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Introduction
Historical Perspective on Productivity Improvement Scientific Management and Frederick Winslow Taylor
By far the most influential person of the time and someone, who has had an impact on management service practice as well as on management thought up to the present day, was F. W. Taylor. Taylor formalized the principles of scientific management, and the fact-finding approach put forward and largely adopted was a replacement for what had been the old rule of thumb. He also developed a theory of organization which altered the personalized autocracy which had only been tempered by varying degrees of benevolence, such as in the Quaker family business of Cadburys and Clarks. Taylor was not the originator of many of his ideas, but was pragmatist with the ability to synthesize the work of others and promote them effectively to a ready and eager audience of industrial manager who were striving to find new or improved ways to increase performance. Objectives of Scientific Management The four objectives of management under scientific management were as follows: 1. The development of a science for each element of a mans work to replace the old rule-of-thumb methods. 2. The scientific selection, training and development of workers instead of allowing them to choose their own tasks and train themselves as best they could. 3. The development of spirit of hearty cooperation between workers and management to ensure that work could be carried in accordance with scientifically devised procedures. 4. The division of work between workers and the management in almost equal shares, each group taking over the work for
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which it is best fitted instead of the former condition in which responsibility largely rested with the workers. Self-evident in this philosophy are organizations arranged in hierarchy, systems of abstract rules and impersonal relation between staff. F. W. Taylor contribution to organizational theory His framework for organization was: Clear delineation of authority. Responsibility. Separation of planning from operations. Incentive schemes for workers. Management by exception. Task Specialization. Taylors Impact has been so great because he developed a concept of work design, work measurement, production control and other functions, that completely change the nature of the industry. Before scientific management, such departments as work study, personnel, maintenance and quality control did not exist. What was more his methods proved to be very successful.

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WHAT IS JOB DESIGN? Job Design involves conscious effort to organize tasks, duties and responsibilities into a unit of work to achieve a certain objective. It specifies the content of each job and determines how work is distributed within the organization. Job Design integrates work content (tasks, functions and relationships), the extrinsic and intrinsic rewards and qualification required (skills, knowledge and abilities) for each job in a way that meets the need of employees and the organization. The design of jobs has a critical impact on organization and employee objectives. From the organizations perspective, the way tasks and responsibilities are grouped can affect productivity and costs. Jobs that are not satisfying or are too demanding are difficult to fill. Boring jobs may experience higher turnover. For an employee, motivation and job satisfaction are affected by the match between job factors (content, qualifications and rewards) and personal needs. Therefore, the thoughtful design of jobs can help both the organization and its employees achieve their objectives. Job is more than a collection of tasks recorded to a job analysis schedule and summarized in a job description. Jobs are the foundation of organization productivity and employee satisfaction. As the number of new workers coming into the labor markets slows and international competition increasing well designed jobs will become even more important in attracting and retaining a motivated work force, which is capable of producing quality products and services. It may be stated that, poorly designed jobs may lead to lower productivity, low employee turnover, complains absenteeism, unionization and other problems. How can job design help with the organization of work? Job design principles can address problems such as:

Work overload, Work under load, Repetitiveness, Limited control over work,
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Isolation, Shift work, Delays in filling vacant positions, Excessive working hours, and Limited understanding of the whole job process.

Job design is sometimes considered as a way to help deal with stress in the workplace OBJECTIVES OF JOB DESIGN: A job is a long term assignment of tasks by means of which a person is able to contribute to effectiveness of an organization. A firm depends on its employees for success. Anything that affects the employees job performance should therefore be of interest to management. The three main objectives that a manager tries to realize in specifying jobs are:

Economically Feasible Tasks What many Workers Feel that they have

The Most Desirable Objectives of Job Design

Technically Feasible Tasks

Behaviourally Desirable Tasks Behaviourally Acceptable Tasks

1. Technical feasibility 2. Economic feasibility 3. Behavioral feasibility 1. TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY: A job is a set of tasks or duties assigned to be performed. The person who holds the job must be capable of performing the assignment with the equipment and systems available and the job must take the necessary transformation of inputs
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into outputs. A job must not be beyond the reasonable limits of a persons skills or physical and mental endurance. A proper selection of processes and equipments as well as proper training of employees helps ensure technical feasibility.

2. ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY: The cost of performing the job should not be too high. Since many businesses must perform in a competitive environment, they are subject to some pressure, to keep prices at reasonable levels. 3. BEHAVIOURAL FEASIBILTY: Some characteristics of job may affect the job-holders perception of themselves, their perception of others and their relationships with others. The feelings that people desire from a job affect their motivation to perform it. Since a job is often more than just a set of mechanical motion to be performed, it requires motivation and mental stimulation if it is to be performed, successfully. Beyond the individual, jobs carry with them, social interaction that, may lead to group reaction. Informal organization or work groups have a large impact on the effectiveness of an organization. Attitudes are contagious and peer pressure may be responsible for many of the motivational reaction of workers. An organization must achieve economic feasibility in order to survive. This may make it necessary to stress technical efficiency at the expenses of employee satisfaction and motivation .jobs must be made satisfying to add to workers motivation so that there is no reduction in efficiency and perhaps even improvements in quality and cost performance. Behavioral scientist and managers strive to seek answers to the question of how to achieve optimal designs that balance technical objectives and social or behavioral objectives. One promising approach is the social technical-systems approach because it involves the inter-relationships between the social needs of workers and the technical needs of the tasks to be performed.

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FACTORS AFFECTING JOB DESIGN Job design is affected by organizational, environmental and behavioral factors. A properly designed job will make it more productive and satisfying. If a job fails on this account, it must be redesigned based on the feedback. The various factors affecting job design are the following:

ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS Organizational factors include characteristics of tasks, work flow, ergonomics and work practices. CHARACERISTICS OF TASKS: Job design requires the assembly of number of tasks into a job or a group of jobs. An individual may carry out one main task which consists of a number of interrelated elements of functions. On the other hand, task functions may be split between a team, working closely together or strung along an assembly line. In more complex jobs, individuals may carry out a variety of connected tasks. Each with a number of functions, or these tasks may be allocated to a group of workers or divided between them. Complexity in a job may be a reflection of the number and variety of tasks to be carried out, or the range and scope of the decisions that have to be made, or the difficulty of predicting the outcome of decisions. The internal structure of each task consists of three elements, planning, executing and controlling. A completely integrated job will include all these elements for each of the task involved. The worker or group of workers having been given objectives in terms of output, quality and cost targets, decide on how the work is done, assemble the resources, perform the work and monitor output, quality and cost standards. Responsibility in a job is measured by the amount of authority; some one has to put to do all these things. The ideal design is to integrate all the three elements.

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FACTORS AFFECTING JOB DESIGN

Organisational Factors

Environmental Factors

Job Design

Productive and Satisfying Job

Behavioural Factors

WORK FLOW: The flow of work in an organization is strongly influenced by the nature of the product or services. The product or service usually suggests the sequence and balance between jobs, if the work is to be done efficiently. After the sequence of jobs is determined, the balance between the jobs is established.

WORK PRACTISES: Work practices are set ways of performing work. These methods may arise from tradition or the collective wishes of employees. Work practices were tilled now, determined by time and motion study which established the standard time needed to complete the given job. The study required repeated observations. The accuracy of the readings depended on competence of the work study engineer. Deviations from the normal work-cycle caused distortions in measurements, were biased towards existing work practices with little effort at methods improvement and could be carried out only when, production was under way. A new technique has now emerged which, if introduced, could drastically alter the work practices. Called the MOST (Maynard Operating Sequence Technique), the technique uses a standard formula to list the motion sequence ascribed in index values.
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ENVIORNMENTAL FACTORS: Environmental factor affect the job design. These factors that have a bearing on job design are employee abilities and availability and social and cultural expectations. Efficiency 1. Employee Abilities and Availability: consideration must be balanced against the abilities and availability of the people to do the work. When Henry Ford made use of the assembly line, for example, he was aware that most potential workers lacked any automobile making experience. So, jobs were designed to be simple and required little training. Therefore, considerable thought must be given, as to who will actually do the work. 2. Social and cultural Expectations: during the earlier days, securing a job was the primary consideration. The worker was prepared to work on any job and under any working conditions. Now, it is not the same. Literacy, knowledge and awareness of workers have improved considerably. So also, their expectations from the job. Hence, jobs must be designed to meet the expectations of workers. When designing jobs for international operations, uniform designs are almost certain to neglect national and cultural differences. Hours of work, holidays, vacations, rest breaks, religious beliefs, management styles and worker sophistication and attitudes are just some of the predictable differences that can affect the design of jobs across international borders. Failure to consider these social expectations can create social dissatisfaction, low motivation, hard to fill job openings and a low quality of work life, especially, when foreign nationals are involved in the home country or overseas. 3. Behavioral Factors: Behavioral factors include feedback, autonomy, and use of abilities.

Feedback: Individuals must receive meaningful feedback about their performance, preferably by evaluating their own performance and defining the feedback. This implies that, they should ideally work on a complete product, or significant part of it which can be seen as a whole.
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Autonomy: Autonomy is being responsible for what one does. It is the freedom to control ones responses to the environment. Jobs that give workers, authority to make decisions will provide added responsibilities which tend to increase the employees sense of recognition and self esteem. The absence of autonomy, on the other hand, can cause employee apathy or poor performance. Use of abilities: The job must be perceived by individuals as requiring them to use abilities; they value in order to perform the job effectively. Variety: Lack of variety may cause boredom. Boredom is turn leads to fatigue causes mistakes. By injecting variety into jobs, personnel specifications can reduce errors caused by fatigue.

What are features of "good" job design? Good job design accommodates employees' mental and physical characteristics by paying attention to:

Muscular energy such as work/rest schedules or pace of work, and Mental energy such as boring versus extremely difficult tasks.

Good job design:

Allows for employee input. Employees should have the option to vary activities according to personal needs, work habits, and the circumstances in the workplace. Gives employees a sense of accomplishment. Includes training so employees know what tasks to do and how to do them properly.
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Provides good work/rest schedules. Allows for an adjustment period for physically demanding jobs. Provides feedback to the employees about their performance. Minimizes energy expenditure and force requirements. Balances static and dynamic work.

Job design is an ongoing process. The goal is to make adjustments as conditions or tasks change within the workplace. APPLICATION OF ERGONOMICS.

Ergonomics is applied in two areas i.e. The physical devices or equipments people use in performing work, and A worker is a part of a system including the tools he/she uses. These combinations are called as machine worker systems. Since the human part of machine worker system cannot be redesigned, reconstructed to increase its effectiveness so the machine must be adapted to the worker. All controls and information displays should be located for clear access and visibility. Levers and hand wheels should be of proper size and located so that sufficient operating force may be applied in appropriate direction. Gauges should be arranged so that the indicators point in approximately the same direction when the equipment is operating normally. This helps the operators to quickly spot deviations from normal working.

THE WORK ENVIRONMENT The environment in which people work can affect their comfort, health and productivity. Some environmental variables to be considered are temperature, noise and lighting. Temperature Human beings can perform under a variety of combinations of temperature, humidity and air movements. A comfortable temperature may range from 26.4 C to 38.4 C depending on conditions such as humidity and air movement.

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Noise For occupational safety and health it is necessary to ensure that the workers should not be exposed to noise intensity of above 90 db for more than nine hours continuously. Higher sound intensities up to 130 db are permitted for short exposures. When sound intensities are above 85 to 90 db protection devices need to be worn. Lighting Good illumination at the work place or on the work surface is necessary for proper work performance without strain for the eyes. The color content of light and the amount of glare are also important. Activities involved in ergonomics or workstation design areImproving the workflow. Reducing repetitive physical motions. Adjusting illumination levels. Allowing employees to personalize the work area (e.g.: with pictures .flower plants. etc.)

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WHAT IS WORK STUDY?

W ORK STUDY

METHOD STUDY

TIME STUDY

INTRODUCTION TO METHOD STUDY According to British Standards Institution (BS-3138) Method study is the systematic recording and critical examination of existing and proposed ways of doing work, as a means of developing and applying easier and more effective methods and reducing costs. The definition suggests the examination of existing as well as proposed production methods. Critical examination when conducted on existing methods helps the firm to identify unnecessary costs associated with the existing jobs. Such costs get added to the jobs due to various reasons and are mot readily apparent especially to those who are responsible for causing them. They are brought to light when existing production methods are analyzed critically and impartially. Critical examination of proposed production methods, on the other hand, helps the4 organization to
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prevent the possibility of introduction of unnecessary cost in new jobs. Production methods, another term in the definition, refer to the manufacturing process by which materials and other resources get converted in the goods and services. Since production method is a complicated combination of men, machines and materials, the scope of method the scope of method study is broader based? Method study in general analyses the following aspects; 1. Manufacturing operations and their sequence. 2. Machines 3. Workmen 4. Materials 5. Tools 6. Gauges and measuring instruments 7. Work bench layout 8. Layout of physical facilities 9. Movement of men and materials 10. Materials handing 11. Working conditions.

BASIC PROCEDURE OF METHOD STUDY Method study is an organized approach and its investigation rests on the following six basic steps outlined in the block diagram 1. Select the work to be analyzed 2. Record all facts relating to the existing method. 3. Examine the recorded facts critically but impartially. 4.Develop the most economical method commensurate with plant requirements. 5. Install the new method as standard practice. 6. Maintain the new method.

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Select the job to be analyzed

Record facts relating to the existing method

Examine facts critically but impartially

Purpose

Place

Sequence

Person

Means

Develop alternatives to the existing method

Install the new method

Maintain the new method

These six steps are in a logical order and indeed represent a commonsense approach to any investigation. The success of the analysis thus depends on correct order of the investigation and the rigor of the application. Each of the above steps is briefly described below:

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Selecting to the job Selecting of the jobs to be studied for methods improvement by the method study practitioner is a managerial responsibility and it (selection) may be based on economic, technical or human consideration. Economic consideration justifies selection based on economic worth of the job. Recording of facts Systematic recording is the most crucial step in method improvement. Since recording by long hand has its limitation, it is mot recommended for use in me3thod study. Instead, five symbols and eight charting conventions are used to record facts relating to the job under study. Five typical symbols are

and eight charting convention concern composition of the chart, reject, rework, repetition, change of state, introduction of mew material, combined event and numbering of events. The document on which details of the process are recorded by the above referred symbols and conventions is called chart. Critical examination Critical examination aims to analyze the facts critically and there by give rise to alternatives which form the basis of selection and development of easier and effective methods. Critical examination is conducted through a systematic and methodical questioning process.

Development and selection Development and selection stage concern short listing of ideas generated at the critical examination stage, testing each short listed idea for its technical and economic feasibility, and making selection among the alternatives wherever choice exists.

Installation Installation of the proposed method involves preparation of project report on recommendations, making oral presentation to the top management, securing approval of the decision maker, assisting line management during implementation, arranging training of workmen, and getting jobs retimed after implementation.
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Maintenance Maintenance phase is the follow up phase after the implementation which serves as a monitoring and control mechanism. It helps to ensure that the revised methods are set into concrete and workmen do not revert back to old methods.

SELECTION OF THE JOB

The selection of job should be such that the proposed method achieves one or more of the following results (a) Increase production with same labor, material and equipment or same production with less labor, material and equipment. (b) Improved quality with lesser scrap. (c) Improved layout leading to elimination/minimization of unproductive movements of men and materials. The following consideration should be kept in mind while selecting a job for the purpose of method improvement Economic consideration Technical consideration Human consideration ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION Economic consideration is usually important at all stages of the study. The time and money spent in conducting a long investigation should be justified by the saving resulting from it

TECHNICAL CONSIDERATION Technical consideration analyses technical aspect of the job selected for the analysis. The method study man should select a job in which he has the technical knowledge filing which he will not be able to do justice to the job. An electrical engineer may not be able to solve satisfactorily the problems faced in the foundry.

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HUMAN CONSIDERATION Human consideration is the greatest consideration of all. Method study means a change but a change which is accepted half-heartedly by the workers and their representatives is really no good a change. Human consideration is thus very important aspect in methods study. You must overcome the resistance to change. Convince your employee why change is necessary. Get his whole hearted co-operations. The effectiveness of the method study can be proved by selecting and improving some of those jobs which are considered unsafe, dirty, strenuous, hard and inconvenient by the workers themselves. RECORDING THE FACTS Recording is the preparatory step towards critical examination. The success of critical examination to a large extent, depends on how correctly, precisely and in comprehensive form the facts relating to method under study are recorded. The development of recording process in the recent period has shown that a much smaller number of symbols are adequate. In fact, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and British Standard Institute have advocated just five symbols. METHOD STUDY SYMBOLS Most of the processes/activities in method study can be recorded by means of standard five symbols. They are:

Operation

An operation occurs when there is a distinct change in physical or chemical characteristic of an object or, when there is an addition or subtraction or, when there is consumption of physical effort or when information is given or received.

Inspection

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An inspection occurs when the object is verified against predetermined standards of quality, or quantity, or both. Inspection, unlike operation, does not take the object one step forward towards completion. It merely verifies whether or not the object has undergone the required operation as per specifications.

Transport A transport occurs when the object is moved from one place to another.

Delay

A delay occurs when the object is held up resulting in delay in the start of next event i.e. next operation, inspection or transport. Storage

Storage occurs when the object is kept in an authorized custody and is protected against unauthorized removal. Materials kept in the work distribution center Tools kept in racks in a tool crib. These symbols are placed one below another as per occurrence of the events and are joined by a vertical line. A brief description of the activity is given on the right hand of the symbols. And the time that the activity takes is written on left hand against all the symbols except the transport symbols.

CHARTING CONVENTIONS Simple processes can be recorded with the help of the foregoing symbols. Complicated processes-those involving rework, rejection, repetition, change of state, introduction of new material, combined activities etc. can not be recorded clearly by symbols alone. The recording of such activities beside symbols requires use of charting convention. Typical charting conventions are:
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(A) COMPOSITION OF THE CHART There are three distinct parts of the chart: Introduction to record name of the chart, present or proposed method, task under study, chart begins, chart ends, charted by, date of charting Body to show activities by relevant symbols has written one below another according to the sequence. Summary to give frequency of each symbol, total time for each symbols and total distance traveled by object, (B) REJECTION Sometimes materials or components are rejected during processing. Such rejection-the stage at which it occurs and the place where this discarded material is taken to-requires to be shown in the chart. (C) REPETITION Repetition concerns a situation where an activity or a series of activities are to be repeated. To show such activities by repeated use of symbols is unnecessary. Much of this extra effort can be saved by enclosing the activities by the loop. (D) REPROCESSING Reprocessing concern a situation where the component is not completely rejected but is to be reworked. (E)INTRODUCTION OF NEW MATERIALS Introduction of new materials considers the entry points of the materials. Such entries are indicted on the chart by horizontal lines with description of materials written above the line quantity below the line. (F) COMBINED ACTIVITIES Sometimes, more than one activity is performed simultaneously by the operator. Such activities are represented by combined symbols. (G) NUMBERING OF ACTIVIEIES CHARTING METHODS: Different charting methods to record details of the existing methods are as follows: 1. Chart 2. Diagrams 3. Templates and models
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4. Photographic aids 5. Graphic techniques CHART Chart is the most popular method of recording data. The activities comprising the job are recorded by means of symbols and charting conventions. There are different types of charts: (1) Operation process chart Give bird eye view of the entire process (2) Flow process chart Show detailed sequence of activities preformed by the workmen, material, and equipment. (3) Multiple activity chart Study man machine utilization; determine number of machine to be manned by one operator and the like. (4) Two handed process chart Study work bench layout 1. OPERATION PROCESS CHART (OPC) An operation process chart is a chart on which the major activities and entry points of materials are recorded to have a graphic view of operations and inspections involved in the process. An operation process chart gives the detailed step by step account of what is done to the materials from beginning of the first stage to last stage. Only operations and inspections performed on the materials are depicted on this chart. Activities like transport, delay and storages are not included. Operation process chart is useful to Visualize the complete sequence of operations and inspections involved in the process. Know where the operation selected for detailed study fits into the entire process. 2. FLOW PROCESS CHART (FPC) Flow process chart is a chart which sets out the sequence of flow of work of a product, or any part of it through the section or the department or the factory by recording the event under review using appropriate symbols. Flow process chart is prepared in a manner similar to that of operation process chart except that in addition to the symbols for operation and inspection, symbols for transport delay and storage are also made use of. Flow process chart is useful to explore the possibilities of
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Reducing distance traveled by the workmen Avoiding waiting time and thereby reduce production losses. Evolving better sequence of activities. How it is prepared Flow process chart, like operation process chart, consists of three parts-introduction, body and summary. All the five symbols- operation, inspection, transport, delay and storage- are used in the making of this chart. The symbols are placed one below another as per occurrence of the activities and are joined by a small vertical line. A brief description of the activity is inserted on the right hand of the symbols and the tine or the distance, depending upon the symbols, is given on the left handoff the symbol.

3. MULTIPLE ACTIVITY CHART A multiple activity chart is a chart on which the activities of more than one subject are recorded to indicate their interrelationship in a given work cycle. Multiple activity charts in other words shows what each subject does at any time in relation to the other. Why it is made? A multiple activity chart is made to: Detect idle time enforced on men and machines. Determine number of workmen necessary to perform a job involving tea working. Establish number of machines that can conveniently manned by an operator. Two symbols are used in the making of this chart one representing working and other representing idle. 4. TWO HANDED PROCESS CHART A two handed process chart is a chart is a chart on which the activities performed by two hands or two limbs of the operator are recorded to show their inter-relationships. Why it is made? Two handed process chart is useful: To visualize the complete sequence of activities in a repetitive task of short duration performed within the confines
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of a work place. This chart is generally prepared to study a variety of assembly, machining and clerical jobs. To study a work bench layout. CRITICAL EXAMINATION Critical examination aims to analyze the facts critically and thereby give rise to alternative which forms the basis for selection and development of improved methods. Critical examination is conducted through a systematic and methodical questioning process. Each activity recorded on the chart, whether it relates to processing, or inspection, or material handling, or to any other aspect, is picked up, one at a time and is examined minutely. Each governing consideration analyzes one specific aspect of the job. Purpose: analyzes whether the job/activity is essential. Place: analyzes whether the job/activity is being performed at the right place. Sequence : analyzes whether the job/activity is being done at the right time. Person: analyzes whether the job/activity is being performed by right person. Means: analyzes whether the job/activity is done using right materials, right, tools, right, jigs and fixture, right measuring instruments and gauges.

DEVELOPMENT AND SELECTION Critical examination gives rise to a number of creative ideas but creative ideas in themselves can not achieve a thing until they are expanded and put to use. Since not all ideas are practicable, some of the ideas may require to be discarded while others may need to be expanded, refined and developed, and yet some others may require to be kept aside until a future time. Development there fore involves analysis of creative ideas and giving them a practical shape. Development phase is the combination of three phases: evaluation, investigation and selection.

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*EVALUATION Evaluation assesses the true worth of each creative idea and thereby decides whether an idea should be pursued or discarded. It is, therefore, an exercise to shortlist creative ideas. (1) combination of ideas (2) estimation of cost of resting and implementation (3) fault finding and fault identification *INVESTIGATION Investigation explores as to how the ideas cleared at the evaluation stage as suitable or promising can be converted into practical suggestions. (1) Test each idea for its technical feasibility (2) Predict performance of each feasible idea (3) Test each feasible alternative for its economic feasibility

INSTALLATION OF PROPOSED METHOD Installation refers to the implementation of the proposed method and it serves the following objectives: To prepare and present the change proposal to the management To develop sequential steps to be taken to implement the proposal on its acceptance.

RECOMMENDATION PHASE Even if the management is solidly behind the methods improvement programme, it still requires facts and figures to support specific proposals. Project preparation Project presentation IMPLEMENTATION PHASE No recommendation is effective until implemented. Though the responsibility of implementation is that of top management yet active assistance of method man is required to resolve problem, minimize delay, and ensure changes. Obtain written acceptance to the proposal Assist implementation Authorize charges Expedite implementation Clear misconcepts and remove road blocks Initial experiment with the proposed method
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Subsequent trials Arrange for training of workmen in the use of new methods. Undertake work measurement studies. MAINTENANCE OF THE PROPOSED METHOD

Method change does not get completed with the implementation of the proposal. Follow up after the implementation is equally important. Follow up after the implementation: Serves as a monitoring and control mechanism and helps to ensure that revised methods are followed in future. Audits results achieved from the implementation of the study. Appraises the management of the contribution of method changes. Maintenance of the proposed method involves the following: MONITORING AND CONTROL It is necessary that the analyst should continually visit the shops and maintain liaison with the line management. The reporting frequency may be as under: Daily reports : Until one week after trial Bi-weekly reports : From one week after and up to four week after the trial Weekly reports : From one month after and up to two months after the trial Monthly reports : From two months after up to six months after the trial

AUDIT OF THE SAVINGS Audit of the saving realized too is the responsibility of the practitioner. Audit of saving enables the practitioner: To know whether the implementation work is complete. This being the case when the saving show up as predicted. Irrespective of the above situations, audit feedback helps methods engineer in his future work.

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REVIEW OF THE APPROACH Audit the audit of the saving, method study should review the approach followed by him in his investigations. This helps the practitioner to draw conclusions: Was the approach followed by him effective? Does it require any correction for the next study? Was the implementation process smooth? Did the line management react favorably during implementation of future projects?

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL Mere measurement of gains immediate after the implementation is not enough. Some sort of performance appraisal system needs to be devised to measure the gains of the productivity at regular intervals.

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WORK MEASUREMENT
Work measurement is the process of establishing the time that a given task would take when performed by a qualified worker working at a defined level of performance. Work measurement is the application of technique design to establish the time for a qualified worker to carry out a task at a defined rate of working. There are various ways in which work may be measured and a variety of techniques have been established. The basic procedure, irrespective of the particular measurement technique being used, consists of three stages:

an analysis phase in which the job is divided into convenient, discrete components, commonly known as elements; a measurement phase in which the specific measurement technique is used to establish the time required (by a qualified worker working at a defined level of performance) to complete each element of work; a synthesis phase in which the various elemental times are added, together with appropriate allowances (see below), to construct the standard time for the complete job.

The techniques used to measure work can be classified into those that rely on direct observation of the work, and those that do not. Determination of the length of time it should take to complete a job. Job times are vital inputs for manpower planning, estimating labor costs, scheduling, budgeting, and designing incentive systems. In addition, from the workers' standpoint, time standards provide an indication of expected output. Time standards used under Standard Cost Systems reflect the amount of time it should take an average worker to do a job under typical operating conditions. The standards include expected activity time plus allowances for probable delays. The most commonly used methods of work measurement are:

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(1) Stopwatch time study (2) Historical times (3) Predetermined data (4) Work sampling. There are four work measurement methods, each of which has strengths and weaknesses. The historical data method shows the time it actually took to complete a task. Such data have the advantages of being easy to collect, understand, and communicate, but they provide no information for future improvement. For the work sampling method, a large number of random observations are made of the task to determine the steps in its normal performance. This method is easy to learn and use, and it provides more operational detail than historical data. The disadvantage of work sampling is that it requires thousands of samples to establish an accurate measure for each step. The time study method uses continuous and snapback approaches to record the elapsed time of a task. The snapback approach requires a stopwatch with a reset button that allows the observer to read and record the time at the end of each work element then reset (snapback) the watch to zero. Although popular, the time-study method is subjective and relies heavily on the experience of the time-study analyst. A computerized data collector provides more accurate timing than the stopwatch. However, converting actual time to the expected or normal time remains a problem. The predetermined motion/time systems method is based on the premises that all work consists of basic human motions and that times can be assigned to these motions if they are defined and classified in a systematic way. A film or videotape records what a job entails and how long it takes. This technique is used most frequently in studying high-volume settings such as a workstation or an assembly line. An observer measures a job by watching and analyzing it into its basic constituent motions. This method requires substantial training and practice to acquire and maintain accuracy. It enables all types of tasks to be assigned time/duration values that can then be extended into cost values. The results are not easy to communicate, but when properly executed, this method yields very accurate times.

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Uses of Time Study/Work Measurement In the process of setting standards it may be necessary to use work measurement: 1. To compare the efficiency of alternate methods. Other conditions being equal, the methods which take the least time will be the best method. 2. To balance the work of members of team, in association with multiple activity charts, so that, as nearly as possible, each member has a task taking an equal time to perform. 3. To determine in association with worker and machine multiple activity charts, the number of machines an operative can run. The time standards, once set, may then be used: 4. To provide the basis for production planning and control for the choice of a better layout and process planning, and for establishing Just-In-Time inventory control systems. 5. To provide information than can enable estimates to be made for tenders, selling prices and delivery dates. 6. To set standards of machine utilization and labor performance which can be used for any of the above purposes and as a basis for incentive schemes. 7. To provide information for labor-cost control and to enable standard cost to be fixed and maintained. It is thus clear that work measurement provides the basic information necessary for all the activities of organizing and controlling the work of an enterprise in which the time element plays a part.

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Inputs & Outputs of Time Study/ Work Measurement: Inputs Outputs

Document results of a method Standard Time for the job that study for the job to be measured has been measured Observations of the job to be Completed time study sheet measured with the ratings & times. Time Reading for the job to be Knowledge about the work measured from the stopwatch content for a specific products & processes. Choosing a measurement technique The choice of a suitable measurement technique depends on a number of factors including:

the purpose of the measurement; the level of detail required; the time available for the measurement; the existence of available predetermined data; and the cost of measurement.

To some extent there is a trade off between some of these factors. For example, techniques which derive times quickly may provide less detail and be less suitable for some purposes, such as the establishment of individual performance levels on short-cycle work. The advantage of structured and systematic work measurement is that it gives a common currency for the evaluation and comparison of all types of work. The results obtained from work measurement are commonly used as the basis of the planning and scheduling of work, manpower is planning, work balancing in team working, costing, labor performance measurement, and financial incentives. They are less commonly used as the basis of product design, methods comparison, work sequencing, and workplace design.

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The requirements for taking a time study are quite strict. Conditions:

the practitioner (observer) must be fully qualified to carry out Time Study,

the person performing the task must be fully trained and experienced in the work,

the work must be clearly defined and the method of doing the work must be effective

the working conditions must be clearly defined

There are two main essentials for establishing a basic time for specified work i.e. rating and timing. Some terminology explained Timing The observer records the actual time taken to do the element or operation. This usually is in cent minutes (0.01 min.) and is recorded, using a stop-watch or computerized study board. Rating. When someone is doing work his/her way of working will vary throughout the working period and will be different from others doing the same work. This is due to differing speeds of movement, effort, dexterity and consistency. Thus, the time taken for one person to do the work may not be the same as that for others and may or may not be 'reasonable' anyway. The purpose of rating is to adjust the actual time to a standardized basic time that is

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appropriate and at a defined level of performance. Rating is on a scale with 100 as its standard rating. Elements A complete job usually will be too long and variable to time and rate in one go, so it would be analyzed into several smaller parts (elements) which, separately, will each be timed and rated. Basic time This is the standardized time for carrying out an element of work at standard rating. Example: An observer times an element as 30 cent minutes (cm) and because it is performed more slowly than the standard 100, he rates it as 95. Thus the basic time is 95% of 30 or 28.5 basic cm. The formula is: (actual time x rating)/100. Allowances Extra time is allowed for various conditions which obtain, the main ones being relaxation allowance for: A. recovery from the effort of carrying out specified work under specified conditions (fatigue allowance) B. C. attention to personal needs adverse environmental conditions, plus D. others concerned with machine operations

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Frequency The basic time is the time for a complete cycle to be performed but as not all elements are repeated in every cycle their times per average cycle must be pro rata. In the example which follows, element 2 only occurs once every eight cycles so its basic time is one eighth of the element time, per cycle. Similar treatment for element 7 (one twelfth). Standard time: Basic time + allowances Rating Direct observation techniques (such as time study and analytical estimating) include a process for converting observed times to times for the "qualified worker working at a defined level of performance." The commonest of these processes is known as Rating. This involves the observer (after appropriate training) making an assessment of the worker's rate of working relative to the observer's concept of the rate corresponding to standard rating. This assessment is based on the factors involved in the work such as effort, dexterity, speed of movement, and consistency. The assessment is made on a rating scale, of which there are three or four in common usage. Thus on the 0-100 scale, the observer makes a judgment of the worker's rate of working as a percentage of the standard rate of working (100). The rating is then used (in a process known as "extension" in time study) to convert the observed time to the basic time using the simple formula: Basic time = observed time x observed rating/standard rating Rating is regarded by many as a controversial area of measurement since it is a subjective assessment. Where different observers rate differently, the resulting basic times are not
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comparable. However, practiced rating practitioners are remarkably consistent. It is important that those undertaking the rating are properly trained, and that this training is regularly updated (to maintain a common perception of standard rating) through rating 'clinics'.

Allowances When carrying out work over a complete shift or working day, workers obviously suffer from the fatigue imposed both by the work undertaken and the conditions under which they are working. The normal practice is to make an addition to the basic time (commonly referred to as an "allowance") to allow the worker to recover from this fatigue and to attend to personal needs. The amount of the allowance depends on the nature of the work and the working environment, and is often assessed using an agreed set of guidelines and scales. It is usual to allow some of the recovery period inherent in these allowances to be taken away from the workplace (and it is essential in adverse working conditions). Thus, work design should include the design of an effective work-rest regime. The addition of allowances should never be used to compensate for an unsafe or unhealthy working environment. One minority school of thought suggests that relaxation allowances are unnecessary. With work which involves, say, the carrying of heavy weights, this school suggests that the observer automatically adjusts the concept of standard rating to allow for the weight. Thus, if the standard rate of performance for walking on level ground carrying no weight is equivalent to four miles per hour, then an observer rating a worker walking while carrying a weight will not expect the equivalent rate. Thus, it is argued that the weight has been allowed for in the adjustment of standard rating and any relaxation allowance is simply a duplication of this adjustment. In many jobs there are small amounts of work that may occur irregularly and inconsistently. It is often not economic to measure such infrequent work and an additional allowance is added to cover such work and similar irregular delays. This allowance is known as a contingency allowance and is assessed either by observation, by analysis of historical records (for such items as
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tool sharpening or replacement), or by experience. The end result is a standard time which includes the time the work "should" take (when carried out by a qualified worker) plus additional allocations in the form of allowances, where appropriate, to cover relaxation time, contingency time and, perhaps, unoccupied time which increases the overall work cycle (such as waiting for a machine to finish a processing cycle). Work Measurement Components A work measurement system has three components: preferred methods, time values, and reporting. Preferred methods are not always the most efficient or fastest way to do a task. They should enhance safety, quality, and productivity. Safety for the employee and for the product should be considered. Quality is equally important; it has been proven that good performance and good quality go hand in hand. People who are trained in the proper method and follow that method will produce high-quality work and per form at an acceptable performance level. Time values and reporting should also be considered. The time that a job should take is determined not on the basis of speeding up the motions a worker normally makes but on the normal pace of the average worker, taking into consideration allowances for rest periods, coffee breaks, and fatigue. A reporting system is important to the success of any work measurement method. Supervisors and managers must have access to labor-management information that is both timely and complete. Timely information can be used to manage and shift labor hours to areas where they are needed and to correct problems or at least prevent them from becoming a crisis. Personal computers help to apply work measurement more effectively and more cheaply and provide immediate feedback to the workers, supervisors, and managers.

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Work Measurement Procedure Work measurement programs involve the use of a number of techniques, each selected to cover an appropriate part of the task. The purpose of measurement is to collect real data about actual events. To obtain time standards, the data are usually converted to target data or data that apply under known conditions. All work measurement systems are based on the same, simple three-stage procedure: analysis, data collection and measurement, and synthesis. They differ in the nature and degree of analysis, the nature and level of data collection and measurement, and the nature of the synthesis process. However, the three-stage procedure remains common. Before measurement begins, the task to be measured is analyzed and broken down into convenient parts that are suitable for the chosen measurement technique. The purpose of the measurement technique is to derive a "basic time" for each of these activities, elements, or motions. At the measurement stage, it is necessary to collect descriptive or qualitative data on the nature of the task, the conditions under which it is performed, and other factors, which may have a bearing on the time that the task takes to be complete. When repetitive jobs are measured, data are collected over a number of representative cycles of a job to obtain a "mean" or "typical" value. An analysis of the results can be done using statistical techniques to determine the number of observations that must be made to provide a given level of confidence in the final results. At the synthesis stage, the various parts of the task and their associated basic times are combined together in correct sequence and with the correct frequency to produce the time for a complete job. During this stage, the basic time will be adjusted for allowances to become the standard time for the task.

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Case Studys
1. Work measurement at Ohio Edison Company, a regional utility, has resulted in a $1.4 million savings in just two years. Ohio Edison developed a comprehensive, computerized work measurement system to measure some 95 percent of their utility line work, delineating 265 work packages---such as installing a line pole--- in the process. A computer report compared actual performance to the historical standard. Ohio Edisons goal was to improve communication between employees and management. That goal was achieved, along with a 7 percent increase in efficiency.

2. At Ford Motor Company are union members, engineers, and sharing a common goal a more competitive product through improved quality and productivity. Concomitant with this goal is Fords Modular Arrangement of Predetermined Time standard, which provides a common language for work measurement and standards. MODAPTS is a part of Fords $50 million per year involvement effort to get 110,000 automobile workers informed and participating is change. The application of MODAPTS has been successfully implemented in Fords Norfolk, Virginia, plant and is being expanded to other facilities.

3. Woolworth Holdings PLC and their national contact trucking carrier retained a United Kingdom management consulting firm to bring outside expertise to solving their delivery problems. The firm studied Woolworths delivery system, and created a new pay system for drivers. Schedules were set and a work measurement system established to assure Woolworth that their new store configuration investment would be supported by their contact delivery service. The result was an increased level of performance and an assurance that the service could be measured and monitored.

4. An unusual work measurement program at Clark Distribution Service Company in Chicago, ensure same-day filling and regular and rush orders for 1,200 equipment dealers. The activity card is the vehicle for change; computerized data
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from the card allows management to measure work and to respond immediately to bottlenecks or productivity slumps. The firms President estimates the saving to be $1 million per year. The initial investment provides a 1000 percent annual return, quite acceptable by any yardstick.

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Conclusion The design of jobs has a critical impact on organization and employee objectives. From the organizations perspective, the way tasks and responsibilities are grouped can affect productivity and costs. Jobs that are not satisfying or are too demanding are difficult to fill. Boring jobs may experience higher turnover. For an employee, motivation and job satisfaction are affected by the match between job factors (content, qualifications and rewards) and personal needs. Therefore, the thoughtful design of jobs can help both the organization and its employees achieve their objectives. Work measurement is the careful analysis of a task, its size, the method used in its performance, and its efficiency. The objective is to determine the workload in an operation, the time that is required, and the number of workers needed to perform the work efficiently. Work measurement helps to determine the time spent performing any process and offers a consistent, comparable methodology for establishing labor capacities. Work measurement can be extremely effective at informing supervisors of the working times and delays inherent in different ways of carrying out work. The purpose of a measurement method is to achieve full coverage of the work to be measured. A good work measurement system has many benefits. It helps to reduce labor costs, increase productivity, and improve supervision, planning, scheduling, performance appraisal, and decision making. To increase productivity, two important function of production management are: installation of the most effective method of performing the operation and the control of resources- mainly plant and labor required in carrying out the operation.

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Bibliography & Webliography

Webliography
www.wikipedia.com www.google.com www.youtube.com www.keepvid.com

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