BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY

LUCBAN, QUEZON

JANELLA M. CANTARA
EMAIL ADDRESS: [email protected]
MESSENGER ACCOUNT: Janella Cantara

SUBJECT: CVS01 – PROFESSIONAL COURSE – SPECIALIZED 1 (EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING)

TEMPLATE NAME: ACTIVITY #4 – INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING
REFLECTION
1. What is an earthquake? How do human activities induce earthquakes?
An earthquake, is any sudden earth trembling brought on by seismic waves moving through the Earth's
rocks. Geologic faults, which are confined areas where rock masses can move in relation to one another, are
where earthquakes happen most frequently. The largest tectonic plates that make up the crust of the Earth are
where the majority of the world's major fault lines are found.
While the impacts of earthquakes caused by humans may resemble those brought about by nature, they
frequently occur in areas with little to no historical seismic activity. The majority of natural earthquakes occur on
fault lines, which are typically (but not always) located where tectonic plates collide. Yet, earthquakes caused by
human activities can happen a long way from tectonic plate boundaries.
Depending on the nature of the human activity, different produced earthquakes have different root causes.
The report's data, which was obtained from a publicly available database, showed that mining was
responsible for the majority of earthquakes that were caused by humans globally (many earthquakes clustered
around 271 sites). Instability brought on by the removal of the earth's substance can result in abrupt collapses that
produce earthquakes.
The paper names the construction of dams or the impoundment of water reservoirs as the cause of
multiple earthquakes at 167 sites, all of which were by far the deadliest ones.

2. Write short notes on

a. Earth’s crust
Less than 1% of the Earth's radius and volume is made up of the thick rock shell known as the crust. It is
the uppermost part of the lithosphere, which is made up of the crust and the uppermost part of the mantle.

b. Earth’s mantle
Silicate rock makes up the Earth's mantle, which lies between the crust and the outer core. With a mass
of 4.01 x 1024 kg, it accounts for 67% of the mass of the planet. It makes up around 84% of the volume of the
Earth and has a thickness of 2,900 kilometers (1,800 miles). Although it is mostly solid, it acts like a viscous
fluid across geologic time periods, sometimes being compared to the consistency of caramel. Oceanic crust is
created when the mantle partially melts along mid-ocean ridges, and continental crust is created when the
mantle partially melts in subduction zones.

c. Causes of volcanic earthquakes

Volcanic earthquakes, discovered by L. Palmieri at the Vesuvius Observatory in 1855, are caused by the
sudden opening of channels in crustal rocks, rapid changes of motion of magma, excessive accumulation of
gas pressure in the crust, roof collapses of subterranean channels emptied of magma, and so on. According to
Minakami (1959a, b, 1960) or Tazieff and Sabroux (1983), volcanic earthquakes are classified into three
groups: A-type earthquakes with foci between 1 and 10 km deep; B-type earthquakes with foci at depths of 1
km or less; and explosion-type earthquakes taking place at the very surface of the Earth.

d. Seismic waves
An acoustic wave called a seismic wave is one that moves through the Earth or another planetary body. It
can happen as a result of an earthquake (or "quake" in general), volcanic eruption, magma movement, a
sizable landslide, or a sizable artificial explosion that releases low-frequency acoustic energy. Seismologists
use seismometers, hydrophones (water-based recording devices), or accelerometers to record and analyze
seismic waves. Seismic noise, also known as ambient vibration or continuous low-amplitude vibration, is
distinct from seismic waves because it originates from a number of natural and man-made causes.

e. Subduction zone
Oceanic lithosphere and certain continental lithosphere are recycled into the Earth's mantle during
subduction, a geological process that occurs near convergent boundaries. Where a tectonic plate's oceanic
lithosphere meets another plate's less dense lithosphere, the heavier plate falls beneath the second plate and
into the mantle. A subduction zone is where this process takes place, and an arc-trench complex manifests
itself on the surface.
3. Describe the two approaches followed for the prediction of earthquakes. Name the major plates of the
earth.
Two approaches followed for the prediction of earthquakes are:
➢ Paleoseismology - study of prehistoric earthquakes as preserved in the geologic record. Some of the
earthquake related features preserved in the geologic record include sand blows, landslides and
liquefaction features. The purpose of paleoseismology is to define the earthquake potential of a fault
zone and to identify and date prehistoric earthquakes.
➢ Seismic gaps - is a zone along a tectonically active area where no earthquakes have occurred
recently, but it is known that elastic strain is building in the rocks. If a seismic gap can be identified,
then it might be an area expected to have a large earthquake in the near future.

Names of Major Plates of the Earth:

1. Pacific Plate: Pacific Ocean (102,900,000 km2)
2. North American Plate: United States, Canada, Arctic Ocean, and the Atlantic Ocean (75,900,000
km2)
3. Eurasian Plate: Europe, Russia, and Asia (67,800,000 km2)
4. African Plate: Africa and the Atlantic Ocean (61,300,000 km2)
5. Antarctic Plate: Antarctica (60,900,000 km2)
6. Indo-Australia Plate: Australia, India, Oceania, and the Indian Ocean (58,900,000 km2)
7. South American Plate: South America and the Atlantic Ocean (43,600,000 km2)

4. Explain the plate tectonics theory and its mechanism.

In accordance with the Plate Tectonic Theory, mountains are created when two convergent plates
collide. Mountains always grow at plate borders that are destructive. It is apparent that destructive plate borders
between two convergent plates are linked to the process of mountain-building.

5. What are plate tectonics and how are they related to continental drift and sea floor spreading?
The development, migration, and destruction of plates are all referred to as plate tectonics. Two
theories—continental drift and sea-floor spreading—serve as its cornerstones. The movement of continents over
the surface of the Earth is referred to as continental drift. The process of creating new oceanic plate material and
moving away from the mid-ocean ridge is referred to as sea-floor spreading.

6. Explain how a subduction zone forms and what occurs at such a plate boundary.
Thermal convection currents cause two plates to collide when they are moving together, and the plate
border with the substantially denser material is subducted under the other plate boundary with the relatively
lighter material.
Benioff Zone is another name for this subduction zone. Mountains are created when plate boundaries
subduct, which results in a lateral compressive force that squeezes and folds the sediments and material along the
plate margins. The collision of the American and Pacific plates gave rise to the Rocky Mountains, and the same
collision also produced the Andes. As the Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates collided, the Himalayas rose.
Mountains are rising as the Indian plate continues to rift beneath the Eurasian plate.

7. What is meant by the focus and epicenter of an earthquake? Name the two kinds of body waves and
explain how they differ.
The focus is the location within the crust where the pressure is released. The epicenter is the location on
Earth's surface directly above the focus. Earthquake energy is released in seismic waves. The focus of these waves
propagated outward. The waves are most noticeable closest to the epicenter and weaken as they go farther away.
An earthquake will cause the most significant damage close to the epicenter.
Body waves move across the Earth's interior. Conversely, surface waves can only travel across the
boundary between two different media, such as the boundary between the Earth and the atmosphere (i.e. the
surface of the Earth).
Primary waves, also known as P-waves or pressure waves, and Secondary waves are also known as S-
waves or shear waves. Compression waves are P-waves, they can spread in either liquid or solid materials. Shear
waves are S-waves, they only spread through solid matter. Scientists were able to demonstrate the existence of a
liquid outer core for the Earth by examining the trajectories of S-waves.

8. Discuss the main characteristics of seismic waves.

One can broadly distinguish between body waves, which move through the Earth, and surface waves,
which move at the surface of the Earth. Seismic waves come in many different forms.
The pathways taken by body waves as they move through the Earth's interior are determined by the
density and modulus of the material (stiffness). In turn, the density and modulus depend on the temperature,
material composition, and material phase. The refraction of light waves is similar to this effect. Primary and
 Secondary waves are two different body wave kinds that are produced by two different particle motions.
Siméon Denis Poisson, a French mathematician, recognized this distinction in 1830.
Along the surface of the Earth, seismic surface waves move. These fall under the umbrella of mechanical
surface waves. These are called surface waves, as they lessen as they get farther from the surface. Compared to
seismic body waves, they move more slowly (P and S). Surface waves from major earthquakes can have an
amplitude of several centimeters.

9. Distinguish between –
a. Body waves and surface waves
Body waves, these waves often move through the earth's interior. They are called body waves because
they can only travel through the "body" of the earth, as opposed to surface waves, which can only move
between two mediums like the planet's surface and the atmosphere. These are the waves that we commonly
encounter on Earth.

b. Rayleigh waves and love waves

The Love waves are horizontally polarized shear waves (SH waves), which can only exist in the
presence of a semi-infinite medium covered by an upper layer of finite thickness. Rayleigh waves, also
known as ground roll, are surface waves that travel as ripples with motions that are similar to those of waves
on the surface of water.

c. Lithosphere and asthenosphere

The planet’s inner part is also subdivided into two different parts – lithosphere and asthenosphere.
The outermost layer that lies above the mantle and below the crust is called the lithosphere. Up to 100
km under the surface of the earth's crust is the stiff and rocky interior of the planet. On the asthenosphere, this
layer of the earth is located. Also, it is in charge of supporting the tectonic plates and the entire crust of the
globe that are located above the fluid asthenosphere below. Compared to the layers below, it is both cooler
and firmer. It is not totally solid; rather, it is fragmented into many areas or blocks.
The highest layer of the mantle below the lithosphere is known as the asthenosphere. This layer is
anywhere between 100 and 700 kilometers deep. It can withstand extremely high pressure from above and
below that remains as tar. Despite being denser than the lithosphere, it is always moving because of the
planet's rotation and gravitational pull.

10. Discuss briefly the two measures of an earthquake.

Two different viewpoints underpin the most important measurements related to earthquakes: magnitude
and intensity.
Magnitude describes the overall size of an earthquake as an event on the earth. Magnitude represents
the total energy the earthquake radiates, and is calculated using the information on how large an area moves the
distance that one side of the fault moves past the other, and the rigidity of the rock.
Intensity describes how strong the shaking is at a given location. This definition of intensity requires a
subjective judgment by an observer. For instance, if the shaking is strong enough to awaken most people, then the
intensity will be assigned a level of V.

11. Write short notes on

a. Seismograph
Seismographs are devices that measure and record crucial data about earthquakes. Electromagnetic
sensors in seismographs convert ground vibrations into electrical voltages.
A seismograph is a tool that helps scientists detect earthquakes and measure various aspects of the event,
such as the time the earthquake occurred, the epicenter, which is the point on the Earth's surface where the
earthquake occurred, the depth below the epicenter, and the energy released by the quake.

b. Modified Mercalli scale

Giuseppe Mercalli created the Mercalli intensity scale in 1902; it was later modified to create the
Modified Mercalli intensity scale (MM, MMI, or MCS). In contrast to seismic magnitude scales, which
measure the earthquake's inherent energy or intensity, it evaluates the impacts of an earthquake at a specific
site (such as the "Mw" magnitude usually reported for an earthquake). While an earthquake's seismic energy
is what causes shaking, different earthquakes have varying amounts of energy that are emitted as seismic
waves. Deeper earthquakes also interact with the surface less and disperse their energy across a wider area.
The magnitude of the shaking is limited and typically decreases with increasing distance from the
earthquake's epicenter, but it can increase in sedimentary basins and in some types of unconsolidated soils.

c. Seismic design theory

For structures built in places where earthquakes are a probability, seismic design is completed. In
addition, whether or not they are close to a plate boundary, significant structures like dams, high-rise
skyscrapers, etc. are checked for earthquakes and designed accordingly.
 d. Strong ground motion
Strong ground motion, as used in seismology, refers to an earthquake's shaking that happens close to
(less than around 50 km distant) the fault that caused it. Strong ground motion typically requires the use of
accelerographs (or strong ground motion accelerometers) for recording since the power of the shaking
involved overwhelms a seismometer. Strong ground motion research also addresses how fault rupture might
vary in terms of total displacement, energy released, and rupture velocity.

e. Tsunamis
Giant waves known as tsunamis are brought on by earthquakes or underwater volcanic eruptions. The
height of tsunami waves does not substantially rise as they approach the ocean's depths. Yet, as the waves
move inland, the ocean's depth declines, causing them to rise to ever-higher heights. Rather than the distance
from the wave's source, the speed of tsunami waves is determined by the depth of the ocean. Across deep
waters, tsunami waves may move as quickly as jet jets, only slowing down when they encounter shallow
waters. Oceanographers advise against calling tsunamis "tidal waves" because the tides have little to do with
these enormous waves.

12. Describe briefly the direct and indirect effects of an earthquake.

The direct effect of an earthquake is it brings lots of devastation, and kill peoples, while the indirect effect
of an earthquake is it changes the earth’s surface, and sometimes up and down the earth’s surface.

13. On what is the assignment of an earthquake’s magnitude based? Is magnitude the same as intensity?
Explain.
Earthquake magnitude is a measure of the “size,” or amplitude, of the seismic waves generated by an
earthquake source and recorded by seismographs.
Magnitude and intensity are not the same. The difference between magnitude and intensity is that
magnitude is the measurement of the actual size of the earthquake, whereas intensity measures the strength of the
earthquake in terms of the actual shaking of the ground due to the earthquake. Intensity measurement relies on the
damage caused by the earthquake.

14. An earthquake caused an average of 2.6 m strike-slip displacement over a 75 km long, 22 km deep portion
of a transform fault. Assuming the average rupture strength along the fault as 180 kPa, estimate the
seismic moment and moment magnitude of the earthquake.

15. What is liquefaction and what danger can liquefaction caused to structures? Is there any mitigation you
can suggest in case the structure that your client wants to build will be located to such foundation prone to
liquefaction?
A phenomenon known as liquefaction occurs when the soil beneath a structure becomes unstable as a
result of severe ground movements like earthquakes or explosions during construction. Since liquefaction can
seriously destroy buildings and utility infrastructure and result in insurance claims, the word is frequently used in
the insurance sector. The quick loss of support experienced by buildings and structures whose foundations are on
liquefaction-affected soil may cause a drastic and irregular settlement of the building, leading to foundation
cracking and damage to the building structure itself.
 Planning for the risk by putting in place tactics to help decrease or stop it requires first identifying
potential risks to a project, such as team turnover, product failure, or scope creep.
There are other ways to reduce hazards in risk management, even if accepting risk is frequently thought to
be the right decision. It is perfect for hazards that could have a significant negative effect on a project or business.
With the use of technology, policies and procedures, training, and education, managers can reduce risk.

16. List the major deadly earthquakes happened and recorded in the Philippines till the present time. State
what year it was happened and what location. What damages it has done.

Ten deadliest recorded earthquakes in the Philippines since the 1600s

Magnitude Location Date Deaths Missing Injured Damage
The quake caused a
devastating tsunami that
had hit the 700 km
coastline of the island
of Mindanao bordering
Moro Gulf in the North
Celebes Sea. The major
cause of the great
1 8.0 Moro August 16, 4,791 2,288 9,928 number of casualties
Gulf 1976 during the event could
be attributed to the fact
that the quake happened
just after midnight when
most people were
sleeping; and a great
tsunami was spawned,
struck the coasts from
different directions and
caught the people
unaware.
It caused severe damage
to major cities in
Luzon: Dagupan (soil
liquefaction), Baguio,
and Cabanatuan; Hyatt
Terraces Baguio
collapsed. Damage to
buildings,
infrastructures, and
properties, a part of
which was caused by
ground rupturing.
However, some houses
Luzon July 16, Php 10 within 1–2 m on either
2 7.8 Island 1990 1,621 1,000 >3,000 Billion side of the ground
rupture survived owing
to their light-weight
construction while those
built of reinforced
concrete within this zone
suffered partial damage.
Damage beyond 2m
depended mainly on the
structural integrity of the
building and effects of
local topography and
ground conditions.
 A disastrous earthquake,
comparable with that of
1645. Laid in ruins the
cathedral and nearly all
the other churches,
except San Agustin, the
palace of the Governor-
General, the Audiencia,
the barracks,
warehouses, etc.; all in
all, 46 public buildings
in ruins and 25 others
June 3, badly damaged. Of
3 Unknown Manila 1863 1,000 private houses 570 were
destroyed, 531 left
tottering. Total, 1,172
buildings in ruins or
badly damaged. The
catastrophe likewise
involved many towns in
Rizal, Laguna, and
Cavite, where it
destroyed churches and a
great number of houses.

The most terrible

earthquake recorded in
the annals of the
Archipelago. It might
almost be said that from
Manila
to Cagayan and Ilocos
Norte it left no stone
upon the other. In the
capital, where during the
preceding fifty years a
great number of stone
buildings had been
erected, magnificent
churches, palaces, and
public buildings, as well
Luzon November
as private residences and
4 7.5 Island 30, 1645 >600 >3,000 Unknown
villas, the destruction
was frightful. Ten
churches were wrecked
entirely, to wit: the
Royal Chapel, Cathedral,
Santo Domingo, those of
the Recollects and
Franciscans, Santiago,
San Antonio, Nuestra
Señora de Guia, and the
parish churches
of Binondo and San
Miguel; only San
Agustin and the Jesuit
Church remained
standing. Twelve
monasteries, colleges,
and hospitals were
likewise converted into
ruins. The palace of the
Governor-General fared
no better, the Real
Audiencia and up to 150
of the finest residences
which, as one author
puts it, "in other cities
 would have been
considerable palaces."
The rest of the private
houses were damaged to
so great an extent that
the majority had to be
demolished. The number
of persons killed
exceeded 600 and the
total of killed and
injured is stated to have
been 3,000.
At least 500 people were
killed and many houses
Mati, April 14, were destroyed. A
5 8.1 Davao 1924 ~500 destructive tsunami was
Oriental also generated, which
was observed as far
away as Balut
Island, Sarangani Bay.
The quake killed
6 7.4 Lanao del April 1, >400 Unknown US $5 between 225-465 people
Sur 1955 Million and injured 868-898
others.
A magnitude 7.6
earthquake
struck Casiguran,
Aurora, on August 2,
1968, at the depth of
approximately 31 km
7 7.6 Casigura, August 2, 271 261 (19 mi). It was
Aurora 1968 considered the most
severe and destructive
earthquake experienced
in the Philippines during
the last 20 years. 270
people were reported
dead and 261 were
injured.
It affected the whole
Central Visayas region,
particularly Bohol
and Cebu. The
earthquake was felt in
the whole Visayas area
and as far
as Masbate island in the
Php 4 north
8 7.2 Bohol and October 15, 222 8 796 Billion and Cotabato provinces
Cebu 2013 (est.) in southern Mindanao.
It was the deadliest
earthquake in the
Philippines in 23 years
since the 1990 Luzon
earthquake. The energy
released by the quake
was equivalent to 32 of
the bombs dropped in
Hiroshima.
The degree and extent of
damage caused by the
earthquake was
9 6.7 Negros February 6, 51 62 112 Php 383
significant, with most of
Oriental 2012 Million
the damage sustained
during the initial
earthquake. The towns
that experienced the
 most damage were the
towns
of Tayasan, Jimalalud, L
a Libertad, and the city
of Guihulngan,
in Negros Oriental.
Several houses and
buildings collapsed,
while others sustained
more minor damage. The
earthquake also triggered
numerous landslides
which buried houses and
people, including in the
areas of Barangay
Solongon, La
Libertad and
Planas, Guihulngan.
Telecommunication
services were disrupted
after the earthquake.
A magnitude 7.1
earthquake
struck Mindoro on
10 7.1 Mindoro November 78 430 Php 5.15 November 15, 1994 at
15, 1994 Million depth of 15 km (9.3 mi).
The quake caused a
tsunami killed 41 people,
injured 250, and
destroyed 1530 houses.