ETHICS AND SOCIETY

AS WITH ANY POWERFUL TECHNOLOGY, COMPUTERS CAN BE USED FOR BOTH

GOOD AND BAD INTENTIONS. THE STANDARDS THAT DETERMINE WHETHER AN
ACTION IS GOOD OR BAD ARE KNOWN AS ETHICS. COMPUTER ETHICS ARE
THE MORAL GUIDELINES THAT GOVERN THE USE OF COMPUTERS AND
INFORMATION SYSTEMS. SIX FREQUENTLY DISCUSSED AREAS OF COMPUTER
ETHICS ARE UNAUTHORIZED USE OF COMPUTERS AND NETWORKS, SOFTWARE
THEFT (PIRACY), INFORMATION ACCURACY, INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
RIGHTS, GREEN COMPUTING, AND INFORMATION PRIVACY.
INFORMATION ACCURACY
INFORMATION ACCURACY
INFORMATION ACCURACY TODAY IS A CONCERN BECAUSE MANY USERS
ACCESS INFORMATION MAINTAINED BY OTHER PEOPLE OR COMPANIES, SUCH
AS ON THE INTERNET. DO NOT ASSUME THAT BECAUSE THE INFORMATION
IS ON THE WEB THAT IT IS CORRECT. USERS SHOULD EVALUATE THE
VALUE OF A WEB PAGE BEFORE RELYING ON ITS CONTENT. BE AWARE THAT
THE ORGANIZATION PROVIDING ACCESS TO THE INFORMATION MAY NOT BE
THE CREATOR OF THE INFORMATION.
IN ADDITION TO CONCERNS ABOUT THE ACCURACY OF COMPUTER
INPUT, SOME INDIVIDUALS AND ORGANIZATIONS RAISE
QUESTIONS ABOUT THE ETHICS OF USING COMPUTERS TO ALTER
OUTPUT, PRIMARILY GRAPHICAL OUTPUT SUCH AS RETOUCHED
PHOTOS. USING GRAPHICS EQUIPMENT AND SOFTWARE, USERS
EASILY CAN DIGITIZE PHOTOS AND THEN ADD, CHANGE, OR
REMOVE IMAGES (FIGURE 6.2).
 FIGURE 6.2 A DIGITALLY
ALTERED PHOTO SHOWS SPORTS
LEGEND MICHAEL JORDAN (BORN
IN 1963) MEETING THE FAMOUS
SCIENTIST ALBERT EINSTEIN
(WHO DIED IN 1955).
INFORMATION
PRIVACY
 INFORMATION PRIVACY
INFORMATION PRIVACY, OR DATA PRIVACY (OR DATA
PROTECTION), IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
COLLECTION AND DISSEMINATION OF DATA, TECHNOLOGY,
THE PUBLIC EXPECTATION OF PRIVACY, AND THE LEGAL
AND POLITICAL ISSUES SURROUNDING THEM
 PRIVACY CONCERNS EXIST WHEREVER PERSONALLY
IDENTIFIABLE INFORMATION OR OTHER SENSITIVE
INFORMATION IS COLLECTED AND STORED – IN DIGITAL
FORM OR OTHERWISE. IMPROPER OR NON-EXISTENT
DISCLOSURE CONTROL CAN BE THE ROOT CAUSE FOR
PRIVACY ISSUES.
THE CHALLENGE IN DATA PRIVACY IS TO SHARE DATA WHILE PROTECTING
PERSONALLY IDENTIFIABLE INFORMATION. THE FIELDS OF DATA SECURITY
AND INFORMATION SECURITY DESIGN AND UTILIZE SOFTWARE, HARDWARE
AND HUMAN RESOURCES TO ADDRESS THIS ISSUE. TODAY, HUGE DATABASES
STORE THIS DATA ONLINE. MUCH OF THE DATA IS PERSONAL AND
CONFIDENTIAL AND SHOULD BE ACCESSIBLE ONLY TO AUTHORIZED USERS.
MANY INDIVIDUALS AND ORGANIZATIONS, HOWEVER, QUESTION WHETHER
THIS DATA REALLY IS PRIVATE.
FIGURE 6.3 LISTS MEASURE YOU CAN
TAKE TO MAKE YOUR PERSONAL DATA
PRIVATE. THE FOLLOWING PAGES
ADDRESS TECHNIQUES COMPANIES AND
EMPLOYERS USE TO COLLECT YOUR
PERSONAL DATA.
COOKIES
A COOKIE (CALLED AN INTERNET OR WEB COOKIE) IS THE
TERM GIVEN TO DESCRIBE A TYPE OF MESSAGE THAT IS
GIVEN TO A WEB BROWSER BY A WEB SERVER. THE MAIN
PURPOSE OF A COOKIE IS TO IDENTIFY USERS AND POSSIBLY
PREPARE CUSTOMIZED WEB PAGES OR TO SAVE SITE LOGIN
INFORMATION FOR YOU.
COOKIES
MANY COMMERCIAL WEB SITES SEND A COOKIE TO YOUR
BROWSER, AND THEN YOUR COMPUTER’S HARD DISK
STORES THE COOKIE. THE NEXT TIME YOU VISIT THE
WEB SITE, YOUR BROWSER RETRIEVES THE COOKIE FROM
YOUR HARD DISK AND SENDS THE DATA IN THE COOKIE
TO THE WEB SITE.
 WEB SITES USE COOKIES FOR A VARIETY OF
• MOST WEB SITES THAT ALLOW FOR
PURPOSES:
PERSONALIZATION USE COOKIES TO • ONLINE SHOPPING SITES
TRACK USER PREFERENCES. ON SUCH GENERALLY USE A SESSION
SITES, USERS MAY BE ASKED TO FILL • SOME WEB SITES COOKIE TO KEEP TRACK OF ITEMS
IN A FORM REQUESTING PERSONAL
USE COOKIES TO IN A USER’S SHOPPING CART.
INFORMATION, SUCH AS THEIR NAME,
POSTAL CODE, OR SITE PREFERENCES. STORE USERS’ THIS WAY, USERS CAN START AN
A NEWS WEB SITE, FOR EXAMPLE, PASSWORDS, SO THAT ORDER DURING ONE WEB SESSION
MIGHT ALLOW USERS TO CUSTOMIZE AND FINISH IT ON ANOTHER DAY
THEIR VIEWING PREFERENCES TO THEY DO NOT NEED
IN ANOTHER SESSION. SESSION
DISPLAY CERTAIN STOCK QUOTES OR TO ENTER IT EVERY COOKIES USUALLY EXPIRE AFTER
LOCAL WEATHER FORECASTS. THE WEB
TIME THEY LOG IN A CERTAIN TIME, SUCH AS A
SITE STORES THEIR PREFERENCES IN A
COOKIE ON THE USERS’ HARD DISKS. TO THE WEB SITE. WEEK OR A MONTH.
 WEB SITES USE COOKIES FOR A VARIETY OF
PURPOSES:

• SOME WEB SITES USE • WEB SITES MAY USE

COOKIES TO TRACK HOW COOKIES TO TARGET
OFTEN USERS VISIT A ADVERTISEMENTS.
SITE AND THE WEB THESE SITES STORE A
PAGES THEY VISIT USER’S INTERESTS AND
WHILE AT THE SITE. BROWSING HABITS IN
THE COOKIE.
SPYWARE AND ADWARE
ADWARE AND SPYWARE ARE BOTH FORMS OF MALWARE THAT
CAN INFECT YOUR COMPUTER WITHOUT YOUR KNOWLEDGE.
BOTH ARE MALICIOUS SOFTWARE THAT YOU SHOULD
PREVENT WITH ADVANCED CYBER SECURITY MEASURES.
HERE ARE FEW FACTS ABOUT EACH TYPE OF MALWARE.
 ADWARE IS MALICIOUS SOFTWARE THAT AUTOMATICALLY DISPLAYS
ADVERTISEMENTS ONLINE TO GENERATE REVENUE FOR ITS AUTHOR
(FIGURE 6.3). ADVERTISEMENTS MAY APPEAR IN THE USER INTERFACE
OF THE SOFTWARE, ONSCREEN DURING THE INSTALLATION PROCESS, OR
IN A BROWSER. WHILE ADWARE IS NOT ALWAYS DANGEROUS, IN SOME
CASES IT MAY BE DESIGNED TO ANALYZE THE INTERNET SITES
VISITED, PRESENT ADVERTISING CONTENT, INSTALL ADDITIONAL
PROGRAMS, AND REDIRECT YOUR BROWSER TO UNSAFE SITES. IT CAN
EVEN CONTAIN TROJAN HORSES AND SPYWARE.
 ON THE OTHER HAND, SPYWARE IS MALICIOUS SOFTWARE CODE
THAT RUNS SECRETLY ON A COMPUTER, GATHERS INFORMATION
ABOUT THE USER AND THEIR BROWSING HABITS, AND THEN
TRANSMITS THAT INFORMATION BACK TO A REMOTE ENTITY
(FIGURE 6.4). RATHER THAN DISRUPTING A DEVICE'S
OPERATIONS, SPYWARE TARGETS SENSITIVE INFORMATION AND CAN
GRANT REMOTE ACCESS TO HACKERS.
 THE PURPOSE OF SPYWARE IS TO COLLECT INFORMATION ABOUT A
PERSON OR ORGANIZATION WITHOUT THEIR KNOWLEDGE AND TRANSMIT
THAT INFORMATION TO ANOTHER ENTITY FOR FINANCIAL GAIN. THAT
IS WHY SPYWARE IS OFTEN USED TO STEAL FINANCIAL OR PERSONAL
INFORMATION. ONE SPECIFIC TYPE OF SPYWARE IS A KEY LOGGER,
WHICH RECORDS THE USER'S KEYSTROKES TO REVEAL PASSWORDS AND
OTHER PERSONAL INFORMATION.
 SPAM - IS ANY KIND OF UNWANTED, UNSOLICITED DIGITAL
COMMUNICATION, OFTEN AN EMAIL, THAT GETS SENT OUT IN
BULK. SPAM IS A HUGE WASTE OF TIME AND RESOURCES. THE
CONTENT OF SPAM RANGES FROM SELLING A PRODUCT OR
SERVICE, TO PROMOTING A BUSINESS OPPORTUNITY, TO
ADVERTISING OFFENSIVE MATERIAL. ONE STUDY INDICATES
MORE THAN 92 PERCENT OF E-MAIL IS SPAM.
 USERS CAN REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF SPAM THEY RECEIVE WITH A NUMBER OF
TECHNIQUES. SOME E-MAIL PROGRAMS HAVE BUILT-IN SETTINGS THAT ALLOW USERS
TO DELETE SPAM AUTOMATICALLY. USERS ALSO CAN SIGN UP FOR E-MAIL
FILTERING FROM THEIR INTERNET ACCESS PROVIDER. E-MAIL FILTERING IS A
SERVICE THAT BLOCKS E-MAIL MESSAGES FROM DESIGNATED SOURCES. AN
ALTERNATIVE TO E-MAIL FILTERING IS TO PURCHASE AN ANTI-SPAM PROGRAM THAT
ATTEMPTS TO REMOVE SPAM BEFORE IT REACHES YOUR INBOX. THE DISADVANTAGE
OF E-MAIL FILTERS AND ANTI-SPAM PROGRAMS IS THAT SOMETIMES THEY REMOVE
VALID E-MAIL MESSAGES.
 PHISHING - ARE THE PRACTICE OF SENDING FRAUDULENT COMMUNICATIONS THAT APPEAR TO COME
FROM A REPUTABLE SOURCE. IT IS USUALLY DONE THROUGH EMAIL. THE GOAL IS TO STEAL
SENSITIVE DATA LIKE CREDIT CARD AND LOGIN INFORMATION, OR TO INSTALL MALWARE ON THE
VICTIM’S MACHINE. PHISHING IS A COMMON TYPE OF CYBER-ATTACK THAT EVERYONE SHOULD
LEARN ABOUT IN ORDER TO PROTECT THEMSELVES.
PHISHING STARTS WITH A FRAUDULENT EMAIL OR OTHER COMMUNICATION THAT IS DESIGNED TO
LURE A VICTIM. THE MESSAGE IS MADE TO LOOK AS THOUGH IT COMES FROM A TRUSTED SENDER.
IF IT FOOLS THE VICTIM, HE OR SHE IS COAXED INTO PROVIDING CONFIDENTIAL INFORMATION,
OFTEN ON A SCAM WEBSITE. SOMETIMES MALWARE IS ALSO DOWNLOADED ONTO THE TARGET’S
COMPUTER.
CONTENT FILTERING
CONTENT FILTERING IS THE PROCESS OF RESTRICTING ACCESS TO CERTAIN MATERIAL ON
THE WEB. CONTENT FILTERING OPPONENTS ARGUE THAT BANNING ANY MATERIALS VIOLATES
CONSTITUTIONAL GUARANTEES OF FREE SPEECH AND PERSONAL RIGHTS. MANY BUSINESSES
USE CONTENT FILTERING TO LIMIT EMPLOYEES’ WEB ACCESS. THESE BUSINESSES ARGUE
THAT EMPLOYEES ARE UNPRODUCTIVE WHEN VISITING INAPPROPRIATE OR OBJECTIONABLE
WEB SITES. SOME SCHOOLS, LIBRARIES, AND PARENTS USE CONTENT FILTERING TO
RESTRICT ACCESS TO MINORS. WEB FILTERING SOFTWARE IS A PROGRAM THAT RESTRICTS
ACCESS TO SPECIFIED WEB SITES. SOME ALSO FILTER SITES THAT USE SPECIFIC WORDS.
OTHERS ALLOW YOU TO FILTER E-MAIL MESSAGES, CHAT ROOMS, AND PROGRAMS.
MANY INTERNET SECURITY PROGRAMS INCLUDE A FIREWALL ONE OF
THE MORE CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES THAT SURROUND THE INTERNET
IS ITS WIDESPREAD AVAILABILITY OF OBJECTIONABLE MATERIAL,
SUCH AS RACIST LITERATURE, VIOLENCE, AND OBSCENE
PICTURES. SOME BELIEVE THAT SUCH MATERIALS SHOULD BE
BANNED. OTHERS BELIEVE THAT THE MATERIALS SHOULD BE
FILTERED, THAT IS, RESTRICTED.
, ANTIVIRUS PROGRAM, AND FILTERING CAPABILITIES COMBINED.