Principles of Microeconomics 2 All Units One Shot Notes by Ease

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PRINCIPLES OF MICROECONOMICS-II
Unit 1: Market Structures
➢ LESSON 1 MONOPOLY
Monopoly has been derived from the combination of words ‘Mono + Polein’ where
‘mono’ means single and ‘polein’ means to sell. So, monopoly can be defined as a
market structure where there is a single seller selling a product for which there is
no close substitute available and there are barriers to enter the market
★Features of Monopoly:
1. Single Seller – In a monopoly there is just one seller of a product or service, so

there is no difference between the firm and industry. The demand curve facing
the monopolist is thus the market demand curve.
2. No close Substitutes – For a monopolist to retain its position in the long run, it is
essential that the firm sells a unique product which cannot be substituted by any
other product or service.
3. No Entry – A monopolist usually earns supernormal profits in the long run as
there is no entry of the new firms in the industry. So, the profit earned by the
monopolist is not wiped out as in the case of perfect competition where presence
of supernormal profits attracts new firms in the industry.
4. Goal of Profit Maximization – The goal of a monopolist firm is to maximize the
profits. How it maximizes the profits would be discussed under the next heading.
5. Absence of Supply Curve – In perfect competition there is a one to one relation
between price and quantity supplied.
Demand Curve under Monopoly

Total Revenue, Average Revenue and Marginal

Revenue Under Monopoly
ABSENCE OF SUPPLY CURVE IN MONOPOLY

A monopolist firm has no supply curve as there is no one to one relation between
price and quantity supplied due to the fact that here demand curve is not constant
but is downward sloping. So, the quantity supplied at different prices depend
upon the shape of the demand curve (elasticity) and marginal cost curve as
equilibrium is obtained by the intersection of marginal revenue and marginal
cost curve.
Degree of Monopoly Power

Monopoly is a condition with only one seller having no close substitutes which
gives monopolist the freedom to set the price. However, such pure monopoly
rarely exists and what we have is the situation where several firms compete with
one another. In perfect competition, each firm earns only normal profits in the
long run because in the short run if there is any supernormal profit, new firms
enter the market till all the excess profit is wiped out and all firms set their
equilibrium quantity at a point where marginal revenue is equal to marginal cost.
As in perfect competition the price is constant, it is equal to marginal revenue and
hence the equilibrium is:
Price = MR = MC
But in case of monopoly demand curve is downward sloping, therefore P > MR
and equilibrium condition being MR = MC, we get a difference between price and
MC as P > MC. This gap between price and MC shows the extent of monopoly
power that a firm possesses.
Abba Lerner, an economist, gave an index in 1934 to measure this monopoly

power and it is called Lerner’s Index of Monopoly Power.
L = (P–MC) / P = – 1/ Ed where 0 ≤ L < 1
The more is the elasticity of the demand curve the lesser is the monopoly power
and the lesser is the elasticity of the demand curve the more is the monopoly
power.
For perfect competition as P = MC; L = 0, there being no monopoly power.
The closer the value of L to 1, the higher is the monopoly power.

➢ LESSON 2 SOME APPLICATIONS OF MONOPOLY
There are two costs that arise because of monopoly:

1. Dead Weight Loss: It is net loss to the society that includes both producers and
consumers. To understand the concept of dead weight loss we need to explain
consumer surplus and producer surplus and see how these changes because of
monopoly power.
Consumer Surplus – The difference between the price that consumer is willing to
pay and what he actually pays is known as consumer surplus. Graphically it can
be located as the difference between the demand curve and the equilibrium price
Producer Surplus – The difference between the price that producer actually gets
and the price at which he is willing and able to sell is called producer surplus.
Graphically it can be located as the difference between the equilibrium price and
the marginal cost (supply) curve.
COMPARISON OF PERFECT COMPETITION WITH MONOPOLY
1. Number of Sellers: Pure competition has many buyers and sellers whereas there is just
one seller in the monopoly.
2. Substitute Products: In Pure competition all firms sell identical (homogeneous)

products unlike monopoly where there are no close substitutes available.
3. Entry and Exit of Firms: Pure competition provides free entry and exit to the firms
though it is possible only in the long run while monopoly prevents entry of any new firm
to the industry.
4. Profits in the Long run: In perfect competition firms earn normal profits in the long run
while monopolist usually has supernormal profits because of barriers to entry and exit.
5. Demand curve of the firm: The firm in a perfect competition firm has no control over
the price asit isthe industry which fixesthe price, the demand curve therefore is a straight
line parallel to X axis at the price given by the industry. But in the case of monopoly there
is only one firm and there is no difference between the firm and the industry and market
demand curve which is downward sloping is the demand curve of the firm itself.
6. Social cost: A perfectly competitive industry sets its equilibrium at a point where
demand and supply are equal; hence there is no cost to the society. Monopolist sets a
price according to MR = MC where P > MC which brings cost to the society.
7. Price Discrimination: A perfectly competitive industry cannot discriminate on the

basis of price whereas a monopolist can follow price discrimination.
8. Supply curve of the firm: A perfectly competitive firm has one to one relation between
price and quantity supplied which is shown by the supply curve which is the segment of
marginal cost over and above the minimum point of short run average variable cost
curve. However, there is no supply curve in case of monopoly as same quantity can be
sold at two different prices or two different quantities can be sold at the same price
depending upon the shape of demand curve and marginal cost curve.
9. Price and output comparison: Perfectly competitive firm sells a larger output and that
too at a lesser price as compared to a monopolist that sells less and at a higher price.
PRICE DISCRIMINATION
Pigou has described three degrees of price discrimination on the basis of how much
consumer surplus the monopolist can take away from the consumers.
1. First Degree Price Discrimination: There are two types of first-degree price
discrimination
2. Second Degree Price Discrimination: A form of price discrimination where different

prices are charged from consumers on the basis of quantity being purchased. Thus, more
are the units purchased lesser is the price.
3. Third Degree Price Discrimination: A discrimination that charges different prices from
different subgroups of the market for the same product with different elasticities thereby
charging a higher price in the subgroup that has lower elasticity and charging lower price
in the subgroup that has higher elasticity.
For the firm to successfully follow third degree price discrimination, following conditions
should be satisfied:
NATURAL MONOPOLY
Natural Monopoly occurs in case of Public utilities like Electricity, water supply,
telephone services, etc., where initial cost of the Plant remains higher but after that cost
starts falling and output increases. That’s why under Natural Monopoly Average Cost and
Marginal Cost Curves are downward sloping and MC is always lower (below) Average
Cost.
ANTITRUST LAWS
Antitrust laws reduce market power and promote competition in market as we know that
monopoly power creates social cost due to inefficient allocation of resources. The
antitrust laws also limit possible anticompetitive behaviour of the firm.
Sherman Act, passed in 1890, prohibits contracts, combinations, or

conspiracies in restraint of trade.
The Clayton Act (1914) prohibits mergers and acquisitions which create
monopoly power.
Federal Trade commission Act (1914, amended in 1938, 1973, 1995)
supplements the Sherman and the Clayton acts by increasing competition.
➢ LESSON 3 MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION
FEATURES OF MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION

1. There are large number of buyers and sellers in the market.
2. Product Differentiation and Close Substitutes: Unlike perfect competition, the

firms under monopolistic competition sell differentiated products which are close
substitutes of each other. Close substitute products are those products whose
uses, production technology and respective prices are almost similar. However,
these products can be different in terms of presentation, style, packaging, colour
and branding, etc. For example, take the product toothpaste.
3. Selling Cost: Firms under monopolistic competition incur selling cost besides
production cost in the form of advertising, dealership or for adoption of other
marketing strategies.
4. There is free entry and exit from the market.
5. Price and Non-price competition: Firms under monopolistic competition are

seen to be indulging in both Price and Non-price competition.
6. There is lack of perfect knowledge about cost of product, demand and other
market conditions.
7. There is absence of perfect mobility of factors in the market due to lack of

perfect knowledge.
AVERAGE AND MARGINAL REVENUE CURVES UNDER MONOPOLISTIC

COMPETITION
PERFECT VS MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION: A COMPARISON
(1) Equality of MC and MR determines the equilibrium of a firm under all

market conditions. However, under perfect competition, by definition,
AR always equals MR.
(2) Under perfect competition, a single price prevails in the market and all
firms equate their MCs with the market price. By implication, the MCs of
all firms in the industry are equal. Equality of MCs ensures efficiency in
the industry
(3) Under perfect competition long-run equilibrium takes place necessarily

at the lowest point on the AC curve whereas under imperfect
competition it takes place to the left of the lowest point on the AC
curves. From this, it follows that level of output under perfect
competition will be optimum while under imperfect competition it will
be less than optimum. In other words, under imperfect competition
productive capacity is underutilized.
➢ LESSON 4 OLIGOPOLY
Oligopoly has been derived from Oligo + Polein, Oligo meaning few and polein
means to sell. Oligopoly can thus be defined as: “A market structure
characterized by few large sellers selling homogeneous or differentiated
products, having strong barriers to entry and exit and firms recognize their
mutual interdependence.” When oligopolist firms are selling homogeneous
products, it is called pure oligopoly and if they are selling differentiated
products then it is called impure oligopoly.
Characteristics of Oligopoly
1.Few Large Sellers: Oligopoly consists of just few sellers that control the whole
market and hence the market share of each seller is quite large.
2. Homogeneous or Differentiated Products: Oligopoly can be pure oligopoly

where the sellers are selling homogeneous products like in the case of LPG
cylinders or it can be impure oligopoly where sellers are selling differentiated
products like in case of automobile industry.
3. Strong Barriers to Entry and Exit: New firms are not prohibited from entering
the market though there are strong barriers that hinder their entry, it can be
because of the cost advantage of the existing firms, economies of scale that
existing firms enjoy or huge capital requirements or any such reason.
4. Interdependence: This is one of the most significant and distinguishing features

of oligopoly firms, that arises because of the fact that there are few firms and
share of each firm is quite significant.
5. Advertisement: It is one of the instruments that the oligopoly firms frequently

use and it is one of the most powerful weapons that they can use against the
rivals. Instead of changing the prices often, firms go for this as prices are usually
rigid because of the fear that price changes can lead to a price war.
BEHAVIOUR OF OLIGOPOLY FIRMS

Long-Run Behaviour: the Importance of Entry Barriers
In the long run, when oligopolistic firms earn abnormal profits by increasing their
prices over and above total average cost, new firms are attracted to this industry.
In such a situation, entry barriers become important for the existing firms to
sustain the abnormal profits. In the absence of natural oligopolists do create
barriers to restrict the new firms.
Some of the firm-created barriers are as follows:
(a) Brand Proliferation – It is a situation when the existing firms under oligopoly
produce multiple products with differentiated features and capture major share
in the market due to their brand image. For example in the automobile industry
all existing branded companies produce various models of cars with different
features.
(b) Set-up Costs – Oligopolistic firms can restrict entry of new firms by imposing
high fixed cost. This becomes possible in an industry where sales are promoted by
huge advertisement. Oligopolistic firms spend a huge amount on advertisement to
shift the demand in their favour.
(c) Predatory Pricing – It is a situation when the existing firms in oligopolistic

market cut their prices below costs when they expect that new firms will enter
the market. A new firm will not enter the market if it expects losses after entry.
New firms are often discouraged by the existing firms through predatory pricing.
MODELS OF NON-COLLUSIVE OLIGOPOLY

Cournot Model
STACKELBERG MODEL – FIRST MOVER ADVANTAGE

Cournot model assumed that both the firms set their output simultaneously
however Stackelberg model assumes that the firms do not take their decision
simultaneously. There are two firms in this model where one sets its output first
and then the second firm enters. This model is based on the following
assumptions:
➢ LESSON 5 COLLUSIVE OLIGOPOLY
MODELS OF COLLUSIVE OLIGOPOLY

Collusive Oligopoly can be divided into two parts:
1. Implicit collusion
(a) Price Leadership by a Dominant Firm
2. Explicit Collusion – Here we have the following models:
(a) Cartels : OPEC and CIPEC
(b) Centralized Cartel
Implicit Collusion – Price Leadership Model

A form of collusion where the firms try to avoid the uncertainty related to the
rival’s action is Price Leadership model where one firm sets the price and others
follow it not because it is obligatory but because it is implicit, as otherwise it
would create unnecessary competition and reduce the combined profits. There
can be various types of price leadership, the most common are as follows:
1. Price Leadership by a Low cost firm

2. Barometric Price Leadership
3. Price Leadership by a Dominant Firm
Explicit collusion
From Implicit collusion, now we move to the Explicit collusion and the most
common one is Cartels. Cartels would be studied under three heads as given
below:
1. OPEC – Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. It was formed in 1960

and presently has 14 countries that are part of this cartel.
2. CIPEC – Intergovernmental Council of Countries Exporters of Copper. It was

formed in 1967 and presently has 8 members.
3. Centralized Cartel – When all the firms in an oligopoly join the explicit cartel, it
is known as centralized cartel.
PRISONER’S DILEMMA
Prisoner’s Dilemma is a model that explains how oligopolist firms could act to
their mutual disadvantage. The prisoner’s dilemma is a paradox in decision
analysis in which two individuals acting in their own best interest pursue a
course of action that does not result in the ideal outcome. It shows why firms
cheat and get a worse result than what would have been if they would have
cooperated. It is based on the concept of Game Theory, a mathematical technique
that helps in understanding the nature of interdependence among rival firms that
are faced with uncertainty in their pricing and output decision.
UNIT 2: CONSUMER AND PRODUCER THEORY
➢ LESSON 6 CONSUMER AND PRODUCER THEORY IN ACTION
COST CHANGES
Costs for an industry can change for a variety of reasons.
1. A common reason for a change in costs for an industry is a change in the price
of some input used by the industry. We can think of several recent examples:
Wheat prices in India have gone up sharply since 2006. This has increased the
costs for several industries. For instance, restaurants and hotels, manufactures of
bread and biscuits, etc., have seen their costs escalate in recent times as a result
of the increase in wheat price.
2. Technological changes might also lead to changes in costs. For example,

technological advances over the last few decades have drastically reduced the
costs of several industries. Computers and mobile phones are some of the
examples that immediately come to mind if one wants to see evidence of a
dramatic reduction in costs over a very short span of time due to technological
advancement.
3. Another common reason for a change in costs is a change in taxes paid by the
firmsin the industry. In India, every year industry watchers eagerly wait for the
budget speech of the Finance Minister in the Lok Sabha to analyze the impact of
changes in excise and customs duties on a wide variety of industries like iron and
steel, cement, cars, petroleum products, etc.
4. Acts of nature might also be an important source of costs changes for some
industries.Winter fog in Delhi, for instance, increasesthe costsfor aviation
industry because it leads to delays in landing and take-off of aircrafts and
sometimes might even result in cancellation of flights.
CHANGES IN TECHNOLOGY
We will analyse the short run and long-term impact of two kinds of technological
changes.
1. A once-for-all-change in technology
2. A continuous process of technological change

• A once-for-all-change in technology : Assume that the industry starts from a

situation where there has been no change in technology for a long time and
all firms have the same cost curves. Further, suppose that the industry is
initially in a state of long run equilibrium.
• Ongoing technological change: We can generalize the analysis of the

previoussection to consider the outcome in a competitive industry where
there is a continuous technological change. Plants built today have lower
costs than plants that were built in the past. However, costs are expected to
be even lower for plants that might be built at a future date. It is clear from
the analysis of previous section that ongoing technological progress will
lead to a continuous process of entry of newer lower cost firms. The market
price will continually decline. However, older plants will not necessarily be
shut down as soon as plants with better and lower cost technology make an
appearance. Owners of old plants will continue to operate them as long as
they cover their variable costs.
EFFECTS OF TAXATION ON COMPETITIVE INDUSTRY
1.Per-unit tax: It is a tax that is levied on each unit produced by the

firm. In a way it can be said to be another cost to the firm. As a result of per
unit tax (say sales tax) the marginal cost of the firm shifts up by the amount
of the tax.
i. In the short run the price of the output will rise but by less than the
amount of the tax. So, the tax burden will be shared by consumers
and producers. The consumers pay higher price than before and
producers do not cover their average total costs
ii. In the long run, some firms who do not cover their costs may leave
the Industry. The industry will contract (fall in size) and losses will
disappear. If the cost curves of existing firms remain unaffected due
to contraction of the industry then price will rise by full amount of
the tax. In such a case the burden of the tax will be totally on the
consumers.
2.Lump-sum tax: Lump sum tax is a kind of fixed cost of the firm. It
increases the total cost of the firm and industry. The marginal costs and
marginal revenues remain unaffected. The average cost curve shifts up due to
tax at the existing level of output. Lumpsum tax reduces the revenue. As long as
the firm is able to recover its variable costs, it will remain in business
otherwise it will shut down in the short run. Lump sum tax does not affect price
and output in the short run.
(3) Tax on profits: From the economists’ point of view the firm in perfect
competition earns normal profit or zero economic profit in the long run. So, on
this basis a tax on profits will neither affect price nor output of a competitive
industry in equilibrium. So, it will also not affect allocation of resources.
➢ LESSON 7 MARKET FAILURE
The aim and objectives of market should be as follows:

1. There should be efficient production of goods by making use ofthe available
resources. It being assumed that there are only two factors of production, i.e.,
labour and capital and their quantity is fixed, both have to be optimally
utilized to produce two commodities.
2. The goods being produced should be efficiently distributed amongst the

consumers in the economy. This happens only when the distribution amongst
the consumers is such that it is not possible to increase the satisfaction of one
consumer without decreasing the satisfaction of the other.
3. The output mix should be efficient such that the output is distributed
amongst the consumers in such a manner that the marginal rate of
substitution and marginal rate of transformation are equal.
MARKET FAILURE
Market failure refers to failure of market mechanism to achieve efficient

allocation of resources in the economy allowing a smooth circular flow of income.
There are several factors responsible for market failure. They are as follows:
(i) Lack of competition among firms and presence of market power in the
form of oligopoly or monopoly which is also called imperfect
competition. There is presence of excess capacity in these markets and
price exceeds marginal cost causing allocative inefficiency by reducing
consumers and producers combined surplus.
(ii) Provision of public goods whose consumption cannot be only restricted

to those who can pay for them and common property resources whose
owners are none but users are everybody.
(iii) Problems of externalities in both consumption and production wherein

action of one agent affects another in the society.
(iv) Asymmetric information which creates a situation where one party to a

market transaction has more knowledge of its consequences than the
knowledge available to the other party.
(v) If there are missing markets, i.e., needed markets do not exist at all.
Market failure does not mean that nothing good is happening in the
market but it means that the best possible outcome has not been
attained. It arises in the following cases:
1. Asymmetric information: Asymmetric information means that the

buyers and sellers do not possess the same set of information, one having a
better or more set of information as compared to the other and hence is
better off.
2. Insurance Market: Here also the problem is because of asymmetric

information but unlike the used cars, here it is buyer of the insurance
policy that isin possession of better and more information. It also leads to
adverse selection.
3. Market Signalling: The problem of adverse selection can be reduced or

even eliminated by market signalling wherein the producer gives signals
about better quality of its products to the buyers thereby preventing the
outflow of such goods from the market as happened in the Lemons
problem. Thus the buyers are able to differentiate between high quality
and low quality products and it gives the sellers an advantage as they are
able to sell high quality products at a higher price.
4. Moral Hazard Problem: This problem generally arises in case of

insurance where if an individual is insured then there are greater chances
of him being negligent about the subject matter of the insurance. Moral
hazard refers to a situation where you do not behave in a manner that you
are expected to in case there has been no one else to share the loss.
5. Principal Agent Problem: In a modern world there is separation of

ownership and management where the principal or the owners are the
shareholders whereas the organization is managed by the agents or the
managers. Because of this separation of ownership from management

arises the principal– agent problem.
PUBLIC GOODS
Generally, a commodity that is supplied by the government is known as public
good but in economics the term is somewhat different as for a good to be called
public good it should fulfill the following two characteristics:
1. Non-Rival – Consumption by one consumer does not restrict consumption

by other consumers – in other words the marginal cost of supplying a public
good to an extra person is zero. If it is supplied to one person, it is available
to all.
2. Non-Excludable – The benefits derived from public goods cannot be

confined solely to those who have paid for it. Non-payers who have not paid
anything for the production of the commodity too can enjoy the benefits of
consumption at no financial cost and economists call this the ‘free-rider’
problem. This leads to market failure as once the commodity is produced it
can be enjoyed by all and therefore there is problem in the initiation that is
who will pay for it.
FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENT
Basic functions of government: According to Classical economist Adam Smith
government must-perform two basic duties:
a) Government must protect the society from the violence and invasion of
other independent societies.
b) Government must protect, as far as possible, every member of the society

from injustice or oppression of every other member of it. In the sphere of
economy this implies that government must provide security of property
and define and enforce property rights that give people a secure claim to
the fruits of their own labour and allow markets to function efficiently.
PUBLIC POLICY TOWARDS MONOPOLY AND COMPETITION

We have already seen that monopoly is allocatively inefficient because of lower
output and price being higher than marginal cost which causes dead weight loss
to the society. This calls for government intervention. Government intervention
can take several forms as given below:
i. Government may ask monopoly firm to produce at a price equal to

marginal cost. This is not a problem if the monopolist continues to earn
profit at marginal cost pricing.But in case of natural monopoly marginal
cost pricing will create losses to the firm.
ii. Even controlling price at average cost level may be inefficient again for
natural monopoly. As in panel-2 of Figure 7.5 P1 is average cost price which
is higher and the corresponding output, is below competitive level of Q0 .
iii. Since both marginal cost and average cost pricing do not yield desired
result for natural monopolies, they are directly taken over by government
itself in many countries.
iv. Technological changes have made many natural monopolies behave like
competitive industry. So, government policies must adjust itself to
continuous technological change.
v. Due to failure of government as business organization there have been a

wave of privatization recently in many countries including India. Many
nationalized industries have been privatized in the UK. Disinvestment of
public sector unitsin India is another example.
UNIT 3: INCOME DISTRIBUTION AND FACTOR PRICING
➢ LESSON 8 MARKET FOR FACTOR INPUTS DEMAND AND

SUPPLY OF FACTORS
INTRODUCTION
The total output of an economy is the result of the joint productive efforts of
the various factors of production; land, labour, capital and enterprise. This
total output ultimately gets distributed among the factors that contributed to
its production in the form of wages, rent, interest and profit. The purpose of
the theory of distribution is to explain the principles that govern this
distribution. There are two aspects of the factorial distribution of national
income;
(i) Determination of the per unit prices of the different factors and
(ii) The division of the national income as between the different factors, i.e.,
absolute and relative shares of different factors in national income
THE DEMAND FOR FACTORS
1. The Nature of the Demand for a Factor

Why does a producer demand a factor? The demand for a factor is derived
(or indirect) and not direct demand. The demand for a commodity is direct
in the sense that it directly satisfies some human want. The demand for a
factor, on the other hand, is not direct in this sense. A factor is demanded
not for its own sake, but simply because it can contribute to the production
of some commodity demanded by the consumers. For example, a farmer
pays rent for the use of land simply because it helps to produce, let us say,
wheat which is demanded by the consumers. Similarly, he pays for seeds
and fertilizers because they help to produce commodities, which are
demanded by the consumers.
2. Different Concepts of Marginal Product

There are three different senses in which the concept of marginal product
(MP) is used. Firstly, it may be used to express the addition made to the
total physical product of a producer due to the employment of an
additional unit of a factor, the amounts of all other factors remaining
constant We call this additional physical product as the marginal physical
product (MPP). For example, if by employing 11 labourers on a given piece
of land instead of 10, the total wheat output of a farmer increases from 200
quintals of rice to 220 quintals, then the MPP of the 11th unit of labour will
be said to be 20 quintals. Thus, the MPP of a factor is the addition made to
the total physical output of a producer due to the employment of an
additional unit of a factor while keeping the amounts of all other factors
constant.
3. Relation between MRP and VMP

MRP equals MPP × MR while VMP equals MPP × AR MPP is common to both
concepts. MPP depends solely on the technical conditions of production
while MR and AR depend upon the structure of commodity market where
the firm sells its output. If the firm sells its output on a perfectly
competitive commodity market, it will be faced with a perfectly elastic
demand curve and its AR and MR will then be identical.
4. The Shape of the MRP Curve

The demand for a factor is derived from its MRP. MRP, as we have seen
above depends upon MPP and MR. The behaviour of MRP will thus depend
upon the behaviours of its components with changes in the quantity of the
variable factor employed. Under a given set of conditions, the behaviour of
MPP is determined by the operation of the law of diminishing returns (or
the law of variable proportions). The law states that as more units of a
variable factor are used with a given amount of other factors, after a point
its MPP starts diminishing, provided there is no change in the state of
technology.
5. Market Demand Curve for a Factor

MRP curve is the firm’s demand curve for the factor in question on the
assumption that changes in the price of the factor do not, directly or
indirectly, affect the price of the commodity produced and hence the given
MRP curve. This assumption would be valid only if all other firms in the
industry keep their outputs fixed. However, this is not a realistic
assumption. In the event of a fall in the price of a variable factor we would
expect all firms in the industry to employ more of this relatively cheaper
factor. This would increase the total output of the industry and cause the
price of the commodity to fall.
SUPPLY OF FACTORS
1. Supply of Factors to the Whole Economy

At first glance it may appear that quantities of most factors are fixed in an
economy. For example, there is an upper limit to the number of workers.
Similarly, there are upper limits to quantities of coal, oil, copper, iron ore, etc.,
available in the economy.
2. Supply of Land
Land in economics includes all natural resources provided free by nature. The
quantity of a particular natural resource existing in the world is, of course,
limited. But we are never near these upper limits. Generally large undiscovered
(or unexploited) sources exist and a shortage that raises their prices encourages
exploration, research and development of previously unprofitable sources.
3. Supply of Labour
By the supply of labour (or the supply of effort) we mean the total number of
hours of work that the population is willing to supply. The supply of effort
depends upon the following factors:
(i) The size of the population: The size of the population sets the upper
limit to the total of labour. While there is some evidence that the birth
and immigration rates are higher in good times than in bad times, it is
doubtful especially in advanced economies, whether economic factors are
of paramount importance in determining the growth of population.
(ii) The proportion of the population willing to work: The proportion

of the population entering the labour market varies considerably in
response to variations in the wage rate. Generally, a rise in the wage rate
results in an increase in the proportion of the population willing to work.
Women, old people and even young boys are induced to join the labour
force when the wage rate is high.
(iii) The number of hours of work offered by each individual

worker: By hiring out his services a labourer gets some money as his
wage. With this money he purchases goods and services for his
consumption. Thus, the labourer trades his leisure for goods, by giving up
leisure (i.e., by working) he gets money, and hence, goods. A rise in the
wage rate means that there is a change in the relative price of goods and
leisure. Leisure becomes dearer- relative-to goods (since each hour of
leisure consumed now is at the cost of more goods forgone), or

alternatively, goods become cheaper relative to leisure since each hour
worked (i.e., leisure traded for goods) now results in more goods than
before.
4. Supply of Capital
Capital is a man-made factor of production and interest is its cost. The supply
of capital in a country consists or the existing machines plants, equipment,
buildings, etc., and is called the Capital Stock. In the course of production
during the year a part of the existing capital stock is used up and to that
extent the supply diminishes.
5. Supply of factors to particular uses

Different factors of production can normally be put to alternative uses. Only
few resources may be specific to a particular use and that too only in the
short run. A given piece of land can be used to grow a variety of crops.
Similarly, a labourer can be employed either to weave cloth in a factory or to
build a road or to dig a canal or to grow various crops on a farm.
6. Supply of a factor to an individual firm

In a factor market a firm may be either one of a large number of purchasers
or one of the few purchasers of a particular factor. If the firm is one of a large
number of purchasers of the same factor, its purchases will constitute a
negligibly small fraction of the total market supply of the Factor. As a result,
the firm would be able to purchase any amount of the factor at the going
market price.
➢ LESSON 9 FACTOR PRICING
INTRODUCTION
How Pricing of the factors of production that are used to produce the
commodity is determined. It is not only dependent on the demand and supply
of the factor itself but also on the productivity of the factor. There is however
few differences between the pricing of a commodity and a factor of production
like:
1. Demand for a factor of production is not direct but indirect demand as it is

dependent on the demand for the commodity for which it is used. If there is
no demand for that commodity then the factor too would not be demanded.
For example if a particular type of labour is used in manufacture of tyres
and if demand for tyres increases then the demand for the labour too
would increase and vice versa.
2. Demand for a factor of production is a joint demand as no commodity can
be produced by using just one type of factor of production. A particular
combination of different factors of production is needed to produce a
commodity. Though the factors of production can be substituted for each
other but this substitution is not infinite.
As done in the commodities market that there can be various types of market
structures starting from perfect competition on one extreme and monopoly on
the other extreme, similarly in the factor market too price determination is
done under the following conditions:
1. Perfect competition in both the product (commodity) market and factor

market.
2. Imperfect Competition in product market and perfect competition in
factor market.
3. Perfect Competition in product market and imperfect competition in the
factor market.
4. Imperfect competition in both product and factor market.
MARGINAL PRODUCTIVITY THEORY

The theory explains the demand for factors of production based on the belief that
a profit maximizing firm would employ a factor of production after analyzing its
marginal productivity (benefit to the firm) and its cost to the firm. The theory is
based on the Law of diminishing marginal returns which states that as more and
more variable factors of production are employed along with a fixed factor of
production, the output first increases at increasing rate then at diminishing rate
and ultimately the marginal product of the variable factor declines.
Marginal Productivity Theory is based on the following assumptions:
1. Perfect Competition in Product Market - Product market has perfect

competition implying that the price of the commodity is determined by the
industry and all the firms take that price as given, also the price remains same
and firms can produce and sell any quantity at the same price.
2. Perfect Competition in Factor Market - Factor market also faces perfect

competition that is at the prevailing factor price, any units of factor of production
can be employed.
3. Factors of Production are Homogeneous - All units of the factors of

production are homogeneous that is all are equally efficient and no unit of factor
of production is more or less productive than the other.
4. Substitution of Factors of Production is Possible - Different factors of

production can be substituted for each other, that is, labour can be substituted for
capital and vice versa.
5. Factors of Production are divisible - Factors of production can be used in

any divisible parts.
6. Goal of the Firm is Profit Maximization - Objective of the firm carrying on

the production of a commodity by employing factors of production is to maximize
profits.
7. There is Full Employment in the Economy - Economy is utilizing all the

factors of production that are available such that there is neither
underemployment nor overemployment.
8. Technology is Constant - There is no change in the technology because if

technology improves then production too can increase with the same units of
factors of production, but this is assumed to be constant.
Limitations of the Marginal Productivity Theory

1. Different units of factors of production are not homogeneous- The theory
assumed that all units of a particular factor of production are same in
efficiency, however this assumption is not always true, for instance a
labour may be more efficient in working than some other labour and vice
versa.
2. Factors of production cannot be easily substituted for each other- The

theory is based on the premise that two factors of production can be easily
substituted for each other to carry on the production such that if labour is
not available then capital can be substituted for labour to carry on the
production, however this is not always the case as production of a
particular commodity requires a particular proportion of different factors
of production.
3. Criticism by Keynes- Economist Keynes criticized the marginal productivity

theory. The theory stated that if employment has to be increased then
wages must be lowered as it would attract more labour, however this can
be true for a firm or a particular industry but it is not applicable to the
entire economy as it is the aggregate demand that determine the level of
employment in an economy and not only the wages.
4. Assumption of perfect competition- Marginal Productivity theory assumed

perfect competition in both the product market and factor market.
5. Difficulty in measuring productivity -The foundation of the theory lies in

the productivity which in itself is difficult to measure as it assumes all the
other factors to be constant except the efficiency which however is not true.
Efficiency is in fact dependent on various factors simultaneously.
ECONOMIC RENT
The concept of Economic rent was first given by David Ricardo (1772– 1823)
“Rent is that portion of the produce of earth which is paid to landlord for the use
of original and indestructible powers of the soil.” Ricardo gave two reasons for
the existence of rent:
1. Scarcity of resources and
2. Alternative use of the resources
Modern Economists like Joan Robinson, etc., however were of the opinion that
rent is not only attributable to land but any and every factor of production can
earn rent, whereby it is defined as the excess of actual earnings over the amount
that is needed to keep the factor of production in its present use, the latter being
termed as transfer earning. It is the minimum amount that is to be paid to a factor
of production to prevent it from moving to an alternative.
Example: If a worker is being paid Rs 2000 per day for working as an executive
whereas for working as an officer he would have been paid Rs 1500, thus Rs 1500
is the transfer earnings. Thus, rent in this case can be calculated as:
Economic Rent = Actual Earnings – Transfer Earnings
= Rs 2000 – Rs 1500 = Rs 500
The amount of economic rent depends upon the elasticity of supply of

the factor of production such that there can be following three cases:
1. Perfectly Inelastic Supply – If a factor of production is perfectly inelastic

then its transfer earnings are zero as it has no opportunity cost or alternative use,
thus whatever the factor earns it is all economic rent. Such a situation is usually
found in case of specialists like singers, professionals etc., who earn all the rent in
the form of economic surplus.
2. Perfectly Elastic Supply – When a factor of production is perfectly elastic

then it can be easily shifted to its alternative and hence whatever it earns is the
transfer earning and it is equal to actual earnings and hence economic rent is
zero. It takes place in case of unskilled labourer, rickshaw pullers, etc.
3. Relatively Inelastic Supply – When the supply is relatively inelastic then a

part of actual earning is paid to prevent its transfer to the alternative use and the
remaining that is in excess is the economic rent. Thus, here actual earnings are
more than the transfer earnings.
UNIT 4: INTERNATIONAL TRADE
➢ LESSON 10 INTERNATIONAL TRADE AND ABSOLUTE

ADVANTAGE
WHAT IS TRADE?
The exchange of goods, services or resources between economic agents is called
trade. Trade that occurs between two countries is called international trade and
the trade that occurs between two regions of the same country is called
interregional trade or domestic trade.
WHY DO PEOPLE TRADE?

People trade because there are gains from trade, that is, when countries sell
goods and services to one another, this exchange is to their mutual benefit. This
means that if there are 2 parties trading with each other, then trade makes them
better off than they were before trading.
THEORY OF ABSOLUTE ADVANTAGE

According to this theory, a country, person or firm that can produce a good more
cheaply than others is said to have an absolute advantage in producing that good.
Here, when we say ‘more cheaply’ we mean, being able to produce one unit of the
good with the least quantity of inputs or given a quantity of input, producing the
highest quantity of output. The theory further propounds that a country, firm or
person should specialize in the production of that commodity in which it has an
absolute advantage and trade it for the commodity in which the other country,
person or firm has an absolute advantage. In such a case, trade can be beneficial
for both the parties.
SOME IMPORTANT TERMS:

• Absolute Advantage: Absolute advantage is the ability of an individual,
company, region, or country to produce a greater quantity of a good or service
with the same quantity of inputs per unit of time, or to produce the same quantity
of a good or service per unit of time using a lesser quantity of inputs, than its
competitors.
• Gains from Trade: It is the increase in total production due to specialization

allowed by trade. When countries sell goods and services to one another and this
exchange is to their mutual benefit, they are said to have gains from trade.
• Opportunity Cost: It is the cost of the next best alternative. It represents the
potential benefits that a party misses out on when choosing one alternative over
another.
• Specialization: Specialization is when an individual or a country allocates

most or all of its resources towards the production of a particular good or service.
➢ LESSON 11 COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE AND TERMS OF

TRADE
THEORY OF COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE

According to David Ricardo, it is not the absolute but the comparative differences
in costs that determine trade relations between two countries. Production costs
differ in countries because of geographical division of labour and specialization in
production. Due to differences in climate, natural resources, geographical
situation and efficiency of labour, a country can produce one commodity at a
lower cost than the other. Hence, comparatively, that country will have an
advantage in producing that commodity vis-a-vis another country.
A country is said to have a comparative advantage in producing a good if the

opportunity cost of producing that good in terms of the other good is lower in that
country as compared to the other country. Recall that opportunity cost refers to
the cost of the next best alternative. It represents the potential benefits that a
party misses out on when choosing one alternative over another.
The theory propounds that a country, firm or person should specialize in the
production of that commodity in which it has a comparative advantage and trade
it for the commodity in which the other country, person or firm has a comparative
advantage. In such a case, trade can be beneficial for both the parties.
SOURCES OF COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE

1. Endowment of natural resources: When the good is a natural
resource, countries can have a comparative advantage in the good if they
are richly endowed with it. For instance, nations that have ample oil
resources can typically produce oil at a low cost. Saudi Arabia, being able to
produce oil inexpensively, holds a comparative advantage in the oil
industry and exports oil to generate revenue for importing goods.
2. Factor endowments: the Heckscher-Ohlin theory: According to the

Heckscher-Ohlin theory, countries that possess an abundance of a specific
factor of production, such as capital or labour, will have a comparative
advantage in producing goods that require the abundant factor. For
example, countries with plentiful capital relative to labour tend to have
high wages and lower rent and can efficiently produce capital-intensive
goods like automobiles and chemicals. On the other hand, countries with
an abundance of labour relative to capital tend to have lower wages and
higher rent and can produce labour intensive goods such as textiles and
sporting goods at a lower cost.
3. Economies of scale: Economies of scale refer to the cost advantage

experienced by a firm when it increases its level of output. This is the idea
that, as a company grows and it needs to make more of a product, the
average cost of making each item falls. Suppose country A has economies of
scale in producing a good. So, the cost of producing the good decreases for
it. It can decrease such that the opportunity cost of producing that good can
become lower than that of another country, giving country A a comparative
advantage in producing that good.
4. Technology: Technology can be a source of comparative advantage. A

country which is technologically advanced will be able to produce a
technology intensive good at a lower price and hence have a comparative
advantage in it, as per the Heckscher-Ohlin Model.
TERMS OF TRADE (TOT)

• The terms of trade refer to the rate at which the goods of one country exchange
for the goods of another country.
• It is a measure of the purchasing power of exports of a country in terms of its

imports and is expressed as the relation between export prices and import prices
of its goods.
• When the export prices of a country rise relative to its import prices, its terms of
trade are said to have improved. The country gains from trade because it can have
a larger quantity of imports in exchange for a given quantity of exports.
• On the other hand, when its imports prices rise relative to its export prices, its
terms of trade are said to have worsened. The country’s gains from trade are
reduced because it can have a smaller quantity of imports in exchange for a given
quantity of exports than before.
• If TOT is above 100, it is said that the TOT is favourable and if it is below 100, it
is said to be unfavourable.
SOME IMPORTANT TERMS:

1. Comparative Advantage: It refers to the ability to produce a good at a
lower opportunity cost than another producer.
2. Economies of Scale: Economies of scale refer to the cost advantage

experienced by a firm when it increases its level of output. This is the idea
that, as a company grows and it needs to make more of a product, the average
cost of making each item falls.
3. Heckscher-Ohlin Model: The theory says that countries that are rich in
capital will export capital intensive goods and countries that have much
labour will export labour intensive goods. According to it, the main cause of
trade between regions is the difference in prices of commodities based on
relative factor endowments and factor prices. Commodities which use large
quantities of scarce factors are imported because their prices are high while
those using abundant factors are exported because their prices are low.
4. Opportunity Cost: It is the cost of the next best alternative. It represents the
potential benefits that a party misses out on when choosing one alternative
over another.
5. Specialization : When an individual or a country allocates most or all of its

resources towards the production of a particular good or service.
6. Terms of Trade: It refers to the rate at which the goods of one country are
exchanged for the goods of another country.
➢ LESSON 12 TRADE BARRIERS AND THE DEBATE BETWEEN

FREE TRADE AND PROTECTIONISM
TRADE BARRIERS
International trade is carried out by both businesses and governments—as long
as no one puts up trade barriers. In general, trade barriers keep firms from
selling to one another in foreign markets. The major obstacles to international
trade are natural barriers, tariff barriers, and non-tariff barriers.
TYPES OF TRADE BARRIERS
1. Natural Barriers
Natural barriers to trade can be either physical or cultural. For instance, even
though raising beef in the relative warmth of Argentina may cost less than
raising beef in the bitter cold of Siberia, the cost of shipping the beef from
South America to Siberia might drive the price too high. Distance is thus one of
the natural barriers to international trade.
2. Tariff Barriers
A tariff is a tax or duty levied on goods when they enter and leave the national
frontier or boundary. In this sense, a tariff refers to import duties and export
duties. But for practical purposes, a tariff is synonymous with import duties or
custom duties.
3. Non-Tariff Barriers
Non–Tariff Barriers are of many kinds. We shall discuss some of them.
a. Import Quota: Under an import quota, a fixed amount of a commodity in

volume or value is allowed to be imported into the country during a
specified period of time, usually a year. For this purpose, the government
may issue an import license that it may sell either to importers at a
competitive price or just give it to importers on a first-come first-served
basis.
b. Voluntary Export Restraints (VERs): A voluntary export restraint
(VER) is an agreement by an exporter country’s exporters or government
with an importing country to limit their exports to it. It is entered into by
the importing country when its domestic industry is suffering from large
imports. The limit on imports may be set in terms of quantity, value or
market share. VERs are seldom ‘voluntary’.
FREE TRADE VERSUS PROTECTIONISM

Free Trade Policy refers to a trade policy without any tariffs, quantitative
restrictions and other policy devices obstructing the movement of goods between
countries. Prof. Jagdish Bhagwati defines free trade policy, “as absence of tariffs,
quotas, exchange restrictions, taxes and subsidies on production, factor use and
consumption”. Thus, the policy of free trade means simply complete freedom of
international trade without any restrictions on the movement of goods between
countries.
The term protection refers to a policy whereby domestic industries are to be

protected from foreign competition. The aim is to impose restrictions on the
imports of low-priced products in order to encourage domestic industries. They
can be protected by either tariff or non-tariff barriers.
Arguments for Free Trade

Typically, when a country opens itself to trade and if the domestic price of a
commodity is higher than the price prevailing in the rest of the world (world
price), then, through trade, the country will be importing that commodity. The
domestic producers will lose out and the producer surplus will decrease. But the
domestic consumers will gain, and the consumer surplus will increase. This
change happens in such a way that the gains of the winners exceed the losses of
the losers thereby giving overall gains to the economy. Thus, there are winners
and losers when a nation opens itself up to trade, but the gains of the winners
exceed the losses of the losers.
Some of the other benefits are as follows:
• Increased variety of goods: Goods produced in different countries

are not exactly the same. German beer, for instance, is not the
same as American beer. Free trade gives consumers in all
countries greater variety to choose from.
• Lower costs through economies of scale: Some goods can be

produced at low cost only if they are produced in large
quantities—a phenomenon called economies of scale. A firm in a
small country cannot take full advantage of economies of scale if it
can sell only in a small domestic market. Free trade gives firms
access to larger world markets and allows them to realize
economies of scale more fully.
• Increased competition: A company shielded from foreign

competitors is more likely to have market power, which in turn
gives it the ability to raise prices above competitive levels. This is
a type of market failure. Opening up trade fosters competition and
gives the invisible hand a better chance to work its magic.
• Enhanced flow of ideas: The transfer of technological advances

around the world is often thought to be linked to the trading of
the goods that embody those advances. The best way for a poor
agricultural nation to learn about the computer revolution, for
instance, is to buy some computers from abroad rather than
trying to make them domestically.
Arguments for Protectionism

SOME IMPORTANT TERMS

i. Free Trade: It refers to complete freedom of international trade without any
restrictions on the movement of goods between countries.
ii. Import Quota: Under an import quota, a fixed amount of a commodity in

volume or value is allowed to be imported into the country during a specified
period of time.
iii. Protectionist Policy/Protectionism:It refers to a policy whereby domestic

industries are to be protected from foreign competition by implementing
various trade barriers.
iv. Trade Barriers: Trade barriers are devices that keep firms from selling to one
another in foreign markets.
v. Voluntary Export Restraint (VER): A voluntary export restraint (VER) is an

agreement by an exporter country’s exporters or government with an importing
country to limit their exports to it.

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1. Single Seller – In a monopoly there is just one seller of a product or service, so

Demand Curve under Monopoly

Total Revenue, Average Revenue and Marginal

ABSENCE OF SUPPLY CURVE IN MONOPOLY

Degree of Monopoly Power

Abba Lerner, an economist, gave an index in 1934 to measure this monopoly

L = (P–MC) / P = – 1/ Ed where 0 ≤ L < 1

For perfect competition as P = MC; L = 0, there being no monopoly power.

The closer the value of L to 1, the higher is the monopoly power.

➢ LESSON 2 SOME APPLICATIONS OF MONOPOLY

There are two costs that arise because of monopoly:

COMPARISON OF PERFECT COMPETITION WITH MONOPOLY

2. Substitute Products: In Pure competition all firms sell identical (homogeneous)

7. Price Discrimination: A perfectly competitive industry cannot discriminate on the

2. Second Degree Price Discrimination: A form of price discrimination where different

Sherman Act, passed in 1890, prohibits contracts, combinations, or

➢ LESSON 3 MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION

FEATURES OF MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION

2. Product Differentiation and Close Substitutes: Unlike perfect competition, the

4. There is free entry and exit from the market.

5. Price and Non-price competition: Firms under monopolistic competition are

7. There is absence of perfect mobility of factors in the market due to lack of

AVERAGE AND MARGINAL REVENUE CURVES UNDER MONOPOLISTIC

PERFECT VS MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION: A COMPARISON

(1) Equality of MC and MR determines the equilibrium of a firm under all

(3) Under perfect competition long-run equilibrium takes place necessarily

2. Homogeneous or Differentiated Products: Oligopoly can be pure oligopoly

4. Interdependence: This is one of the most significant and distinguishing features

5. Advertisement: It is one of the instruments that the oligopoly firms frequently

BEHAVIOUR OF OLIGOPOLY FIRMS

Some of the firm-created barriers are as follows:

(c) Predatory Pricing – It is a situation when the existing firms in oligopolistic

MODELS OF NON-COLLUSIVE OLIGOPOLY

STACKELBERG MODEL – FIRST MOVER ADVANTAGE

➢ LESSON 5 COLLUSIVE OLIGOPOLY

MODELS OF COLLUSIVE OLIGOPOLY

(a) Price Leadership by a Dominant Firm

2. Explicit Collusion – Here we have the following models:

(a) Cartels : OPEC and CIPEC

(b) Centralized Cartel

Implicit Collusion – Price Leadership Model

1. Price Leadership by a Low cost firm

1. OPEC – Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. It was formed in 1960

2. CIPEC – Intergovernmental Council of Countries Exporters of Copper. It was

UNIT 2: CONSUMER AND PRODUCER THEORY

➢ LESSON 6 CONSUMER AND PRODUCER THEORY IN ACTION

2. Technological changes might also lead to changes in costs. For example,

2. A continuous process of technological change

• A once-for-all-change in technology : Assume that the industry starts from a

• Ongoing technological change: We can generalize the analysis of the

EFFECTS OF TAXATION ON COMPETITIVE INDUSTRY

1.Per-unit tax: It is a tax that is levied on each unit produced by the

and output in the short run.

➢ LESSON 7 MARKET FAILURE

The aim and objectives of market should be as follows:

2. The goods being produced should be efficiently distributed amongst the

Market failure refers to failure of market mechanism to achieve efficient

(ii) Provision of public goods whose consumption cannot be only restricted