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Liesl Sterrenberg, Helena Fouché & Grace Elliott

Liesl Sterrenberg, et al.

3-in-1
Grade 11 Life Sciences 3-in-1 CAPS
CLASS TEXT & STUDY GUIDE

This Grade 11 Life Sciences 3-in-1 study guide transforms a content-heavy Grade 11 curriculum into simple and manageable
study material. Explanations are clear-cut and easy to comprehend, developing your exam skills as well as your perception
of the biological world.

Key Features:

• Comprehensive, accessible notes per module

• Carefully selected, graded questions and answers per module

• ‘Rapid-fire’ questions for key concepts and terms

• Clear, explanatory diagrams

• Up-to-date, relevant material

This study guide enables learners of all levels to achieve their best results.
 11
GRADE

Life Sciences
CAPS
Liesl Sterrenberg, Helena Fouché & Grace Elliott
3-in-1

THIS CLASS TEXT & STUDY GUIDE INCLUDES

1 Notes
• Diversity, Change and Continuity
• Life Processes in Plants and Animals
• Environmental Studies

2 Questions and Rapid Fire Questions E-book

available

3 Detailed Memos
(in separate booklet)

2013 publication | ISBN: 978-1-920558-25-3 260821 | TAS

 CONTENTS WHAT IS LIFE SCIENCES?
What is Life Sciences? .......................................................................................... i 'Life Sciences' is the scientific study of living things from molecular level to their
Aims in Life Sciences ............................................................................................ i interaction with one another and the environment.

Life Sciences Grade 11 ......................................................................................... ii • Living systems exhibit levels of organisation from molecules to biomes.
The Exam ............................................................................................................. ii • Life on earth is dynamic, with homeostasis maintaining balance at every level
of organisation.
• Life is characterised by changes over time.
NOTES with QUESTIONS:
Module 1: Diversity, Change and Continuity ................................ 1.1 - 1.60
Unit 1 Biodiversity and classification of microorganisms ................................1.2
Unit 2 Biodiversity of plants .......................................................................... 1.20
Unit 3 Reproduction in plants ....................................................................... 1.30
AIMS IN LIFE SCIENCES
Unit 4 Biodiversity of animals ....................................................................... 1.36
Questions ...................................................................................................... 1.47 Specific Aim 1: Knowing Life Sciences
Rapid fire questions ..................................................................................... 1.58 (concepts, processes, phenomena, mechanisms,
principles, theories, laws, models, etc.)

Module 2: Life Processes in Plants and Animals ........................ 2.1 - 2.69

Specific Aim 2: Investigating phenomena in Life Sciences
Unit 1 Photosynthesis ..................................................................................... 2.2
Unit 2 Animal nutrition ....................................................................................2.8
Specific Aim 3: Appreciating and understanding the history,
Unit 3 Cellular respiration .............................................................................. 2.21
importance and applications of
Unit 4 Gaseous exchange ............................................................................2.28
Life Sciences in society.
Unit 5 Excretion ............................................................................................ 2.42
Questions ....................................................................................................... 2.53
Rapid fire questions ..................................................................................... 2.68

Module 3: Environmental Studies ................................................. 3.1 - 3.86

Unit 1 Population ecology ............................................................................... 3.2
Unit 2 Human impact on the environment ....................................................3.24
Questions ....................................................................................................... 3.63
Rapid fire questions ..................................................................................... 3.85

i
2 DIFFERENT EXCRETORY ORGANS
UNIT 5: Lungs
CO2, water
NOTES

vapour, heat
EXCRETION • The lungs excrete CO2, water vapour and heat.

Kidneys and bladder

• A large number of chemical reactions are continuously taking place in the
body cells. • The kidneys excrete urine.

• Urine consists of: excess water, mineral

• The sum total of all the chemical reactions that occur in a cell is known salts, urea, uric acid,
as metabolism.  excess water creatinine
 mineral salts
• During metabolism, waste products such as CO2, excess water, salts and  nitrogenous waste products, namely urea, uric acid and creatinine.
nitrogenous wastes (e.g. urea, uric acid and creatinine) are formed.
Liver and intestines
• These waste products must be removed continuously because they will poison
the cells and inhibit normal functioning if allowed to accumulate. • The liver excretes urea and bile pigments.

• Urea is transported in the blood to the kidneys and is

excreted in urine.
There are three terms that sound very similar
urea, gall
and can be very confusing. Make sure that you • Bile pigments pass into the small intestine and are pigments
can distinguish between them. excreted as bile salts in the faeces.
Excretion: The removal of metabolic wastes
Skin excess water,
from the body. salts, urea
• The skin excretes sweat via the sweat glands.
Egestion: The removal of undigested
substances - substances that are not products of • Sweat mainly consists of:
metabolism and were never inside cells.  excess water
Secretion: The release of useful substances  salts
that are produced by cells for important functions,  small amount of urea
e.g. digestive juices, hormones and milk.
METABOLIC WASTE PRODUCTS AND THEIR ORIGIN
• CO2 is formed as a product of cellular respiration.
UNIT 5: EXCRETION

• Excess water is formed as a product of cellular respiration, as well as from the

EXCRETION IN HUMANS intake of fluids and food.

• In humans the metabolic waste products diffuse out the cells, via the tissue • Urea is formed in the liver from deamination of excess amino acids.
fluid that surrounds them, to the blood in the blood vessels. • Uric acid is the end product of metabolism of nucleic acids.
• The waste products are transported in the blood to several excretory organs, • Creatinine is formed from creatinine phosphate in the cells.
which have the ability to remove these waste products from the bloodstream
and release them out of the body. • Bile pigments are formed in the liver during the breakdown of haemoglobin.
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 URINARY SYSTEM IN HUMANS STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEY 2

NOTES
External structure
STRUCTURE OF THE URINARY SYSTEM
• The kidney is a dark red, bean-shaped organ. The concave side faces the
• The urinary system consists of two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder
vertebral column.
and the urethra.
• In the middle of the concave side is an indentation, the hilum, where the renal
• Two types of blood vessels, namely the renal arteries and renal veins, are
artery enters the kidney and the renal vein and ureter leave the kidney.
associated with the urinary system.
• The kidneys are enclosed by a layer of fat, which protects the kidneys against
vena cava
aorta mechanical injuries, insulates them and keeps them in position.
inferior renal artery
left kidney
right kidney renal vein Internal structure (macroscopic)
ureter

The macroscopic internal structure of

the kidney is the parts of the kidney
that can be seen with the naked eye.
bladder
urethra
renal capsule

renal papilla

Urinary system in humans

cortex renal artery
• The two kidneys occur in the abdominal cavity, on either side of the vertebral renal vein
column, just below the diaphragm.

• The kidneys receive oxygenated blood, rich in metabolic waste products, from hilum
the renal arteries. medulla
renal pelvis
• Deoxygenated blood, purified of metabolic waste products, is transported away
from the kidneys via the renal veins.
ureter

UNIT 5: EXCRETION
renal calyx
• A tube, the ureter, extends from each kidney and opens separately into
the bladder.

• The bladder is a thin walled muscular sac in which urine is temporarily stored.

• A single tube, the urethra, transports the urine from the bladder to the exterior. renal pyramid

• A sphincter muscle, at the base of the bladder, controls the flow of urine to
the urethra. Longitudinal section of the kidney
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2 • The kidney is surrounded by a connective tissue membrane, the renal
capsule, for protection.
Structure of a nephron
• Each nephron is made up of two main parts:
NOTES

• Directly under the renal capsule is a reddish brown region known as  Malpighian body
the cortex.  renal tubule
• The inner region of the kidney, the medulla, is lighter in colour and contains
tubes which are arranged in groups. proximal convoluted tubule
efferent glomerulus
• Each group of tubes forms a pyramid, with the broad base facing the cortex. arteriole

• The apex of each pyramid is known as the renal papilla. Malpighian distal cortex
body convoluted
• The tubes in each renal papilla open into a common renal calyx (plural: calyces). tubule

afferent Bowman's
arteriole capsule
There are as many renal
calyces as there are pyramids.
collecting duct
descending
• The renal calyces open into the widened region of the ureter, known as the limb of Henle asscending medulla
limb of Henle
renal pelvis.

Internal structure (microscopic)

loop of Henle

Structure of a nephron
The microscopic internal structure of the kidney is those parts
of the kidney that are only visible with a microscope. Malpighian body
• The Malpighian body occurs on the one end of the nephron and is situated in
• Each kidney is made up of about one million small structures known as the cortex. It consists of two parts, i.e. a double-walled, cup-shaped structure
nephrons (singular: nephron). called the Bowman's capsule and a network of capillary blood vessels called
the glomerulus.
• The nephrons are the structural and functional units of the kidney. • The capillary blood vessels of the glomerulus are lined with a single endothelial
layer (squamous epithelium) with pores between the endothelial cells.
 'Structural units' means that the nephrons are the
• The blood vessel that transports blood to the glomerulus is known as the
building blocks making up the kidney.
UNIT 5: EXCRETION

afferent arteriole.
 'Functional units' means that they are independent • The blood vessel that transports blood away from the glomerulus is known as the
units that perform the functions of the kidney. efferent arteriole.

afferent = transports to
efferent = transports away
'Hint: a comes before e'

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 wider afferent
narrower
efferent arteriole
Renal tubule 2
arteriole • The renal tubule is a long convoluted tubule that is situated partially in the cortex

NOTES
and partially in the medulla.
• The tube consists of three parts: the proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of
glomerulus Henle and the distal convoluted tubule.
(blood capillaries)
podocytes with endothelial
• The proximal convoluted tubule follows directly after the Bowman's capsule
cells and pores and is situated in the cortex.
cavity of • The renal tubule is at its widest in this part and is lined with a single layer of
Bowman's cuboidal epithelium.
capsule
• The loop of Henle consists of a descending limb, which extends down into the
medulla and forms a hairpin loop, and an ascending limb which extends up into
squamous epithelium
the cortex.
• The loop of Henle is situated in the medulla.
• The distal convoluted tubule is situated in the cortex and, just like the proximal
convoluted tubule, it is lined with a single layer of cuboidal epithelium.
Malpighian body
• The distal convoluted tubule opens into a collecting duct together with a
blood capillary number of distal convoluted tubules from other nephrons.
podocyte
• A few collecting ducts converge and form the ducts of Bellini.
filtration slit • The ducts of Bellini are the tubes forming the pyramids that open into the renal
calyx of the renal pelvis.
The following diagram shows the macro- and microscopic structures
of the kidney. The position of the nephrons is clearly visible.
Structure of a podocyte
renal tubule
Malpighian body
podocyte cell body
cortex

• The inner wall of the Bowman's capsule consists of specialised cells, collecting duct
the podocytes. renal calyx renal artery
renal vein
• The podocytes are cells with projections between which small openings, the
filtration slits, occur. renal pelvis

UNIT 5: EXCRETION
• The cavity between the inner and outer wall of the Bowman's capsule is known renal pyramid
as the cavity of the Bowman's capsule. ureter

NB: The blood in the glomerulus is separated from the cavity medulla
of the Bowman's capsule by a thin endothelial cell layer
with pores and the podocyte layer with filtration slits.
Position of nephrons in the kidney
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2 BLOOD SUPPLY OF THE KIDNEY proximal distal
convoluted convoluted
• Each kidney is supplied with blood from a renal artery. efferent
tubule tubule
NOTES

arteriole
glomerulus
• The renal artery is a branch of the aorta, which carries oxygenated blood rich in
metabolic waste products to the kidney.

• The renal artery enters the kidney at the hilum. branch of

renal artery Bowman's collecting duct
capsule
• The artery branches into smaller arteries. These extend between the pyramids afferent
arteriole
in the direction of the cortex. peritubular capillary
network
• They branch further until they form the smallest branches in the cortex called branch of
descending
renal vein ascending limb
afferent arterioles. limb of
of Henle
Henle
• One afferent arteriole extends to each Bowman's capsule.
duct of Bellini
• The afferent arteriole divides to form a capillary network, the glomerulus, loop of Henle
which fits inside the cup-shaped hollow of the Bowman's capsule.

• The blood capillaries then merge and form an efferent arteriole, which
transports blood away from the Bowman's capsule. The efferent arteriole has a capillary network on both
sides: the glomerulus on the one side and the
peritubular capillaries on the other side. This system
The afferent arteriole is much wider than is known as a portal system. A portal system consists
the efferent arteriole. This maintains a high of a blood vessel with capillary vessels on both sides.
pressure in the blood of the glomerulus.

FUNCTIONING OF THE KIDNEY

• The efferent arteriole branches again and forms a second network of blood
The functioning of the kidney can be
vessels, the peritubular capillary network, which surrounds the renal tubule. Glomerular filtration
divided into three main processes:
glomerular
• Glomerular filtration capillary
Peritubular? peri = around the outside blood vessels
tubule = small tube • Tubular reabsorption
The peritubular capillary network is situated
UNIT 5: EXCRETION

around the outside of the renal tubules. • Tubular excretion

renal tubule
Reabsorption
• The peritubular capillaries combine to form venules and larger veins that
Tubular excretion
eventually form the renal vein. The renal vein takes deoxygenated blood, minus
waste products, from the kidney to the heart via the inferior vena cava. peritubular
blood
capillaries

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Glomerular filtration Adaptations of the Malpighian body for filtration
2
• The afferent arteriole is wider than the efferent arteriole, which

NOTES
• Glomerular filtration occurs in the Malpighian bodies in the cortex of the kidney.
causes a high blood pressure in the glomerulus, promoting filtration.
• Because the diameter of the afferent arteriole is larger than that of the efferent • The capillary network of the glomerulus has a large surface
arteriole, the blood in the glomerulus is under high pressure. area, which increases the efficiency of filtration.

• The thin endothelium with pores lining the blood capillaries of the glomerulus, • The Bowman's capsule is cup-shaped, which provides a large
together with the podocyte layer with filtration slits of the Bowman's capsule, surface for effective filtration.
form an ultrafine filter through which the filterable parts of the blood • The endothelial layer of the glomerular capillaries and the
are forced. podocyte layer of the Bowman's capsule form an ultrafine filter
through which substances are filtered.
• The blood cells and plasma proteins are too large to filter and they remain
behind in the capillaries. • The endothelial layer has pores that only allow smaller parts of the
blood to filter through.
• The part of the blood that moves into the Bowman's capsule is known as the • The podocytes have filtration slits that only allow smaller parts of
glomerular filtrate and contains useful substances as well as waste products: the blood to filter through.

• Useful substances include: • Waste products include:

 water  urea
 amino acids  uric acid Tubular reabsorption

 glucose  creatinine • Useful substances, which passed through the glomerular membrane during
 vitamins filtration, must now be reabsorbed and returned to the bloodstream.
 mineral salts • This process prevents useful substances forming part of urine and
being excreted.
Note that filtration is a non-selective process, in • The filtrate leaves the Bowman's capsule and enters the proximal
other words both useful substances and waste
convoluted tubule.
products are filtered into the Bowman's capsule.

Adaptations of the proximal convoluted tubule

• The filtration process is promoted by: afferent arteriole efferent arteriole for reabsorption
 the high blood pressure in the glomerulus • The tube is long and convoluted, which enlarges the surface for
maximal reabsorption.
 a large filtration surface

UNIT 5: EXCRETION
• The peritubular capillary network surrounds the renal tubule so
 the permeability of the that reabsorbed substances can easily move into the bloodstream.
glomerular membrane
• The cuboidal epithelial cells, which line the tubule, have many
mitochondria to provide energy, this indicates an active transport
mechanism.
glomerular filtrate (useful • The cuboidal epithelial cells have finger-like projections (brush
as well as waste border of microvilli) which increase the absorption surface.
products)

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2 Reabsorption of useful substances • No water will follow, because the ascending loop of Henle is impermeable
to water.
• As the filtrate moves through the proximal convoluted tubule, all the glucose,
NOTES

amino acids and water soluble vitamins are actively reabsorbed into the +
• The Na ions are slowly transported back to the peritubular capillary vessels from
peritubular capillary vessels. the medulla so that the medulla does not become too salty (hypertonic).
+
• Mineral salts, such as sodium ions (Na ) and fat soluble vitamins are also
actively reabsorbed, but only selectively, as they are needed by the body. +
A long loop of Henle causes more Na ions to be pumped into the medulla,
• Approximately 66% of water is passively reabsorbed into the peritubular which results in more water being reabsorbed. The more water that is
capillaries by osmosis. reabsorbed, the more concentrated the urine. Desert
animals, such as camels, have long loops of Henle so that a
maximal amount of water can be reabsorbed. The urine is
Passive reabsorption requires no energy, sometimes so concentrated that it is excreted in the form
but active reabsorption does need energy. of crystals.

The nitrogenous waste products (urea, uric acid and creatinine) are not • As the filtrate moves through the distal convoluted tubule, further reabsorption of
reabsorbed. As water is reabsorbed from the filtrate, there is less water useful substances occurs.
in which the waste products can dissolve, therefore their concentration +
increases, even though their quantities remain the same. • Active reabsorption of Na ions also occurs here, as well as passive reabsorption
of water by osmosis.
Compare this with a glass of Oros. The more water is [See section on Regulation of the salt concentration of the blood.]
added to the Oros, the less concentrated (dilute) the
solution. If water could be removed from the solution, • Therefore, water is conserved, returned to the bloodstream and not excreted in
the solution would become more and more concentrated, the urine.
even though the amount of Oros remains the same. • From the distal convoluted tubule the filtrate moves to the collecting duct.
final addition of
creatinine and urea
Reabsorption of water through the loop of Henle and the
distal convoluted tubule glucose, amino acids and
+
water-soluble vitamins K
• The filtrate enters the loop of Henle. fully reabsorbed
+
• The function of the loop of Henle is to ensure that the tissue in the medulla of the H passive
+ reabsorption
kidney always has a high sodium (Na ) concentration and therefore remains mineral salts and
of water
hypertonic (high in salts/low water potential). fat-soluble vitamins
water
+
partially reabsorbed
• An increased sodium (Na ) concentration in the medulla creates a water potential and salts
reabsorbed
gradient, which makes passive osmosis of water in the direction of the medulla 66% water
passively
UNIT 5: EXCRETION

possible. Water moves from a high to a low water potential.

reabsorbed
impermeable
• The descending loop of Henle is permeable to water and water is passively to water
reabsorbed by osmosis. + -
Na and C´ form water urine
+ passively
• Sodium ions (Na ) are actively pumped out of the the compound
+
Na -ions
withdrawn
ascending loop of Henle into the tissue fluid of NaC´ (table salt). by osmosis
actively
the medulla. pumped out

• This process needs energy and is known as the sodium pump. Chloride ions
-
(C´ ) follow passively. Reabsorption and excretion by renal tubule
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Tubular excretion HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL 2

NOTES
• During this process substances are secreted from the blood in the surrounding Regulation of the pH of the blood
peritubular capillaries through the epithelium of the renal tubule and added to
the filtrate. • The pH of the blood is regulated in the distal convoluted tubule.

• This process occurs in the proximal and distal convoluted tubules.

The pH of the blood is regulated between 7,35
+ + +
• Hydrogen ions (H ), potassium ions (K ), creatinine, urea, drugs, preservatives, and 7,45. Excess H ions in the blood lowers
colourants and other foreign substances are actively added to the filtrate. the pH and makes the blood acidic.

Urine formation +
• Secretion of H ions from the blood to the tubules occurs when the pH of the blood
+
• The filtrate flows into the collecting ducts and is now called urine. becomes too low (excess H ions).

• Several collecting ducts combine and form the ducts of Bellini, which form the +
• The excess H ions are thus removed from the blood, and the pH increases and
renal pyramids that open into the renal calyces of the renal pelvis. returns to normal.
• Urine flows through the ureter into the bladder. • Phosphate compounds occur in the filtrate and act as a buffer by binding with
+
the H ions in the filtrate.
• Urine is temporarily stored in the bladder.

• The urine is transported from the bladder to the exterior by the urethra. A buffer is a chemical substance that resists pH changes
+
by binding with, or releasing, the excess H ions.
• This process is known as urination.
+
• Both voluntary and involuntary muscles play a role in urination. • The H ions are excreted as hydrogen phosphate compounds in the urine.
+
• This form of H ions (hydrogen phosphate) prevents the pH in the urine from
Composition of urine
becoming too low (too acidic).
• Urine is a yellowish fluid with a characteristic smell.
Another buffer system that occurs in the tubules is
• The composition and colour is influenced by the level of activity, health, amount
ammonia (NH3), which reacts in the same way, by binding
of fluid intake, type of food eaten, medication, etc. + +
with the excess H ions. The H ions are excreted in the
+
• Urine consists of: urine in the form of ammonium (NH4 ) ions.

UNIT 5: EXCRETION
 Water - the main component of urine and acts as a solvent for
many substances.
+
 Inorganic salts - include chloride, sulphate and phosphate ions of calcium, • When the pH of the blood increases (becomes too alkaline), fewer H ions are
-
sodium and magnesium. secreted from the blood into the tubules and more bicarbonate ions (HCO3 )
are secreted from the blood into the tubules.
 Metabolic wastes - include urea, uric acid and creatinine.
 Foreign substances - include flavourants, colourants and preservatives that -
An increase in HCO3 increases the pH (more alkaline).
are taken in with food, as well as drugs.
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2 Regulation of the salt concentration of the blood Decrease of the water content of the blood
• On a warm day, when a person is very active, sweats a lot or takes in very little
NOTES

• The hormone aldosterone, which is secreted by the cortex of the adrenal fluid, the water content of the blood decreases.
+ +
gland, regulates the concentration of sodium ions (Na ) and potassium ions (K )
in the blood. • Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus of the brain are stimulated and more ADH is
secreted by the hypophysis into the bloodstream.

Adrenal gland? It is an endocrine/ductless gland that occurs on top of • ADH makes the walls of the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct more
the kidney and does not form part of the urinary system. The adrenal permeable to water.
gland also has an outer cortex and an inner medulla. The adrenal
cortex secretes the hormone aldosterone directly into the bloodstream, • Therefore more water is reabsorbed from the tubules into the blood.
while the adrenal medulla secretes the hormone adrenalin.
• Urine becomes more concentrated and its volume decreases.

• The osmoreceptors also stimulate the thirst centre in the brain and more fluid is
• When the sodium concentration in the blood becomes too low, the adrenal taken in.
cortex is stimulated to secrete more aldosterone.
• The water content of the blood increases and returns to normal.
• More sodium ions are reabsorbed from the distal convoluted tubule and
collecting duct into the blood in the peritubular blood capillaries. Increase of the water content of the blood
• The concentration of sodium ions in the blood increases and fewer sodium ions • On a cold day, when a person is inactive, doesn't sweat a lot or takes in a lot of
are excreted in the urine. fluids, the water content of the blood increases.

• When the sodium concentration in the blood becomes too high, less • Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus are not stimulated.
aldosterone is secreted by the adrenal cortex.
• Less ADH is secreted by the hypophysis.
• Fewer sodium ions are reabsorbed from the renal tubule.
• The collecting ducts and distal convoluted tubules become less permeable
• The concentration of sodium ions in the blood decreases and more sodium to water.
ions are excreted as part of the urine.
• Less water is reabsorbed from the tubules.

Regulation of water content of the blood - osmoregulation • The urine is less concentrated (dilute) and its volume increases.

• Large amounts of water are excreted in the urine.

• The hormone ADH (anti-diuretic hormone), secreted by the hypophysis, regulates
the water content of the blood. • The water content of the blood decreases and returns to normal.
UNIT 5: EXCRETION

Hypophysis? It is an endocrine/ductless The regulation of the water content of the blood is

gland at the base of the brain, that secretes an example of a negative feedback mechanism.
several hormones into the bloodstream. This A negative feedback mechanism is when a change
gland is integrated with other endocrine from the normal level (norm) is detected and triggers
glands and is also called the master gland. a response that opposes the change and restores
the norm. The return to normal is then detected and
the corrective response is switched off.

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 normal water
content in blood
FUNCTIONS OF THE KIDNEY 2
water content in water content in • Excretion of nitrogenous wastes

NOTES
blood drops blood rises
• Regulation of the water content in the blood (osmoregulation)
• Regulation of the salt content in the blood
osmoreceptors in osmoreceptors in
hypothalamus detect hypothalamus not stimulated • Regulation of the pH in the blood
change in water content
return to normal is detected by receptors and

DISEASES THAT AFFECT KIDNEY FUNCTIONING

corrective response is switched off

thirst centre in hypophysis stimulated hypophysis secretes

brain stimulated to secrete ADH less ADH
Kidney stones
• Nitrogenous wastes and mineral salts that form part of urine are dissolved
in water.
negative feedback

more fluids more ADH in blood less ADH in blood

taken in transported to kidneys transported to kidneys
• Solid crystals, known as kidney stones, form when these substances do
not dissolve.
• Kidney stones with a diameter smaller than 4,5 mm usually leave the body
walls of convoluted walls of convoluted together with the urine.
tubules and collecting tubules and collecting
ducts become more ducts become less • If the kidney stones become too big (larger than 4,5 mm in diameter), they can
permeable to water permeable to water
block the ureter, leading to serious pain in the side, lower abdomen and groin.
• Blood can occur in the urine due to damage to the epithelial layer of the
more water reabsorbed less water reabsorbed urinary tubes.
from filtrate from filtrate
• The kidney stones can be broken up into smaller pieces by ultrasound waves,
which can then be excreted in the urine.
water content in water content
blood rises in blood drops • Kidney stones that are too large are usually removed surgically.

normal water Bilharzia

content in blood • Bilharzia is a disease that is caused by the Schistosoma parasite.
Negative feedback mechanism in regulation • The parasite infects two hosts, namely the human and the fresh water snail, to
of water content of the blood
complete its life cycle.

UNIT 5: EXCRETION
• Bilharzia affects the general health of the infected person.
NB: Approximately 99% of the water in the glomerular filtrate is
reabsorbed into the bloodstream. • The most harmful effects are bleeding and the formation of ulcers in the gut
If you are asked to discuss the reabsorption of water in the nephron, or bladder.
you must include the following:
• Long term effects include liver damage, renal failure and cancer of the bladder.
• passive reabsorption of water in the proximal convoluted tubule (66%)
+
• conservation of water in the loop of Henle (Na pump, etc.) The life cycle of the bilharzia parasite is
• role of ADH in reabsorption of water discussed in more detail in Module 3, p. 3.16.

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