ.Ia
 KVL around the armature circuit is given by : VT = Eb+ Ia.Ra
Where Φ = Flux per pole .... Webers

Ia = Armature current .... Amperes
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(Prof.K.Subhas)
VT = Applied terminal Voltage .... Volts

Ra = Armature resistance .... Ohms
ω = Motor speed .... Radians/sec
Eb = Armature Back EMF .... Volts
Ka = (ZP/2πa) : Motor Back EMF/Torque constant
From the above three equations we get the relation between Torque and speed
as:
ω = (VT / Ka. Φ ) -- (Ra/ Ka. Φ). Ia
ω = (VT / Ka. Φ ) -- [Ra/ (Ka. Φ)2+.τ

We will use this generalized equation in different types of motors and obtain their
Torque vs. Speed characteristics.
DC separately excited and Shunt Motors:
The Equivalent circuits of DC separately excited and Shunt Motors along with
their governing equations are shown in the figure below.
(a) Separately Excited (b) Shunt
Fig: Equivalent circuit of DC separately excited and Shunt Motors
In a separately excited DC motor the field and armature are connected to

separate voltage sources and can be controlled independently. In a shunt motor
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the field and the armature are connected to the same source and cannot be
controlled independently. When the supply voltage to a motor is assumed
constant and is same to the field and armature circuits, there is no practical
difference in behavior between these two machines. Unless otherwise specified,
whenever the behavior of a shunt motor is described, it would be same as that of
a separately excited motor.
In both their cases, with a constant field current the field flux can be assumed to
be constant and then (Ka.Φ) Would be another constant K. Then the above
Generalized Torque speed relations would become:
ω = VT / K -- (Ra/ K). Ia
Substituting the value of Ia in terms of τ (Ia = τ / Ka.Φ = τ / K) we get
ω = VT / K -- [Ra/ (K)2].τ
This equation is just a straight line with negative slope. The resulting Speed/
Torque Characteristics of a DC Separately Excited /Shunt Motor for a rated
terminal voltage and full field current are shown in the figure below. It is a
drooping straight line.
Speed (ω )
Torque (T)
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(Prof.K.Subhas)
Fig: Speed/ Torque Characteristics of a DC Separately Excited/Shunt Motor
The no load speed is given by the Applied armature terminal voltage and the field
current. Speed falls with increasing load torque. The speed regulation depends on
the Armature circuit resistance. The usual drop from no load to full load in the
case of a medium sized motor will be around 5%. Separately excited motors are
mostly used in applications where good speed regulation and adjustable speed
are required.
If motor armature reaction is taken into account, then as its load increases, the
flux-weakening effects reduce its flux. From the motor speed equation above, the
effect of reduction in flux is to increase the motor’s speed at any given load over
the speed it would run at without armature reaction. Though at a first glance of
the Speed torque equation it may appear that the effect of reduction in flux is to
decrease the motor’s speed at any given load (since Φ2 is in the denominator)
actually since the first positive term contains V T which is much larger quantity
compared to the second negative term, IaRa drop the net effect would only be to
increase the motor’s speed at any given load. The torque-speed characteristic of a
shunt motor with armature reaction is shown below:
Fig: Torque-speed characteristic of the motor with armature reaction

considered
Motor’s Other Characteristics: Though the terminal characteristics (Speed vs.

Torque) are only important for analysis of a DC motor performance, study and
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understanding of the other characteristics like speed vs. I a and Torque vs. Ia would
also give additional insight into the performance of the motor and hence they
are obtained from the basic equations and presented below:
 Speed vs. Ia : Eb = Ka. Φ.ω = VT - Ia.Ra

ω = (VT - Ia.Ra)/ Ka. Φ
 Torque vs. Ia: τ = Ka. Φ.Ia
Fig: Speed and torque vs. Armature current for a DC shunt motor
DC Series Motor:
The equivalent circuit of a DC Series motor is shown in the figure below.
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(Prof.K.Subhas)
Fig: Equivalent Circuit of a DC Series Motor
In a series motor the field current and armature current are same and hence the
field flux is directly dependent on the armature current. Hence during the initial
i.e unsaturated region of the magnetization characteristic the flux Φ can be
assumed to be proportional to the armature current.
Then Φ = Kf.Ia
And using this value in the first basic motor relation given earlier we get:
2
τ = Ka. Φ.Ia = Ka. K .If
τ = K af.I a2 ( where K af= K a.K )
Substituting the above two values of Φ and τ in the second basic motor equation
ω = (VT / Ka. Φ ) -- [Ra/ (Ka. Φ)2].τ
We get ω = VT / Ka. Kf.Ia -- [Ra/ (Ka. Kf .Ia)2].Kaf.Ia2
ω = VT / Kaf.Ia -- [Ra/ (Kaf .Ia)2].Kaf.Ia2
ω = VT / Kaf.Ia -- [Ra/ (Kaf)]
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(Prof.K.Subhas)
From the relation τ = Ka. Φ.Ia = Ka. Kf.Ia2 we get Ia = √τ/Kaf and substituting
this in the above equation ω = VT / Kaf.Ia -- [Ra/ (Kaf)]
We get ω = *VT /√( Kaf.τ)] -- [Ra/(Kaf)]
Where Ra is now the sum of armature and field winding resistances and Kaf = Ka.Kf
is the total motor constant. The Speed-Torque characteristics of a DC series motor
as obtained from the above relation are shown in the figure below.
Speed (ω )
Rated Speed Torque (τ )
Rated Torque
Fig: Speed-Torque characteristics of a DC series motor
Motor’s Other Characteristics: Though the terminal characteristics (Speed vs.

Torque) are only important for analysis of a DC motor performance, study and
understanding of the other characteristics like speed vs. I a and Torque vs. Ia would
also give additional insight into the performance of the motor and hence they are
obtained from the basic equations and presented below:
 Speed vs. Ia : Eb = Ka. Kf. Ia ω = VT - Ia.Ra

i.e. = Kaf. Ia .ω = VT - Ia.Ra and
ω = (VT - Ia.Ra) / Kaf. Ia = (VT / Kaf. Ia ) - (Ra
/ Kaf)
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(Prof.K.Subhas)
This is an inverse relationship and is shown plotted in the figure below.
 Torque vs. Ia: τ = Ka. Φ.Ia = K .Iaf 2
This is a direct relationship and is shown plotted in the figure below.
Saturation and armature reaction demagnetization both cause the flux per pole to
increase (with respect to Ia ) at a rate slower than the assumed linear relationship.
Actual characteristics are shown in dotted lines.
Fig: Speed Vs. Armature current in a Series Motor
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Fig: Torque vs. Armature current in a DC Series Motor
Series motors are suitable for applications requiring high starting torque and
heavy overloads. Since Torque is proportional to square of the armature current,
for a given increase in load torque the increase in armature current is less in case
of series motor as compared to a separately excited motor where torque is
proportional to only armature current. Thus during heavy overloads power
overload on the source power and thermal overload on the motor are kept
limited to reasonable small values. According to the above Speed torque
equation, as speed varies inversely to the square root of the Load torque, the
motor runs at a large speed at light load. Generally the electrical machine’s
mechanical strength permits their operation up to about twice their rated speed.
Hence the series motors should not be used in such drives where there is a
possibility for the torque to drop down to such an extent that the speed exceeds
twice the rated speed.
DC Compound Motor:
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(Prof.K.Subhas)
A compound motor is a motor with both a shunt and a series field. Such a motor is
shown in the Figure below. The dots that appear on the two field coils have the
same meaning as the dots on a transformer: Current flowing into a dot produces a
positive magneto motive force. If current flows into the dots on both field coils,
the resulting magneto motive forces add to produce a larger total magneto
motive force.
This situation is known as cumulative compounding. If current flows into the dot
on one field coil and out of the dot on the other field coil , the resulting magneto
motive forces subtract. In the Figure below the round dots correspond to
cumulative compounding of the motor, and the squares correspond to differential
compounding.
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Fig: Speed vs. Armature current in a DC Compound Motor Compared with other
Motors
Fig: Torque vs. Armature current in a DC Compound Motor Compared with

other Motors
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(Prof.K.Subhas)
Fig: Speed vs. Torque in a DC Compound Motor Compared with other Motors
The Torque-Speed Characteristic of a Cumulatively Compounded DC Motor :
 In the cumulatively compounded DC motor, there is a component of flux

which is constant and another component which is proportional to its
armature current (and thus to its load) which aid each other. Hence the flux
per pole increases with armature current and as consequence (n-Ia) curve
lies between that of a shunt motor( Ø – constant ) and series motor (Ø
𝖺 𝐼𝑎 ).
 Therefore, the cumulatively compounded motor has a higher starting
torque than a shunt motor (whose flux is constant) but a lower starting
torque than a series motor (whose entire flux is proportional to armature
current).
 In a sense, the cumulatively compounded DC motor combines the best
features of both the shunt and the series motors. Like a series motor, it has
extra torque for starting; like a shunt motor, it does not over speed at no
load.
 At light loads, the series field has a very small effect, so the motor behaves
approximately as a shunt DC motor. As the load gets very large, the series
flux becomes quite important and the torque-speed curve begins to look
like a series motor’s characteristic. A comparison of the torque-speed
characteristics of each of these types of machines is shown in Figures.
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(Prof.K.Subhas)
The Torque-Speed Characteristic of a Differentially Compounded DC Motor:
 In a differentially compounded dc motor, the shunt magneto motive force

and series magneto motive force subtract from each other. This means that
as the load on the motor increases, Ia increases and the flux in the motor
decreases. But as the flux decreases, the speed of the motor increases. This
speed increase causes another increase in load, which further increases Ia
further decreasing the flux, and Increasing the speed again. The result is
that a differentially compounded motor is unstable and tends to run away.
This instability is much worse than that of a shunt motor with armature
reaction. It is so bad that a differentially compounded motor is unsuitable
for any application.
 Because of the stability problems of the differentially compounded
DCmotor, it is almost never intentionally used.
 However, a differentially compounded motor can result if the direction of
power flow reverses in a cumulatively compounded generator. For that
reason, if cumulatively compounded DC generators are used to supply
power to a system, they will have a reverse-power trip circuit to disconnect
them from the line if the power flow reverses. No motor- generator set in
which power is expected to flow in both directions can use a differentially
compounded motor, and therefore it cannot use a cumulatively
compounded generator.
Typical terminal characteristics of differentially compounded dc motor are also

included in the Figures.
Speed control of DC Motors:
Speed control of DC Motors is easier as compared to the speed control of AC

motors and much wider range of speeds is possible. That is one reason why even
today they are preferred in modern industrial drives. From the two basic
equations of DC machines
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 Eb = Ka. Φ.ω
 VT = Eb+ Ia.Ra
We have the expression for the speed ω = ( VT ‒ Ia.Ra )/ Ka. Φ. From this equation
we can (Since Ka is a constant and Ia is load dependent) easily see that the speed
can be controlled by two methods:
1. By varying the terminal voltage known as : Armature Voltage Control (

AVC ) and
2. By varying the field current and thus the flux per pole Φ known as : Flux
control
Let us study them one by one for all the three types of Motors
Speed control of DC Shunt Motor:
Armature Voltage Control (AVC):
This method involves changing the voltage applied to the armature of the motor
without changing the Voltage applied to the field. This is possible with a
separately excited DC Motor only and not with DC Shunt Motor. So first we shall
explain for a DC separately excited motor and extend the same logic to a shunt
Motor. If the armature terminal Voltage VT is increased, then the IA will rise since
[ IA = (VT ↑ -Eb)/RA]. As IA increases, the induced torque τ = Ka. Φ.Ia↑ increases,
making τind > τload , and the speed of the motor increases.
But, as the speed ω increases, Eb = Ka. Φ.ω↑ increases, causing the armature
current IA to decrease since [ IA = (VT ‒ Eb↑)/RA]. This decrease in IA decreases
the induced torque, causing τind to become equal to τload at a final higher steady
state rotational speed ω. Thus we can see that an increase in Armature voltage
results in a higher speed and the resulting Speed Torque characteristics with AVC
is shown in the figure below.
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Fig: The effect of armature voltage speed control
Notice that the no-load speed of the motor is shifted by this method of speed
control , but the slope of the curve remains constant
The cause-and-effect behavior in this method of speed Control can be
summarized as below:
1. An increase in VT increases [ IA = (VT ↑ ‒ Eb)/RA

2. Increasing IA increases τind = Ka. Φ.Ia↑
3. Increasing τind makes τind > τload increasing ω.
4. Increasing ω increases Eb = Ka. Φ.ω↑
5. Increasing Eb decreases IA = (VT ‒ Eb↑)/RA
6. Decreasing IA decreases τind until τind = τload corresponding to a higher ω.
In the case of a DC Shunt motor since changing the voltage applied to the
armature of the motor without changing the Voltage applied to the field is not
possible, a Variable resistance is introduced in series with the Armature which
results in a reduction in the Armature current IA. Effectively reduction of Armature
current is equivalent to reduction in Armature voltage as seen in the above logic.
Hence we get the same type of Speed control as shown in the figure above except
that the characteristic with VA2 represents the nominal rated speed and that with
VA1 represents with additional resistance introduced in series with the Armature.
With this method, speed control is possible but speed can only be reduced from
the rated or nominal speed. Even for a separately excited DC Motor it can provide
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speed control below Base speed only because armature voltage cannot exceed the
rated value.
Inserting a resistor in series with the armature circuit : If a resistor is inserted in

series with the armature circuit, the effect is to drastically increase the slope of
the motor's torque-speed characteristic, making it operate more slowly if loaded
as shown in the figure below. This fact can easily be seen from the basic Equation:
ω = (VT / Ka. Φ ) -- [Ra/ (Ka. Φ)2+.τ
The insertion of a resistor is a very wasteful method of speed control, since the
losses in the inserted resistor are very large. For this reason, it is rarely used.
Figure: Effect of Armature Resistance on the Speed Torque characteristic of a DC

shunt motor
Flux control:
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Another method of Shunt motor speed control is to change the flux in the field. In
a shunt motor Field current and hence field flux cannot be changed without
changing the armature voltage. Hence flux control in Shunt motor is achieved by
changing the Field resistance. Field coil resistance being fixed we cannot reduce it
but increase the field circuit resistance by adding a variable resistance in series
with the field coil as shown in the figure below.
Accordingly, when the resistance increases, the field current decreases (IF↓ =
VT/RF↑), and as the field current decreases, the flux decreases. A decrease in flux
causes an instantaneous decrease in the back emf ( Eb↓ = Ka. Φ↓.ω ) which
causes an increase in the machine’s armature current since,
IA ↑ = (VT -- EB↓)/RA
The induced torque in a motor is given by τind = Ka. Φ↓.Ia↑ .
Here since the flux in this machine decreases while the current IA increases, which
way does the induced torque change?
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From practical data it is seen that for an increase in field resistance the decrease
in flux is much lesser than the increase in armature current i.e. the increase in
current predominates over the decrease in flux.
Hence, τind increases i.e. τind > τload , and the motor speeds up.
However, as the motor speeds up, Eb rises, causing IA to fall. Thus, induced torque
τind too drops, and
Finally τind equals τload at a higher steady-state speed than the original speed .
The cause-and-effect behavior involved in this method of speed control is

summarized below :
1. Increasing RF causes IF↓ = VT/RF↑ to decrease
2. Decreasing IF↓ decreases Φ↓
3. Decreasing Φ↓ lowers Eb↓ = Ka. Φ↓.ω
4. Decreasing Eb↓ increases IA since IA ↑ = (VT -- EB↓)/RA
5. Increasing IA increases τind = Ka. Φ↓.Ia↑, with the change in IA being
dominant over the change in flux ).
6. Increasing τind makes τind > τload, and the speed ω increases.
7. Increasing ω increases Eb↑= Ka. Φ.ω↑ again.
8. Increasing Eb decreases Ia
9. Decreasing Ia decreases " τind until " τind = " τload at a higher speed ω.
Fig: Shunt Motor Speed control with Flux control (Change in field resistance)(
over the normal operating Range )
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The Speed Torque characteristics with change in Field Resistance are shown in the
figure below. Notice that with flux control i.e. with insertion of additional
resistance in the field circuit, the flux in the machine decreases and hence:
 The no- load speed of the motor increases, while the slope of the torque-
speed curve becomes steeper and also
 Speeds above base speed only can be achieved. (as against with Armature
resistance insertion control , speeds below base speed only can be
achieved) since to achieve speed below base speeds field current has to be
increased beyond its rated value which is not permitted. In a normally
designed motor the maximum speed can be twice the rated speed and in
specially designed motors it can be up to six times the rated speed.
Other important Limitation of field resistance speed control:
The effect of increasing the field resistance on the output characteristic of a DC

shunt motor as seen and explained above is a consequence of the Equation
ω = (VT / Ka. Φ ) -- [Ra/ (Ka. Φ)2+.τ
which describes the technical characteristic of the motor. In this equation, the no-
load speed is proportional to the reciprocal of the flux in the motor, while the
slope of the curve is proportional to the reciprocal of the flux squared. Therefore,
a decrease in flux causes the slope of the torque- speed curve to become steeper.
The earlier figure shows the technical characteristic of the motor over the range
from no-load to full-load conditions. Over this range, an increase in field
resistance increases the motor's speed, as described above. Hence for motors
operating between no- load and full-load conditions, an increase in RF may
reliably be expected to increase the operating speed.
Now let us examine the figure shown below. This figure shows the technical
characteristic of the motor over the full range i.e. from no- load to stall
conditions. It is apparent from the figure that at very slow speeds an increase in
field resistance will actually decrease the speed of the motor. This effect occurs
because , at very low speeds, the increase in armature current caused by the
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decrease in Eb. is no longer large enough to compensate for the decrease in flux in
the induced torque equation. With the flux decrease being actually larger than
the armature current increase, the induced torque decreases, and the motor
slows down.
Fig: Shunt Motor Speed control with Flux control (Change in field resistance)(
over the complete operating Range i.e. from no load to stall condition)
Some small DC motors used for control purposes actually operate at speeds close
to stall conditions. For these motors, an increase in field resistance might have no
effect, or it might even decrease the speed of the motor. Since the results are not
predictable, field resistance speed control should not be used in these types of dc
motors. Instead, the armature voltage method of speed control should be
employed.
Speed Control of Series DC Motors:
Unlike with the shunt dc motor, there is only one efficient way to change the
speed of a series dc motor. That method is to change the terminal voltage of the
motor. If the terminal voltage is increased, the first term in Equation
ω = *VT /√( Kaf.τ)] -- [Ra/(Kaf)]
is increased, resulting in a higher speed for any given torque.
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The speed of DC series motors can also be controlled by the insertion of a series
or parallel (Diverter) resistor into the motor circuit as shown in the figures below
along with the resulting effect on Speed torque characteristics. But in this
technique large amount of power is dissipated as heat and thus wasted. Hence
this method is used only for intermittent periods during the start-up of some
motors.
Until the last 40 years or so, there was no convenient way to change VT, so the
only method of speed control available was the wasteful series resistance
method. That has all changed today with the introduction of solid-state control
circuits. We will study the techniques of obtaining variable terminal voltages
subsequently in another subject ‘Power Electronics ‘
Speed Control of Cumulatively Compounded DC Motor:
The techniques available for the control of speed in a cumulatively compounded

DC motor are the same as those available for a shunt motor:
1. Change the field resistance RF

2. Change the armature voltage VT
3. Change the armature resistance RA.
The analysis describing the methods and effects of changing RF or VT or RA are

similar to the analysis given earlier for the shunt motor.
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The ward Leonard system:
The speed of a separately excited, shunt, or compounded dc motor can be varied

in one of three ways: by changing the field resistance, changing the armature
voltage, or changing the armature resistance. Of these methods, perhaps the
most useful is armature voltage control, since it permits wide speed variations
without affecting the motor's maximum torque.
A number of motor-control systems have been developed over the years to take
advantage of the high torques and variable speeds available from the armature
voltage control of DC motors. In the days before solid-state electronic
components became available, it was difficult to produce a varying DC volt age. In
fact, the normal way to vary the armature voltage of a dc motor was to provide it
with its own separate dc generator.
An armature voltage control system of this type known as ward Leonard Speed
control system is shown in the Figure below .
Figure: Ward Leonard DC Motor Speed control system
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Figure: The operating range of a Ward-Leonard motor-control system. The

motor can operate as a motor in either the forward (quadrant - 1) or reverse
(quadrant -3) direction and it can also regenerate in quadrants 2 and 4.
In this an AC motor is serving as a prime mover for a DC generator, which allows

the motor's speed to be smoothly varied between a very small value and the base
speed. The speed of the motor can be adjusted above the base speed by reducing
the motor’s field current. With such a flexible arrangement, total motor speed
control is possible.
Furthermore, if the field current of the generator is reversed, then the polarity of
the generator's armature voltage will be reversed, too. This will reverse the
motor's direction of rotation. Therefore, it is possible to get a very wide range of
speed variations in either direction of rotation using a Ward-Leonard DC motor
control system.
Another advantage of the Ward-Leonard system is that it can "regenerate," or
return the machine’s energy of motion to the supply lines. If a heavy load is first
raised and then lowered by the DC motor of a Ward-Leonard system, when the
load is being lowered, the DC motor acts as a generator and supplying power back
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to the power system. In this fashion, much of the energy required to lift the load
in the
first place can be recovered, reducing the machine's overall operating costs.
The possible modes of operation of the DC machine are shown in the torque-
speed diagram shown in the above Figure. When this motor is rotating in its
normal direction and supplying a torque in the direction of rotation, it is operating
in the first quadrant of this figure. If the generator's field current is reversed, that
will reverse the terminal voltage of the generator, in turn reversing the motor's
armature voltage. When the armature voltage reverses with the motor field
current remaining unchanged, both the torque and the speed of the motor are
reversed, and the machine is operating as a motor in the third quadrant of the
diagram. If the torque or the speed alone of the motor reverses while the other
quantity does not, then the machine serves as a generator, returning power to
the dc power system. Because a Ward-Leonard system permits rotation and
regeneration in either direction, it is called a four-quadrant control system.
The disadvantages of a Ward-Leonard system should be obvious. One is that the
user is forced to buy three full machines of essentially equal ratings, which is quite
expensive. Another is that three machines will be much less efficient than one.
Because of its expense and relatively low efficiency, the Ward-Leonard system has
been replaced in new applications by SCR-based controller circuits.
Principle of 3 point and 4 point starters:
Before studying the principle of operation of these starters let us understand the
basic principles underlying the starters.
 DC motors are by themselves self starting type. Once the appropriate field
and armature supply are given the motors start automatically. They do not
need any additional device for the purpose of starting.
 But DC motor starters are required for safe starting of the motors. Initially
just at the starting of the motor, the speed is zero and hence the back emf
Eb is also zero. In this condition if the Rated terminal voltage Vt is applied to
the motor we can see from the basic governing equation
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Ia = ( Vt ‒ Eb )/Ra
That the motor draws excessive current which would be easily 10 to 15
times that of the nominal rated current of the motor. This excessive
current would flow till the motor develops the rated speed.
 During this transient period when the excessive current flows the torque
developed also would be excessive. With the result the motor would get
damaged both electrically and mechanically.
 To protect the motor from such damage, a resistance is introduced in
series with the motor as shown in the figure below which would be
withdrawn gradually in steps as the motor picks up speed.
 This is a basic arrangement of a DC motor starter and its operation is totally
manual. But practical starters have been developed with additional
protective and automatic starting features. They are called 3 point starters
and 4 point starters, the subject of our study.
3 Point starter:
The circuit diagram and the arrangement of a three point starter are shown in the
figure below.
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Figure: 3 Point starter
Basic features and working principles:
 The basic component viz starter resistance comes in steps with contact
points brought out as studs 1,2,3.. Run.
 The three points are:
 L – The line terminal to be connected to the DC positive terminal
through a two pole switch
 A – The terminal to be connected to the terminal A1 of the armature.
 F – The terminal to be connected to the terminal F 1 of the Field
winding
 The other ends A2 of the armature and F2 of the field are connected to the
other contact of the two pole switch which gets connected to the negative
terminal of the DC power supply when switched on.
 Point L in turn is connected to the pivot point of the handle through a
protective device called OLR ( Over Load Relay )
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 The handle which is spring loaded comes back to the OFF position under its
own force until locked in the RUN position due to the electromagnetic pull
of the other protective device known as NVC ( No Volt Coil)
 The field terminal F is connected to starting point 1 of the resistance in a
parallel path through the NVC.
Operation of the starter: The starter is gradually moved from the initial position
to the final RUN position manually against the spring force. When the handle
comes in contact with stud -1 , the field supply gets extended to the field coil
through the parallel path connected directly from stud -1 through NVC . In the
starter initially entire resistance comes in series with the armature and as the
handle is moved towards RUN, the portion of the series resistance that comes out
of the armature circuit gets added to the field circuit. Finally when the handle is
brought to the Run position, the entire resistance gets removed from the
Armature circuit and the motor runs at the rated speed. The handle is held in RUN
position due to the action of the NVC.
Action of the NVC: When the field current flows through the NVC it attracts the
handle with the soft iron piece and keeps it in contact the NVC electromagnet.
Hence NVC is also called as Hold On Coil. In addition to holding the handle in the
final RUN position, the NVC works as a safety/protection device by releasing the
handle back to the start position from the RUN position whenever there is a
power failure or when the field circuit breaks. Thus the entire starting resistance
comes into the armature circuit every time the motor is started from zero speed
and prevents high inrush currents during every fresh starting attempt after a
power failure.
Action of the OLR: As can be seen from the figure there is another protective
relay called OLR (Over Load Relay) which is also an electromagnet which works in
conjunction with an arm fixed on a fulcrum at one end and with a triangular iron
piece fixed on the other end. Whenever there is an overload current beyond a set
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safety value, the electromagnet activates and pulls the arm upwards and the
triangular iron piece short circuits the two terminals which are connected to the
two ends of the NVC coil. Thus with any overload due to a fault in the motor or
associated circuit , the NVC gets deactivated and releases the handle back to the
initial safe start condition. After the fault is rectified the motor can be started
afresh with full resistance brought back into the armature circuit.
3 Point starter with a brass/copper arc:
In the earlier version of the 3 Point starter as we have seen, as the handle is
moved towards RUN position, the portion of the series resistance that comes out
of the armature circuit gets added to the field circuit. Thus finally when the motor
is running, the entire starter resistance gets added to the field circuit. But since
the starting resistance value is very small compared to field winding resistance,
this hardly reduces the field current and hence there is no any practical impact.
However this addition of resistance in the field circuit can be avoided by providing
a brass or copper arc with one end connected to the stud -1 and the other end
connected to the NVC as shown in the figure below.
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Figure: 3 Point starter with Brass arc
With such an arrangement when the handle moves on the arc the field current
directly flows through the arc to the NVC thus avoiding the starting resistance.
With such an arc in place, the earlier parallel connection from stud -1 to the NVC
start terminal is no more required and hence is removed.
4 Point starter: The operation of the 4 point starter is explained along with the
schematic diagram shown below.
Figure: 4 Point starter
 The basic difference between a 3 Point starter and a four point starter is : In a
3 point starter NVC was connected in series with the field coil while in a 4
point starter the NVC is connected independently to the supply through a
fourth terminal termed as N in addition to L, F and A.
 With this arrangement any change in the field current due to the change field
control resistance will not affect the performance of the NVC. This ensures
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that NVC always produces a force enough to hold on the handle irrespective of
the amount of field current. Adequate current required for the confirmed
operation of the NVC is obtained by adjusting the resistor R connected in
series with the NVC coil.
 However the 4 point starter has a separate disadvantage: Since now the NVC is
connected separately excluding the field current, it cannot detect the field
failure and hence the resulting over speed cannot be prevented.
 Torque generated in a DC machine : τ = Ka. Φ.Ia

 KVL around the armature circuit: VT = Eb+ Ia.Ra
 Generalized Torque vs. Speed equation in different types of motors:
ω = (VT / Ka. Φ ) -- [Ra/ (Ka. Φ)2+.τ

 Shunt Motor’s Other Characteristics:
Speed vs. Ia : ω = (VT - Ia.Ra)/ Ka. Φ
Torque vs. Ia: τ = Ka. Φ.Ia
 Series Motor:
ω = *VT /√( Kaf.τ)] -- [Ra/(Kaf)]
 Speed vs. Ia : ω = (VT - Ia.Ra) / Kaf. Ia = (VT / Kaf. Ia ) - (Ra
/ Kaf)
 Torque vs. Ia: τ = Ka. Φ.Ia = K .Iaf 2
 Speed control with armature voltage control is possible only below the
rated or nominal speed (also known as base speed).
 Speed control with flux control is possible only above the base speed
Illustrative examples:
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Ex.1: A 500 V shunt motor with Rf = 250 Ω and Ra = 0.2 Ω runs at 2500 RPM taking
a current of 25 A from the mains supply . Calculate the resistance to be added to
the armature circuit to reduce the speed to 1500 RPM keeping the armature
current constant.
Solution:
First let us calculate the back e.m.f developed by the motor in the given first set
of conditions:
Field current If = Rated terminal voltage / Rf = 500 / 250 = 2 A
Armature current Ia = Il – If = ( 25 – 2 ) = 23 A
Back e.m.f Eb = VT - Ia Ra = 500 – 23 x 0.2 = 495.4 V
We know that the back e.m.f is proportional to the speed
∴ Eb1 / Eb2 = N1/ N2 i.e 495.4 / Eb2 = 2500/1500 ∴ Eb2 = 495.4 x 1500
/ 2500
= 297.24 V
But we also know that Eb2 = VT - Ia Ra2 ( Since the terminal voltage and the
armature current remain the same )
∴ 297.24 = 500 – 23 x Ra2 from which we get Ra2 = ( 500 – 297.24 ) /23 =
8.82 Ω
This is the total new resistance of the armature circuit (including the original
armature resistance of 0.2 Ω to get a speed of 1500 RPM)
Hence the new resistance to be added into the armature circuit = 8.82- 0.2 =
8.62 Ω
Ex.2: A DC shunt motor takes 22 A from 250 V supply. Ra = 0.5 Ω , Rf = 125 Ω.
Calculate the resistance required to be connected in series with the armature to
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halve the speed (a ) when the load torque is constant ( b) When the load torque
is proportional to the square of the speed
Solution :
First let us calculate the speed of the motor when the load current Il is 22 A :
Field current If = Rated Terminal voltage / Field resistance = 250/125 = 2 A
Armature current Ia = Il - If = 22 -2 = 20 A
Back e.m.f Eb = VT - Ia Ra = 250 – 20 x 0.5 = 240 V
(a) we have to find out the New Ra when the speed is halved with torque
maintained constant :
We know that Torque T = Ka. Ø.Ia . In this case since change is only in the
armature resistance field current and hence flux Ø remains the same. Further
since the torque is maintained constant the armature currents are also equal and
hence Ia1 = Ia2 = 20 A
We also know that Eb = Ka. Ø.ω . As already explained, Ka. Ø remains same and
hence when the speed is halved the back e.m.f also gets halved.
Hence Eb2 = 120 V = VT – IaRa2 i.e 250 – 20 x Ra2 = 120 V i.e Ra2 = (250 -
120)/20 = 6.5Ω
Hence the Resistance to be added to halve the speed = Ra2 - Ra = 6.5-0.5 = 6.0 Ω
(b) Next we have to find out the New Ra when the speed is halved when torque is
proportional to square of speed.
When the torque is proportional to the square of the speed τ1 = K ω 2 and τ =
1 2
2
Kω 2
∴ τ1 / τ2 = K ω 21/ K ω 2
2
= ω 21/ ω22 = (1/0.5 )2 = 4
But Torque is also proportional to the product of flux (and hence field current
)and Armature current. Here field circuit is not disturbed and hence the field
current is same. Using this relation we can find out new armature current Ia 2
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∴ τ1 / τ2 = K x If x Ia1 / K x If x Ia 2 = Ia1 / Ia 2 = 4 i.e Ia 2 = Ia1 / 4 = 20/4 =5 A

Next using the relation between the speeds and the back emfs we can find out
the armature resistance to be added.
ω1/ ω2 = 2 and also
ω1/ ω2 = Eb1/Eb2 = 240 / ( 250 – 5 x Ra2 ) i.e 250- 5Ra2 = 240/2 = 120 From
which we get
Ra2 = (250-120)/5 = 26 Ω ∴ Finally Resistance to b added is = 26-0.5 =
25.5 Ω
Ex.3: A 250 V DC series motor takes 40 A and runs at 1000 RPM. Find the speed at
which it runs if its torque is halved. Assume that the motor is operating in the
unsaturated region of its magnetization. Rf = 0.25 Ω Ra = 0.25 Ω
First we will use the relation between torque and armature current and get the
back e.mf when the torque is halved :
In a DC motor we know that the torque is proportional to Ø.I a. In the case of a
series DC motor flux is proportional to the armature current itself since I f = Ia .
Hence in a series motor τ 𝖺 I 2a
Hence τ1/τ2 = Ia12 / Ia22 = 2 (Since torque is halved) Ia1 / Ia2 = √2
Ia1 = 40 A and Ia2 = 40/√2 = 28.28 A

Eb1 = 250 - 40 (0.25 + 0.25) = 230 V and Eb2 = 250 - 28.28 (0.25 + 0.25)
= 235.86 V
Next we will use the relation between back emf and speed and get the speed when
the torque is halved:
We know that Eb1 = Ka Ø1N1 and Eb2 = Ka Ø2N2 . But since the flux is
proportional to Ia the relations become Eb1 = K Ia1N1 and Eb2 =
K Ia2N2 where K is a new constant.
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Hence Eb1/ Eb2 = K Ia1N1 / K Ia2N2 = Ia1N1 / Ia2N2 and N2 = ( Ia1 /

Ia2) ( Eb2/ Eb1) N1
Substituting the above values we get N2 = √2 (235.86/230)1000 = 1450 RPM

Ex.4: A 500 V DC shunt motor runs at 1900 RPM taking an armature current of
150 A. The armature resistance is 0.16 Ω. Find the speed of the motor when a
resistance is inserted in the field circuit which reduces the field current to 80 %
and the armature current is 75 A.
Solution:
We know that the back e.m.f of a DC motor is proportional to the Flux and speed.
And in the unsaturated region of the magnetization region the flux in turn is
proportional to the field current. So Back e.m.f is proportional to field current and
speed. We will find out the new speed by calculating the back e.m.fs [from the
relation (Eb = VT - Ia Ra )]and using the above proportionality relation in both the
conditions as below.
Eb1 = VT - Ia1 Ra = 500 – 150 x 0.16 = 476 V and is equal to Ka.Ø1. N1
Eb2 = VT - Ia2 Ra = 500 – 75 x 0.16 = 488 V and is equal to Ka . 0.8Ø1. N2
∴ 476 /488 = Ka.Ø1. N1 / Ka . 0.8Ø1. N2
And N2 = (488 /476)( N1 / 0.8 ) = (488 /476)( 1900 / 0.8 ) = 2435 RPM
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UNIT – III
TESTING OF D.C. MACHINES
CONTENTS:
 Losses – Constant & Variable losses

 Calculation of efficiency
 Condition for maximum efficiency.
 Methods of Testing
 Direct, indirect and regenerative testing
 Brake test
 Swinburne’s test
 Hopkinson’s test
 Field’s test
 Retardation test
 Separation of stray losses in a DC motor test
 Important concepts and Formulae
 Illustrative examples
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Losses:
DC Generators convert Mechanical power into Electrical power and DC Motors

convert Electric power to Mechanical power. In the process of conversion some
power is lost. The difference between the input power and the output power of a
machine is the Power loss that occurs inside the machine.
Constant & Variable losses:
The losses are broadly classified as constant losses and variable losses. Constant
losses are constant and are independent of the load where as the variable losses
are dependent on the load. They are further classified in detail as below.
Detailed Classification of Losses:
1. Electrical or Copper Losses (I2R Loss): Current flow through the resistance of
Armature and Field coils gives rise to I2R losses and since the coils are
normally made up of copper these losses are called Copper losses.
Armature copper loss: PA = I 2 R
A A
2
Field copper loss: PF = I FRF
2. Brush losses: The brush drop loss is the power lost across the contact potential
at the brushes of the machine. It is given by the equation:
PBD = VBD x IA
where PBD = brush drop loss
VBD = brush voltage drop
IA = armature current
The brush losses are calculated in this manner because the voltage drops
across a set of brushes are
approximately constant over a large range of armature currents. Unless
otherwise specified. The
brush voltage drop is usually assumed to be about 2 V.
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3. Core Losses: Hysteresis and eddy current losses occurring in the Armature and
Field cores together are called core losses.
 Hysteresis loss: in an iron core is the loss of power due to the hysteresis
loop in the magnetization characteristic of the core in each cycle of the
alternating current applied to the core. In the case of DC machines though
there is no alternating current applied to the core, the change in the
magnetic flux within the machine due to its constructional features result in
a small hysteresis loss
 Eddy current losses: A time-changing flux induces voltage within a
ferromagnetic core in just the same manner as it induces voltage in the
conductors around the core of the armature. These voltages cause swirls of
current to flow within the core, much like the eddies seen at the edges of a
river. It is the shape of these currents that gives rise to the name eddy
currents. These eddy currents flowing in a resistive material (the iron of the
core) cause power loss thus heating the iron core and the resulting loss is
called eddy current loss. This loss is proportional to the thickness of the
core material and hence to minimize this loss the core is made up of thin
sheets called laminations instead of a single thick block. An insulating oxide
or resin is used between the strips so that the current paths for eddy
currents are limited to very small areas. Thus the eddy current losses have a
very little effect on the core's magnetic properties.
4. Mechanical Losses: They are associated with the mechanical effects and they
are mainly Friction and windage losses.
 Friction losses are losses caused by the friction in the bearings of the
machine and
 Windage losses are due to the friction between the moving parts of the
machine and the air flow in the machine housing.
5. Stray Losses: They are other miscellaneous losses that cannot be grouped into
any of the above categories.
Out of the above, Core Losses and Mechanical Losses are grouped under Constant
losses. Electrical or Copper Losses and Stray Losses are grouped under variable
losses.
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The losses and their classification explained above is summarized in the form of a
tree and is shown below.
Figure: Classification of losses in DC Machine
The power flow in DC machines showing the stages where the different losses
occur is shown clearly in the figure below.
Power flow diagram:
One of the most convenient techniques for accounting for power losses and
showing them clearly in the order in which they occur in a machine is the power-
flow diagram. A power-flow diagram for a DC generator is shown in the figure (a)
below. In this figure, mechanical power is input into the machine, and then the
stray losses, mechanical losses, and core losses are subtracted. After they have
been subtracted, the remaining power is ideally converted from mechanical to
electrical form at the point labeled Pconv. The mechanical power that is converted
is given by:
PCONV = τind . ωm
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and the resulting electric power produced is given by: PCONV = EA.IA
However, this is not the power that appears at the machine's terminals. Before
the terminals are reached, the electrical power losses like the copper losses and
the brush losses must be subtracted.
Figure: Power flow diagram of a DC Machine (a) Generator (b) Motor
In the case of dc motors, this power-flow diagram is simply reversed. The Power
flow diagram for a motor is shown in the above figure (b) above
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Efficiency:
The efficiency of a DC Machine is defined as η = (Pout/Pin). 100 % = [(Pin ‒ Ploss) /

Pin] x 100 %
Using this basic relation and from a clear understanding of the above Power flow
the η calculations when the machine is working as a Generator and as a Motor are
given below.
Efficiency calculations of Generator:
 If IL is the load current supplied by the Generator at a terminal voltage of

VT then the output power is given by Pout = VT.IL
 The armature current IA = IL + I F
 Armature copper loss PA = I A2 RA

 Field copper loss PF = I 2F R F
 Total losses = I 2 R + I 2 R +W where W is the sum
A A F F C C
of the core losses and
stray losses. (also known as constant
losses)
 Therefore Input = Pout+ Total losses = Pout+ I 2ARA + I 2 RF
+WC
Hence η = (Pout/Pin). 100 % = (VT.IL )/( VT.IL + I 2ARA + I 2 RF

+WC).100%
Efficiency calculations of Motor:
 If IL is the line current taken by the Motor at a terminal voltage of VT then

the input power is given by Pin = VT.IL
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 The losses are same as in the Generator
 Therefore output Pout = Pin-- Total losses = Pin-( I 2ARA + I 2 RF

+WC )
Hence η = (Pout/Pin). 100 % = [{Pin-( I 2ARA + I 2 RF +WC )}/ (VT.IL

) ] . 100%
Of these losses ( I 2 R +W ) are called constant losses P since they are almost
F F C C
independent of load. The armature copper losses i.e. (I A2.RA ) is called the variable
loss and is dependent on the load. The variable loss varies approximately as the
square of load current. We say approximately since loss varies as the square of
the armature current and not as the square of the load current. Hence if we know
the loss at full load, the loss at half load, one fourth load etc can be calculated.
Condition for Maximum efficiency:
The condition for maximum efficiency is developed by differentiating the

expression for efficiency as a function of load current and equating it to zero since
the variable losses are dependent on the load current.
Generator:
The efficiency is obtained as: η = (Pout/Pin). 100 % = (VT.IL )/( VT.IL + IA2 RA + IF2 RF
+WC).100%
Neglecting the field current which is small compared to armature current we get
η = (VT.IL )/( VT.IL + IL2 RA +WC).100% = 1/[1 + IL2 RA /(VT.IL ) +WC/(VT.IL )].100
= 1/ [1 + IL RA / VT +(WC/(VT IL )].100
The efficiency is maximum when the denominator is maximum. Hence the
condition for maximum efficiency becomes: d/dIL [1 + IL RA / VT +(WC/(VT IL )] = 0
i.e. RA / VT - (WC/(VT IL2 ) = 0
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And finally the condition for maximum efficiency becomes: IL2RA = WC

Which means Variable losses = Constant
Losses
And the current at maximum efficiency becomes:
IL = √ WC/ RA = √ Constant Losses/Armature resistance
Motor:
The efficiency is obtained as: η = (Pout/Pin). 100 % = [{Pin-( I 2 RAA + I 2 RF +WC )}/
(VT.IL ) ] . 100%
= [{VT.IL -( I A2 RA + I F2 RF +WC )}/ (VT.IL ) ] . 100%
Neglecting the field current which is small compared to armature current we get
η = *,VT.IL - ( IL2 RA + WC )}/ (VT.IL ) ] . 100%
= 1 – [(IL2 RA + WC )/ (VT.IL ) ] . 100
η becomes maximum when the term in the square brackets becomes minimum
and thus the condition for maximum efficiency becomes d/d IL [(IL2 RA + WC )/
(VT.IL ) ] = 0 which again finally becomes :
I L 2R A = W C
Or Variable losses = Constant Losses
And the current at maximum efficiency also becomes:
IL = √ WC/ RA = √ Constant Losses/Armature resistance
Both same as that for the generator.
Testing of DC machines:
Involves the measurement of the various losses and then finding out the
efficiency of the machine by various methods. The methods are broadly classified
as:
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1. Direct 2. Indirect and 3. Regenerative methods of testing
1. Direct method of testing : In this method the DC machine is actually loaded to

the required extent, the Input and output are measured and then the η is
calculated as η = Output/Input
1. This method is generally employed only for small motors. The motor is
loaded by a friction pulley arrangement.(braking)
2. The main drawback of this method is accuracy of output power
measurement is limited.
3. Difficult to provide braking load for a large capacity motor.
2. Indirect method of testing: In this method the machine is not subjected to full
load. First on no load the constant losses are measured and then efficiency is
estimated at various loads. Swinburne’s test and Hopkinson’s test come under
this category. Only shunt motors can be tested using these methods. Series
motors cannot be tested with this method since they cannot be run on no
load.
3. Regenerative method of testing: In this method a motor generator is pair is
used which are powered by each other. Thus only losses are drawn from the
mains power supply. Hopkinson’s test comes in this category.
Brake Test: This is a direct method of testing. In this method the motor is put on a
direct friction load arrangement with a belt and a pulley as shown in the figure
below.
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Figure: Brake Test setup
By adjusting the tension in the pulley the motor can be subjected from no load to
its full load capability. Since the load is applied by the physical braking action, the
test is called the Brake test.
The tension in the belt is adjusted by using the handle. The tension (kgf) is
obtained from the spring balance readings. The net force applied on the pulley by
this braking arrangement is given by:
Net force = (W1 – W2) Kgf = 9.81(W1 – W2) Nw
Where R = Radius of the pulley in meters
N = Speed in RPM
W1 and W2 = Spring balance readings on the tight side and on

the slack side of the
Pulley respectively.
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With this force exerted on the pulley, the load torque applied on the motor shaft
is given by:
τ load = Net force x Radius of the pulley = 9.81(W1 – W2)R Nw.m
With this applied load torque τ load , the output power(mechanical ) of the motor
is given by:
Pout = τ load x ω = τ load x2πN/60 W
The input power (electrical) to the motor is given by : Pin = VI
Thus we have η = Pout/ Pin = [τ load x2πN/60+/VI
Apart from the efficiency, we can also find out all the characteristics like Torque
vs Speed , Speed vs Armature current and Torque vs armature current of the
motor by noting down the currents and voltage along with the speed N at various
load settings. The speed is measured by using physical contact type Tachometer.
Advantages:
1. Efficiency can be found out in the actual working conditions.

2. The method is simple and easy to perform.
3. The test can be performed on any type of DC machine.
Disadvantages:
1. Due to the friction lot of energy is wasted in the form of heat. Hence the
test is quite expensive and is suitable for only small machines.
2. Since heat energy is not accounted for, the efficiency observed would be
inaccurate to that extent.
Swinburne’s test:
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This is a test to determine the efficiency of any DC Machine (Motor or Generator)

without conducting the actual test at the required load. The test is conducted just
at no load and the constant losses are found out when the machine is running as
a motor. Then the efficiency is found out by calculating the variable losses at the
required load. This method is formulated by Sir James Swinburne and hence it is
called Swinburne’s test. This comes under the category indirect method of testing.
The test setup required to conduct this test is shown in the figure below.
Figure: Swinburne’s Test Setup
The machine is run as a motor on no load at normal terminal voltage VT , at

normal speed and the armature current IA & field current IF(Ish in figure ) are
measured.
 Then the no load armature current INL = IA + IF

 Variable losses on no load = IA2 .RA (Machine’s armature
resistance can be measured directly and these losses can be calculated)
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 Input to the motor = VT. INL = Total losses (Since the machine is on no
load there is no output. i.e. the entire input power on no load goes as
losses.)
 Therefore constant losses PC = (Total losses - Variable losses) = (VT. INL)-( I 2A
.RA)
Using these constant losses PC , the efficiency of the machine can be estimated
at any other load when working either as a Motor or as a Generator.
Working as a Generator delivering a load current of IL amperes at a terminal

voltage of VT volts:
Power output = VT. IL
Armature current IA = IL+ IF (IF is same as obtained in the No load test )
Variable loss = I A2 R A
(R Ais obtained from the no load test or from
Machine data)
Efficiency = (output/Input) = [output/(output + Total losses)] = (VT. IL)/( VT. IL+

IA2RA+PC)
(PC is obtained from the No load test and IA2RA is calculated using IA
corresponding to the required IL at which the efficiency is to be calculated)
Working as a Motor drawing a load current of IL amperes from a supply terminal

voltage of VT volts:
 Power in put = VT. IL

Armature current IA = IL- IF (IF is same as obtained in the No load test )
Variable loss = IA2 RA (RA is obtained from the no load test or from
Machine data)
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Efficiency = (output/Input) = [(Input-Total losses)/ Input] = [VT. IL-

(I A2R A+P )]/(V
C
.T I )
(PC is calculated and obtained from the No load test and I 2AR isA calculated
using IA corresponding to the required IL at which the efficiency is to be calculated)
Advantages of Swinburne’s test:
 This is a very simple to determine the efficiency of the machine at any load
just by conducting the no load test.
 The power required is very less compared to the direct full load test.
Disadvantages of Swinburne’s test:
 This test can be done on Shunt machines only.

 The speed and flux are assumed constant. But the speed will fall with
loading. Fall in speed results in lesser friction and windage losses. Change in
flux will change the core losses.
 The temperature of the machine changes while running on load. Hence the
assumption that RA is same as that of the No load test is not correct.
 These reasons contribute to the difference in the efficiency obtained from
the Swinburne’s test and actual load test.
Hopkinson’s test: In this set up two identical DC machines are coupled

mechanically and tested together. One of the machines works as a motor and
drives the other machine which works as generator and it’s electrical output in
turn is connected back to the motor. Hence this comes under the regenerative
category and is also called a Back to Back test. The motor is connected to the
mains supply and it draws power from the mains only to compensate for the
losses in the two machines since the major power required by each machine is
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derived from the other machine. Since the power consumption is only to the
extent of the losses they can be tested up to full load.
Figure below shows the Hopkinson’s test up with all the measured voltage and
current parameters marked clearly.
Figure: Hopkinson’s Test Setup
(Ammeters are to be redesignated as ‘A2 to A4’ , ‘A3 to A2 ‘ and ‘A4 to A3’ so

that the current designations will match )
Initially the switch S is kept open and the Motor is run and brought to the rated
speed by adjusting the field current using the field rheostat R1 . The Generator
Voltage is adjusted by adjusting it’s field rheostat R2 until the voltmeter reads
zero volts. (This indicates that the Generator voltage is same as that of the Motor
both in amplitude and polarity) This prevents flow of any high circulating currents
when the switch S is closed and the two machines are connected back to back.
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Now the switch is closed thus bringing the machines back to back and the load on
both the machines can be increased gradually by increasing the Generator
excitation or decreasing the Motor excitation. The readings from all the meters
are taken at every load setting for further evaluation. Let us spell out clearly all
the parameters for ease of further derivations.
V = Terminal Voltage (Supply Voltage)
I1 = Current drawn from mains supply
I2 = Current supplied by the generator to the motor
I3 = Excitation Current of Generator
I4 = Excitation Current of Motor
Ra = Armature resistance of each machine
1. Equal efficiency : Let us now first find out the Efficiency ‘η’ assuming it to be
same for both the machines:
Input to the motor = V (I1 + I2)
Output of the motor = η x Input to the motor = η x V (I1 + I2)
This output of the motor is given as input to the generator. Hence
Input to the Generator = η x V (I1 + I2)
Output of the generator = η x Input to the generator = η x η x V (I1 + I2) = η2 x V

(I1 + I2)
But the output of the generator can also be given as = V I2 and equating these
two we get
η2 x V (I1 + I2) = V I2 from which we get
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η = √ [ I2 / (I1 + I2) ]
2. Un equal efficiency: Let us now find out the Efficiency ‘η’ assuming it to be
unequal for the two machines:
In this analysis, the stray losses (Constant Losses) are assumed to be same for
both the machines where as the field and armature copper losses are different
(Since when the efficiencies are different it means that the currents are not the
same and hence the copper losses also will not be same)
So first let us determine the Copper losses of the two machines independently and
then the constant losses of both machines together can taken as the difference
between the input power from the main supply and the total copper losses.
Armature copper losses in Generator = (I2 + I3 )2 x Ra
Armature copper losses in Motor = (I1+I2 – I4 )2 x Ra
Field copper losses in Generator = V I3
Field copper losses in Motor = V I4
We know that the total losses in both the machines put together are equal to the
input power from the mains supply i.e V I1
Hence we can take that the total stray losses for both the machines put together
are the difference between the input power and all the copper losses put
together. Hence
Stray losses of both machines together = V I1 – [(I2 + I3 )2 x Ra + (I1+I2 – I4 )2 x Ra +

V I3 + V I4] = Say Ws and stray losses of each machine = Ws/2
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Now that we know the variable losses (Armature and Field Copper losses) and the
constant (stray) losses for both the machines we can easily find out the
efficiencies of both Generator and Motor using the above data as shown below.
Efficiency of Generator:
Total losses = Generator’s variable losses + Stray losses of one machine
= [(I2 + I3 )2 x Ra + V I3 + Ws/2 ]
Output of Generator = V I2
Efficiency of Generator ηG = Output/ Input = Output/ ( Output + Losses)
= V I2 / V I2 + [(I2 + I3 )2 x Ra + V I3 + Ws/2 ]
Efficiency of Motor:
Total losses = Motor’s variable losses + Stray losses of one machine
= [(I1 +I2 – I4 )2 x Ra + V I4 + Ws/2 ]
Input to Motor = V ( I1 + I2)
Efficiency of Motor ηM = Output/ Input =( Input – losses ) / Input
= [ V ( I1 + I2) - [(I1 +I2 – I4 )2 x Ra + V I4 +

Ws/2 ]] / V ( I1 + I2)
Field’s test:
Introduction and Methodology:
This test is for finding out the losses and efficiency of DC Series Motors by direct
testing, since series motors cannot be tested on no load. The test is named after
the inventor of test method ‘MB Field ‘. Series motors which are normally used
for Traction are available as pairs and hence this test is devised on two motors
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which are coupled mechanically. The test setup is shown in the figure below. One
machine works as motor supplying power to the other one working as Generator.
Their mechanical and iron (core) losses (put together called as stray losses or
constant losses) are made equal by: (i) running them with equal speed and
(ii) by connecting their both field windings in the motor armature circuit to the
Motor input supply such that both the machines are equally excited . The load
resistance is adjusted till the Motor draws the rated current as read by ammeter
A1. In this condition all the other parameters are noted down from the respective
meter readings as per the nomenclature given below.
Figure: Field’s Test Setup
Nomenclature:
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V = Supply voltage
V1 = Motor Supply voltage
V2= Generator output voltage connected across the variable load resistance R
I1 = Motor armature current and also the field current of both Motor and
Generator
I2 = Generator armature current
Also Let RA = Motor armature resistance and RF = Motor field resistance ( which
can be measured independently or can be taken from the machine data )
From this data obtained in this full load condition, the stray losses, copper losses
and then efficiency of both the Motor and the Generator can be found out as
below:
Stray Losses:
Input to the total Motor Generator test setup: V I1
Output of Generator = V2 I2
Total losses of both motor and generator = WT = V I1• V2 I2
But total losses of both motor and generator WT are also equal to (Armature
Copper losses + Field Copper losses + Stray losses ).Thus
WT = V I1– V2 I2 = (I 21+ I 2)2 RA + 2I12 RF + WS
And total Stray Losses = Total Losses – Total Armature and Field copper losses
= VI1 – V2 I2– [(I12 + I22) RA + 2I12 RF ] and
Stray losses per machine = Total Stray Losses/2 = WS = [V I1 – V2 I2 – [(I12 +

I22) RA + 2I12 RF ]] / 2
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Now using this value of stray losses of each machine, the efficiency of the
machine as a Motor and as a Generator can be found out as below.
η as a Motor:
Input to Motor = V1 I1
Total losses = Armature and Field Copper losses + Stray losses = I 2(R1 + A
RF) + WS
Output of Motor = Input – Losses = V1 I1 – {I 21(R +A R ) F+ W }S
Efficiency of the motor = ηM = Output/Input = [V1 I1 – {I 12(RA + RF) + WS}] /

V1 I1
η as a Generator:
This not very important because the machine is working in separately excited
condition. However just for completion sake let us find it out.
Output of Generator = V2 I2
Total losses = Armature and Field Copper losses + Stray losses =

I 22R A+ I 2R1 + FW S
Input to the Generator = Output + Losses = V2 I2 + I 22R +A I 2R +W

1 F S
Efficiency of the Generator = ηG = Output/Input = V2 I2 / (V2 I2 + I 22RA +

I 12R F+ W )S
Retardation test or Running down test: This is an indirect test similar to the
Swinburne’s test where in the constant (Stray losses) losses are first determined
and then the efficiency at any load when the machine is working both as a
Generator and Motor are estimated on the same lines. However the constant
losses in this test are determined by a different principle i.e. by finding out the
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kinetic energy spent by a rotating mass during the process of retardation from the
rated speed to zero speed and then calculating the rate of change of kinetic
energy which is equal to the Power Loss.
The setup to conduct this test is shown in the figure below.
Test Procedure: The motor is started and taken to a speed higher than the rated
speed of the machine. Then the supply to the motor is cutoff by moving the Two
Pole Two way switch from the supply side to the open terminals. The armature
then slows down with its’ own inertia and its stored energy is used up to supply
the constant rotational losses (stray losses) like iron, friction, windage etc. This
power loss is found out from the following principle.
If ‘I’ is the moment of Inertia of the Armature, and ‘ω’ is the angular velocity, then
the kinetic energy of the armature is given by:
KE = ½ Iω2 and
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Figure: Retardation test setup
The power loss which is the rate of change of Energy is given by:
PL = d/dt (½ Iω2 ) = I. ω . dω/dt
Substituting the value of ‘ω’ in terms of the speed in RPM ‘N’ ( 2πN/60) we get
PL = (2π/60)2 I. N . dN/dt
So, to find out the stray losses we must know ‘I’, the moment of inertia and
dN/dt, the rate of change in speed. The method of finding out these quantities is
given below.
The method of finding out dN/dt :
When the motor is cutoff from the input supply, the speed starts falling down.
The motor back e.m.f. as read by the Voltmeter V1 connected across the motor is
noted down as a function of time. Since we know that the back e.m.f is
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proportional to the speed we can convert the V1 reading into speed in RPM and
plot it as a function of time as shown in the figure below. In this figure, at the
point C corresponding the rated speed a tangent AB is drawn whose slope gives
the rate of change in speed dN/dt.
Thus: dN/dt = OA(RPM)/OB(Time)
Figure: Speed fall during the retardation test
Determination of Moment of Inertia (I):
Method -1: Using Flywheel
The same test as earlier is repeated after adding a flywheel of known Moment of
Inertia ‘I1’ to the armature shaft of the motor and the resulting rate of change of
speed is obtained. Let us call the earlier rate of change as dN/dt 1 and the second
rate of change with added inertia as dN/dt2.
Then, since the losses can be assumed to be same with or without the new
flywheel we have the following relations:
In the first case without flywheel: PL = (2π/60)2 I. N . dN/dt1
In the second case with added flywheel: PL = (2π/60)2 (I+ I1). N .

dN/dt
After equating the two equations and simplifying we get : I = I1 (t1) /( t2– t1)
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Method -2: Without using a Flywheel (Using Resistance Braking)
 First, the switch is taken from supply side to the open condition and then
the time taken ( say t1) for the motor to slow down from a speed slightly
higher than the rated speed to a speed slightly lower than the rated speed
(say δN) is noted down with just the Armature alone like in the earlier
method step -1 (without any added external inertia)
 Then again the switch S is moved from the supply position to the Resistance
position quickly and again the time taken(say t 2) for the same change in
speed (same δN)is noted down. By this effectively we are connecting an
electrical load across the armature in which the stored electrical power is
dissipated thus providing an additional retarding torque.
 This additional power loss due to the resistance is given by the product of
the Average Voltage across the Armature (say V ) and the average current
(say IA ) that flows into the Braking Resistance R i.e. I A2 ( R +R
A
)x V = say W’
 Then the powers dissipated during the above two steps are given by
1. W = (2π/60)2 I. N . dN/dt1 (Just due to the armature

Inertia)
2. W + W’ = (2π/60)2 I. N . dN/dt2 (Due to the armature Inertia and
the braking
resistance )
Separation of Constant losses:
The theory required for the purpose of Separation of Constant losses is

explained below.
At any given excitation:
 Friction losses and hysteresis losses are both proportional to speed .
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 Windage losses and eddy current losses are both proportional to square of
speed.
 Hence Friction losses = AN Watts, Windage losses = BN2 Watts, Hysteresis
losses = CN Watts, and Eddy current losses = DN2 Watts where N = speed
and A,B,C and D are constant coefficients
 Further the coefficient C of hysteresis losses is proportional to B m 1.6 and
the coefficient D of Eddy current losses is proportional to B m2
The other standard relation: For a motor on no load, power input to the armature
is the sum of the armature copper losses and the above losses.
Hence from a no load test we can get the constant losses as usual and then
equate them to the constant losses with the above categorization as shown
below:
Power input to the armature = V.Ia watts.
Armature copper losses = I a2.R watts

a
Constant Losses = W = V.Ia – I 2a.R =a (A + C)N + (B + D)N2
W/N = (A+C) + (B+D)N.
First the test is conducted with rated field current as per the following procedure:
1. The motor is started on no load with field current set to rated value by
adjusting the field auto transformer.
2. The armature voltage is increased till the speed is about 200 rpm more than
the rated value.
3. Now, the speed is gradually decreased by decreasing the armature voltage,
the values of armature voltage, armature current and speed are noted
down.
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4. From this data W is calculated as explained above and the graph between
W/N & N is plotted as shown in the figure below.
Figure : Plot of PNL / N vs. N
5. The graph between PNL /N & N is a straight line from which (A+C) and (B+D)
can be found. (A+C) is the y axis intercept and (B+D) is the slope of the
straight line.
6. In order to separate out A, B, C and D, the test is repeated again with
reduced field current and the graph between PNL /N & N is drawn again as
shown in the figure which is a straight line given by PNL /N = (A+C’) N +
(B+D’) N from which we can again find out (A+C’) and (B+D’).
At the reduced excitation, friction and windage losses are still AN and BN2,
but hysteresis losses become C’N and eddy current losses become D’ N2.
We can now obtain (A+C’) and (B+D’) as before from the second straight
line .
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As already indicated the coefficient of hysteresis loss C is proportional to B m 1.6,

and the coefficient of eddy current loss D is proportional to Bm 2. Since the core is
common we can replace maximum flux density Bmax with maximum flux density
Ømax in the core and then the ratio of fluxes corresponding to the normal and
reduced excitation would become :
(C/C’) = ( Ømax / Ø’max)1.6 also equal to (Eb/E’b)1.6 since Back e.m.f is

proportional to Ømax
(D/D’) = ( Ømax / Ø’max)2 also equal to (Eb/E’b)2 since Back e.m.f is

proportional to Ømax
During the two tests we can get the values of back e.m.f s from the measured
values of armature supply voltage V , armature current Ia and armature resistance
Ra using the relation: Eb = V– Ia.Ra and thus get the values of (C/C’) and (D/D’) .
We can also get the values of (C’-C) and (D’-D) by subtracting (A+C) from (A+C’)
and (B+D) from (B+D’)
From these values we can get all the four coefficients A,B,C and D and thus
separate the constant losses PNL into Friction, Windage, Hysteresis and Eddy
current losses
Since the change in speed δN is same in both the cases, dividing the expression 2
by expression 1 we get
(W + W’ )/W = (1/ dt2) / (1/ dt1) = dt1/ dt2 = t1/ t2 and after
simplification we get
W = W’ *t1/( t1 - t2)] which is equal to the stray losses ( Mechanical plus

Core losses )
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 The efficiency of a DC Machine is defined as η = (Pout/Pin). 100 %
Efficiency of Generator:
η = (Pout/Pin). 100 % = (VT.IL )/( VT.IL + I 2A RA + IF2 RF +WC).100%
Efficiency of Motor:
η = (Pout/Pin). 100 % = [{VT.IL -( I 2A RA + I 2 RF +WC )}/ (VT.IL ) ] . 100%
 The condition for maximum efficiency :

 Constant losses PC = Variable losses ( IL2RA ) or IL = √( PC/ RA)
Ex.1: A DC shunt motor having a full load efficiency (η )of 85 % takes a line current
of 27A from 250 Volts mains on full load. If R a = 0.5Ω and Rf = 125 Ω, find the
constant losses, load current for maximum efficiency and the maximum
efficiency.
Solution:
Input power at full load = Full load current x Rated voltage = 250 x 27 = 6750 W
Output power = Input power x η = 6750 x 0.85 ( η = 85% ) = 5737.5 W
Hence Total losses = Input power − Output power = 6750 − 5737.5 = 1012.5 W
We know that Total losses = Variable losses ( Ia2Ra ) + constant losses.
If = Rated Terminal Voltage/ Field resistance = 250 / 125 = 2 A
For the Shunt motor armature current Ia = Il − If = 27 − 2 = 25 A
Variable losses = Ia2Ra = 252 x 0.5 = 312.5
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Constant losses = Total losses − Variable losses = 1012.5 − 312.5 = 700 W

We know that the condition for maximum efficiency is: Variable losses =
Constant losses
i.e. Ia2Ra at maximum efficiency = 700 ∴ Ia @max. η = √700 /0.5 = √ 1400 =

37.42 A
∴The load current at maximum η : Il@max. η = Ia@max. η + If = 37.42 + 2 =
39.42
Input power at maximum η = Il @max. η x Rated terminal voltage = 39.42 x 250 =
9855 W
O/P power at maximum η = I/P power at maximum η−Total losses = 9855–(700

+700) = 8455 W
(Since variable losses = constant losses = 700)
Maximum efficiency = Out power at maximum efficiency/ Input power at
maximum efficiency
= 8455 / 9855 = 0.858 or 85.8 %
Ex.2: A 100 Kw 500 V DC shunt machine when run as a motor on no load at rated
speed and voltage takes a line current of 10 A and a shunt field current of 2.5 A .
Resistance of the armature is 0.15 Ω. Estimate the efficiency of the DC machine
when running as a generator (a) at full load (b) at half full load.
First the constant losses of the Machine are obtained from the data we have when
the machine is run as a motor on no load at rated speed and voltage:
Input power on no load = Rated voltage x Input current on no load = 500 x 10 =
5000 W
Field current If = 2.5 A
No load Armature current Ia = Il no load – If = ( 10 – 2.5 ) = 7.5 A
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Variable loss at no load = (Ia on no load )2 x Ra = 7.52 x 0.15 = 8.4375 W

Constant Losses = ( Input power– Variable losses)(on no load) = 5000 - 8.4375
= 4991.56 W
Next we will calculate the efficiency in different conditions:
(a) Running as a generator at full load:
Full load output (line) current = 100 x 1000 / 500 = 200 A
Full load armature current = Full load line current + Field current = 200 + 2.5 =
202.5 A
Variable (Armature copper) losses on full load = Ia2 Ra = 202.52 x 0.15 = 6150.94
W
Total losses @ full load = Constant Losses + Variable losses on full load = 4991.56
+ 6150.94
= 11142.5 W
Efficiency at full load (Working as Generator) = Output / Input = Output / Output
+ Total losses @ full load = 100000 / 100000 + 11142.5 = 0.8997 or 89.97
%
(a) Running as a generator at half full load:
Half Full load output (line) current = 50 x 1000 / 500 = 100 A
Half Full load armature current = Half Full load line current + Field current = 100 +
2.5 = 102.5 A
Variable (Armature copper) losses on half full load = Ia2 Ra = 102.52 x 0.15 =
1575.94 W
Total losses @ half load = Constant Losses + Variable losses on half load = 4991.56
+ 1575.94
= 6567.5 W
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Efficiency at half full load (Working as Generator) = Output / Input = Output /

Output + Total losses @ full load = 50000 / 50000 + 6567.5 = 0.8839 or
88.39 %
Ex.3: A 500 V DC shunt machine takes 5A when running light (on no load) at rated
speed and rated voltage as a motor. Calculate the out output power and
efficiency when the machine is run as a Motor and taking an Input current of 80
A. Calculate the line current at which the efficiency is maximum and the value of
maximum efficiency. Ra = 0.2 Ω and Rf = 250 Ω
First the constant losses of the Machine are obtained from the data we have
when the machine is run as a motor on no load at rated speed and voltage:
Input power on no load = Rated voltage x Input current on no load = 500 x 5 =
2500 W
Field current If = Rated voltage / Rf = 500 / 250 = 2 A
No load Armature current Ia = Il no load – If = ( 5 – 2 ) = 3 A

Variable loss at no load = (Ia on no load )2 x Ra = 32 x 0.2 = 1.8 W
Constant Losses = ( Input power– Variable losses)(on no load) = 2500 – 1.8 =
2498.2 W
Next we will calculate the output power and efficiency when the Machine is
running as a motor and taking an input current of 80 A :
Armature current = Line current (Input Current) - Field current = 80 - 2 = 78 A
Variable (Armature Copper) losses (with armature current of 78A) = Ia2 Ra =782 x
0.2 = 1216.8 W
Total losses = Constant Losses + Variable losses at 80 A line current = 2498.2 +
1216.8 = 3715 W
Input Power = 500 x 80 = 40000 W
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Out Put Power at 80 A line current (Working as Motor) = Input Power – Total
losses at 80 A line current = 40000 -3715 = 36285 W
Efficiency at 80 A line current (Working as Motor) = Output Power /Input Power
= 36285/40000 = 0.9071 or 90.71 %
Finally we will calculate the line current at which the efficiency is maximum and
the value of maximum efficiency:
We know that the condition for maximum efficiency is: Variable losses =
Constant losses
i.e. Ia2Ra ( variable Losses ) at maximum efficiency = 2498.2 W
∴ Ia @max. η = √2498.2 /0.2 = √ 12491 = 111.76 A
∴The line current at maximum η : Il@max. η = Ia@max. η + If = 111.76 + 2 =
113.76 A
Input power at maximum η = Il @max. η x Rated terminal voltage = 113.76 x 500 =
56880 W
O/P power at maximum η = I/P power at maximum η−Total losses =
56880 – (2498.2 + 2498.2) = 51883.6 W
(Since variable losses = constant losses = 2498.2)
Maximum efficiency = Out power at maximum efficiency/ Input power at
maximum efficiency
= 51883.6 /56880 = 0.9122 or 91.22 %
Example: 4
The following readings are obtained when doing a load test on d.c. shunt motor
using a brake drum. Spring balance readings =10kg, and 35 kg, Diameter of drum
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=40 cm, speed of the motor = 950 r.p.m, Applied voltage = 200 V Line
current =30 A . Calculate the output power and efficiency.
Solution : We have W1 =10 kg and W2 = 35 kg

Diameter of the drum D = 40 cm, R =d/2 =20 cm = 0.2m
I = 30 A, V =200 volts, N =950 r.p.m
Applied Torque τ (Newton meters ) = Net Force in (Newtons) x Diameter of the
drum (mtrs)
=(W2 – W1) × 9.81 × R

= (35 -10) × 9.81 × 0.2 = 49.05 N-m
2𝜋 𝑁 𝛕 2𝜋 ×950×49.05
Pout = τ (Nw.mtrs.) x ω (Rad/sec) = =
60 60
= 4879.67 W = 4.87 kW
Pin = V. I =(200) (30) =6000 W =6 kW
% Efficiency of motor = 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 × 100 = 4.87 × 100
𝑷𝒊𝒏 6
= 81.32%
∴ Power output of DC shunt motor = 4.87 kW
% Efficiency of DC shunt motor = 81.32
Example 5: A retardation test is carried out on a 1000 r.p.m. d.c. machine. The
time taken for the speed to fall from 1030 r.p.m. to 970 r.p.m. is
i) 36 seconds with no excitation
ii) 15 seconds with full excitation

iii) 9 seconds with full excitation and the armature supporting an extra load of
10 A at 219 V.
Calculate : 1) The moment of inertia of the armature in kg.m2
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2) Iron loss
3) Mechanical loss at the mean speed of 1000 r.p.m.
Solution: It is to be remembered that,

1. When armature is slowing down and there is no excitation, then kinetic
energy is used to overcome mechanical losses only. Iron losses are absent as
excitation is absent.
2. When excitation is given, kinetic energy is used to overcome both mechanical
as well as iron losses. Total called stray losses.
3. If moment of inertia is in kg-m2, then loss of energy is in watts.
The mechanical losses are, 𝑑𝑁
W = {2π}2 I . N
m 𝑑𝑡 1
60
The total stray losses are, 𝑑𝑁
W = {2π}2 I . N
s 𝑑𝑡 3
60
Now dN = 1030 -970 = 60 r.p.m.
t1 = 36 sec, t2 = 15 sec, t3 = 9 sec
The additional loss W’ due to additional load,
W’ = VI = 219×10 = 2190 W
𝑡3 9
Ws = W’ × =2190
𝑑𝑁
× =3285 W
2π 2 𝑡2−𝑡3 15−9
3285 = { } I . N
60 𝑑𝑡 2 60
2π 2
i.e. 3285 = { } × I × 1000 ×
60 15
I = Moment of inertia = (3285x602x15)/(2π)2x1000x60
= 74.88 kg-m2
𝑊𝑚
= 𝑡2 15
Ws 𝑡1 =36
15 15
Wm = Ws × = 3285 ×
36 36
= 1368.75 W
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Iron losses = Ws – Wm = 3285 – 168.75 = 1916.85 W
Example 6: A Retardation test is made on a separately excited d.c. machine as a

motor. The induced voltage falls from 220 V to 190 V in 30 seconds on opening
the armature circuits and 5 seconds on suddenly changing the armature
connection from supply to a load resistance taking 12 A (average). Find the
efficiency of the machine when running as a motor and taking a current of 22 A
on a supply of 250 V. The resistance of its armature is 0.5 Ω and that of its field
winding is 250 ohms.
Solution : Average voltage across load = 220+190

= 205 V
2
Iav = 12 A, Armature resistance Ra = 0.5 Ω, Field resistance Rf =
250 Ω
∴ Power absorbed by the load resistance ,
W’ = (205) (12) = 2460 W
t1 = 30 sec, t2 = 5 sec
Let W = Stray losses
W t2 5 5
We have, ′
= = = = 0.2
W t1−t2 30−5 25
∴ Stray losses W = 2460×0.2 = 492 W
V 250
Input current = 22 A, If = = = 1 A
Rf 250
Armature current Ia = Input current – If = 22-1 =21 A
Armature copper loss = Ia2 x Ra = (21)2 (0.5) = 220.5 W
Shunt field copper loss = Vs x If = (250) (1) = 250 W
Total losses in the machine = Stray losses + Armature copper loss + Shunt field
copper loss
= 492 + 220.5 + 250 = 962.5 W

Motor input = Vs x IL = (250) (22) =5500 W
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Motor output = Motor input – Losses = 5500 – 962.5

= 4537.5 W
% Efficiency of the machine running as a motor ,
Motor output
ηm = ×100
Motor input
4537 .5
% ηm (Running as motor) = ×100 = 82.5%
5500
Example 7: The Hopkinson’s test on two shunt machines gave the following
results for full load conditions. Line voltage 250 volts, line current excluding field
current is 50 A, motor armature current 380 A, field currents for generator and
motor are 5 A, 4.2 A respectively. Draw the circuit diagram with the above data
and Calculate the efficiency of each machine. Armature resistance of each
machine is 0.02Ω
Solution : The connections and current distribution based on the given data are
Armature copper loss for generator = I a 2 Ra = (330)2 × 0.02 =

2178 W
Armature copper loss for motor = Ia2 Ra = (380)2 × 0.02 =
2888 W
Power drawn loss from supply = VI =250 × 50 = 12500 W
Stray losses for both machines = VI – Total armature
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copper loss
= 12500 – 2178 – 2888 =
7434 W
7434
Stray loss for each = = 3717 W
2
For motor : Field copper loss = V If = 250 × 4.2 = 1050 W
Total loss = 2888 +3717 + 1050 =
7655 W
Motor input = V× Ia + V × If = 250 × 380 +250 × 4.2
= 96050 W
Motor output = Motor input - Total loss
= 88395 W
88395
% ηm = × 1000 = 92.03 %
96050
For generator : Field copper loss = V If = 250 × 5 = 1250 W
Total loss = 2178 + 3717 + 1250 =
7145 W
Generator input = Generator output + Total
loss
Generator output = V Ia = 250 × 330 = 82500
W
Generator input = 82500 + 7145 = 89645 W
82500
% ηm = × 100 = 92.02 %
89645
Example 8: The Hopkinson’s test on two similar machines gave the following
full load results: Line current = 48 A, Line voltage = 110 V, Motor armature
current = 230 A
the field currents of motor and generator are 3 A and 3.5 A respectively.
Armature resistance of each machine is 0.035 ohms. Draw the circuit diagram
with the above data and Calculate the efficiency of each machine assuming a
brush contact drop of 1 V per brush.
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Solution: The connections and current distribution based on the given data are
Brush contact loss for motor = 230 × 2 = 460 W
Brush contact loss for generator = 188.5 × 2 = 377 W
Motor armature copper loss = Ia2 Ra = (230)2 (0.035) =
1851.5 W
Generator armature copper loss = Ia2 Ra = (188.5)2 (0.035) =
1243.62 w
Motor field copper loss = V If = (110)(3) = 330 W
Generator field copper loss = V If (110)(3.5) = 385 W
Motor and generator field copper loss = 330 + 385 = 715 W
Motor and generator armature copper loss = 1851.5 + 1243.62 = 3095.12
W
Total supply power taken = (110)(48) = 5280 W
Stray losses for both the machines =

5280 – 715 – 3095.12 – 460 – 377 = 632.88 W
632.88
Stray losses for each machine = = 316.44 W
2
Motor efficiency :
Motor armature copper loss = 1851.5 W, Motor field copper
loss = 330 W
Stray loss = 316.44 W; Brush loss = 460
Total motor losses = 1851.5 + 330 + 316.44 + 460 =
2957.94 W
Motor input = (110×3) + (110×230) = 25630
W
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Motor output = Motor input – Total losses = 25630 – 2957.94

= 22672.06 W
Machine output 22672 .06
Motor efficiency : ηm = ×100 = ×
Manchine input 25630
100 = 88.45 %
Generator armature copper loss = 1243.62 W, Generator field
copper loss = 385 W
Stray losses = 316.44 W, Brush contact loss for
generator = 377 W
Total generator losses = 1243.62 + 385 + 316.44 +377 =
2322.06 W
Generator = Generator output + Total
generator losses
= (110)(185) + 2322.06 = 22672.06
W
Generator output (110)(185)
Generator efficiency, ηg = × 100 = ×
Generator input 22672 .06
100 = 89.75 %
Example 9: Two shunt machines loaded for the Hopkinson’s test take 15 A at
200 V from the supply. The motor current is 100 A and the shunt currents are 3
A and 2.5 A for the generator and the motor respectively. The resistance of
each armature is 0.05 Ω. Draw the circuit diagram with the above data and
calculate the efficiency of each machine for its particular conditions of loading.
Solution: The connections and current distribution are shown in the figure
below.
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(Prof.K.Subhas)
For generator
: IL = 15 A , Ia = 88 A, If = 3 A, Ra = 0.05 Ω, Vs =
200 V
∴ Armature copper loss = I2 R = 387.2 W
a a
∴ Field copper loss = If V = 600 W
For motor : Ia = 97.5 A, If = 2.5 A, Ra = 0.05 Ω, Vs = 200 V
∴ Armature copper loss = I2 aR a= 475.3125 W
∴ Field copper loss = If V = 2.5x200 = 500 W
Power drawn from supply = VI = 200 × 15 = 3000 W
Total copper losses for set = 387.2 + 600 + 475.3125 + 500 = 1962.51
W
∴ Stray losses for both machine = 3000 – 1962.51 = 1037.48 W
1037 .48
∴ Stray losses for each machine = = 518.74 W
2
Efficiency of motor : Pin = VI = 200 × 100 = 20000 W
Total losses = 518.74 + 500 + 475.3125 = 1494.0525
W
20000 −1494.0525
Pin −Losses
∴ %η × 100 =
Pin ×
20000
100 = 92.53 %
Efficiency of generator : Motor output = Generator input
Pin (gen) = 20000 – 1494.0525 = 18505.9475 W
Total losses = 518.74 + 387.2 + 600 = 1505.94 W
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Pin −Losses 18505 .9475−1505 .94

∴ × 100 = × 100
%η Pin 18505 .9475
= 91.86 %
Example 10: A Field’s test on two mechanically coupled similar motors with
their fields connected in series and with one machine running as motor and the
other as a generator gave the following data :
Motor : Armature current 40 A, armature voltage 200 V the drop across its
field winding 15 V.
Generator : Armature current 32 A, armature voltage 160 V, the drop across its
field winding 15 V.
The resistance of each armature is 0.4 Ω. Draw the circuit diagram with the
above data and calculate the efficiency of each machine at this load.
Solution: The circuit diagram with the above data is shown in the figure below.
I1 = Motor input current = 40 A

V1 = Voltage across motor armature = 200 V
I2 = Load current = 32 A
V2 = voltage across generator = 160 V
Ra, Rf = Armature and series field resistance of each machine
Total input voltage to Motor (excluding that of Generator field) = V = 200 + 15 =
215 V
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Total input power to motor = V. I1 = 215 × 40 = 8600 W

Generator output = V2. I2 = 160 × 32 = 5120 W
Total losses in the two machines = input – output = 8600 – 5120 = 3480 W
Series field resistance for both machines,
15
Rf = (V/I1) = = 0.375 Ω
40
Total Cu loss = (Ra + 2 Rf) I2 +1 I2 R2 a
= (0.4 + 2 × 0.375) (40)2 + (32)2 (0.4)
= 1840 + 409.6 = 2249.6 W
Stray losses of the two machines = Total losses – Total Cu loss
= 3480 – 2249.6 = 1230.4 W
Stray losses for each machine = Total stray Losses / 2= 1230 .4
2
= 615.2 W
For Motor :
Motor input = V . I1 = 200 × 40 = 8000 W
Armature and field Cu loss = (Ra + Rf) I 21 = (0.4 + 0.375) (40)2
= 1240 W
Total losses = Armature and field Cu loss + Stray losses
= 1240 + 615.2 = 1855.2 W
Motor output = Motor input – Total losses
= 8000- 1855.2 = 6144.8 W
6144 .8
Motor efficiency = Motor output
× 100 =
Motor input × 100
8000
=76.81%
For Generator :
Armature Cu loss = I22 Ra = (32)2 (0.4) = 409.6 W
Series field Cu loss = V. I1 = 15 × 40 = 600 W
Total losses = Armature Cu loss + Series field Cu loss + Stray loss
= 409.6 + 600 + 615.2 = 1624.8 W
Output of generator = 5120 W
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Input to generator = Output + Losses = 5120 + 1624.8

= 6744.8 W
Efficiency of generator = output 5120
× 100 = × 100 = 75.91 %
input 6744 .8
Example 11: The total iron loss in a d.c. machine is 7 kW at the rated speed
and excitation. With the same excitation and speed reduced by 30 % the total
iron losses were found to be 4 kW. Calculate the hysteresis and eddy current
losses at i) Full speed ii) Half of full speed
Solution: Hysteresis loss Ph = AN, Eddy current loss Pe = BN2
And, Pi = Ph + Pe = AN + BN2
Let the rated speed N = 1 then,
Pi = A + B = 7 kW (given)
At new speed N’ = N – 30% of N = 1 – 0.3 = 0.7,
Pi = 0.7A + (0.7)2 B = 4 kW
i.e. 0.7A + 0.49B = 4 kW
Solving equations (1) and (2),
A = 2.7143, B = 4.2857
i) At full speed,
Ph = A = 2.7143 kW and Pe = B = 4.2857 kW
ii) At half of full speed,
Ph = A × (0.5)1 = 1.3515 kW
and Pe = B × (0.5)2 = 1.07142 kW
Example 12: When running on no load, a 400 V shunt motor takes 5 A.

Armature resistance is 0.5 Ω and field resistance 200 Ω. Find the output of the
motor and efficiency when running on full load and taking a current of 50 A. Also,
find the percentage change in speed from no load to full load.
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Solution : V = 400 V, INL = 5 A, Ra = 0.5 Ω, Rf = 200 Ω, IFL = 50 A

V 400
If = = =2A
Rsh 200
IaNL = INL – If = 5 – 2 = 3 A
Ebnl =V - IaNL Ra = 400 – 3 ×0.5 = 398.5 V
No load power input = Total losses
= V × INL = 400 × 5 = 2000 W
∴ Constant losses = 2000 – I2 anl R a= 2000 -(3)2 × 0.5
= 1995.5 W
On full load, IaFL = IFL - Ish = 50 – 2 = 48 A
∴ Armature copper losses = IaFL2 Ra
EbFL = V - IaFL Ra = 400 – 48 × 0.5 = 376 V
Total losses = Constant losses + Armature copper losses
=1995.5 + 1152 = 3147.5 W
Pin (FL) = V IFL = 400 × 50 = 20000 W
∴ Pout (FL) =Pin (FL) – Total losses = 20000 – 3147.5
= 16852.5 W
∴ %η
FL
= Pout (FL) × 100 = 16852 .5 × 100 = 84.26 %
Pin (FL) 20000
Eb
N𝖺 𝖺 Eb (Since Ø is constant )
Ø
398.5
∴ Nnl /Nfl = Ebnl / EbFL
= = 1.05984
376
i.e. Nnl = 1.05984 NFL
∴ % Change is speed = [(Nnl - NFL)/ NFL ]× 100
1.05984 NFL −NFL
= × 100
NFL
= 5.984 %
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UNIT – IV
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS
CONTENTS:
 Principle of operation
 Constructional features -Types
 Minimization of hysteresis and eddy current losses
 EMF equation Operation on no load and on load
 Phasor diagrams
 Equivalent circuit Losses and efficiency
 Regulation
 All day efficiency
 Effect of variations of frequency & supply voltage on iron losses.
 Illustrative Problems
Page 1
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Introduction:
A transformer is a device used to transfer Electric power from one circuit at a

certain voltage level to another circuit at a different voltage level. The electrical
power is transferred by Magnetic Induction between two coils in the magnetic
circuit of the transformer. It is electrical equipment which has the highest
efficiency since there are no moving parts. Transformers can carry only AC
Electrical power. Transformers are available in single phase and three phases.
We will study single phase transformers in this unit.
Types and applications of transformers:

1. Step up/Unit transformers – Usually located at the output of a generator in
Generating stations. Its function is to step up the voltage level to transmit
power with minimum losses.
2. Step down/Substation transformers – Located at main distribution or
secondary level transmission substations. Its function is to lower the
voltage levels for first level distribution
3. Distribution Transformers – located at small distribution substation. It
lowers the voltage levels
for second level distribution purposes.
4. Special Purpose Transformers - E.g. Potential Transformer (PT) , Current
Transformer (CT) etc which are used for metering applications.
Principle of operation of Transformers:
In a generator a voltage is induced in a coil which moves past a stationary

magnetic field emanating from field coils and the field flux is constant. But since
the flux that links with the coil is changing, a voltage is induced in the coil which is
proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage. In a transformer though both
the coils and the magnetic circuit are stationary, a voltage is induced in the
secondary since the current which flows in the primary is alternating and it
produces a continuously changing flux. According to Faraday’s laws of
electromagnetic Induction when the magnetic flux linking with a conductor (or
Coil) changes, an EMF is induced in that.
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In a single phase transformer there are two coils one known as primary and the
other known as secondary both wound on he same magnetic circuit (core)of high
permeability (or low reluctance) as shown in the figure below.
Fig: Single Phase Transformer
An alternating Voltage is applied to the primary coil. It sets up an alternating

current in the primary coil and hence an alternating flux in the magnetic circuit
(Core).This magnetic flux links with the secondary coil and induces in it an
alternating voltage due to the changing flux linkage. The EMF induced in the
secondary coil will be supplied to the load.
Ideal Transformer:
An ideal transformer has no losses i.e. no I2R losses (its windings have no
resistance) and no core losses. In other words it consists of two pure inductive
coils and a lossless core. But practically it is not possible to realize such an Ideal
transformer.
In an Ideal transformer the no load current will be lagging the applied voltage by
900 since the current flows through a purely inductive primary coil. The flux Ø
induced in the magnetic circuit also will be lagging the applied voltage V1 since
the current in the primary is entirely a magnetizing current (the coil is assumed to
be totally inductive) and will be in phase with the magnetic flux. The voltages
induced in the primary and secondary coils E1 & E2 will be lagging the flux by 900
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and in phase opposition to the applied Voltage V1. All these relations are clearly
shown in the No load phasor diagram given below.
Fig: No load Phasor Diagram of an Ideal Single phase Transformer
Types and constructional features:

The essential parts of a Transformer are :
 Coils and the Laminated core

 Tank or container to house the coils & the core
 Suitable medium called the transformer oil to insulate the core and the
windings from the tank
 Bushings (porcelain) for insulating and bringing out the coil terminals.
There are two types of core construction called core type and shell type and are
 In Core Form the transformer windings surround the two sides of a
rectangular core.
 In Shell Form a three legged laminated core is used with the windings
wrapped around the centre leg.
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Fig: Core type transformer Fig: Shell type

transformer
The core is constructed of laminations to minimize the eddy current losses. The
laminations are made of thin sheet steel with high silicon content to produce high
permeability and a low hysteresis loss. The laminations are insulated from each
other by a coat of varnish. The laminations are cut in the form of strips of shape L,
E & I called core stampings as shown in the figure below and then stacked
together to get the Core and shell type cores.
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Fig: Types of core stampings
EMF Equation of a Transformer:
 Number of turns in the primary and secondary windings : N1 and N2

 Maximum value of flux in the core : Øm
 Frequency : f
 Time for change of Flux in one cycle : 1/f
 Time for change of flux from zero to Øm : 1/4f
 Hence rate of change of flux : Øm/1/4f
 Average e.m.f. induced in each turn : 4f Øm
 Form factor for a sine wave : 1.11
 RMS value of voltage in a turn : 1.11 x 4f
Øm = 4.44 f Øm
 RMS value of voltage induced in the primary : 4.44 f Øm
N1
 RMS value of voltage induced in the secondary : 4.44 f Øm
N2
It is to be noted that when a sinusoidal voltage V1 is applied to the primary

winding leading to the flow of current and thus generation of flux in the core,
voltages are induced in both the primary and secondary windings as given by the
equations above. Voltage E1 & E2 are opposite in polarity to V1 and the voltage E2
gives rise to the load current when the secondary is connected to a load.
We get the relation between the two voltages by dividing the expressions for E1
with that of E2 as
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E1/E2 = N1/N2
And this ratio is called the turns ratio ‘a’ or ‘k’ of the transformer.
Since the primary VoltAmp (VA) is nearly equal to that of the secondary due to
the high efficiency of transformers we get the relation : E1 I1 = E2I2 i.e I1/I2
= E2/E1 = N2/N1 = 1/a or 1/k
Dot Convention:
Given that the primary circuit's voltage is positive at a specific end of the coil,
what would the polarity of the secondary circuit's voltage be? In real
transformers, it would be possible to tell the secondary 's polarity only if the
transformer were opened and its windings examined. To avoid this necessity,
transformers utilize the dot convention. The dots appearing at one end of each
winding in the figure tell the polarity of the voltage and current on the secondary
side of the transformer. The relationship is as follows:
I. If the primary voltage is positive at the dotted end of the winding with respect
to the undotted end, then the secondary voltage will be positive at the dotted
end also. Voltage polarities are the same with respect to the dots on each side of
the core.
2. If the primary current of the transformer flows into the dotted end of the
primary winding, the secondary current will flow out of the dotted end of the
secondary winding.
A practical Transformer on no load:
When the primary winding of a transformer is energized with an AC source of

power and the secondary is left open without connecting to any load, the
transformer is said to be on No load.
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Fig: Phasor diagram of a practical single phase transformer on No Load
In a practical Transformer the primary winding cannot be a pure reactance and it

would have some resistance also. Then the primary no-load current I 0 would lag
behind the applied voltage by an angle α which is slightly less than 90 0 and it can
be resolved into the following two components as shown in the Phasor diagram .
 Iμ = I0 Sin α along the direction of flux called the magnetizing current and
is responsible for the generation of flux Ø in the core of the transformer
 Iw = I0 Cos α along the direction of the primary voltage V1 called the
working (active)component and is responsible to cover the no load losses (
Hysteresis, eddy current and small resistive)or core losses
In this diagram the applied voltage V1 and the flux Ø will have a phase difference
of 900 and are taken as reference.
The no load losses are given by: PNL = V1.IW
E1 and E2 are the induced voltages in the primary and secondary and both lag
behind the flux by 900 since the induced voltage is equal to the rate of change of
flux linkages.
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Equivalent circuit of a real transformer:
The equivalent circuit of a transformer is a circuit which will take into account all
the major imperfections in a practical transformer and are modeled appropriately
as equivalent resistors and inductors as explained below.
To develop the equivalent circuit of a real transformer, the following losses have
to be taken into account in order to accurately model the transformer into its
equivalent circuit:
 Copper (I2R) Losses – Resistive heating losses in the primary and secondary
windings of the transformer.
They are modeled by placing a resistor R P in the primary circuit and a resistor R S
in the secondary circuit.
 Eddy current Losses – Resistive heating losses in the core of the

transformer.
 Hysteresis Losses – These are associated with the rearrangement of the
magnetic domains in the core during each half-cycle.
Both theses losses produce a core loss current IH+E or ICL (Iw) which is a current
proportional to the voltage applied to the core. Since this is in phase with the
applied voltage this loss is modeled as a resistance RC across the primary voltage
source.
 Leakage flux – The fluxes ØLP and ØLS which escape the core and pass
through only one of the transformer windings are called leakage fluxes.
They then produce self-inductances in the primary and secondary coils.
They are modeled as equivalent Inductive reactances XP and XS in the primary and
secondary circuits in series with the resistors RP and RS .
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Apart from the above losses the transformer draws a magnetizing current I μ (or
Im) and since this current lags behind the applied voltage by 90 0 it is modeled as a
reactance XM
Complete Equivalent circuit of a Practical Transformer incorporating all the above

aspects is shown in the figure below.
Fig: Complete Equivalent circuit of a Practical Transformer
For ease of circuit analysis and mathematical calculation this complete equivalent
circuit is simplified by referring the impedances in the secondary to the primary
and vice versa as shown below.
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Fig: Equivalent circuit of a Transformer (a) referring to the primary (b) referring
to the secondary
 When the Secondary is referred to the Primary the Secondary side

parameters referred to the Primary will be come: a.VS , IS/a , a2. RS
and a2. XS
 When the Primary is referred to the Secondary the Primary side

parameters referred to the Secondary will be come: Vp/a , a.Ip , Rp /
a2 and . Xp/ a2
Approximate Equivalent circuit of a Transformer:
The derived equivalent circuit is detailed but it is complex for practical

engineering applications. The main problem in analysis & calculations is
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representation of the excitation and the eddy current & hysteresis losses which
add an extra branch.
In practical situations, the excitation current Iμ & the core loss current ICL will be
relatively small as compared to the load current, which makes the resultant
voltage drop across Rp and Xp to be very small. Hence Rp and Xp may be lumped
together with the secondary referred impedances to form an equivalent
impedance. In some cases, the excitation current Iμ & the core loss current ICL are
neglected entirely due to their small magnitude.
The equivalent circuits with these simplifications are shown in the figure below.
Fig: Simplified equivalent circuits (a) Referred to the primary side (b) Referred to
the secondary side
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(c) With no excitation branch, referred to the primary side (d) With no excitation
branch, referred to the secondary side
Voltage Regulation of a Transformer:
The output voltage of a transformer varies with the load even if the input voltage
remains constant. This is because of the voltage drop in it’s series impedance as
seen in the equivalent circuit. It is normally defined for Full load as a percentage
as given below:
% Voltage Regulation (%VR) = [ (VS NL – VS FL )/ VS NL ] . 100 %
The transformer phasor diagram:
To determine the voltage regulation of a transformer, we must understand the

voltage drops within the transformer and they can be seen easily with the help of
the Phasor diagram ON LOAD .
To develop the Phasor diagram on load let us consider once again the simplified
equivalent circuit referred to the secondary side:
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Fig: Simplified equivalent circuit Referred to the secondary side
Ignoring the excitation branch (since the current flow through the branch is
considered to be small), Series impedances (Req + jXeq) will be more predominant.
Hence Voltage Regulation depends on the magnitude of the series impedance and
the phase angle of the load current flowing through the secondary of the
transformer with respect to the secondary voltage.
Phasor diagram will represent the effects of these factors on the voltage
regulation. A phasor diagram consists of current and voltage vectors. In this
Phasor diagram the secondary voltage VS is assumed as the reference.
Applying Kirchoff Voltage Law to this simplified equivalent circuit we get the
relation :
VP/a = VS + IS . Reqs + IS . Xeqs
From this equation, the phasor diagram can be visualized and is shown below for
a transformer operating at a lagging power factor. For lagging loads, VP / a > VS
so the voltage regulation with lagging loads is > 0.
From the Phasor diagram it can be seen that the addition is Vector addition and
not an algebraic addition.
Fig: Phasor diagram of a Transformer on load with lagging power factor
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When the power factor is unity also VS is lower than VP and so VR > 0. But VR is
smaller than before (during lagging PF) as shown in figure (a) below .
With a leading power factor , VS is higher than the referred VP (VP /a) so VR < 0 as
shown in figure(b)
below .
Fig: Phasor diagram of a Transformer on load with (a) unity power factor and (b)
leading power factor
Losses:
As we know a transformer is a device used to transfer Electric power from one

circuit at a certain voltage level to another circuit at a different voltage level. In
this process of conversion some power is lost. The difference between the input
power and the output power is termed as the Power loss or Losses .
Constant & Variable losses:
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The losses are broadly classified as constant losses and variable losses. Constant
losses are constant and are independent of the load where as the variable losses
are dependent on the load. They are further classified in detail as below.
Detailed Classification of Losses:
1. Electrical or Copper Losses (I2R Loss): Current flow through the resistance of
the transformer coils give rise to I2R losses and since the coils are normally
made up of copper these losses are called Copper losses.
Primary copper loss: Pp = I 2pR p
Secondary copper loss: Ps = Is2 Rs
2. Core Losses: Hysteresis and eddy current losses occurring in the transformer
core are together called core losses.
3.
 Hysteresis loss: in an iron core is the loss of power due to the hysteresis
loop in the magnetization characteristic of the core in each cycle of the
alternating current applied to the core. It is proportional to the area of the
Hysteresis loop and is given by :
Hysteresis loss = Kh B m 1.67 f v watts

Where Kh = Hysteresis constant and it depends on the core material
Bm = Maximum flux density in the core
f = Frequency of operation
v = Volume of the core.
 Eddy current losses: A time-changing flux induces voltage within a

ferromagnetic core in just the same manner as it induces voltage in the
coils around the core of the transformer. These voltages cause swirls of
current to flow within the core, much like the eddies seen at the edges of a
river. It is the shape of these currents that gives rise to the name eddy
currents. These eddy currents flowing in a resistive material (the iron of the
core) cause power loss thus heating the iron core and the resulting loss is
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called eddy current loss. This loss is proportional to the thickness of the
core material and hence to minimize this loss the core is made up of thin
sheets called laminations instead of a single thick block. An insulating oxide
or resin is used between the strips so that the current paths for eddy
currents are limited to very small areas. Thus the eddy current losses have a
very little effect on the core's magnetic properties.
The eddy current loss is given by:
Eddy current loss = Ke B2mf2 t2 watts/ unit volume
Where Ke = Eddy current constant
t = Thickness of the core
Out of the above, Core Losses are also called as Constant losses since the flux in
the core is almost constant as supply voltage V 1 at rated frequency f is always
constant at all the loads and thus the flux density Bm is also constant on which
both hysteresis and eddy current losses are dependent . Electrical or Copper
Losses are also called as variable losses.
It is to be noted that there are no mechanical losses in transformers because there

are no moving parts.
Minimization of hysteresis and eddy current losses:
 Hysteresis losses are minimized by using high grade core material like
silicon steel having very high permeability and low hysteresis loop.
 Eddy current loss is proportional to the thickness of the core material and
hence this loss is minimized by making up the core with thin sheets called
laminations instead of a single thick block. An insulating oxide or resin is
used between the strips so that the current paths for eddy currents are
limited to very small areas.
Effect of variations of frequency and supply voltage on iron losses:
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We know that the iron losses in a transformer include two types of losses i.e.
Hysteresis losses & Eddy current losses and are given by the relations:
Hysteresis loss = Kh B m 1.67 f v watts and -----

(1) Eddy current loss
= Ke B2 mf2 t2 watts/ unit volume ----- (2)
It is also known that for a transformer the voltage V is given by :
V = 4.44 f Øm N = 4.44 f Bm A N
From which we can see that for constant A and N
𝑉
Bm α -----
𝐹
(3)
From the above three equations we can see that:
 As voltage changes (with frequency remaining constant), the maximum flux

density changes and thus both eddy current and hysteresis losses also
change. As voltage increases, the maximum flux density in the core
increases and total iron losses increase.
 As frequency increases, as per equation (3) the flux density in the core
decreases but the iron loss increases as per equations (1) and (2).Hence the
net effect depends on the relative effect of flux density Bm and frequency f.
A closer look at equations (1) and (2) then reveals that :
 In Hysteresis losses Bm is of higher degree compared to frequency
and is more dominant. Hence the net Hysteresis losses decrease
with increase in frequency .
 In Eddy current losses Bm and f are of the same degree. Hence the
net Eddy current losses remain the same with increase or decrease
in frequency .
Volt-Ampere Rating of a Transformer:
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When electrical power is transferred from primary winding to secondary there are
few power losses in between. These power losses appear in the form of heat
which increases the temperature of the device. This temperature must be
maintained below a certain limiting value as it causes deterioration of the
insulation in the Transformer.
Hence the rating of the transformer is decided by the temperature rise which in
turn is decided by the losses.
The copper losses (I2R) in the transformer depend on the current ‘I’ through the
winding while the iron or core loss depends on the voltage ‘V’ as frequency of
operation is constant.
As losses depend on V and I only and not on the load power factor, the rating of
the transformer is specified as a product of these two parameters V × I called
Volt-Ampere Rating or VA rating ( or kVA rating for bigger machines )
On both sides of the transformer i.e. primary and secondary VA rating remains
same. This rating is more generally expressed in kVA (kilo volt amperes rating) for
large capacity machines.
Efficiency of a Transformer:
Efficiency of a Transformer is defined as (Same as defined for motors and

generators):
Efficiency η = (Pout / Pin ).100% = (Pout / Pout + Losses).100%
Losses incurred in a transformer:
 Copper losses ( I2R )

 Core losses ( Hysteresis losses and Eddy current losses)
Therefore, for a transformer, efficiency may be calculated using the following

relation :
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From the phasor diagram we know that Pout in a transformer is given by Pout =
VS.IS. Cos Ɵ. Hence
η = (VS.IS. Cos Ɵ / VS.IS. Cos Ɵ + PCU+PCORE).100%
All Day Efficiency of a Transformer:

The ordinary or commercial efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of
the output power to the input power.
Transformers efficiency cannot be judged by ordinary or commercial efficiency as

the load on certain transformers like distribution transformers (which serve
residential and commercial loads) fluctuates throughout the day. Though the
distribution transformers are energized for all 24 hours, they deliver very light
loads for major portion of the day, rated or full load for minor portion of the day,
and 50 to 75% load most of the time.
But the primary of such transformers is energized at it’s rated voltage for all the
24 hours to provide continuous supply to the consumer. As we know, there are
various losses in the transformer such as iron and copper loss. The iron loss takes
place in the core of the transformer and it occurs for the whole day in the
distribution transformer. The second type of loss known as copper loss takes
place in the windings of the transformer also known as the variable loss. It occurs
only when the transformers are in the loaded condition and it’s value depends on
the load. For no load the copper losses are very small and on full load it is at the
rated value. Hence the normal power efficiency as defined earlier cannot give the
efficiency of such transformers in it’s true sense.
Hence, the performance of such transformers cannot be judged by the

commercial or ordinary efficiency, but the efficiency is calculated or judged by All
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Day Efficiency also known as operational efficiency or energy efficiency which is

computed by calculating the energy consumed during 24 hours.
Definition: All day efficiency means the power consumed by the transformer
throughout the day. It is defined as the ratio of output power to the input power
in kWh or wh of the transformer over 24 hours.
Mathematically, it is represented as:
All day efficiency of the transformer depends on their loading pattern.
Condition for Maximum Efficiency :
The load current at which the efficiency attains maximum value is denoted as I sm
and maximum efficiency is denoted as η max. The efficiency is a function of load i.e.
load current Is , assuming the load power factor cos ∅s and the secondary
terminal voltage Vs as constant. The condition for Maximum Efficiency can be
obtained by differentiating the expression for the efficiency with respect to I S and
then equating the differential to zero. So for maximum efficiency,
dη Vs Is cos ∅s
dI =0 While η =
s
V s I s cos ∅ + P s
d
dη =
{ Vs Is cos ∅s + Pi +I2Rse } = 0
Vs Is cos ∅s
∴ dI s dI
s
s
dη
Effectively we can equate the numerator of to zero.
dI s
∴ (Vs Is cos ∅s + Pi + I2R s
se ) (Vs cos Øs) – (Vs Is cos ∅s ) (Vs cos Øs +
2Is Rse) = 0
Cancelling (Vs cos Øs)2 from both the terms2 we get,
Vs Is cos Ø + Pi + I Rse - Vs Iscos Øs - 2 I Rse = 0 i.e. Pi - I2 Rse = 0
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s s s s
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∴ Pi = I2sRse = PCu
So the condition for maximum efficiency is :
Copper losses = Iron losses i.e. Pi = PCu
Load current Is at maximum Efficiency:
For ηmax, I2 Rse = Pi

s@max
Pi
∴ The load current @max efficiency is given by: I η =√
s@max. Rse
….
We can get Load current Is at maximum Efficiency in terms of the full load current
Is@FL (or rated current) also:
Pi Pi
∴
I1s@ max .η
= Pi =√ =√
√
(Is )@F.L (Is )@F.L. Rse {(Is )@F.L}2 Rse (PCu )@F.L.
∴ Is@ max . η Pi
= (Is )@F. L √
(PCu )@F.L.
kVA supplied at Maximum Efficiency:
 For constant Vs the kVA supplied is a function of load current.
∴ kVA @ η
max = Is@ max . η Vs = Vs (Is)@F.L Pi = (kVA ratimg) ×
Pi ×√
(PCu )F.L.
√
(PCu )F.L.
Effect of Power Factor on Efficiency:
The efficiency of a transformer is given by,

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𝑂𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 −𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
η = = = 1-
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
….. (1)
Now, Input = output + Losses = Vs Is cos Ø + Losses
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
Using this in equation (1), η=1-𝑉 Ø +𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑠 𝐼𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠
∴ η = 1-
𝐿𝑂𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
cos Ø+ 𝑉 𝑠 𝐼𝑠
Let = x and using this in the above equation we get
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠
η = 1- 𝑥
𝑥+𝐶𝑜𝑠 Ø
Thus as the power factor of the load i.e. cos Ø becomes higher, the second term
in the above equation becomes lesser and efficiency will become more.
The family of efficiency curves (as a function of load current) are obtained as
power factor increases, are shown in the figure below. From these plots we can
get the following two important observations.
 Maximum efficiency comes at a value lower than the 100% full load
current.
 As per factor increases, the efficiency increases.
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Figure : Family of efficiency curves (as a function of load current) as power

factor increases
Can D.C. Supply be used for Transformers? Explain.
The D.C. Supply cannot be used for the transformers for the following reasons.
 The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction for which, current
in one coil must change uniformly. If D.C. supply is given, the current will not
change due to constant supply and transformer will not work.
 Practically a transformer is designed with a low winding resistance to reduce
the copper losses and thus increase the efficiency. For D.C., the inductive
reactance XL is zero as D.C. frequency is zero. So total impedance of winding
is very low for D.C. Thus winding will draw higher current if D.C. supply is
given to it. This may cause the burning of windings due to extra heat
generated and may cause permanent damage to the transformer.
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Illustrative Examples:
Example 1 : A single phase 50 Hz transformer has 100 turns on the primary

and 400 turns on the secondary winding. The net cross-sectional area of core is
250 cm2. If the primary winding is connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply,
determine,
i) The e.m.f. induced in the secondary winding
ii) The maximum value of flux density in the core.
Solution: We have the data:
N1 = 100, N2 = 400, A = 250 cm2, E1 = 230 V.

N2
Hence turns ratio : K = = 400 = 4
E2 100
Now K= N1
E1
i.e. E2 = KE1
i) ∴ The e.m.f. induced in the secondary winding = E2 = 4 × 230 = 920 V
ii) We know that the e.m.f. induced in the secondary winding is given by E1 =
4.44 Øm f N1 where Øm is the maximum value of flux in the core.
i.e. 230 = 4.44 Øm ×50 × 100
∴ Øm = 0.01045 Wb
∴The maximum value of flux density in the core Bm Øm
=
0.01045
= 0.4182
2
=A 250 × 10−4
Wb/m
Example 2: A single phase transformer is connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply.

The net cross sectional area of the core is 50 cm 2. The number of turns of the
primary is 460 and the secondary is 80. Determine i) Transformation ratio
ii) Peak value of the flux density in the core iii) e.m.f. in the secondary winding.
Solution : Refer example 1 above for the procedure and verify :
N2
i) K = = 0.1739 ii) 0.4504 Wb/m2 iii) 40 V
N1
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Example 3: 2.4kV/115 V transformer has sinusoidal flux expressed by 0.113

sin188.5 t. Determine the primary and and secondary turns.
Solution : We have the data:
E1 = 2.4 kV, E2 = 115 V, and Ø = 0.113 sin 188.5 t Wb
Comparing Ø = 0.113 sin 188.5 t with the standard sinusoid expression Ø = Øm sin
ω t, we get
Øm = 0.113 Wb and ω = 188.5 rad/sec.
ω
∴ f = = 188.5 = 30 Hz
2π 2π
Induced e.m.f is given by E1 = 4.44 Øm f N1 . Substituting the above values of E1,
Øm, and f in this equation we get
2.4 ×103
N1 = = 159.45 = 160
4.44 × 0.113 ×30 E2 N2 E2 160 ×115
We know that the turns ratio = = and from which N2 = x N 1=
E1 N1 E1 2.4 ×103
= 7.666 ≈ 8
Example 4: A 6300/210 V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer has per turn e.m.f of
about 9 volts and maximum flux density of 1.2 T. Find the number of high voltage
and low voltage turns and the net cross sectional area of the core.
Solution: We have the data:
E1 = 6300 V, E2 = 210 V, f = 50 Hz, Bm = 1.2 T and E/turn = 9V
Hence E1 = (E/turn) × N1 i.e. 6300 = 9 × N1
Thus N1 = 6300/ 9 = 700
And similarly
E2 = (E/turn) × N2 i.e. 210 = 9 × N2
Thus N2 = 210 / 9 = 23.33 ≈24
But we also know that E1 is given by: E1 = 4.44 Ømf N1
i.e. 6300 = 4.44 Øm × 50 × 700
∴ Øm = 6300 /4.44 × 50 × 700 = 0.04054 Wb
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∅
And we have Bm = m
a
0.04054
∅m = = 0.03378 m2 = 337.8 cm2
∴ a Bm 1.2
Example 5:The e.m.f per turn for a single phase, 2310/220 volts, 50Hz
transformer is 13 volts. Calculate.
i) The number of primary and secondary turns.
ii) The net cross sectional area of the core, for a maximum flux density of 1.4 T.
Solution : Refer example 4 for the procedure and verify :
N1 = 178, N2 = 17,
a = 417.5 cm2
Example 6: A 1-phase transformer has 500 primary and 1200 secondary turns.
The net cross sectional area of the core is 75 cm2. If the primary winding be
connected to 400 V, 50 Hz supply, calculate the peak value of flux density in the
core and voltage induced in the secondary winding.
Solution : Refer example 1 above for the procedure and verify the answers
Bm = 0.4804 Wb/ m2, E2 = 960 V.
Example 7: A single-phase transformer has 400 primary and 1000 secondary

turns. The net cross-sectional area of the core is 60 cm2. If the primary winding is
connected to a 50Hz supply at 500 V. Calculate.
Solution : Refer example 1 for the procedure and verify the answer :
i) 0.938 Wb/m2, ii) 1250 V
Example 8: The no load current of a transformer is 4 A at 0.25 p.f when supplied

at 250 V, 50 Hz. The number of turns on the primary winding is 200. Calculate
i) The r.m.s value of the flux in the core ii) The core loss iii) The magnetizing
current.
Solution :
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We have the data : V1 = 250 V, f = 50 Hz, No load current I0= 4A, P.F = 0.25 and
N1 = 200
i) We know that V1 is given by : V1 = 4.44 Øm f N1 from which we get Øm =
250
4.44 50 200
m
∴ Øm = 5.63 mWb, Ø(RMS) = = 3.98 mWb
2
ii) Core loss = V1 I0 P.F = 250x 4x 0.25 = 250 W

iii) P.F = cos θ = 0.25 from which we get Sin θ = 0.9682
Then we can get magnetizing current as Im = I0 sin θ = 4 × 0.9682 =
3.873 A
Example 9: A 100 kVA, 2400/24 V, 50 Hz single phase transformer has an exciting

current of 0.64 Amps and a core loss of 700 watts, when its high voltage side is
energized at rated voltage and frequency. Calculate the two components of the
exciting current.
Solution : We have the data
No load current I0 = 0.64 A, Core losses ( or iron losses or no load losses ) Pi = 700
W, In put rating V1 = 2400 V
We know that the no load or Iron losses are given by : Pi = V1 I0 (p.f) which is =
700 Watts
From the given data then we get : 700 = 2400 × 0.64 × (p.f) from which we get
p.f = 700 /(2400 × 0.64) = 0.4557
we also know that power factor = cos θ and hence cos θ = 0.4557, and thus Sin θ
= 0.8901
The two components of exciting currents i.e core loss current Ic and
magnetizing current Im are then given by
∴ Ic = I0 cos θ = 0.64 × 0.4557
= 0.2916 A
∴ Im = I0 sin θ = 0.64 × 0.8901
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= 0.5696 A
Example 10: A2000/200 V single phase transformer gives 0.5 A and 40 W as

ammeter and wattmeter readings when supply is given to the low voltage winding
and high voltage winding is kept open. Find : i) The magnetizing component,
ii) The iron component, and iii) The power factor of no-load current.
Solution : From the given data we observe that the readings are on LV side
(secondary) and h.v. winding is kept open.
∴ I0 = 0.5 A, W0 = 40 W,
V0 = 200 V
W0 = V0I0 cos θ
i.e. Cos θ = 40
= 0.4
0.5 200
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Sin θ = 0.9165
i) Im = I0 Sin θ = 0.5 × 0.9165
= 0.4582 A
ii) Ic = I0 Cos θ = 0.5 × 0.4 = 0.2 A
iii) No load power factor = Cos θ = 0.4 lagging
Example 11: A single phase transformer with 10:1 turns ratio and rated at 50
kVA, 2400/240 volts, 50 Hz, is used to step down the voltage of a distribution
system. The L.V. side voltage is kept constant at 240 V. Find the value of load
impedance on L.V. side so that the transformer will be loaded fully. Find also the
maximum flux in the core if L.V. side has 23 turns.
Solution : Vs = 240 V, Vp = 2400 V, Ns = 23, 50 kVA
50 103
(Is)F.L., = VA rating/Vs = = 208.333 A
240 240
∴ Zs = Load impedance on F.L = VS/ IsFL = = 1.152 Ω
208.333
Vs ( Voltage on LV side ) = 4.44 × Øm× 50 × 23
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i.e. 240 = 4.44 × Øm × 50 × 23

From which we get Øm(Maximum flux in core ) = 240/( 4.44 × 50 × 23) = 0.047 Wb
Example 12: A 15 kVA, 2400/240 V, 60 Hz transformer has a magnetic core of 50

cm2 cross section and a mean length of 66.7 cm. The application of 2400 V causes
magnetic field intensity of 450 AT/m (RMS) and a maximum flux density of 1.5 T.
Determine i)The turn’s ratio, ii) The numbers of turns in each winding iii) The
magnetizing current.
Solution : We have the data : Vp = 2400 V, Vs = 240 V, a = 50 cm2, mean length I =
66.7 cm,
maximum flux density Bm = 1.5 T, magnetic filed intensity H = 450 AT/m
(R.M.S) with
Vp = 2400 V is applied to primary, f = 60 Hz
i) Turns ratio K =Vp/Vs = Np/Ns = 2400/240 = 10
ii) maximum flux Øm = Bm× a = 1.5 × 50 × 10 4 = 7.5 × 10 Wb,(Tesla=
3
Wb/m2)
We know that Vp = 4.44 Øm fNp
From which we get Np = 2400
= 1201.2 = say 1200
4.44  7.5 103  60
K = Np/Ns = 10 i.e. Ns = Np/10 = 1200/10 = 120
iii) AT ( on 2400 V side ) = H × I = 450 × 66.7 × 10 = 300.15 AT
2
(For calculating the magnetizing current we have to take that side where voltage
is applied)
Hence magnetizing current I0 ( on 2400 V side ) = AT/Np = 300.15
1200
= 0.2501 A (RMS)
From here to be explained
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Example 13: A 6600/400 V single phase transformer has primary resistance of 2.5
Ω and secondary resistance of 0.01 Ω. Calculate total equipment resistance
referred to primary and secondary.
Solution : The given values are,
R1 = 2.5 Ω, R2 = 0.01 Ω
K = 6600/400 = 16.5
For finding equivalent resistance referred to primary, transfer R 2 to primary as
R2eq,
R2eq = K2R2= 0.01x16.52 = 2.7225 Ω
R1e = R1 + R2eq = 2.5 + 2.7225 = 5.2225 Ω
It can be observed that primary is high voltage side and hence high resistance
side hence while transferring R2 from low voltage to high voltage side , its value
increases.
Similarly to find total equivalent resistance referred to secondary, first calculate
R1 referred to secondary as
R1eq = R1/ K2 = 2.5/16.52
= 0.00918 Ω
∴ R2e = R2 + R1eq = 0.01 + 0.00918 = 0.01918 Ω
Example 14: A 20 kVA, 2000/200 V single phase transformer has the following
parameters. H.V. Winding: R1 = 3 Ω, X1 = 5.3 Ω, L.V. winding: R2 = 0.05 Ω, X2 = 0.1
Ω. Find the voltage regulation at, i) Power factor of 0.8 lagging. ii) UPF iii) 0.707
power factor leading.
Solution : We have the data

V1 = 2000 V, V2 = 200 V, R1 = 3 Ω, R2 = 0.05 Ω, X = 5.3 X1 = 5.3 Ω, X2 = 0.1 Ω.
K = V1/V2= 2000/200 = 10
From this data let us find out equivalent resistances referred to primary.
R1eq = R1 + R2eq = R1 + K2R2= 3 + 0.05 x 102 = 8 Ω
X1eq = X1 + X2eq = X1 + K2X2 = 5.3 + 0.1 x 102 = 15.3 Ω
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20 103
(I1)FL = VA rating / Primary voltage = = 10 A
2000
i) Cos Ø = 0.8 lagging, Sin Ø = 0.6
∴ % Regln. = (Voltage drop with full load current /Input Voltage)
= [ I1 {R1eq Cos Ø + X1eq Sin Ø} / V1 ] x 100
= [ 10 {8x 0.8 + 15.3x 0.6} / 2000 ] x 100 = 7.79 %
ii) cos Ø = 1, sin Ø = 0
∴ % Regln = (Voltage drop with full load current /Input Voltage)
= [ I1 {R1eq Cos Ø + X1eq Sin Ø} / V1 ] x 100
= [ 10 {8 x 1 + 15.3 x 0} / 2000 ] x 100 = 4%
iii) Cos Ø = 0.707 leading, Sin Ø = 0.707
∴ % Regln = (Voltage drop with full load current /Input Voltage)
= [ I1 {R1eq Cos Ø • X1eq Sin Ø} / V1 ] x 100
= [ I1 {8x 0.8 - 15.3x 0.6} / 2000] x 100 = - 2.5805 %
Example 15: A 230/460 volts transformer has a primary resistance of 0.2 Ω and
reactance of 0.5 Ω and the corresponding values for secondary are 0.75 Ω and 1.8
Ω respectively. Find the secondary terminal voltage when supplying 10 amps at
0.8 power factor lagging.
Solution : We have the data:
V1 = 230 , V2 = 460 V, R1 = 0.2 Ω, X1 = 0.5 Ω, R2 = 0.75Ω, X2 = 1.8 Ω
K = = 230/460 = 0.5
We have to find out the secondary terminal voltage while supplying a load
current of 10Amps. Since it is supplying current on the secondary side we have
to find out the equivalent circuit parameters referred to secondary side.
∴ R2e = R2 + R1e = R2 + R1/ K2= 0.75 + 0.2/(0.5)2 = 1.55 Ω
Similarly X2e = X2 + X1e = X2 + X1/K2= 1.8 + 0.5/(0.5)2 = 3.8 Ω
We have to find the secondary terminal voltage at Cos Ø = 0.8 lagging and load
current of I2 = 10 A. Sin Ø = 0.6 ( from the value of Cos Ø = 0.8)
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∴ Voltage drop = I2[R2ecos Ø + X2esinØ] = 10 [1.55 × 0.8 + 3.8 ×0.6] = 35.2 V

∴ Secondary terminal voltage V2 = 460 - Voltage drop = 460 - 35.2 = 424.8 V
Example 16: A 100 kVA, 6.6 kV/415 V single phase transformer has an effective
impedance of (3+j8) Ω referred to HV side. Estimate the full load voltage
regulation at
i) 0.8 pf lagging ii) 0.8 pf leading
Solution : Refer example 14 for the procedure with R1e = 3 Ω,
X1e = 8 Ω and verify the answers as,
i) + 1.652 % ii) -0.551 %
Example 17: A 230/460 V transformer has a primary resistance of 0.2 Ω and the
corresponding values for the secondary are 0.75 Ω and 1.8 Ω respectively. Find
the secondary terminal voltages when supplying 10 A at 0.8 p.f lagging and its
voltage regulation.
Solution : We have the data K = 230/460 = 0.5 , R1 = 0.2 Ω, X1 = 0.5 Ω
R2 = 0.75 Ω, X2 = 1.8 Ω, I2 = 10 A, cos Ø = 0.8 lag
Since we have the current on the load side we will find out the equivalent
resistance/reactance on secondary side.
R2e = R2 +R1/ K2 = 0.75 + (2)2× 0.2 = 1.55 Ω
X2e = X2 + X1/ K2= 1.8 + (2)2× 0.5 = 3.8 Ω
∴ Voltages drop = I2 [R2e cos Ø + X2e sinØ]
= 10 [1.55 ×0.8 + 3.8 × 0.6] = 35.2 V
∴ V2 (terminal ) = V2 - drop = 460 - 35.2 = 424.8 V
Voltagedrop 35.2
∴ % Reg = V2 × 100 = 460 × 100 = + 7.652 %
Example 18 : 1 kV/2kV transformer has 750 W hysteresis losses and 250 W eddy
current losses. When the applied voltage is doubled and frequency is halved, find
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(Prof.K.Subhas)
the new losses.

Solution : The hysteresis loss is given by,
Ph B1.6 f
m
The eddy current loss is given by,

Pe B2mf 2
But Bm V
f
2
1.6
V 
∴ Ph  V  × f and Pe    ×f2
 f   f  1.6
P  f f 

1.6
V
From this the ratio of hysteresis losses is given by : h1
=  1  2  1
Ph2  V2   f1  f2
2
 P   V   f 2  f 2
and the ratio of eddy current losses is given by:  e1  =  1    2   1 

P
 e 2   V2   f1   f 2 
Now voltage is doubled and frequency is halved and hence V2 = 2V1 and f2 = 0.5
f1
∴ The new hysteresis loss is given by: 750
= (0.5)1.6× (0.5)1.6× 2
Ph 2
and new eddy current loss is given by: 250

= (0.5)2× (0.5)2× (2)2
Pe 2
From which we get P h = 3446.095 W and P = 1000 W

2 e2
∴ Total new iron loss = Ph2 + Pe 2 = 4446.095 W
Example 19: The flux in a magnetic core is alternating sinusoidally at a frequency

of 600 Hz. The maximum flux density is 2 Tesla. The eddy current loss is 15 W.
Find the eddy current loss in the core if the frequency is raised to 800 Hz and the
maximum flux density is reduced to 1.5 Tesla.
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Solution : The eddy current loss is given by: Pe = KeBm2f2
At f1 = 600 Hz, Bm1 = 2 T, Pe1 =15 W
∴ 15 = Ke× (2)2× (600)2
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From which we get Ke = 15/(4 x 360000) = 1.04166 ×105

Then at f2 = 800 Hz and Bm = 1.5 T we get
Pe2 = 1.04166 ×105 × (1.5)2 × (800)2 = 15 W
The eddy current loss remains same.
Example 20 : A 2300/230 V, 50 Hz single phase transformer has the transformer

parameters : R1 = 0.3 Ω; R2e = 0.295 Ω; X1 = 0.375 Ω; X2e = 0.685 Ω ; Rc1 = 4 kΩ ; Xm1
= 1000 Ω. The secondary load impedance ZL = (0.4 + j0.3) Ω. Find the voltage
regulation, losses of the transformer using approximate equivalent circuit.
Solution : K = 2300/230 = 10
Rc1 = R0 = 4 kΩ, Xm1 = X0 = 1000 Ω
Let us find out equivalent circuit referred to primary because we are given the
values of secondary referred to primary i.e. R2e and X2e
R1e = R1 + R2e = 0.595 Ω,

X1e = X1 + X2e = 1.06 Ω
Because we have taken equivalent circuit referred to primary. Let us find out the
value of load impedance referred to primary
ZLe (ZL’ ) = ZLxK2= ZLx102= (0.4+j0.3) = 40 + j30 Ω
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Total equivalent impedance referred to primary Z1e = (40+0.595)+j(30+1.06)=

(40.595 + j31.06) Ω
Since we have taken primary as reference V1 = 2300 /00 V will be the reference
voltage. If
I’ = V1
1 R1  jX1e  Z L
e
0
= 2300 /0 / (40.595 + j31.06)
= 2300 /00 / 51.114 /37.420 = 45/-37.420 A
= 35.739 - j 27.344 A
V1 2300 V1
Ic = = = 0.575 A, Im = = 2.3 A
R0 4 10 3
X
0
∴ I0 = Ic - j Im = 0.575 - j 2.3 A
∴ I1 = I0 + I ’1= 36.314 - j 29.644 A
= 46.8772/- 39.220 A
Core loss = Pi = I 2 Rc = 1322.5 W
C
Copper loss = (I 1) R = 452× 0.595 = 1204.875 W

’ 2
Secondary voltage = I2 ZL = I ’ 1x K x ZL
= 45 x 10 (0.4)2  (0.3)2 45 x 10 = 225 V
230  225
∴ % Reg = ×100 = 2.22
%
225
Example 21: A single phase transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 40
turns on the secondary winding. The mean length of the magnetic path in the
iron core is 150 cm and the joints are equivalent to an air gap of 0.1 mm. When a
potential difference of 3000 V is applied to the primary, maximum flux density is
1.2 Wb/m2. Calculate:
i) The cross- sectional area of the core ii) No-load secondary voltages.
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iii) The no load current drawn by the primary iv) Power factor on no-load
Given that AT/cm for a flux density of 1.2 Wb/m2 in iron to be 5, the
corresponding iron loss to be 2 watt/kg at 50 Hz , the density of iron as 7.8
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gram/cm2 and μ0 = 4π x 10-7
Solution : E1 = 3000 V, Bm = 1.2 Wb/m2, N1 = 500, f= 50 Hz, length of the magnetic

path in iron li = 150cm,
length of the magnetic path in air gap = lg = 0.1 mm = 0.1 x 10-3 mtrs
∴ E1 = 4.44 f ØmN1
i.e. Øm = 3000
= 0.027 Wb
4.44 50 500
m
i) Bm = 0.027
a
i.e. a = = 0.0225 m2
1.2
= 225 cm2
ii) 40
= 240
E2
=
N i.e. E2 = No load secondary voltage = 3000 ×
2 500
V E1 N1
iii) AT/cm = 5 for iron path
AT = 5×Ii = 5 × 150 = 750
AT for air gap = H × Ig = B  l 1.2
 0.1103 = 95.5
4 10 7
=
0 g
∴ Total AT for given Bm = 750 + 95.5 = 845.5 = N1Im

∴ Im
= 500 = 1.691 A …… Since Bm (Maximum value )is used
845.5
we get Im (max)
∴ Im I m (max)
1.691
(rms ) = 2 = = 1.196 A ….Magnetizing current
2
Volume of iron = Ii× a = 150 × 225 = 33750 cm3
Density of iron = 7.8 gm/cm3
∴ Mass of iron = Volume × Density = 33750 × 7.8 = 263250 gm
Iron loss = 2 W/kg i.e. Total iron loss = 263250 × 10-3× 2 = 526.5 W
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∴ Ic Totalironloss
= Core loss component = = 3000 = 0.176 A
526.5
E1
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(Core loss component is working component which is in phase with the applied
voltage.
Hence Ic = Power/Voltage)
∴ I0 = I Cm
2  I 2 = (0.176)2  (1.196)2 = 1.208 A
iv) cos Ø0 = 0.176

IC = 0.1457 lagging.
I 0 = 1.208
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Additional Problems:
Example 1 : A 4 kVA, 200/400 V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer has equivalent

resistance referred to primary as 0.15 Ω. Calculate,
i) The total copper losses on full load.
ii) The efficiency while supplying full load at 0.9 p.f. lagging.
iii) The efficiency while supplying half load at 0.8 p.f. leading.
Assume total iron losses equal to 60 W.
Solution : The given values are,
V1 = 200 V, V2 = 400 V, S = 4 kVA , R1e = 0.15 Ω, pi = 60 W
K = V1/V2 = 200/400 = 0.5
From the problem we can see that we have to find out the efficiency while
supplying in different conditions. Hence we have to get the parameters reflected
to secondary side. So we have to calculate
R2e = R1e/ K2 = 0.15/(0.5)2 = 0.6 Ω

3
(I2) F.L. = 𝑘𝑉𝐴 = 4×10
𝑉2
= 10 A
400
i) Total copper losses on full load,
(Pcu) F.L. = [(I2) F.L.]2 R2e = (10)2 × 0.6 = 60 W
ii) ƞ @ cos Ø = 0.9 lagging and full load
𝑉 𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 cos ∅
∴ % ηFL = × 100
𝑉 𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 cos ∅ + 𝑃𝑖+(𝑃𝑐𝑢 )𝐹.𝐿
4 ×103×0.9
∴ % ηFL = × 100 = 96.77%
4 ×103 ×0.9+60+60
iii) cos Ø = 0.8 leading half load i.e. n = 0.5
(pcu) H.L. = n2 × (Pcu)F.L. = (0.5)2 × 60 = 15 W
𝑛×(𝑉 𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ) cos ∅
∴ % ηHL = 𝑛×(𝑉 𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ) cos ∅+𝑃𝑖+(𝑃𝑐𝑢 )𝐻.𝐿. × 100
0.5 ×4×103×0.8
= × 100 = 95.52 %
0.5×4×103×0.8+60+15
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Example 2: The maximum efficiency of a 500 kVA, 3300/500 Volts, 50Hz, single-
phase transformer is 97 % and occurs at 3/4th full load with unity p.f. If the
impedance is 10 %, calculate the regulation at full load and 0.8 p.f. lagging.
Solution : ηmax = 97 % occurs at n = ¾ = 0.75 and unity p.f

𝑛𝑉𝐴 cos ∅
% ηmax =
𝑛𝑉𝐴 cos ∅+2𝑃 × 100 ( since at ηmax Pi = Pcu )
�
0.75 ×500 ×103×1
i.e. 0.97 =
0.75×500×103×1+2𝑃
�
From which we get Pi = Iron losses = 5798.969 W

Also Pcu @ n= 0.75 = 5798.969 as ηmax occurs at 3/4th load
2
We know that Pcu at any fractional load n = n (Pcu)F.L.
i.e 5789.969 = (0.75)2 × (Pcu)F.L.
From which (Pcu) @F.L. = Full load copper loss = 5789.969 /(0.75)2 =
10309.278 W
(I2)F.L. = 𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 500 ×10
3
𝑉1
= 151.515 A
3300
We are given the % impedance as 10% which can be taken on either primary side
or secondary side for calculating the regulation. Accordingly the % resistance and
%reactance also are to be calculated on either primary side or secondary side. Let
us calculate on primary side.
Now (Pcu)F.L. = [(I1)F.L.]2 Rle

10309 .278
i.e Rle = 2
= 0.4491 Ω
(151.515)
%Rle (in terms of primary side equivalent resistance ,voltage and current) =
𝐼1 𝑅𝑙𝑒
× 100
𝑉1
151.515 ×0.4491
= × 100
3300
= 2.062 %
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% Zle = 10 % (Given data )

% Xle = √(𝑍𝑙𝑒 )2 − (𝑅𝑙𝑒 )2 = √(10)2 − (2.062)2
= 9.785 %
But % Xle (again in terms of primary side equivalent resistance ,voltage and
𝐼1 𝑋𝑙𝑒
current) = × 100
𝑉1
151.515𝑋𝑙𝑒
i.e. 9.785 = × 100 from which X = 9.785 x 3300/(151.515 x
l
33
100)
= 2.311 Ω
𝐼1 [𝑅𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅+𝑋𝑙𝑒 sin ∅]
% Regulation = × 100
𝑉1
151.515[0.4491 ×0.8+2.1311 ×0.6]
= × 100 (Given Cos Ø = 0.8 lag we
3300
get Sin Ø =0.6)
= 7.52 %
Example 3:The maximum efficiency of a 50 kVA transformer is 97.4 % and occurs

at 90 % of the full load at unity power factor. Calculate the efficiency of
transformer at,
i) Full load 0.8 power factor lagging
ii) Half load 0.9 power factor.
Solution : We have the data :
Rating: 50 kVA, ƞmax = 97.4 %, n= 0.9 for ƞmax at cos ∅ = 1.

𝑛𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ×cos ∅
From this data using the relation %ƞmax = × 100
𝑛𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ×cos ∅+2𝑃 �
(Since Pi = Pcu for ƞmax)
0.9×50×103×1
we have 97.4 = × 100
0.9×50×103 ×1+2𝑃 �
From which we get Pi = 600.616 W
We know that efficiency at Full load and any p.f cos Ø is given by :
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% ȠFL = 𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ×cos ∅

𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ×cos ∅+𝑃𝑖+(𝑃𝐶𝑢 )𝐹.𝐿.
x100
We have the data of all the parametrers in this equation except Pcu @FL which can
be found from the relation
𝑃𝑖
kVA for ƞ = kVA rating ×√
max
(𝑃𝐶𝑈 )𝐹.𝐿.
600.616
∴ 0.9 ×[50×103] = [50×103] × √
(𝑃𝐶𝑢 )𝐹.𝐿.
From which Pcu @FL = Full load copper loss = 741.5012 W
i) Efficiency at Full load and cos Ø = 0.8 lag :

𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ×cos ∅
% ȠFL = × 100
𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ×cos ∅+𝑃 +(𝑃 𝐶𝑢 )𝐹.𝐿.
�
50×103×0.8
= × 100
50×103×0.8+600.616+741.5012
=96.7536 %
ii) Half load, n = 0.5, cos Ø = 0.9
% ȠHL ƞ𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ×cos ∅ × 100
= ƞ𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ×cos ∅+𝑃𝑖+𝑛2 (𝑃𝐶𝑈 )𝐹.𝐿.
0.5×50 ×103×0.8
= 3 2
× 100
0.5 ×50 ×10 ×0.8+600.616+(0.5) ×741.5012
= 96.2186 %
Example 4:The efficiency of a 1000 kVA, 110/200 V, 50 Hz single phase

transformer is 98.5 % at half full load at 0.8 power factor leading and 98 % at full
load, UPF. Determine
i) Iron loss ii) Copper loss iii) Maximum efficiency at UPF.
Solution : We have the data :
Rating : 1000 kVA, V1 =110 V, V2 = 200 , Ƞ@1/2FL and cos Ø = 0.8 = 98.5 %,
Using this data in the basic efficiency relation
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𝑛×𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ×cos ∅
% ƞHL =
𝑛 ×𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ×cos ∅+𝑃 +𝑛2 (𝑃 × 100
� 𝐶𝑈 )𝐹,𝐿,
we get :
% ƞHL = × 100 (in this case n =
𝑛 ×𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ×cos ∅+𝑃 +𝑛2(𝑃 𝐶𝑈 )𝐹,𝐿,
�
0.5)
0.5 ×1000 ×103 ×0.8
98.5 = × 100
0.5 ×1000 ×103 ×0.8+𝑃 +(0.5)2×(𝑃
� 𝐶𝑢 )𝐹.𝐿.
From which we get Pi + 0.25 (Pcu) F.L. = 6091.3705

……(1)
Similarly in the second case:
Ƞ@FL and cos Ø = 1 = 98 %,
% ƞ@FL = × 100 (in this case n
𝑛 ×𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ×cos ∅+𝑃 +𝑛2 𝐶𝑈 )𝐹,𝐿,
�
= (𝑃
1)
1000 ×103 ×1
98 =
1000 ×103 ×1+𝑃 +(𝑃 × 100
� 𝐶𝑈 )𝐹.𝐿.
From which we get: Pi + (Pcu) F.L. = 20408.1632

……..(2)
Solving equations (1) and (2),
i) Pi = 1319.1062 W …….Iron loss
ii) (Pcu) F.L. = 19089.0569 W ……Full load copper loss
iii) For ƞmax with cos Ø = 1, we have to get the fractional kVA for maximum
efficiency which is given by
𝑃𝑖
kVA for ƞ = kVA rating × √
max (𝑃𝑐𝑢 )𝐹.𝐿.
At ƞmax, Pi = Pcu = 1319.1062 W
1319.1062
= 1000 √ 19089.0569
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= 262.874 kVA
∴ %ƞ [𝑉𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ƞ𝑚𝑎𝑥 ] ×cos ∅ × 100
max
= [𝑉𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ƞ𝑚𝑎𝑥 ] ×cos ∅ + 2𝑃𝑖
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262.874 ×103 ×1
= × 100
262.874 ×103 ×1+2 ×1319.1062
= 99 %
Example 5: A 100 Kva, 50 Hz, 440/11 Kv, single phase transformer has an
efficiency of 98.5 % when supplying full load current at 0.8 p.f. lagging and an
efficiency of 99 % when supplying half load current at unity power factor. Find the
core losses and copper losses corresponding to full load current. At what value of
load current will the maximum efficiency be attained?
Solution : Refer example 4 for the procedure and verify the answers :
Pi = 267.309 W, Pcu(FL) = 950.964 W.
𝑉𝐴 100 ×103
I2 (FL) = = 9.0909 A
= 𝑉2 11 × 103
I2m = I2 (FL) ×√ 𝑃𝑖
𝑃𝑐𝑢 (𝐹𝐿)
= 4.822 A
Example 6:A 25 kVA, 2000/200 V, 50 Hz transformer has maximum efficiency at

75 % of full load. Its per unit resistance and impedance are 0.012 and 0.05
respectively. Determine its efficiency and voltage regulation at half of the full load
and 0.8 p.f lagging.
Solution : kVA for ηmax = 0.75 × kVA = 0.75 × 25 = 18.75 kVA

𝐼1 𝑅1𝑒
Per unit R = 0.012 =
𝑉1
Where I1 = full load current I1(FL) = =
𝑉𝐴 𝑉1
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25 ×103
= 12.5 A
2000
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12.5 𝑅1𝑒
∴ 0.012 = i.e. R1e = 1.92 Ω
20 𝐼1 𝑋𝑙𝑒
Per unit X = 0.05 =
𝑉1
0.05 ×2000
i.e. X1e = = 8Ω
12.5
1
At half full load, I1(HL) = × 12.5 = 6.25 A
2
cos Ø = 0.8, sin Ø = 0.6
𝐼1 (𝐻𝐿)[𝑅1𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅+𝑋1𝑒 sin ∅]
% Reg = 𝑉1 × 100 = 1.98 %
𝑃𝑖
kVA for ηmax = kVA × √
𝑃𝑐𝑢 (𝐹𝐿)
𝑃𝑖 𝑃𝑖
∴ 18.75 = 25 × √ i.e. = 0.5625
𝑃𝑐𝑢 (𝐹𝐿) 𝑃𝑐𝑢 (𝐹𝐿)
2 2
PCu (FL) = [I1(FL) Rle = 12.5 × 1.92 = 300 W
Pi = 0.5625 × 300 = 168.75 W
0.5 ×𝑉𝐴 cos ∅
∴ % ηHL = × 100 (n = 0.5)
0.5 ×𝑉𝐴 cos ∅+𝑃 +[(0.5)2𝑃 (𝐹𝐿)]
0.5 × 25𝑖 × 103 × 0.8
𝑐𝑢
= × 100
0.5 ×25 ×103 × 0.8+168.75+(0.52 ×300
= 97.62 %
Example 7: A 250/500 V, 50 Hz single phase transformer has the following
equivalent circuit parameters: Rt1 = 0.715 Ω ; Xt1 = 0.375 Ω ; Rc1 = 780Ω ; Xm1 =
265Ω
Determine the voltage regulation ,losses and efficiency of the transformer when it
is delivering 6 kVA at 0.8 pf leading and at rated voltage.
Solution :
Rt1 = R1e = 0.175 Ω, Xt1 = X1e = 0.375 Ω
Rc1 = Ro = 780 Ω, Xml = Xo = 265 Ω
Because the kVA of 6 given is while delivering we have to calculate using the
secondary equivalent parameters. So the given primary parameters are to be
referred to secondary.
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250
K = = 0.5, R2e = R1e / K2 = 0.175/(0.5)2 =0.7 Ω
500
X2e = X1e/ K2 = 0.375 /(0.5)2 = 1.5 Ω
𝑉𝐴 6 ×103
I2 = = = 12 A (Since 6 kVA given is on
𝑉2 500
load side )
𝐼2 (𝑅2𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅−𝑋2𝑒 sin ∅)
∴ % Reg = × 100 ( negative sign is because
𝑉2
Cos Ø = 0.8 is leading)
12(0.7 ×0.8−1.5 ×0.6)
= 𝑉1 × 100 = - 0.816%
500 𝑉1 250
R = i.e. I = = = 0.3205 A
0 c
𝑅0 780
𝑉𝐼1𝑐
X= i.e. I 𝑉1 250 = 0.9434 A
o m = = 265
𝐼𝑚 𝑋0
𝐼𝑚
∴ tan Ø = = 2.9435, Ø = 71.2350
𝐼𝐶
Io = √𝐼2 + 𝐼2 = 0.9963 A
𝑐 𝑚
∴ Pi = Iron losses = V1I0 cos Ø0 = 80.1242 W
Pcu = Copper losses = 𝐼22R2e = 122 × 0.7 = 100.8 W
𝑉𝐴 cos ∅
∴ % η = 𝑉𝐴 cos ∅+𝑃𝑖+𝑃𝑐𝑢 × 100
6 ×103 ×0.8
= 3
× 100
6 ×10 ×0.8+80.1242 +100.8
= 96.36 %
Example 8: A 25 kVA, 1-phase transformer, 2200/220 V, has a primary Resistance

of 2.0 Ω and a secondary resistance of 0.05 Ω. Find the Equivalent secondary
resistance and the full load efficiency at 0.8 p.f , if the iron loss of the transformer
is 75 % of the full load copper loss.
Solution : We have the data : R1 = 2 Ω R2 = 0.05 Ω, K = 2200/220 = 10

∴ Equivalent secondary resistance = R2e = R2 + R1e = 0.05 + 2/(10)2 = 0.07 Ω
25 ×103
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I2 (FL) = = 113.6363 A,
220
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Pcu(FL) = [I2(FL)]2 R2e

∴ Pcu (FL) = 903.925 W, Pi = 0.75 × 903.925 = 677.944 W
25 ×103 ×0.8
∴ %η 25 ×103 ×0.8+903.925 + 677.944 × 100
= 92.67 %
Example 9: The full load copper and iron losses of a 15 kVA single phase
transformer are 320 W and 200 W respectively. Calculate the efficiency of the
transformer at unity power factor at full load and half load.
Solution : ARting = 15 kVA, Pi = 200 W, Pcu (FL) = 320 W
𝑉𝐴 cos ∅
%ηFL =
𝑉𝐴 cos ∅ +𝑃 +𝑃 𝐶𝑈 × 100
� (𝐹𝐿)
We have to find out both FL and HFL efficiency with Cos Ø = 1

15 ×103 ×1
Hence %ηFL = × 100 = 96.649 %
15 ×103 ×1+200+320
%ηHL = 𝑛𝑉𝐴 cos ∅

𝑛𝑉𝐴 cos ∅ +𝑃 +𝑛2 × 100 (n = 0.5, and cos Ø = 1)
𝑃 (𝐹𝐿)
𝑖 𝑐𝑢
0.5 ×15 ×103 ×1

= × 100 = 96.401 %
0.5 ×15 ×103 ×1+200+[(0.5)2 ×320]
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UNIT – V
TESTING OF TRANSFORMERS AND THREE-PHASE
TRANSFORMERS
CONTENTS:
 OC and SC tests
 Sumpner’s test
 Predetermination of efficiency and regulation
 Separation of losses test
 Parallel operation with equal and unequal voltage ratios
 Auto transformers- equivalent circuit
 Comparison with two winding Transformers
 Poly phase Transformers
 Poly phase Connections
 Y/Y, Y/Δ, Δ/ Δ, Δ/Y open Δ connections
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Open Circuit (OC) and Short Circuit (SC) tests:
They are conducted on the transformer to find out the transformer losses and
from them to determine the circuit constants that are used to represent the
equivalent circuit. From these parameters the transformer efficiency and
regulation can also be calculated. These tests are conducted without actually
loading the transformer to its full load and hence the power consumed during the
test is very small as compared to its full load (rated) power.
Open Circuit or No Load test:
The test setup to conduct the OC test is shown in the figure below.
Fig: Test Setup to conduct the Open Circuit or No Load test
Low voltage side is designated as Primary and High voltage side is designated as
Secondary. Voltmeter V1 , Ammeter A and wattmeter W are connected in the
primary as shown . Voltmeter V2 is connected in the open circuited Secondary.
Since the secondary is open circuited a small value of no load current called I0
flows in the primary and this is measured by the ammeter A. The power loss in
the transformer is due to core losses and a very small I2R loss in the primary.
There is no I2R loss in the secondary since the secondary is open and there is no
secondary current. Since I2R loss in the primary also is very small the no load
current is very small (usually 2 to 5 % of the full load current). The core loss is
dependent on the flux which in turn depends on the applied voltage. Since full
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rated voltage is applied to the primary in this test, full rated flux will be set up and
the full Core losses will be present. And these core losses will be constant at all
loads. Since the I2R loss in the primary is very small compared to the core losses,
they can be ignored and the full power consumed in the primary as read by
wattmeter W can be regarded as the core losses. With this understanding the
readings of the various meters in the OC test are as follows.
 Ammeter reading : No load current I0

 Volt meter reading : Applied rated Primary voltage V1
 Wattmeter reading : Input power totally consumed as Core losses PCL
From these measurements the parameters RC and XM shown in the equivalent

circuit can be computed as shown below.
No load power factor : Cos Ɵ = PCL / V1.I0 (Since Input power = PCL = V1.I0.
Cos Ɵ )
We already know from the equivalent circuit description that ICL is the core loss
current corresponding to RC and IM is the magnetizing current corresponding to
XM and in terms of the present measurements are given by :
ICL = I0. Cos Ɵ and IM = I0. Sin Ɵ
Therefore RC and XM are given by :

RC = V1 / ICL and XM = V1 / IM
Short Circuit test:
The test setup to conduct the SC test is shown in the figure below.
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HV side LV side
Fig: Test Setup to conduct the Short Circuit test
In this test high voltage side is designated as Primary (where an input voltage is
applied) and the low voltage side is designated as Secondary which is usually
short-circuited by a thick conductor(or sometimes through an Ammeter to read
additionally the secondary load current).Voltmeter V, Ammeter A and wattmeter
W are connected in the primary as shown.
A very low voltage through a Variac (Variable auto transformer) is applied to the
primary gradually from zero Volts to about 5 to 10 % of the rated primary value
till the primary current is just equal to the rated primary current. Since the
secondary is short circuited we will get rated primary current with a low value of
voltage itself. Since the applied voltage is very low the flux produced is also very
low. Hence the core losses also will be low and can be neglected. Now since the
rated currents are flowing in both the Primary and the secondary the input power
will be mostly consumed as copper losses. Since the secondary is short circuited
the secondary voltage is zero and the entire input voltage V1 drops in the total
equivalent impedance Z EQP of the transformer reflected to the primary.
i.e. V1 = IPSC . Z EQP
The readings in the short circuit test are as follows:
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 Ammeter reading : Primary current IPSC( with secondary short

circuited )
 Volt meter reading : Applied Primary voltage V1
 Wattmeter reading : Input power totally consumed as Copper losses
PCUL
With this notation the power factor Cos ƟSC in this test is given by:
PCUL = V1. IPSC . Cos ƟSC
From the above readings and the governing equations we can calculate the
Equivalent Resistance, Equivalent Impedance and Equivalent Reactance
parameters of the transformer referred to the primary as below.
Equivalent Resistance: R EQP = PCUL / I2 P
Equivalent Impedance: Z EQP = V1 / IPSC
Equivalent Reactance : X EQP = √Z2 EQP

-- R2
Sumpner's Test :
Sumpner's test or back to back test on transformer is another method for
determining transformer efficiency, voltage regulation and heating under loaded
conditions. Short circuit and open circuit tests on transformer can give us
parameters of equivalent circuit of transformer, but they cannot help us in finding
the heating information. Unlike O.C. and S.C. tests, actual loading is simulated in
Sumpner's test. Thus the Sumpner's test gives more accurate results of regulation
and efficiency than O.C. and S.C. tests.
Sumpner's test or back to back test can be employed only when two
identical transformers are available. Both transformers are connected to supply
such that one transformer is loaded on another. Primaries of the two identical
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transformers are connected in parallel across a supply. Secondaries are connected

in series opposition such that their e.m.f's are opposite to each other. Another
low voltage supply is connected in series with secondaries to get the readings, as
shown in the circuit diagram shown below.
Figure : Sumpner’s Test setup
In the above diagram, T1 and T2 are identical transformers. Their secondaries are
connected in voltage opposition, i.e. both the emf's E EF and EGH cancel each other,
as transformers are identical. In this case, as per superposition theorem, no
current flows through secondary. And thus the no load test is simulated. The
current drawn from V1 is 2I0, where I0 is equal to no load current of each
transformer. Thus , input power measured by wattmeter W 1 is equal to iron losses
of both the transformers.
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i.e. Iron loss per transformer Pi = W1/2.
Now, a small voltage V2 is injected into secondary with the help of a low voltage
transformer. The voltage V2 is adjusted such that, the rated current I2 flows
through the secondary. In this case, both primaries and secondaries carry rated
current. Thus short circuit test is simulated and wattmeter W2 shows total full
load copper losses of both transformers. i.e. Copper loss per transformer P Cu =
W2/2.
From above test results, the full load efficiency of each transformer can be given
as:
And Output = kVA rating x Cos θ (power factor)
Predetermination of efficiency and regulation:
Calculation of efficiency:
We have obtained Iron losses Pi as the input power W0 from the OC test and then
Full load ( or at any load ) copper losses Pcu as the input power Psc from the SC
test.
Using this data we can predetermine efficiency and regulation at any load and
power factor as shown below.
% η at full (rated load) = *,Rated KVA x cos Ɵ- / , Rated KVA x cos Ɵ + Pi + Psc } ]
x 100
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Similarly at any load which is a fraction of full load we can predetermine the
efficiency
% η at any load = *,n x Rated KVA x cos Ɵ- / , n x Rated KVA x cos Ɵ + Pi + n2Psc
} ] x 100
Calculation of Regulation:
We know that % Regulation @FL is defined as: % Regulation@FL =[ (Input –

output at FL )/Input] x100
= [{Drop across the equivalent resistance REQ and equivalent

XEQ @FL}/Input] x 100
From the SC test we can obtain the equivalent circuit parameters. We shall use
the following designation and get the expression for regulation by using the
circuit parameters referred to both primary and secondary.
VP = rated primary voltage IP = rated primary current

(FL)
VS = rated secondary voltage IS = rated secondary current

(FL)
REQP = Equivalent resistance referred to primary REQS = Equivalent resistance

referred to secondary XEQP = Equivalent reactance referred to primary XEQS =
Equivalent reactance referred to secondary
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Then
% Regulation (referred to primary)@FL = [{IP (REQP x Cos Ɵ + XEQP x Sin Ɵ) /VP }]

x 100
% Regulation (referred to secondary)@FL = [{IS (REQS x Cos Ɵ + XEQS x Sin Ɵ)

/(VP/a)}] x 100
Where ‘a’ is the transformer turns ratio
Regulation at any other load can be calculated using the same relation as above
except that the currents Ip and Is are to be multiplied by the corresponding load
fractions ‘n’ and the relations will become
% Regulation (referred to primary)@any fractional FL = [{nIP (REQP x Cos Ɵ +

XEQP x Sin Ɵ) /VP }] x 100
% Regulation (referred to secondary)@any fractional FL = [{nI S (REQSx Cos Ɵ + XEQS

x Sin Ɵ) /(VP/a)}] x 100
Transformer equivalent circuits (Both Complete and simplified) referred to both

Primary and secondary are appended below again for a quick reference :
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Fig: Simplified equivalent circuits (a) Referred to the primary side (b) Referred to
the secondary side
(c) With no excitation branch, referred to the primary side (d) With no excitation
branch, referred to the secondary side
Parallel operation of transformers:
Need for Parallel operation of transformers:
When the load outgrows the capacity of an existing transformer, it may be

economical to install another one in parallel with it rather than replacing it with a
single larger unit. Also, sometimes in a new installation, two units in parallel,
though more expensive, may be preferred over a single unit for reasons of
reliability—half the load can be supplied with one unit out. Further, the cost of
maintaining a spare is less with two units in parallel. However, when spare units
are maintained at a central location to serve transformer installations in a certain
region, single-unit installations would be preferred. It is, therefore, seen that
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parallel operation of the transformer is quite important and desirable under

certain circumstances.
Conditions for successful parallel operation of transformers:
The satisfactory and successful operation of transformers connected in parallel on

both sides requires that they fulfill the following conditions:
(i) The transformers must be connected properly as far as their polarities are
concerned so that the net voltage around the local loop is zero. A wrong polarity
connection results in a dead short circuit.
(ii) Three-phase transformers must have zero relative phase displacement on the
secondary sides and must be connected in a proper phase sequence. Only the
transformers of the same phase group can be paralleled. For example, Y/Y and
Y/D transformers cannot be paralleled as their secondary voltages will have a
phase difference of 30°. Transformers with +30° and –30° phase shift can,
however, be paralleled by reversing the phase-sequence of one of them.
(iii) The transformers must have the same voltage-ratio to avoid no-load
circulating current when transformers are in parallel on both primary and
secondary sides. Since the leakage impedance is low, even a small voltage
difference can give rise to considerable no-load circulating current and extra I2R
loss.
(iv) There should exist only a limited disparity in the per-unit impedances (on their
own bases) of the transformers. The currents carried by two transformers (also
their kVA loadings) are proportional to their ratings if their ohmic impedances (or
their pu impedances on a common base) are inversely proportional to their
ratings or their per unit impedances on their own ratings are equal. The ratio of
equivalent leakage reactance to equivalent resistance should be the same for all
the transformers. A difference in this ratio results in a divergence of the phase
angle of the two currents, so that one transformer will be operating with a higher,
and the other with a lower power factor than that of the total output; as a result,
the given active load is not proportionally shared by them.
Parallel Transformers on No-load:
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The parallel operation of transformers can be easily conceived on a per phase

basis. Figure below shows
two transformers paralleled on both sides with proper polarities but on no-load.
Fig: Two transformers connected in parallel
The primary voltages V1 and V2 are obviously equal. If the voltage-ratio of the two
transformers are not identical, the secondary induced emf’s, E1 and E2 though in
phase will not be equal in magnitude and the difference (E1 – E2)will appear across
the switch S. When secondaries are paralleled by closing the switch, a circulating
current appears even though the secondaries are not supplying any load. The
circulating current will depend upon the total leakage impedance of the two
transformers and the difference in their voltage ratios. Only a small difference in
the voltage-ratios can be tolerated.
Parallel Operation of Two Ideal Transformers:
Now we will consider ideal case of two transformers having the same voltage
ratio and their voltage triangles are equal in size and shape.i.e. apart from their
impedances being same, their X/R ratios are also same. The circuit shown in the
figure below consists of two transformers in parallel.
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Fig: Two ideal transformers connected in parallel
The corresponding phasor diagram is shown in the figure below.
As seen from this figure the impedance voltage triangles of both the
transformers are same. I1 and I2 are the currents flowing through transformers 1
and 2 which are in parallel. These currents are in phase with the load current and
are inversely proportional to the respective impedances.
Fig: Phasor diagram of two ideal transformers connected in parallel
Current sharing : Let us now find out the distribution of the given load current for
this condition between the two transformers. Let I be the total current and I1 and
I2 be the currents shared by the two transformers.
Then applying KCL to the transformer secondaries ,

I = I1 + I2
Secondary voltage,
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V2 = E - I1 ZA = E – I2Z2
Also I1 Z1 = I2 Z2
I1 / I2 = Z2 / Z1
Applying current divider formulae we get
I1 = I Z2 / (Z1 + Z2 )
and I2 = I Z1 /(Z1 + Z2)
Parallel Operation of Transformers with Equal Voltage Ratios:
Let us now consider the case of two transformers connected in parallel having
equal voltage ratios. The two transformers are having no load secondary voltage
same. i.e. E1 = E2 = E. These voltages are in phase with each other. This is possible
if the magnetizing currents of the two transformers are not much different. With
this case the primaries and secondaries of the two transformers can be connected
in parallel and no current will circulate under no load condition. This is
represented in the figure below.
Fig: Two transformers with equal voltage ratios connected in parallel
If we neglect magnetizing components, the two transformers are represented as

shown in the figure below .
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Fig: Simplified equivalent circuit neglecting the magnetizing componenets
The phasor diagram under this case is shown in the figure below .
The two impedances Z1 and Z2 are in parallel. The values of Z1 and Z2 are with
respect to secondary.The impedances Z1 and Z2 are equal in magnitude but not in
phase. i.e. the ratios X1/R1 and X2/R2 are not equal.
Fig: Phasor diagram of the two transformers with equal voltage ratios connected in
parallel
Current distribution:
Z1 and Z2 are in parallel therefore the equivalent impedance is given

by, 1/Zeq = 1/Z1 + 1/Z2 Zeq = Z1 Z2 /(Z1 + Z2 )
As seen from the phasor diagram
I1 Z1 = I2 Z2 = I Zeq
I1 = I Zeq/ Z1 = I Z2 /( Z1 + Z2 )
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I2 = I Zeq/ = I Z1/( Z1 + Z2
Multiplying both terms of above equation by voltage V2,
V2 I1 = V2 I Z2 /( Z1 + Z2 )
V2 I2 = V2 I Z1/( Z1 + Z2)
But V2 I x 10-3 is Q i.e. the combined load in KVA
From this , the KVA carried by each transformer is calculated as,
The above expressions are useful in determining the values of Q1 and Q2 in

magnitude and in phase.
The two transformers work at different power factor. One operates at high p.f.
while the other at low p.f. If the impedances Z1 and Z2 are equal both in
magnitude and quality i.e. ( X1/ R1 = X2/R2 ), then both transformers operate at the
same p.f. which is the p.f. of the load.
Parallel Operation of Transformers with Unequal Voltage Ratios:
Now we will consider the case of two transformers working in parallel and having
unequal voltage ratio. This is shown in the figure below. The voltage ratios of the
two transformers are not equal. The parallel operation under this case is still
possible. But as seen previously there would be a circulating current under no
load condition.
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Fig: Two transformers with unequal voltage ratios connected in parallel
The phasor diagram of this transformer is shown below:
Fig: Phasor diagram of two transformers with unequal voltage ratios connected in parallel
As can be seen the two transformers apart from having unequal output voltages
E1 and E2 , their impedances Z1 and Z2 and their X/R ratios are also unequal.
Φ1 and Φ2 are the power factor angles of these two transformers and Φ is the
combined p.f. angle.
Current distribution (Load sharing):
Let us consider that the voltage ratio of transformer-1 is slightly more than that of
transformer-2. So the induced e.m.f E1 is greater than E2. Thus the resultant
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terminal voltage will be (E1 - E2 ) which will cause a circulating current Ic under no
load condition.
Ic = (E1 - E2)/(Z1 + Z2 )
From the circuit diagram we have,
E 1 = V2 + I 1 Z 1
E2 = V2 + I2 Z2
Also, IL = I1 + I2
V2 = IL ZL = ( II + I2 ) ZL
E1 =(I1 + I2) ZL + II Z1........................... (1)
E2 =(I1 + I2 ) ZL + I2 Z2......................... (2)
Subtracting equation (b) from (a) we have,
E1 - E2 = I1 Z1 - I2 Z2 from which we get
I1 = [(E1 - E2) + I2 Z2] /Z1..................... (3)
and I2 = [ I1 Z1- (E1 - E2)]/Z2.......................(4)
Substituting the value of I1 from (3) in equation (2) we get :
From which we get: I2 = [E2 Z1 - (E1 - E2)ZL) / (Z1 Z2 + ZL (Z1 + Z2)+.............(5)
Similarly by Substituting the value of I2 from equation (4) in equation (1) we get :
E1 = I1Z1 + [ I1 + { I1Z1 – (E1- E2)}/Z2]ZL
From which we get: I1 = [E1 Z2 + (E1 - E2)ZL)/ (Z1 Z2 + ZL (Z1 + Z2)+............(6)
If impedances Z1 and Z2 are small in comparision with load impedance ZL then the
product Z1 Z2 in the above equations (6) and (5) for currents I1 and I2 may be
neglected so that finally we get the current distribution between the two
transformers as,
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Where the second term (E1 - E2) / (Z1 + Z2) is the circulating current Ic which adds
to the load shared by transformer-1 whose output voltage E1 is higher and
subtracts from the load shared by transformer-2 whose output E1 is lower. Hence
transformer-1 gets overloaded and the transformers will not share the load
according to their ratings.
Introduction:
Almost all the major power generation and distribution systems in the world
today are three-phase ac systems. Since three-phase systems play such an
important role in modern life, it is necessary to understand how transformers are
used in them.
Transformers for three-phase circuits can be constructed in two ways. One
approach is simply to take three single-phase transformers and connect them in a
three-phase bank. An alternative approach is to make a three-phase transformer
consisting of three sets of windings wrapped on a common core.
These two possible types of transformer construction are shown in the figures
below.
The construction of a single three-phase transformer is the preferred practice
today, since it is lighter, smaller, cheaper, and slightly more efficient. The older
construction approach was to use three separate transformers. That approach
had the advantage that each unit in the bank could be replaced individually in the
event of trouble, but that does not outweigh the advantages of a combined three
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phase unit for most applications. However, there are still a great many
installations consisting of three single-phase units in service.
Fig: A three-phase transformer bank composed of independent transformers.
Fig: A three-phase transformer wound on a single three-legged core.
Three-Phase Transformer Connections:

A three-phase transformer consists of three transformers, either separate or
combined on one core. The primaries and secondaries of any three-phase
transformer can be independently connected in either a Wye (Y) or a Delta (∆ ).
This gives a total of four possible connections for a three-phase transformer bank:
I. Wye(star)-Wye(star) (Y-Y)
2. Delta-Delta (∆-∆)
3. (star)Wye-Delta (Y -∆)
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4. Delta-Wye(star) (∆-Y)
The key to analyzing any three-phase transformer bank is to look at a single

transformer in the bank. Any single transformer in the bank behaves exactly like
the single-phase transformers already studied. The impedance, voltage regulation,
efficiency, and similar calculations for three-phase transformers are done on a
per-phase basis, using exactly the same techniques already developed for single-
phase transformers.
The advantages and disadvantages of each type of three-phase transformer
connection are explained below along with the relevant connection diagrams.
WYE-WYE CONNECTION:
The Y-Y connection details of three-phase transformers are shown in the figure
below.
Figure (a): Star-Star(Y-Y) connection representation
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Figure (b): Star-Star(Y-Y) connection Phasor diagram
Figure (c): Star-Star(Y-Y) connection wiring diagram

In a Y-Y connection, the primary voltage on each phase of the transformer is given
by VØP = VLP / √3. The primary-phase voltage is related to the secondary-phase
voltage by the turns ratio of the transformer. The phase voltage on the secondary
is then related to the line voltage on the secondary by VLS = √3VØS . Therefore,
overall the voltage ratio ‘a’ of the transformer is then given by:
Advantage/Application: This is useful and economical for low power high voltage
transformers because the phase voltage is 1/√3 times the line voltage. Hence the
number of turns per phase and the strength of insulation required would be less.
Disadvantages:
1. If loads on the transformer circuit are unbalanced, then the voltages on the
phases of the transformer can become severely unbalanced.
2. Third-harmonic voltages can be large.
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When a three-phase set of voltages is applied to a Y - Y transformer, the voltages

in any phase will be 1200 apart from the voltages in any other phase. However,
the third-harmonic components of each of the three phases will be in phase with
each other, since there are three cycles in the third harmonic for each cycle of the
fundamental frequency. There will always be some third-harmonic components in
a transformer because of the nonlinearity of the core, and these components add
up.
The result is a very large third-harmonic component of voltage on top of the 50 or
6O-Hz fundamental voltage. This third-harmonic voltage can be larger than the
fundamental voltage itself.
Both the unbalance problem and the third-harmonic problem can be solved using
one of the two following techniques:
1. Solidly ground the neutrals of the transformers, especially the primary winding’s
neutral. This connection permits the additive third-harmonic components to
cause a current flow in the neutral instead of building up large voltages. The
neutral also provides a return path for any current imbalances in the load.
2. Add a third (tertiary) winding connected in ∆ to the transformer bank. If a third
∆ connected winding is added to the transformer, then the third-harmonic
components of voltage in the ∆ will add up, causing a circulating current flow
within the winding. This suppresses the third-harmonic components of voltage in
the same manner as grounding the transformer neutrals.
The ∆ connected tertiary windings need not even be brought out of the
transformer case, but they often are used to supply lights and auxiliary power
within the substation where it is located. The tertiary windings must be large
enough to handle the circulating currents, so they are usually made about one-
third the power rating of the two main windings.
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One or the other of these correction techniques must be used any time a Y-Y
transformer is installed. In practice, very few Y-Y transformers are used, since the
same jobs can be done by one of the other types of three-phase transformers.
DELTA-DELTA CONNECTION:
The ∆- ∆ connection details are shown in the figure below.
Figure (a): Delta-Delta (∆-∆) connection representation
Figure (b): Delta-Delta (∆-∆) connection Phasor diagram
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Figure (c): Delta-Delta (∆-∆) connection wiring diagram
In a ∆- ∆ connection, VLP = VØP and VLS = VØS, so the relationship between primary
and secondary line voltages is given by:
Advantages/Application:
 Transformers with this configuration are economical for high power low
voltage application since the number of turns required for a given line
voltage are more (since line voltage is same as phase voltage)
 This transformer has no phase shift associated with it and no problems with
unbalanced loads or harmonics.
 For the secondary voltage to be perfect sinusoidal the magnetizing currents
must contain third harmonic components. The Delta configuration provides
a closed path for the circulation of third harmonic components of current.
Hence the flux remains sinusoidal thus resulting in better sinusoidal
voltages.
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 The phase current is lesser than the Line current (by 1/√3). Hence the
conductor cross sectional area can be smaller thus resulting in saving of
conductor material.
Disadvantages:
 Due to the nonavailability of the Neutral point this configuration is not

suitable for three phase four wire systems
WYE-DELTA CONNECTION:
The Y - ∆ connection details of three-phase transformers is shown in the figures
below. In this connection, the primary line voltage is related to the primary phase
voltage by VLP = √3VØP while the secondary line voltage is equal to the secondary
phase voltage VLS = VØS . The voltage ratio of each phase is:
VØP / VØS = a
so the overall relationship between the line voltage on the primary side of the
bank and the line voltage on the secondary side of the bank is:
VLP / VLS = √3VØP / VØS = √3 a
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Figure (a): Wye-Delta (Y-∆) connection representation
Figure (b): Wye -Delta (Y-∆) connection Phasor diagram
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Figure (c): Wye -Delta (Y-∆) connection wiring diagram
 This connection is advantageous/economical for high power high voltage
step down power transformers. Primary in star configuration can be used
for higher voltage since line voltage is √3 times the phase voltage and thus
the number of turns required per phase will be lesser for a higher line
voltage. The delta side with lower line voltage (line voltage being equal to
phase voltage) can be used as secondary.
 The neutral available in primary can be earthed to avoid distortion
 Hence transformers with this type of connection are used in the main
receiving end of a transmission line where a step down transformer is
required.
 The Y - ∆ connection has no problem with third-harmonic components in its
voltages, since they are consumed in a circulating current on the ∆ side.
 This connection is also more stable with respect to unbalanced loads, since
the ∆ partially redistributes any imbalance that occurs. i.e. Load side
(secondary) large unbalanced loads can be handled satisfactorily.
Disadvantages:
 This arrangement has one problem. Because of this type of connection,
the secondary voltage is shifted 300 relative to the primary voltage of the
transformer which can be further positive shift or negative shift. The fact
that a phase shift has occurred can cause problems in paralleling the
secondaries of two transformer banks together. The phase angles of
transformer secondaries must be equal if they are to be paralleled, which
means that attention must be paid to the direction of the 30 0 phase shift
occurring in each transformer bank to be paralleled together.
Star/Delta (Y/D) Connection (Alternate explanation for Phase grouping):

Star connection is formed on primary side by connecting together 1 suffixed
terminals with 2 suffixed terminals connected to appropriate lines. The delta is
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formed by connecting c1a2, a1b2 and b1c2 with the lines connected to these
junctions being labeled as a, b and c respectively as shown in Fig. (a). The phasor
diagram is drawn in Fig. (b). It is seen from the phasor diagram on the delta side
that the sum of voltages around delta is zero. This is a must as otherwise closed
delta would mean a short circuit. It is also observed from the phasor diagram that
phase a to neutral voltage (equivalent star basis) on the delta side lags by – 30° to
the phase-to-neutral voltage on the star side. This is also the phase relationship
between the respective line to- line voltages. This connection, therefore, is known
as – 30°-connection. Or YD1 representing 1 O clock position. With this notation
secondary Delta lags the primary star by 300.
Fig: -300 connection Fig: +300

connection
The + 30°-connection follows from the phasor diagram of Fig. (a) above with the
corresponding connection diagram shown in Fig. (b).
Delta/Star (D/Y) Connection (Alternate explanation for Phase grouping):

This connection is simply the interchange of primary and secondary roles in the
star/delta connection. One just interchanges capital and small letter suffixing in
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the above figures .But what was the – 30°-connection will now be the + 30°-
connection and vice versa.
DELTA-WYE CONNECTION:
∆-Y connection details of three-phase transformers are shown in the figures
below. In a ∆-Y connection, the primary line voltage is equal to the primary-phase
voltage VLP = VØP , while the secondary voltages are related by VLS = √3VØS .
Therefore, the line-to-line voltage ratio of this transformer connection is given by
:
Figure (a): Delta - Wye (∆-Y) connection representation
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Figure (b): Delta - Wye (∆-Y) connection Phasor diagram
Figure (c): Delta - Wye (∆-Y) connection wiring diagram
 This connection is advantageous/economical for high power high voltage
step up power transformers. Primary in Delta configuration can be used for
lower voltage (line voltage being equal to phase voltage) And secondary in
Wye (star) configuration can be used for higher voltage since line voltage is
√3 times the phase voltage and thus the number of turns required per
phase will be lesser for a higher line voltage.
 Hence transformers with this type of connection are used at the starting
(Generating station) end of a transmission line where a step up transformer
is required.
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Disadvantages:
This connection has the same disadvantages and the same phase shift as the Y - ∆
transformer. The connection shown in the figure above makes the secondary
voltage differ the primary voltage by 30° as in Y -∆.
The Open ∆ (or V-V) Connection:

In some situations a full transformer bank may not be used to accomplish three
phase transformation. For example, suppose that a ∆ - ∆ transformer bank
consisting of three separate transformers has a damaged phase which has to be
removed for repair.
The resulting configuration is known as open ∆ (or V-V) Connection and is shown
in the figure below.
Figure: Third transformer (VBR) removed from the Three transformer Bank and
the corresponding Phasor diagram
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If the open Delta primary is now excited from a balanced three phase supply, then
the voltage across the gap where the third transformer used to be would exactly
be the same voltage that would be present if the third transformer were still
there .
Thus, the open-delta connection lets a transformer bank work as a three phase
transformer with only two transformers, allowing some reduced power flow to
continue even with a damaged phase removed.
Power Delivered in Open Delta configuration:
How much apparent power can the bank supply with one of its three
transformers removed? At first, it seems that it could supply two-thirds of its
rated apparent power, since two-thirds of the transformers are still present.
Things are not that simple. To understand what happens when a transformer is
removed, let us see the figures (a) and (b) below. Figure (a) shows ∆ - ∆
connection and figure (b) shows V-V connection.
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Fig(a) : ∆ - ∆ connection Fig(a) : V- V

connection
We know that the power output from a three phase system is √3 VLIL Cos φ
where Cos φ is the power factor. Hence in figure (a) ∆ - ∆ capacity = √3 VLIL Cos
φ = √3 VL √3IPh Cos φ (since IL = √3IPh)
= 3VL IPh Cos φ

But in figure (b) V-V capacity = √3 VLIL Cos φ = √𝟑 VL IPh Cos φ (since IL = IPh)
Therefore V-V capacity / ∆ - ∆ capacity = √𝟑 VL IPh Cos φ / 𝟑 VL IPh Cos φ = 1/√𝟑

= 0.577=57.7%
Summary conclusion:
The total load carried by an open ∆ (V- V) connection is 57.7 % of the total
capacity of the ∆- ∆ and not 2/3rd (66.6 % ) of the total capacity of the ∆- ∆ as
might be expected. Thus for example, in a ∆- ∆ bank of three transformers each of
100kVA if one transformer is removed, then the total capacity of the resulting V-V
bank becomes 57.7 % of 300kVA i.e. 173.2kVA and not 200kVA.
In other words in V-V configuration the resultant capacity becomes 86.6% of the
rated capacity of the two transformers put together. i.e. 0.866 x 200kVA = 173.2
kVA .
The factor 0.866 is called utility factor

= (operating capacity of the transformers in V-V) / (Available capacity of the
transformers in V-V)
V – V Configuration is intentionally employed in the following applications:
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 When the three phase load is too small to warrant the installation of full
three phase transformer bank.
 When one of the three transformers in a ∆ - ∆ bank is disabled service is at
a reduced capacity is adequate , till the faulty transformer is repaired and
restored.
 When it is expected that in the future , the total load will increase
necessitating the closing of the open ∆.
Example1: The following test results were obtained for a 20 kVA,2400/240 V
distribution transformer : O.C test(l.v side)240 V,1.066 A,126.6 WS.C test (h.v
side) 57.5V, 8.34 A, 284 W Calculate a) Equivalent circuit parameters when
referred to h.v side and draw it. b) Efficiency of the transformer at half full-load
with 0.8 power factor lagging. C) Regulation at full load 0.8 power factor lagging.
( JNTU May-15)
Solution : From O.C test , V0 = 240 V, I0 = 1.066 A, W0 = 126.6 W,

Measurements are on LV, side i.e. secondary hence results will give parameters
referred to secondary.
∴ cosØ0 = W0 126.6  0.4948,  60.34o
V0 I  2401.066 
0
0
IC  I cos  1.066 0.4948  0.5275A

i) 0 0
I m  I 0 sin 0  1.066 0.8689  0.9263A

V 240
R ' 0 
 454.97
0
I 0.5275
0
X '
V0  259.095
0
I
V1 V2
K
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m
2400
 240  10
R0  R0 'K 2  45.497k
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X  X ' xK 2  25.91k...................Referred to h.v side

0
From S.C. test, Vsc = 57.5 V, Isc = 8.34 A, Wsc = 284 W

The meters are on h.v. side hence we get parameters referred to h.v. side.
R1e Wsc 284

 2  8.34  4.083k
Ile
2
∴ Z1e V
 I sc  6.8944
sc
X 1e  2  R 2 5.555
Z1e1e
The equivalent circuits referred to h.v. side is shown in the figure below.
ii) From O.C test,

Pi = iron loss = 126.6 W
From S.C test Pcu = 284 W for Isc = 8.34 A
VA
I (FL)  20103  8.34A
1  2400
V1
As I1(FL) = Isc, Wsc = Pcu(FL) = 284 W

∴ % nVAcos
HL  nVAcos  P  N 2 P (FL) 100 …..n = 0.5 on Half load
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i cu
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0.5  20103  0.8

 0.5  20103  0.8  126.6  [0.52  100
284]
= 97.589 %
iii) I1(FL) = 8.34 A, V1 = 2400 V, cos Ø = 0.8
I1 (FL)[R1e cos  X1e sin]

∴ %R  V1 100
8.34[4.083 0.8  5.55 0.6]

 2400  100
= 2.293 %
Example 2 : Two similar 200 kVA, single phase transformers gave the following
results in Sumpner’s test : Mains wattmeter W1 = 4 kW, Series wattmeter W2 = 6
kW at full load current. Find out individual transformer efficiencies at i) Full load
at unity p.f.and ii) Half load at 0.8 p.f. lead. (JNTUK April-12)
Solution : The given values are: Rating = 200 kVA, W1 = 4 kW, W2 = 6 kW

W1 = iron loss of both the transformers = 4 kW
W1
∴ Pi = Iron loss for each transformer =  = 2 kW
4
2 2
W2 = Full load copper loss for both the transformers = 6 kW
∴ (P W2
)F.L.
6 = Full load copper loss for each transformer =  = 3 kW
cu
2 2
i) At full load,
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VAratingcos2
% 100 with cos Ø2 = 1
VAratingcos2  Pi  ( pcu )F.L
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200103 1
 200103 1  2 103  3103 100
= 97.56 %
1
ii) At half load, cos Ø2 = 0.8 and n = = 0.5
2
∴ %
n  (VArating)  cos2
n  (VArating)  cos  P  n2  (P )F.L 100
2 i cu
(Pcu)H.L. = n2 ×(Pcu) F.L. where n = Fraction of full load
∴ % 0.5  200103  0.8

100
0.5  200103  0.8  2 103  (0.5)2  3
103
= 96.67 %
Example 3: A 200 V, 60 Hz single phase transformer has hysteresis and eddy

current losses of 250 watts and 90 watts respectively. If the transformer is now
energised from 230 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate its core losses. Assume
Steinmentz’s constant equal to 1.6 . (JNTUK April-12)
Solution : Let Ph = Hysteresis loss and Pe = Eddy current loss

Then they are given by Ph = Kh f Bmx where x= Steinmentz’s constant =1.6
and Pe = Ke f2 B 2
m
E = 4.44 f N BmA where Øm = BmA

E
∴ B α i.e. P = K f (E/f)1.6
m h h
f
and Pe = Kef2 (E/F)2
For E = 200 V, f = 60 Hz, Ph = 250 W and Pe = 90 W
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1.6
 200 
250 = Kh ×60×  i.e. Kh = 0.607
 60
2
  200
2
90 = Ke × 60   i.e. Ke = 0.00225
 60 

Now E = 230 V, f = 50 Hz1.6
 230 
∴ Ph = 0.607 ×50×  = 348.795 W
 50 

2
2  230 
Pe = 0.00225 ×50 × = 119.025 W
 
 50 
∴ Core loss = Ph + Pe = 467.82 W at 230 V, 50 Hz
Example 4: In a test for determination of the losses of a 440V,50 Hz transformer,

the total iron losses were found to be 2500 W at normal voltage and frequency.
When the applied voltage and frequency were 220 V and 25 Hz, the iron losses
were found to be 850W. Calculate the eddy current loss at normal voltage and
frequency. (JNTU Feb-10 ,May-15)
Solution : We have the data: V1 = 440 V, f1= 50 Hz, V2 = 220 V, f2 = 25 Hz
V2
∴ = 8.8 and = 8.8
f2
V1
f1
Thus V/f is constant hence flux density Bm remains constant.
∴ Ph = A f and Pe = B f2
∴ P i = P h + P e = A f + B f2
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∴In test - 1: 2500 = A x 50 + B x 2500 ………(1)
And in test - 2 850 = A x 25 + B x 625......................(2)
Solving we get A = 18 and B = 0.64
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(Prof.K.Subhas)
Thus eddy current loss a normal voltage and frequency is,
Pe = B f2 = 0.64 × (50)2 = 1600 W
Example 5:Two single phase transformer with equal turns have impendance of
(0.5 +j3) ohm and (0.6 +j10) ohm with respect to the secondary.If they operate in
parallel, determine how they will share a total load of 100 kW at p.f. 0.8 lagging ?
( JNTU April-04, Nov-04)
Solution : We have the data: Z1 = 0.5 + j3 Ω, Z2 = 0.6 +j10 Ω,
Total load = 100 kW

p.f. of load = 0.8 lag.
Cos Ø = 0.8, Ø = cos -1 0.8 = 36.860 lag
100
kVA of load = = 1245
0.8
Hence Q = 125/-36.860 kVA
 Z 
Load shared by transformer 1 = Q  2 
 Z1  Z 2 

= [125 / -36.860]  0.6  j10 
(0.5  j3)  (0.6  j10)
 
0
(125/_- 36.860)(10.017/_ 86.56 )
=
1.1  j13
1252.125/_ 49.70 0
= = 95.97 /-35.46 kVA
13.046/_ 85.160
p.f. = cos 35.460 = 0.8145 lag

 Z2 
Load shared by transformer 2 = Q  
 Z1  Z 2 
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(Prof.K.Subhas)

= [125 /- 36.860] 0.5  j3 

(0.5  j3)  (0.6  j10)
 
(125/_ 36.860 )(3.041/_ 80.530 )

=
13.046  85.160
380.125/_ 43.670 0
= = 29.13 /- 41.49 kVA
13.046/_ 85.160
Example 6: Two single phase transformer A and B of equal voltage ratio are
running in parrallel and supplying a load of 1000 A at 0.8 p.f. lag. The equivalent
impedance of the two transformers are (2+j3)and (2.5+j5) ohms respectively.
Calculate the current supplied by each transformer and the ratio of the kW output
of the two transformer.
Solution : For transformer A, ZA = 2+ j 3 Ω

For transformer B, ZB = 2.5+ j 5 Ω
Current supplied by transformer A,
IA = I.ZB
Z A  ZB
……..(1)
Current supplied by transformer B,
IB = I.Z A
Z A  ZB
....…..(2)
Taking ratio of equations (1) and (2) we have,
I Z 2.5  j5 5.5901/_ 63.430
A B
   
IB ZA 2  j3 3060555/_ 56.300
= 1.5504 /7.130
IA
∴ = 1.54+j 0.1924 I = (1.54 + j 0.1924) I
A B
IB
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(Prof.K.Subhas)
Total current I = 1000 A and p.f. of total current = 0.8 lag
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(Prof.K.Subhas)
∴ Cos Ø = 0.8, Ø = cos -1 0.8 = 36.860

∴ I = 1000 /- 36.860 A = (800-j 600) A
We have, I = IA + IB
∴ 800 - J 600 = [1.54 + j 0.1924] IB + IB
= [2.54 + j 0.1924] IB
∴ IB = 800  j600 1000/_ 36.860

2.54  j0.1924 2.5472/_ 4.330
= 392.58 / - 41.190 A
∴ IB = 392.58 /- 41.190 A = 295.42 -j258.53 A
Now, IA = (1.54+ j 0.1924) IB
= [1.5519 <7.120][392.58<-41.190]
∴ IA = 609.24 /- 34.070 A = 504.66 - j 341.29 A
The ratio of kW outputs is nothing but the ratio of inphase components of the
two currents.
outputofTransformerA 504.66 = 1.7

outputofTransformerB 295.42
Example 7: Two transformers A and B are connected in parallel to a load of (2+

j1.5) Ω Their impedance in secondary terms are ZA = (0.15+j0.5) Ω and ZB =
(0.1+j0.6) Ω.Their no load terminal voltages are E A = 207 /00 V, EB = 205 /00 volts.
Find the power output and power factor of each transformer.
Solution : We have the data : ZL = (2 + j1.5 )Ω , ZA = (0.15 + j0.5)Ω , ZB = (0.1 +

j0.6) Ω , EA = 207 /00 volts and EB = 205 /00 volts.
Using the formulae for IA and IB
E Z  Z (E  E )
I A= Z AZ B  Z L (Z A  ZB )
A B L A B
And I
EB Z A  Z L (E A  EB )
B= Z A Z B  Z L (Z A  Z B )
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IA = [207/_ 00 ][0.1  j0.6]  (2  j1.5)[207/_ 00  205/_ 00 ]

(0.15  j0.5)(0.1  j0.6)  (2  j1.5)[(0.15  j0.5)  (0.1 
j0.6)]
Simplifying we get IA = (42.196 /-38.840) A =(32.866-j26.463) A
and similarly we get I

EB Z A  Z L (E A  EB )
B=Z A Z B  Z L (Z A  Z B )
[205/_ 0 ][0.15  j0.5]  (2  j1.5)[207/_ 00  205/_ 00 ]
0
=
(0.15  j0.5)(0.1  j0.6)  (2  j1.5)[(0.15  j0.5)  (0.1  j0.6)]
Solving, IB = (33.5534 /-42.890) A
= (24.5832 - j 22.8362) A
Now total current is given by,
IL = IA + IB
= (32.866 - j 26.463) + (24.5832 - j 22.8362)
= (57.4492 - j 49.2992) A
= 75.70 /-40.630 A
The load voltage, VL = IL ZL = (75.70 /- 40.630)(2+j 1.5)
= (75.70 /- 40.630) (2.5 /36.860)
= 189.25 /- 3.770 volts
The angle between VL and IA can be calculated as,
ØA = (-38.840) - (-3.770) = -35.070
∴ p.f. = cos ØA = cos (35.07)
= 0.8184 (lagging)
The angle between VL and IB can be Calculated as,
ØB = (-42.890) - (-3.770) = -39.120
p.f. = cos ØB = cos (39.12)
= 0.7758 (lagging
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(Prof.K.Subhas)
Power output of transformer A = VL IA cos ØA

= 189.25×42.196×0.8184
= 6535.40 W = 6.5354 Kw
Power output of transformer B = VL IB cos ØB

= (189.25) (33.5534) (0.7758)
= 4926.31 W = 49263 kW
Illustrative Examples on three phase transformers:
Example 1: An ideal 3-Ø step down transformer connected in delta/star delivers

power to a balanced 3 - ∅ load of 120 Kva at 0.8 pf. The input line voltage is 11 Kv
and the turn’s ratio of transformer (Phase to Phase ) is 10. Determine the line
voltage, line currents, and phase voltages, phase currents on both primary and
secondary sides.
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(Prof.K.Subhas)
Solution: 𝑁1 𝑉𝑝 ℎ
∴
1
K= = 10 = and V = 11 Kv
ph1
𝑁2 𝑉𝑝 ℎ 2
𝑉𝑝 ℎ 11 ×10 3
∴ Vph2 =1 = = 1100 V
10
10
∴ VL2 = √3 Vph2 = 1.9052 kV

Load VA = √3 VL2 IL2 and is given as 120kVA
120 ×103
i.e. IL2 =
√3 ×1.9052 ×10 3
∴ IL2 = 36.36 A
∴ Iph2 = IL2 = 36.36 A
𝐼𝑝 ℎ 2 36.36
K = 𝐼𝑝 ℎ 1 = 10 i.e. Iph1 = 10
= 3.636 A
∴ IL1 = √3 Iph1 = √3 × 3.636 = 6.298 A

Example 2: A bank of three single phase transformers has its h.v. terminals
connected to 3 wire, 3-phase, 11kV system. It’s l.v. terminals are connected to a 3
wire, 3-phase load rated at 1500 kVA , 2200 V. specify the voltage, current and
kVA ratings of each transformer for both h.v
and l.v windings for the following connections.

i) Y -Δ ii) Δ - Y iii) Y - Y
Solution:
The load is 1500 kVA hence the rating of each transformer is (1500/3) = 500 kVA
and is same for all configurations. Since input is 11kV and output is 2200V, in all
configurations the line voltages are also same on both primary side and secondary
side. . i.e. VL1=11kV and VL2 = 2,200 V. The voltage and current ratings are
specified on Phase basis only and hence lets us find out VPh and I Ph on both HV
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(Prof.K.Subhas)
side and LV side for the given four configurations.
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(Prof.K.Subhas)
i) 11 kV Y and 2200 V Δ
Vph1 = 11103
3 = 6350.8529 V
Vph1 Iph1 = 500 × 103 i.e. Iph1 = 78.729 A
Vph2 = 2200 V
Vph2 Iph2 = 500 × 103 i.e. Iph2 = 227.2727 A
ii) 11 kV Δ and 2200 V Y
Vph1 = 11 kV and Vph2 = 2200

3 = 1270.1705 V
500103
∴ Iph1 = 11103 = 45.45 A
500103
∴ Iph2 = 1270.1705 = 393.6479 A
iii) 11 kV Y and 2200 V Y
11103 2200
Vph1 = = 6350.8529 V, Vph2 = 3 = 1270.1705 V
3
∴ Iph1 = 50010
3
6350.8529 = 78.729 A
1500103
∴ Iph2 = 1270.1705 = 393.6479 A
Example 3 : A 3-Ø, 1200 kVA , 6.6/1.1kV transformer has Delta/Star connection.

The per phase resistance is 2 Ω and 0.03 Ω on primary and secondary respectively.
Calculate the efficiency on full load at 0.9 p.f. lagging, if iron losses are 20 kW.
Solution : VL1 = 6.6 kV, VL2 = 1.1 kV, Vph1 = VL1, Vph2 = VL2/√3
1200103 1200103
I1(FL) = 3VL1 = 3  6.6 103 = 104.9727 A (line value )
∴ I (Ph) = I1 (FL) = 60.606

3 A
1
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(Prof.K.Subhas)
K = (VPh1/VPh2)= (6.6 x 103)/ (1.1 x 103/√3) =10.393
∴ R1e = R1 + R’2 = R1+K2R2 = 2 + (10.393)2(0.03) x = 5.24 Ω
∴ Pcu(FL) = 3× [I1(ph)]2 ×R1e = 3 × (60.606)2 × 5.24 = 57740.9313 W
∴ %ղFL VA cos
VA cos  Pi  Pcu (FL) 
100
=
1200103  0.9
= 1200103  0.9  20103  57740.9313  100 = 93.285%
Example 4: A 5000 kVA, 3 phase transformer 6.6 /33 kV, Δ/ Y has a no load loss of
15 kW and full load of 50 kW. The impedance drop at full load is 7%. Calculate the
primary voltage when a load of 3200 kW at 0.8 p.f. is delivered at 33 kV.
Solution: Secondary is star connected with VL2 = 33 kV.
∴ IL2 = VA 5000103
= 87.4773 A = Iph2
3VL2

3  33103
7
Impedance drop per phase = 7 % of V = × 33103
Ph2 3 = 1333.6791 V
100
1333.6791 1333.6791
∴ Z =  = 15.2459 Ω/ph
2e 87.4773
I ph2
Pcu(FL) = Total loss - No load loss = 50 -15 = 35 kW
But, Pcu(FL) = 3 × 35103

2
I
2 ph R2e i.e. R2e = = 1.524 Ω
3
(87.4773)2
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(Prof.K.Subhas)
∴ X2e = 2  R 2 = 15.169 Ω/ph

Z 2e2e
When load is P2 = 3200 kW, cos Ø = 0.8, VL2 = 33 kV
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(Prof.K.Subhas)
IL2 = P2 3200103 = 69.98 A = I2ph


3VL2 cos 3  33103  0.8
I 2 ph [R2e cos  X 2e
∴ %R= × 100
sin]
V2 ph
69.98[1.524 0.8  15.169 0.6]
= (33103 / 3
× 100 = 3.79 %
Thus primary voltage must be increased by 3.79 % to maintain 33 kV at the

secondary.
∴ V1 = 6.6+3.79 % of 6.6 = 6.8501 kV
Example 5 : A 500 kVA, 3-phase, 50 Hz transformer has a voltage ratio (line

voltage) of 33/11 kV and is delta/star connected. The resistances per phase are :
high voltage 35 Ω, low voltage 0.876 Ω and the iron loss is 3050 W. Calculate the
value of efficiency at full load and one-half of full load with 0.8 lagging power
factor.
Solution : Since primary is Delta : VL1 = Vph1 = 33 kV
Since Secondary is Star: VL2 11

= 11 kV, Vph2 = = 6.35 kV
3
V 33
∴ K = V ph1  = 5.1975
ph2 6.35
R1 = 35 Ω, R2 = 0.876 Ω
∴ R1e = R1 + R’2 = R1 + K 2 R 2 = 58.6643 Ω (R’2 = R2 referred to

primary)
VA 500103 I (FL)
I1(FL) =  = 8.7477 A Therefore : I1ph(FL)= 1
3VL1 3  33103 3
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(Prof.K.Subhas)
∴ Pcu I1 (FL)
(FL) = 3× I12 (FL) × R1e and I1ph =
ph
3
2
 8.7477 
=3×   × 58.6643 = 4489.1245 W
 3 
∴ %ղ =
FL VA cos
VA cos  P  (FL) × 100
P
i cu
500103  0.8
=
500103  0.8  3050 × 100
4489.12
= 98.15 %
%ղHL = 0.5 VAcos × 100

0.5 VA cos  P  [(0.5)2  (FL)]
P
i cu
0.5 VAcos × 100 = 97.956 %

=
0.5 VA cos  3050 [(0.5)2  4489.12]
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Electrical Machines - 1

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Electrical Machines -1

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

Malla Reddy College of Engineering & Technology

2. To study and understand the various characteristics DC Generators.

3. To learn the various methods of speed control of DC Motors.

4. To introduce the concept of regulation and its calculations.

5. To learn the concepts of single phase and three phase transformers

2. A. E. Clayton and N. N. Hancock, “Performance and design of DC machines”, CBS

3. M. G. Say, “Performance and design of AC machines”, CBS Publishers, 2002.

1. Electric Machinery Fundamentals, Stephen J. Chapmen, Tata Mc Graw –Hill Publishers.

2. A. S. Langsdorf, “Alternating current machines”, McGraw Hill Education, 1984.

4. Electrical Machines, P.S. Bimbra, Khanna Publishers.

1. Explain the Constructional features of DC Generators, DC motors and transformers.

2. Understand different excitation and starting methods of DC machines.

3. Summarize Testing of different types of DC Generators and DC motors.

5. Analyze single phase and three phase transformers.

A DC generator is a rotating machine which converts mechanical energy into DC

The conversion of Mechanical energy into Electrical energy in DC generator is

Principle of operation of DC Machines:

e = -dØ/dt = -d(B.l.b.Cos ωt)/dt = B.l.b.ω .Sin ωt = Em Sin ωt where Em =

Fig: emf induced in a single turn generator in one full revolution

for the operation of a commutator in a practical DC Machine with more number

Constructional features of a DC Generator:

Fig: A simplified diagram of a dc machine:

Major parts of a DC generator:

 Main frame or Yoke

 The armature windings: the windings in which a voltage is induced (rotor)

Figure: Cross sectional view of a DC Machine

Figure: Cross sectional view of a DC Machine showing Interpoles

A commutator is a cylindrical body mounted on the shaft along with the

For ease of understanding, a developed diagram of armature of Fig. (a) below is

is maximum. Therefore, conductor 1 should be connected to conductor 6 shown

Figure : (a) Cross-sectional view of the armature of a 4-pole DC Machine (b)

Figure below shows the developed winding diagram of the 16 armature

Figure: Armature winding of a DC Machine

Pole pitch ( Ya) = (No. of coils x 2)/ No. of poles = (8 x 2) /4 = 4

Figure: Position of coil-sides in slots of a two-layer armature winding

(a) Lap winding (b) Wave winding

Example 1 : Prepare a layout winding diagram for a simplex lap-type DC armature

Figure: Scheme for connections of the coil-sides of a DC armature windings

Coil-side 1 is connected to coil-side 10 on the other side of the commutator (since

to coil-side 3 on the commutator end (Since Yf is 7, coil-side 10 is connected to

Figure: Lay out diagram for a Lap winding given in example -1

Figure: (a) Armature winding of a dc machine shown in a simplified manner

Equalizer Connections in Lap Winding: As mentioned earlier, a simplex lap

To overcome this problem arising from the circulating current, equalizer

2.3.3 Wave Winding

Example-2 : Prepare a winding diagram for a 4 pole wave-connected armature of

Ya = (Z ±2)/P = (22 ±2)/4 = 6 or 5

Figure: Connection diagram of the coil-sides for a DC wave winding

In Fig. 2.17 it is to be noted that coil-side 19 is connected with coil-side 2. This is

Figure: Layout diagram for the wave winding of example 2.2

Figure: Layout and sequence diagram for a wave wound DC armature

Simplex and Multiplex windings:

Use of laminated core :

square of the lamination thickness, so there is a strong incentive to make the

This being very important for understanding of a Generator performance we will

Ø The flux from a pole (webers)

Z The total number of conductors on the armature