A Comprehensive Review of Cementitious Grouts - Composition, Properties, Requirements and Advanced Performance

Construction and Building Materials 375 (2023) 130991
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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat
Review
A comprehensive review of cementitious grouts: Composition, properties,

requirements and advanced performance
Suelen da Rocha Gomes a, *, 2, Liberato Ferrara b, Luis Sánchez a, Mercedes Sánchez Moreno a, *, 1
a
Department of Inorganic Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chemical Institute for Energy and Environment, IQUEMA. University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
b
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Although grouting is a widespread process mainly used for soil treatment and for filling cracks/voids in concrete
Cement grout structures, grout injection is still a challenging step. Due to the different performance required for the numerous
Constituent materials fields of application, encompassing several injection methods and different design approaches, it is essential to
Applications
understand how the components of the grout (cement, aggregates, supplementary cementitious materials,
Self-healing
chemical admixtures) affect the workability, stability, injectability, consistency, rheology and, as a result both
the composition and the aforesaid properties, also the mechanical strength of the material and the effectiveness
and long term performance of the overall grouting application. As a matter of fact, all cementitious materials can
suffer deterioration processes that affect the serviceability and durability of structures and jeopardizing their
safety, requiring maintenance/recovery works whose cost can, overall the structure life cycle, result even higher
than the construction one. This may be especially true in the case of grouting applications, e.g. in prestressed
concrete structures, where the state of deterioration is not visible and its non-inspectable progress might lead to
catastrophic structural failures. To address all these issues, researchers have developed self-healing cementitious
materials which have proved to be an interesting option, as they are able to prolong the lifetime of structures,
reducing the environmental impact all along its life cycle. The literature points out that many self-healing
mechanisms are effective in concrete and mortars. However, this technology has been barely applied in
grouts. In this context, this work presents a comprehensive overview of cementitious grouts with focus on their
composition, properties, application technologies and conditions that can affect the overall material and
application performance. In addition, this review also provides an overview of self-healing technologies applied
to grouts as well as the research gaps in the field of self-healing grouts that should be desirably filled to exploit
their benefits in structural and infrastructural applications.
1. Introduction However, some of these standards are quite vague about composition
and do not limit the scope of a particular property [3,4]. Johnson [5]
The first records of grouting date to the early 19th century, when it points out that even providing a definition of “grout” is a complex task.
was used as a corrective measure in soils [1,2]. Over time, the injection The most acceptable one (although it is more a characteristic than a
technique was improved and grouting started being used in ports, ca definition) is that “grout” describes many types of injectable fluid ma
nals, tunnels, mining wells, bridges, dams [1]. The improvement of in terials that can be designed and handled in countless ways to achieve a
jection technologies and new grout formulations were fundamental to desired result [6]. Therefore, a cementitious grout is considered a fluid
consolidate the grouting no longer just a remedial measure but as a stage mixture consisting of cement, and in case supplementary cementitious
of its own in the construction process of structures and infrastructures materials, fine aggregates, water and chemical admixtures, which is
[1]. Due to this growth, technical standards were developed in order to injected for filling cracks and voids, bonding precast concrete elements,
establish a uniform approach to materials, processes and methods. stabilizing soils, sealing joints, fillings ducts of posttensioning tendons in
* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. da Rocha Gomes), [email protected] (M.S. Moreno).
1
ORCID ID: 0000-0002-6518-0685.
2
ORCID ID: 0000-0002-2197-2787.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.130991
Received 22 December 2022; Received in revised form 2 March 2023; Accepted 7 March 2023
Available online 15 March 2023
0950-0618/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc/4.0/).
S. da Rocha Gomes et al. Construction and Building Materials 375 (2023) 130991
prestressed elements, among others [3]. Clearly the composition and Table 1
properties of grouts change according to the field of application. For Main grouting methods used in geological applications and their respective
example, low viscosity grouts are generally not recommended for lifting characteristics.
structures works because there could be a water flow in the rock. For this Permeation Compaction Jet grouting Compensation
application, grouts with fast setting time are the most indicated [7]. grouting grouting grouting
Grouts for filling post-tensioning ducts have to present high stability It is the most This method is also In this method, a Thick grout is
and fluidity to cover the largest area of the ducts, as in case of movement common and known as low jet of pressurized used to compact
of the structure it can cause losses. Additionally, unstable grouts can conventional mobility grouting fluid is used to soil particles
method. It is and it was erode the soil (increasing the
exhibit sedimentation and bleeding. The free water can freeze/evapo
used in soft- developed to (creating a stiffness and
rate (depending on the weather conditions) and lead to some expansion ground works, improve soil cavity) which is strength) and to
and/or corrosion problems [8]. In precast concrete the connection be that is, joints, stability and fix then filled with stabilize and
tween the elements is always a critical point, and the grout used has to fractures or settlement grout. It can be mitigate
present good bond strength and the lowest shrinkage [9]. There are voids are filled problems during applied for settlements.
at low injection tunneling reinforcing Compensation
numerous applications available in the literature on possible grout ap pressure operations. The foundations, grouting is also
plications. Among others, grouts for soil nailing [10], steel reinforce without grout does not building known as fracture
ment [11], structural repair [12], soil erosion treatments [13], mansory disturbing, penetrate nor retaining grouting. The
[14], pavement [15]and tunneling [16] should be mentioned in this displacing or permeate through structures and objective is to
creating any the soil voids. It impermeable minimize the
review. Regarding the properties, fluidity is always a critical point for
change in displaces the soil, barriers, movement of the
grouts. On the one hand, a good fluidity is required to completely and volume in the creating lenses that preventing soil soil that would
effectively fill all free regions in the intended grouting “domain”, soil formation control the lifting movements and affect existing
whereas, on the other, an excessively high fluidity might result into or structure. and re-levelling of in tunnelling structures, e.g., it
likewise high bleeding rate, affecting the performance of the applica Permeation structures. High projects, in is used to adjust
grouting is also pressure is required addition to ground levels as
tion. Excess free water can even lead to some expansion and/or rein
known as and very thick stabilizing soft tunnels are
forcement corrosion problems. Many publications have investigated the cement grouts are used to ground and excavated in
effects of adding supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) [17–23] grouting, prevent or limit sealing vertical order to balance
and chemical admixtures [24–26] not only to govern the fluidity but also chemical hydrofracturing. joints. As this the excavation-
grouting and The grout must be application induced
in targeting to other properties, including permeability, durability and
pressure workable enough to requires ultra- settlement [34].
strength. grouting. This be pumped with high pressure, it
The grouting industry also tried to address issues related to the method makes low mobility, as it is important that
negative impact caused by the construction sector proposing in soils and rocks must remain as a the grout resists
novations which range from new eco-friendly compositions [27–29] to less permeable. growing mass structural
Thin fluid (without breakage (yield
new grout formulations for well-known applications [11].
grouts (low expanding) stress must be
Due to the variety of materials and application fields, this study will viscosity, non- [31,34,35]. achieved
focus on mapping the most relevant publications of cementitious grouts particulate without
providing useful information to understand how different components grouts) are destabilizing the
essential to suspension). The
affect the properties in the fresh- and hardened-state. The state of the art
obtain rheological
is organized into sections that cover from composition to properties, adequate properties of the
highlighting some critical parameters that must be evaluated. In addi penetration, grout must be
tion, the review discusses the design of functionalized grouts using self- although they carefully
repair technology, focusing on current advances in the implementation cannot designed and
permeate into measured, as the
of this technology in cementitious grouts.
very thin voids grout has to
[31,34]. tolerate high
2. Grouting methods shear rates
during the entire
pumping process
As mentioned before, the first grouting methods emerged in the field
[36].
of soil improvement and remediation. In that time, the main purpose
was to improve the soil strength and reduce its permeability, in order to
increase the bearing capacity and stability [30,31]. Nowadays, grouts 3. Main components of cementitious grouts
can be employed in several different applications and the grouting
methods (permeation, compaction, jet, compensation, backfill, injection Grouts can be based on solutions or on binders. Cementitious grouts
grouting) vary according to the grout type, its mechanisms and field of are considered as particulate grouts, that is, they are mainly composed
application [30,32].The selection of grouting method will depend not by particulates derived from the clinker suspended in water. The final
only on the grout composition but also on several factors, including properties are influenced by several parameters including water/cement
geological characteristics of the site, climate conditions, the objective of (w/c) ratio, cement composition, ambient temperature, mixing time and
grouting, types of cracks, budget and time for project execution [6]. For speed [37].
example, masonry grouting requires attention to parameters such as It is important that cementitious grouts completely fill voids and
distance between the injection holes, the injection pressure, the water joints, have good adhesion to surfaces (e.g., concrete, rocks, mortar), are
absorption capacity and physical/chemical characteristics of the ma chemically and mechanically resistant and minimally shrink to prevent
sonry [33]. In the case of filling the soil cracks, the selection of the the appearance of micro-cracks. Depending on the application or
method will depend on the rheology, filtration trend and permeability formulation, cementitious grouts may present limited ability to pene
into the tortuosity of the fissure, among other characteristics. Table 1 trate fine soils or voids [38]. In this respect, several studies seek to
presents some characteristics of the most commonly used grouting optimize the grout mixture [39–41]. The effectiveness of the optimiza
methods. tion is normally evaluated by assessing workability, volume stability,
porosity, strength, injectability and durability performance. Fig. 1 pro
vides a comprehensive overview of parameters that must be considered
2
Fig. 1. Overview of some parameters required for a successful grouting.
for a successful grouting. material is known as blast furnace slag (BFS). Different types of BFSs
As mentioned earlier, cement-based grouts are composed by cement, (such as granulated, expanded, pelletized) are produced depending on
aggregates, supplementary cementitious materials and chemical ad cooling method [52]. Adding high amounts of BFS in concrete increases
mixtures. The main binder of most cementitious grouts is Ordinary the setting time because its hydration is relatively slow [49]. Effects on
Portland Cement (OPC) due to its engineering characteristics, low costs, fresh and hardened properties of steel fiber-reinforced grout (SFRG) by
predictable durability and high compatibility with concrete structures additions (0, 20 and 40% of cement by weight) of ground granulated
[30,38,40,42,43]. Supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) are blast furnace slag (GGBS) in two types of cement grouts (Type 1 cement
discarded coproducts or industrial by-products and are also known as is ordinary Portland cement while Type 3 cement is high early strength
mineral admixtures. Normally, SCM replace part of the OPC content (HES) cement) were studied by Kim et al. [8]. The authors observed, for
[19,44–46].The most conventional SCMs are fly ash, slags, silica fume both cements, an increase in the flow table measurements with the in
and calcined clays. Supply reductions of these by-products are already crease of GGBS amount; the increase in HES cement was more evident
noticed and new SCMs are being studied as alternatives, such as rice than in OPC: 40% of GGBS produced an increase in setting time of 10.5
husk ash, calcined dredging sediments, steel slag and natural pozzolans % for OPC and 35% for HES cement. Regarding the flow time, an in
(although this is not a new field of application, but rather the recovery of crease in flowability, i.e. a flow time reduction, was observed for both
an old technology) [47–49]. types of cement. For type 1, the reduction was 17.3% and for type 3, it
Fly ash (FA) is a by-product from coal combustion with pozzolanic was 23.8%. These results are resumed in Fig. 2, in which relative values
properties. It is categorized in low-calcium FA (Class F) and high- with respect to reference case are shown for each parameter repre
calcium FA (Class C), being class C the most used type due to its bet sented: flow (time and table), bleeding and initial setting time.
ter pozzolanic property [50]. Although FA improves the workability of Silica fume (SF), also reported as microsilica or condensed SF, is one
the fresh concrete due to a lubrication effect [49], its use in non- of the most popular choices for increasing microstructure compactness
shrinkage grouts did not produce the same result. Kim et al. [20] re and, as a results, strength of cementitious composites due to its high
ported that additions of FA with different particle size (ground fly ash silica content and fineness. When added to cement, an increase of the
(GFA) and raw fly ash (RFA)) did not improve the workability because, yield stress and plastic viscosity was reported [48,53]. Small amounts of
as the authors claimed, less cement was available for the hydration re SF (5, 10 and 15% by weight of cement) in high-performance cementi
action as the fly ash content increased. The flow time of mixes with GFA tious grouts (water/binder (w/b) equal to 0.33) improved the perfor
were slightly reduced compared to 100% OPC grout whereas additions mance when compared to the grout without SF. With 5% and 10% of SF,
of RFA increased the flow time up to 27 s (compared to reference time: the flow time was reduced to 25 and 27 s, respectively (reference
44 s). In addition, both studied FA types improved bleeding, reduced the starting from 39 s). While additions of 15% decreased fluidity,
setting time and decreased the compressive strength in early ages. increasing flow time to 55 s. In Fig. 3 the effect of SF in the compressive
Adding Class F FA (20%, 35%, 50% and 65% by volume) decreased the strength is shown. Lower additions of SF (5% and 10%) decrease the
yield stress [51] and additions of microfine fly ash (MFA) (from 0 to 40% long-term strength in comparison to the reference grout, even after 56
by weight) reduced the apparent viscosity [18]. days curing. However, with 15% SF, after 28 days, the strength reaches
Slags are impurities separated from the metal during the smelting higher values than in the grout without SF as addition [12].
processes. They can be classified as ferrous (from iron and steel), Fine aggregates can also affect the properties of grouts depending on
nonferrous (from copper, nickel, lead and zinc) and non-metallurgical the mineralogical composition, particle size distribution, geometrical
(e.g., phosphorus slag). The most used types in civil construction are parameters, apparent weight, surface texture. For grouting is important
slags produced during the ironmaking process. When iron is smelted and to use fine aggregates in order to avoid the formation of plugs that
cooled from a blast furnace, a granular vitreous product is formed. This impair the penetrability [54]. Normally, the maximum particle size used
3
Fig. 2. Effect of cement replacement by weight (Type I Portland Cement and Type III High Early Strength cement) by GGBS on flow (time and diameter), bleeding
and initial setting-time. Adapted from [8].
Fig. 3. Effect of the use of silica fume on compressive strength. Adapted from [12].
is up to 2 mm. Lim et al. [55] studied the influence of sand grading on They also help to minimize flocculation in microfine cement-based
strength and flow. Grouts with three different sand gradings (≤1.18 mm, grouts [58]. Cement-based grouts (w/b from 0.4 to 0.8) for radioac
≤ 0.90 mm and ≤ 0.60 mm) were prepared. The w/c ratio varied from tive waste isolation were prepared with 30% of cement replaced by FA
0.61 to 0.67 and the cement/sand (c/s) ratio was equal to 1. The authors (by weight), polypropylene (PP) fibers and PNS-based SP [59]. SP ad
reported that, for any sand gradation, the increase of w/c decreased the ditions enhanced the flowability and viscosity but worsened the
flow time and the compressive strength. In addition, by setting the w/c bleeding. The use of SP combined with PP fiber enhanced the
at 0.61 for any sand gradation, the efflux time was always the same. compressive strength, increased the efflux time, setting time and
Also, the finer sand (≤0.6 mm) in grout with w/c = 0.67, yielded the bleeding for any w/b ratio. The authors explain that worsening of
highest results of compressive and flexural strength. bleeding is due to the bleeding paths created by the hydrophobic fibers
Chemical admixtures also change the fresh and the hardened state and by the retarding effect caused by SP on cement reactions. The au
properties of grouts. They are classified according to their function: thors also observed a decrease in compressive strength in grouts with
water-reducers, retarders, viscosity-modifiers, air-entrainers, shrinkage- only PP fiber. They justified that reduction was caused by the “redis
reducers. Water-reducing admixtures (WRA), also known as super tribution of the void structure and the presence of weak interfacial bonds
plasticizers (SP) reduce the water content while maintaining fresh per between the fiber and the fly ash grains” [59].
formance. Examples of WRA are lignosulphonates, casein, The admixtures that modify the cement hydration rate will mainly
polynaphthalene sulfonates (PNS), polymelamine sulfonates (PMS), change the setting time and strength development depending on the
vinyl copolymers, polycarboxylates and acrylic copolymers [56,57]. type of admixture. The most common accelerators are inorganic salts
4
(calcium and sodium hydroxide, potassium carbonate, sodium fluoride addition of a cellulose-based VMA increased the HRWR demands be
and sodium aluminates), water glass (sodium silicate solution) and tween 10 and 40% (to achieve the same fluidity of the grouts with PNS/
ethanolamine [60–62]. Lignosulphonate-based admixture is on its hand PMS and without VMA). The VMA did not change the consistency but
a well-known retarding agent that also has water-reducing effect. In reduced the bleeding (for both HRWR) and increased the yield value and
addition, hydroxycarboxylic acids, inorganic compounds (those with plastic viscosity [66].
zinc, tin, borate, or phosphate) and sugar derivatives also retard cement Fig. 4 [67] shows the effects on consistency by changing the VMA
hydration [56,63]. type and w/c ratio. From the figure, it is observed that increasing
Viscosity-modifying admixtures (VMA), also known as water- hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), bleeding decreased and yield stress and
retaining (WR) or anti-washout admixture (AWA), are used to plastic viscosity increased. Even with increasing w/c, HEC behaved the
enhance stability and cohesion. The most commonly used VMAs are same way. Similar response was observed when increasing the amount
natural polymers (welan gum, xanthan gum, alginates), semi-synthetic of welan gum (WG). However, a higher sensitivity to increase of w/c is
polymers (cellulose-ether derivatives, alginates derivatives) and syn observed.
thetic polymers (polyethylene oxide, polyvinyl alcohol) [56]. Grouts Shrinkage-reducing admixtures (SRA) are considered an important
intended for underwater sealing of cracks, offshore structures and pre- chemical additive in the design and production of highly fluid grouts as
stressed ducts usually contain this type of admixture [64,65]. Com they delay water absorption [24]. SRA is a surfactant that adsorbs on the
bined use of SP with VMA in high-fluid grouts is instrumental in water–air interface of pore solution of cementitious materials and on the
increasing the stability of the mixtures avoiding the segregation and liquid–vapor interface of clinker, reducing the interfacial energy and the
bleeding promoted by the SP. Saric-Coric et al [66] studied the inter surface tension. Hence, it increases the dispersion of cement particles
action between a cellulose-based VMA with two different types of high- [24,56]. A shrinkage mitigation study was carried out by adding 1% and
range water reducers (HRWR) based on sulfonates, PNS and a PMS. 2% (by weight of cement) of glycol-based SRA in a high-performance
Grouts (w/c = 0.4) with PNS presented better dispersant efficiency than grout (HG) to be used in post-tensioned concrete structures [26]. The
grouts with PMS. After 1 h of preparation, the grout with PNS showed a HG (w/b = 0.3) consisted of a binder composed by 80% OPC, 10%
reduction of 9% in the mini slump flow diameter, while the reduction zirconium SF and 10% FA The SRA slightly increased the flowability
obtained with PMS was around 36%. The authors also reported that compared to the grout without SRA: the flow table measurements of
Fig. 4. Effect of VMAs (liquid hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC) and welan gum (WG)) on bleeding, yield stress and plastic viscosity. Adapted from [67].
5
grouts containing 0%, 1% and 2% of SRA were 130 mm, 135 mm and results). Moreover, the type of SP was the variable that most affected the
140 mm respectively. The compressive strength was also higher than for robustness of the workability performance, followed by the influence of
the reference grout. At 7 days, no significant differences were observed the w/b ratio. Kim et al. [20] studied the changes on workability
for specimens with and without SRA (strength around 30 MPa). At 28 replacing OPC (amounts of 10, 20 and 30% by weight) by two types of
days, the specimens with 2% of SRA achieved the highest strength of 60 FA (ground fly ash (GFA) and raw fly ash (RFA)). They found that the
MPa, while the strength of specimens with 1% and 0% of SRA was nearly flow of the grout increased with the decrease of RFA, being not affected
45 MPa. Regarding “free shrinkage” (considered by the authors as the by GFA. In addition, all samples were quite stable because no bleeding
sum of autogenous and drying shrinkage), the specimens with SRA occurred in all the mix conditions.
exhibited lower shrinkage strains values than the specimen without Setting time is also related to the grout workability. The initial
SRA. At all ages (total of 40 days), there was a decrease in shrinkage with setting time is the time when the workability and plasticity of the grout
the increase in SRA: the specimen with 2% of SRA showed − 636 µƐ begins to decrease. A fast increase in viscosity and yield stress rapidly
which was respectively 56% and 21% lower than those of 0% and 1% decreases the penetration capacity of the grout. In that situation, it is
SRA. necessary to increase the injection pressure, making filtration more
likely to occur. For that reason, it is preferable that grouts have longer
4. Properties of cementitious grouts initial setting time, ensuring better penetrability. Cementitious grouts
that require fast setting are modified with chemical admixtures. These
The properties of the grouts which have to be assessed depend on the grouts are typically more viscous (i.e., exhibit low workability and
grouting process and application. For example, for soil stabilization, the fluidity) and require high pressure pumping systems [89]. Similar to
grout has to reduce voids in the soil and to increase the load capacity. As other early age/fresh state properties, setting time is influenced by
the injection is usually done under high pressure, it is important to cement type, w/c and s/c ratios, by SCM additions and additives.
evaluate its consistency and rheology. In tunnelling works, grout should Increasing w/c, setting time increase [79]. Shannag [12] demonstrated
set early, thus, it is equally important to assess the setting time as well as that SF in grouts (with Type-I OPC) decreased the initial setting time,
resistance to chemical attack or erosion by water seepage [68]. while FA (grouts with Type-II OPC) increased it [90]. For microfine
As known, porosity is an inherent characteristic of cementitious cement-based grouts, the initial and final setting time increased up to 5
materials that directly influences permeability [69]. Water permeation h, (starting from 8 h) when FA dosage was up to 40% [18].
causes damage to the structure due to the interaction of dissolved ionic
species (chloride, sulphates and carbonates) with the matrix. The 4.2. Bleeding
reduction of the w/c ratio leads to a reduction in the total porosity but it
also interferes in fluidity. As durability is a result of the interaction of the According to He et al. [70] bleeding shows the stability of the grout
grout with the environment, a high permeability will negatively affect indicating whether the material has sufficient cohesion and water
the durability [70]. For better durability, the w/c ratio should be as low retention capacity to prevent stratification and segregation. As a matter
as possible. However, low w/c ratio may decrease the fluidity affecting of fact, when the mixing water flows to the top, solid particles settle
the grout injectability. If a specific application requires higher w/c ra causing sedimentation. The bleeding capacity is expressed as the rela
tios, the permeability can be reduced by adding permeability reducing tion between the volume of water released and the initial volume of the
admixtures [71–75]. grout [86,91]. Lombardi [92] affirms that a stable grout should not
Usually, workability, consistency and stability are the main proper present more than 5% sedimentation.
ties studied in the fresh state, while the hardened state is often charac Bleeding is also related to the durability and permeability. Excessive
terized by compressive strength, shrinkage and injectability [30]. bleeding increases the porosity of the grout resulting in loss of strength
Environmental conditions of the site should always be considered as [93,94]. Additionally, it can affect the grout performance in ground
they may change the performance of the grout. For example, the tem treatment, as the grouted site can present partial filling due to uneven
perature (not only the environmental but also the grout temperature) settlements [95]. In tunneling operations, bleeding can cause structural
changes setting time, rheology, injectability and stability [41,76]. failures because the partial filling can favor the appearance of prefer
Table 2 shows some properties that change according to the grout ential paths for water flow [5].
composition and application. Different variables can influence the bleeding rate, the w/c being the
main one [22,67,93]. Tests varying the w/c ratio, between 0.6 and 1.2,
4.1. Workability demonstrated that the increase of bleeding is directly proportional to the
increment of w/c [42]. The same behavior has been reported by [80].
Workability is a term used to indicate the fresh state performance of Some practices can be applied to stabilize the grout mixture and mini
cementitious materials in which the mixture must be cohesive and no mize the bleeding effect, including addition of SCMs, chemical admix
segregation between different particle sizes should be observed [83,84]. tures and changes in solids fractions [75]. Fig. 5 presents the effects of
It encompasses two main aspects, namely fluidity and cohesion, and is replacing cement by slags studied by Perez-Garcia et al.[27]. They re
affected by water content, aggregate type, aggregate/cement ratio, ported that additions of 30, 40 and 50% (% in weight) of different types
chemical-physical characteristics of cement, presence of admixtures, of slags (unprocessed ladle furnace slag (LFS) and GGBS) in cementitious
temperature (environmental conditions), among others [84]. grout (w/c = 1) decreased bleeding (for any slag type and percentage
As the requirements for the grout workability change according to tested) without affecting significantly the flow time. Sha et al. [79]
the field of application, it is not easy to establish a value or a range for verified that additions of 30% (in weight) of GGBE combined with Class
the different parameters employed to measure and quantify workability. C FA (40% in weight) in a cement-based grout (water/solid (w/s) ratio
Flowability, compactability and stability qualitatively describe this between 0.6 and 1.2) reduced the bleeding ratio. Gopinathan et al. [93]
property, although it can also be described quantitatively by measure investigated ultra-fine slags (UFS) additions in a grout (w/c = 0.3, 0.35
ments of viscosity, flow time and flow table spread [83,85]. and 0.4) with two types of SP (sulfonated naphthalene formaldehyde
Chemical admixtures (especially SP) and SCM are used to improve (SNF) type and poly carboxylate ether (PCE) type). The results showed
workability [39,79,86,87]. Erdem et al. [88] studied how workability of that the bleeding of the mixture with w/c = 0.4 and 10% (by weight of
cementitious grouts (w/b ratio of 0.4 and 0.5) is affected by two types of cement) of UFS was reduced to zero for any SNF dosages (from 0.4 to
SP (polycarboxylic-ether type and naphthalene formaldehyde sulfonic 1.2% by weight of cement). The same behavior was seen for the mixtures
acid type), limestone and FA. They concluded that workability is closely containing w/c = 0.35, 15% (by weight of cement) of UFS and PCE
related to consistency (flow measurements) and stability (bleeding dosages of 0.6 and 0.85% respectively.
6
Table 2
Summary of the main fresh and hardened state properties of grouts.
Mix composition Application w/b ratio Flow time Mini- Setting time Setting Bleeding Plastic viscosisty Yield stress Compressive Flexural REF
S. da Rocha Gomes et al.

(s) slump (cm) (initial) time rate (%) (Pa.s) (Pa) strength (MPa) strength
(final) (MPa)
OPC 53 Grade, SF, Class F FA, fine Grouting for precast 0.25–0.8 0.8–45 15 4–10 h 18–25.5 h 0–3 0–0.2 4–15 20–35 (7d) 4–10 (28d); [17]-
sand, polycarboxylate ether- construction and 35–55 (28d/ 5–12 (56d)
based SP ground stabilization 56d)
microfine OPC, colloidal not described 1.0–2.0 31.73–38.21 33.4–37.5 4.2–8.3 h 8.6–13.5 1.3–6.2 0.0141–0.0379 1.07–2.73 5.0–14.0 (28d) 2.0–4.0 [18]-
nanosilica, microfine FA, (28d)
polycarboxylate-based SP
OPC CEM I 42.5R, ladle furnace not described 1.0 8.5–9.0 – – – – – – 1.02–6.29 (7d) 0.51–2.45 [27]
slag and blast furnace slag (7d)
2.05–11.41 1.16–3.5
(28d) (28d)
1.98–16.90 1.29–4.63
(90d) (90d)
OPC (ASTM Type I), SF, VMA, Not described 0.35–0.48 19–22.5 22–24 – – 0.017–0.92 4.6–23.3 6.7–28.7 28.3–62.3 (28d) – [67]
polycarboxylate ether-based
high-range water reducer
OPC CEM I 42.5 N, nanosilica, Not described – 42–68 13.4–19.6 – – – 0.029–0.419 0.061–0.103 34.0–61.2 (1d) – [77]-
Type F polycarboxylic acid- 53.4–99.8 (3d)
based SP 92.3–113.0 (7d)
124.0–142.7
(28d)
OPC CEM I 32.5 N, Not described 0.33–0.5 – – – 6.5–22 1.2–5.6 – 0–58 11.5–26 (3d); – [78]-
polynaphthalene-based SP, 16.4–45 (7d);
polycarboxylate ether-based SP 22.5–58 (28d)
31–41 (28d)
cement, ground granulated blast Grouting for 0.45–0.75 22.5–50.22 – 5.50–8.15 – 0.6–4.69 – – – 5.19–11 [8]
furnace slag, steel fiber, prestressed concrete (28d)
naphthalene-based and structures
polycarboxylate-based SP
7
Mix Composition Application w/b or ratio Flow time Mini- Setting time Setting time Bleeding Plastic viscosisty Yield stress Compressive Flexural REF
(s) slump (cm) (initial) (final) rate (%) (Pa.s) (Pa) strength (MPa) strength
(MPa)
OPC CEM I 42.5R, polycarboxylate- Grouting for 0.5 – – – – – – – 51.5–63.1 (28d) 7.4–10.4 [75]
based SP sealing of concrete (28d)
cracks
OPC (ASTM Type I), granulated blast- Grouting for water 0.6–1.2 30–60 17.5–36.0 14.8–17.5 h 24.6–29.7 h – – – 7–16 (28d) 0.5–2.25 [79]
furnace slag, Class C FA, rich and broken (28d)
polysaccharide-based anti-washout rock stratum 7–20 (91d) 1.0–2.4
agent, polynaphthalene-based SP (91d)
OPC Type 10, Class F and Class C FA, Not described 0.4–1.3 30–140 – 5–20 7.5–25 0–40% – – 7.5–37.5 (28d) – [80]
Construction and Building Materials 375 (2023) 130991

melamine formaldehyde condensate- 12.5–42.5 (91d)
based SP, polysaccharide-based anti 6–16 (28d)
washout agent 53.4–99.8 (3d)
92.3–113.0 (7d)
124.0–142.7
(28d)
OPC CEM I-42.5R, natural zeolite, Not described 0.6 13.25–66.35 6.8–16.8 – 7.9–13.7 – 0.0299–0.2693 3.03–19.43 – – [81]
polycarboxylic ether-based SP, VMA
(welan gum)
Type 10 CSA-CAN A5 cement, Not described 0.4 39–225 7.7–14.5 7.1–12.15 8.5–14.0 0.06–0.3 0.06–0.16 0.7–24.9 26–32 (7d) – [66]
cellulose-based VMA, 31–41 (28d)
polynaphtalene sulfonate and
polymelamine sulfonate high-range
water reducers
OPC Type II, class F FA, ground Mansory grouts 0.668–0.972 – 20.3–28.0 – – – – – 4.8–13.6 (7d) – [82]
granulated blast furnace slag 4.5–24.1 (14d)
7.1–26.9 (28d)
9.2–35.6 (42d)
8.9–36.0 (56d)
20.8–41.9 (90d)
Fig. 5. Effect of replacing OPC with 30% and 50% (% in weight) of slags (LFS and GGBS) on flow time and bleeding. Adapted from [27].
4.3. Consistency change in water and FA contents [80].

Grout containing natural zeolite as VMA (w/c = 0.6) exhibited less
Consistency reflects the grout plasticity which is important for the fluidity when compared to a grout with WG-type VMA (additions of
injection process [70]. According to technical standards, the consistency 0.05, 0.10 and 0.15% by weight of cement) [81]. In this work, mea
can be reported as fluid, plastic or flowable and it is often measured by surements of flow diameter and Marsh cone flow time revealed that an
flow tests. increase of zeolite additions (20, 30 and 40% by weight of cement) re
Fluid consistency is defined as “ (1) the consistency at which a grout duces the grout flowability due to the higher water retention capacity of
will form a nearly level surface without vibration or rodding and (2) the the zeolite. For a mixture containing 0.25% of SP, the increase of zeolite
consistency of a grout that has an efflux time of less than 30 s through an addition from 20% to 40%, decreased the flow diameter from 99 mm to
ASTM C939 [96] flow cone” [91]. Additionally, flowable consistency is 68 mm and the flow time varied from 20.76 s to 66.35 s, respectively.
defined as “ (1) the consistency at which a grout will form a nearly level
surface when lightly rodded and (2) the flowable consistency has a flow
of 125 to 145 percent after five drops of the flow table described in 4.4. Injectability
ASTM C230 [97]” [91,98]. Lastly, plastic consistency is “(1) the con
sistency at which a mixture subjected to a constant shearing stress un Injectability is also a parameter required to ensure adequate grout
dergoes increasing deformation without rupture” [91]and (2) the plastic performance. According to Miltiadou-Fezans and Tassos [100] inject
consistency has a flow of 100 to 125 percent after five drops of flow table ability is associated with penetrability, fluidity and stability. A grout
[98]. with great workability (that is to say good flowability, compactability
Similar to other cementitious materials, the grout consistency is and stability) does not guarantee adequate injection as this process re
affected by the particle size distribution of solids and the w/c ratio quires a great understanding of fluid mechanics, grouting methods and
[42,79]. Mineral additions and chemical admixtures are widely used to physical/chemical characteristics of the local to be grouted. Many
control the consistency. Krishnamoorthy et al. [87] investigated how the studies in the literature test different methods to predict penetrability,
required SP dosage (sulphonated naphthalene formaldehyde condensate simulating the diffusion flow in various porous media, aiming to
SP) changes depending on the replacement of OPC by SCM (Class C FA establish a relation between the grout composition (w/c ratio, rheology,
(20, 30 and 40%), GGBS (20, 30 and 40%) and SF (5 and 10%)). All % by granulometric distribution, fluidity, stability), site characteristics
weight of cementitious material. The time of efflux of the grout (w/c (granulometric grading, ambient characteristics, voids volume, among
ratio between 0.25 and 0.40) was measured through Marsh cone appa others), and injection pressure [101–103]. Knowing the penetrability, it
ratus. They reported that SP dosage varied according to the type of SCM is possible to indicate if the granulometric distribution of the grout is
and the dosage increased with the amount of cement replaced by SCM. suitable for the smaller volume/widths of voids/cracks.
For the mixtures with FA or GGBS, only increasing the amount of water Jorne et al [104] demonstrated how grout injection varies according
was enough to reduce de SP dosage up to 75%, to achieve the desired to porous media, void volume, water content and granulometric distri
fluidity. bution. The authors reproduced the injection of a lime-based grout (w/b
Zhang et al. [18] studied the fluidity and spreading ability of = 0.5) in different porous media (dry and pre-wet) varying grain size
microfine-cement-based grout (w/s = 1.2) containing additions of ranges of limestone sands and crushed brick. They concluded that soils
microfine fly ash (MFA). Increasing MFA contents (0, 10, 20, 30 and formed mainly by fine particles absorb more water, which decreases
40% by weight of cement), the flow time decreased and the mini-slump injectability. The water absorption was also elevated in dry porous
diameter increased. This behavior is similar to other studies that also media which can stimulate grout segregation.
observed better flow due to the addition of FA [27,99]. High-volume FA As discussed previously fluidity and stability also contribute to the
grouts (w/b = 0.4–1.3) did not show significant changes in fluidity. For success of injectability. Fluidity is not only related to flow time but also
w/c ratio between 0.4 and 0.65, additions of FA (cement replacement by should be expressed by rheological measurements which is strongly
weight) between 50% and 75% reduced the flow time up to 80%. For w/ influenced by the w/c ratio and by as powder fineness and particle size
c ratio of 0.8, 1.0 and 1.3, the flow was constant, regardless of any distributions [17,95,105,106]. Rheology can be described by different
analytical models and the cementitious grout is generally characterized
8
as a non-newtonian fluid. The rheological behavior is described by two aperture through which the mixture has to be grouted [105]. If the grout
parameters: yield stress (τ0) and plastic viscosity (µ). Both parameters had only a single grain size/shape, it would easily penetrate in any
define the Bingham constitutive equation, employed to characterize the fracture/soils. However, this is an illusory scenario, as grouts are not
behavior of the grout (Eq. (1), where τ is the shear stress (Pa) and ẏ is the monodisperse systems. Thus, it is essential to assess the best grain size
shear rate (s− 1) [107]. and the particle distribution. Bohloli et al. [117] showed that filtration
stability depends on the grain size. They evaluated (through filter press)
τ = τ0 + μγ̇ (1)
grouts composed by water and cement (three cement type were tested;
Dhir et al [3] explains that the stability of the mixture is directly D95 of the cements ranged from 17 to 25 μm). The cement with D95 = 17
proportional to its viscosity and inversely proportional to its fluidity. μm had the best filtration stability, while cement with D95 = 18 μm
The suspension is stable when its plastic viscosity is high. However, the exhibited the lowest. Despite the D95 values of both cements are close,
fluidity (which is essential for grout) will only be high when the yield the grains of cement (with D95 = 18 μm) agglomerated, forming parti
value and plastic viscosity are both low. An option to increase the cles ≥ 75 μm (clogging the filter).
penetrability of the grout is to increase the w/c ratio. However, mixtures The success of grouting also depends on the magnitude of the pres
tend to segregate with increasing the amount of water. It is also sure applied for injection [118–120]. To fill all spaces, a minimum
important to know that as the w/c ratio increases, changes in viscosity pressure is required to overcome the shear resistance between the grout
(after reaching its critical value) are not easily measured. Therefore, to flow and the walls of the space to be filled. By increasing the injection
produce a low viscosity grout is much more appropriate to maintain low pressure, the grout rheology can change and filtration can decrease,
w/c ratio and select better types of cement and chemical additives, improving injectability [121]. However, higher pressures are recom
rather than just increasing the amount of water [108]. mended up to a certain limit. Although with high pressure the cracks
Correlations between yield stresses, unconfined compressive expand (facilitating the grout flow), high pressure can replicate the
strength (UCS) and w/c ratio were studied in cement-zeolite blended cracks, deform them and hinder penetrability [122]. Moreover, during
specimens. The authors revealed that zeolite additions of more than 30% the injection, high grouting pressure might cause segregation or even
and an increase in w/c ratio led to a decrease in yield-stress. The in favor the agglomeration of finer particles due to filtration tendency.
crease in pressure (from 100 kPa to 500 kPa) increases the yield stress
which is justified by the volume change during grout consolidation [28]. 4.5. Mechanical properties
Güllü et al. [109] found that FA additions (0–100%) in cement grouts
(w/c = 0.75 to 1.5) decreases the yield stress and, the apparent and Similar to other cementitious materials, the mechanical properties of
plastic viscosities. the grout are characterized by compressive and flexural strengths. The
Liu et al. [106] studied the influence of clay, sand and setting-time use of OPC is advantageous, as the grout develops higher strength in
modifier on shear stress, shear rate and viscosity of cementitious early ages. The effect of different SP on strength was studied by [78].
grouts. The results indicate that the yield stress increased with the in Additions (from 0.5 up to 3.5% by cement weight) of polycarboxylate-
crease of clay dosage for w/s = 0.6 and 1. Viscosity slightly varied with and polynaphthalene-based SP on cement-based grout (w/c = 0.33,
low clay dosages (≤10% by weight of cement) and rapidly increased 0.4 and 0.5) showed that the strength increased over time for both SPs.
with dosage of 30% and 50% (by weight of cement), remaining stable The increase caused by PCE was slightly higher compared to the poly
after 40 min. The mixtures containing clay, cement, sand and modifier naphthalene type, especially for grouts with a w/c ratio of 0.4 and 0.5.
showed that a suitable content of sand can improve cohesion. With the Regarding the increase in the amount of SP (for the same w/c), in
same modifier dosage, the yield stress increased when the sand/cement general, there was no increase in compressive strength with the increase
(s/c) ratio was increased up to 1.5. However, it decreased for s/c = 2. of SP, for all ages tested, the strengths were very similar.
Sonebi et al. [22] concluded that additions of GGBS and poly Saric-Coric et al. studied grouts (w/c = 0.4) containing cellulose-
carboxylic acid-based SP decreased the yield stress and plastic viscosity, based VMA and two types of HRWR (PNS and PMS). The results indi
while adding nanosilica in cement-based grouts increased both [77]. cated that grouts containing VMA exhibited lower compressive strength
The addition of polynaphthalene sulfonic-based SP (from 0.2% to 1.2%) (at 7 and 28 days) than those without VMA. Furthermore, PMS additions
in grout used for prestressing works, decreased the yield stress and increased the compressive strength more than those with PNS additions
increased the sedimentation with increasing SP dosages [110]. [66].
The yield stress and plastic viscosity measured at different temper Early strength improvement in microfine-cement-based grout con
atures and resting times show how the initial shear stress, equilibrium taining colloidal nanosilica (NS) was verified by Zhang et al. [18]. The
viscosity and even the flocculation rate can vary under these conditions. grout with 2% (by cement weight) of NS required 5.8 h to reach a
It is important to understand the Brownian motion of the particles, as the strength value of 0.45 MPa whereas the one with 1% (by cement weight)
interactions between them can weaken/strengthen and, in this way, of NS took 6.5 h. Another study [123] evaluated that the addition of 16%
favor (or not) agglomeration, flocculation and loss of workability [111]. (cement replacement by weight) of SF improved early (1d and 3d) and
Penetrability of grouts is also affected by the extent of the filtration. long-term (90d) strength, while the same FA dosage improved the
Filtration phenomenon can occur during grouting as the particles of compressive strength over longer periods (90d). Fonseca et al. [82]
water and cement/fine aggregates gradually separate from the grout observed that the replacement of OPC in grouts (w/c = 0.795) by large
flow (only water penetrates in spaces/cracks) and block the flow path, amounts of FA (40, 50 and 60% by weight of cement) reduced the
increasing the penetration resistance of the grout [112]. Adequate water compressive strength. Fig. 6 shows that, over time, the strength
retentivity is essential for grout materials, as otherwise it can decrease increased for any percentage of FA; however, all mixtures with FA
fluidity changing the yield stress and viscosity [67,113]. The water presented strength values below the reference (grout without FA). The
retentivity can be measured by several instruments, such as sand col low strength values are explained by the authors due to the different
umn, pressure chamber, filter pump, PenetraCone, NES method, among aggregates used (since the grouts are slightly sensitive to aggregate),
others [114–116]. non-parallel caping and misaligned endplates (as they used an alterna
The factors that influence filtration stability are w/c ratio, grout tive casting method) and/or FA flocculation.
pressure, maximum grain size and grain size distribution. Grouts with
high w/c ratio tend to have less problems with filtration. However, a 4.6. Shrinkage
high w/c increase porosity affecting the durability. Regarding the grain
size, for a good penetration result, it is recommended that the maximum All cementitious materials undergo physical and chemical changes
particle size of the suspension should be at maximum one third of the that lead to a volume reduction process known as shrinkage. It starts
9
Fig. 6. Effect of replacing OPC with FA on compressive strength. Adapted from [82].
with volume reduction during the cement hydration and goes on all durability to surpass the inherent deterioration of structures. In this
along hardening and drying processes, resulting in the formation of context, the self-healing ability has inspired the design of smart
cracks [124,125] if the corresponding deformation is restrained and the cementitious systems, as they can repair a damage/defect by them
restraint generates stresses higher than the material tensile strength. selves, prolong the service life of structural applications and reduce
Shrinkage is influenced by curing conditions, type and content of maintenance costs. In the construction sector, and focusing on cement-
cement, w/c ratio, type and size of aggregate, admixture additions. based construction materials, self-healing mechanisms are divided in
An excessive shrinkage in grouts will facilitate the entry of harmful two categories: autogeneous, in which the healing process occurs due to
substances (e.g., chloride and carbonate ions) impairing its durability carbonation and continuous hydration of unreacted cement grains,
[24]. Excessive bleeding in very fluid grout (with high w/c ratio) pro mainly in low w/c ratio composites [130] and automonous that “de
motes plastic shrinkage due to the gradual evaporation of the bleed pends on the incorporation of unconventional engineered additions into
water layer [126]. Cementitious grout designed for connections (with the matrix to provide self-healing function” [131].
low w/s ratio) can develop internal tensile stresses due to restrained Numerous reviews on the subject were published [131–135],
early-age autogenous shrinkage. The grout can crack or lose bond be focusing on healing agents, self-healing mechanisms and methods to
tween the grout/concrete interface [127]. The strategies to avoid or to evaluate the healing efficiency. Table 3 presents some self-healing ap
reduce the shrinkage include reduction of cement content, use of min proaches explored in cementitious materials.
eral additions and fibers, use of shrinkage reducing admixtures (SRA), A search in the Scopus database of the keyword “self-healing” in
aggregate grinding, control of time and curing conditions. De La Varga combination with “concrete/mortar/grout” reveals that the interest in
et al. [128] evaluated the use of lightweight aggregates (LWA) as an this technology has been increasing (Fig. 7) over the last decade. From
internal curing agent in cementitious grouts and conclude that LWA 2013 onwards, there has been an exponential growth in self-healing
minimizes autogenous and drying shrinkage, thanks to its ability to concrete. The same interest in self-repairing mortars is also evident,
supply pre-absorbed water to compensate its consumption. Shamsud although the increase in the number of publications is not as impressive
doha et al. [99] studied how SCM additions (microsilica, metakaolin and as concrete’s. This growth is a result of the cement industries concerns
FA) can cause both linear and volume shrinkage in grouts designed for toward sustainability.
structural repair. In this study, linear shrinkage was determined con Despite this great advance in both materials, the research on self-
forming EN 12617 standard and volume shrinkage was determined by a healing grouts is low. Table 4 presents the number of published docu
cone test method. The authors identified that the volume shrinkage ments related to self-healing of cement-based materials. In the last 10
increased with a higher content of FA and microsilica, while additions of years, the number of documents related to concrete and mortars is up to
metakaolin decreased the shrinkage. Linear shrinkage increased with 800% greater than those about grout, which indicates a research gap in
the increasing of FA content. Additionally, it was not affected by grouting field. Indeed, the number of papers on self-healing grout is
microsilica additions, but decreased with increasing the metakaolin practically zero (only one paper in 2021 was found with these key
content. Drying shrinkage increases with increasing w/c ratio and ad words). Despite the low number of publications, this review will discuss
ditions of FA proved to be advantageous in decreasing drying shrinkage self-repair methods that have already been applied to grouts. In view of
[80]. Although the main functionality of permeability-reducing admix the few studies found on the subject, in the absence of application of any
tures (PRA) is to make concrete less permeable, they have been applied method in grouts, articles that applied it to concrete and mortar will be
to mitigate shrinkage in concrete. Commercially known also as crystal discussed.
line admixtures, PRA can modify the early-age properties of a cemen
titious matrix as they easily react with moisture forming crystals that 5.1. Autogenous and autonomous healing in cementitious grouts
block pores and cracks [129].
As mentioned, autogenous crack healing is an inherent phenomenon
5. Cementititous grouts with smart functionalities of cement materials, and its main healing mechanisms include (a) hy
dration of unreacted cement, (b) precipitation of portlandite and (c)
Over the years, the construction sector has focused on increasing formation of calcite [131,136]. All these reactions can occur
10
Table 3
Summary of self-healing approaches: healing materials, crack width and comparison between autogenous and autonomous self-healing technologies.
Autogenous self- Autonomous self-healing
healing
Healing Incorporating Based on mineral Microbial technology Capsule technology Vascular technology Based on polymers
Technology mineral admixtures
admixtures,
fibers, nanofillers,
curing agent
Materials/ SCM, crystalline admixtures bacteria Inorganic and organic crosslinking polymers superabsorbent
Healing Polyethylene and expansive agents (e. compounds (sodium (polyurethane, epoxy, polymers (SAPs)
Agent fiber, g., calcium silicate solutions, polymethylmethacrylate, oil sorbent
Polypropylene sulfoaluminate, sodium sulfonates, benzoates, cyanoacrylate) shape memory
fiber, carbon aluminum silicate magnesium oxides, materials
nanotube hydroxide, bentonite), and
montmorillonite clay) crosslinking polymers
Self-healing Up to 150 μm Up to 300 μm up to 800 μm up to 300 μm up to 500 μm up to 200 μm
crack width
Advantages - good healing fast self-healing of cracks - environmentally - on-demand healing -on-demand curing agent - macro cracks can
capability friendly agent release release be treated
- good - natural healing - good efficacy in healing - good efficacy in healing - high recovery rate
compatibility mechanism cycles cycles of mechanical
with the matrix properties – shape
memory materials
- Good efficacy in
repeated healing
cycles
Disadvantages - Low - Mineral admixtures are - Bacteria cannot be - Difficulty in preparing - Difficulty injecting the - Low effectiveness
effectiveness in consumed before cracking added directly to the the capsules and limited healing agent in dry places
healing cycles (If added directly into the matrix (need to be amount of healing agent - Concern about bonding - SAP does not form
- Uncontrolled matrix they will react protected to prolong (only for microcapsules) between capsules and matrix the barrier because
expansion may with water)- Lack of their lifetime) - Concern on bonding - Change in mechanical it does not swell
occur control of expansion by - Change of between capsules and properties- Fragile material - High cost-
expansive additive mechanical matrix (may break during Sensitive to
(uncontrolled expansion properties - With a bicomponent application) increased
may cause damage) - Concerns about resin, the healing temperature (early
- Constant availability of effectiveness in efficiency may be low stimulation of the
water in the cracks healing cycles because the availability/ healing process)
release of both – shape memory
components cannot be materials
controlled not occurring
the polymerization
reaction
- Change in mechanical
properties- Resistance of
capsules
(may break during
mixing)
REF [134] [72,136–140] [141–143] [144,145] [146,147] [148]
Fig. 7. A: Number of publications related to self-healing: B: Zoom-in on the documents published on self-healing cementitious materials. Source: Scopus® database.
simultaneously but each of them has different reaction rates. At early healing performance. The presence of water is essential for autogenous
ages, the hydration of anhydrous cement grains results in the filling of healing mechanism. It is a focus point when this technology is used in
crack by calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and Portlandite (CH). At later places with low water saturation [136]. Other strategies are used to
ages, the main mechanism is the formation of calcite [131]. overcome the unfeasibility for autogenous healing, e.g., additions of
The composition of the matrix and the crack width will influence the mineral admixtures, polymers, fibers, nanofillers, curing agents and
11
Table 4 weakening the crystallization capability of CA.

Number of academic publications in Scopus® database with keywords “self- To improve healing of macro-cracks (width > 0.5 mm), using
healing”, “concrete”, “mortars” and “grouts” from 2010 to 2021. superabsorbent polymers (SAP) with CA is considered a promising op
keywords tion. It has already been shown that materials with only SAP cannot
Year self- self-healing AND self-healing AND self-healing
completely heal the cracks [159]. The use of SAP is advantageous
healing concrete mortars AND grout because it absorbs water, expands and seal large cracks. So, it is inter
esting to combine SAP with CA because large cracks can be healed by
2010 219 9 5 0
2011 287 16 5 0 SAP while small cracks can be repaired by CA. This synergy was
2012 351 13 6 0 demonstrated by Li et al. [160] that studied for mortars the best CA type
2013 303 17 7 0 to obtain a total crack closure. They studied SAP combined with 5 types
2014 368 28 8 0 of CA (citric acid, silicon dioxide, sodium silicate, sodium carbonate and
2015 531 48 11 0
2016 635 51 18 0
a commercial product) and concluded that citric acid was the most
2017 717 66 18 0 suitable CA to completely close the cracks.
2018 974 65 14 0 Cao et al. [148] investigated the self-healing performance of a
2019 1265 85 25 0 cementitious grout with oil sorbent (contents of 0%, 5% and 10% by
2020 1554 108 41 0
grout weight). This absorbent polymer can swell and block cracks. The
2021 1783 152 48 1
Total 8987 658 206 1 results of plastic viscosity and yield stress were 24, 28 and 42 mPa⋅s and
9.2, 9.9 and 10.6 Pa, respectively for the different addition ratios indi
cated above Thus, the grout flowability decreased with the increase of
coatings. oil sorbent. Consequently, higher energy for the grout to be pumped is
Unlike autogenous healing, the autonomous healing has several required as the yield stress increased. The authors also found that oil
triggering mechanisms, which means that each of them will require a sorbents additions decreased the unconfined compressive strength at
different condition to promote the healing. The main methods that have any dosage and age tested (28, 56 and 90 days).
been studied are shape memory materials, capsules, vascular networks As mentioned in Table 3, incorporating microcapsules and vascular
and bacteria additions. networks are options for healing larger cracks. Encapsulation allows the
Crystalline admixtures (CA) are products known mainly as perme healing agent to be released into the damaged area without suffering
ability reducer admixtures that can be employed as a stimulator of the from environmental conditions. The release of core material may be
autogenous healing capacity. When reacting with water, water-insoluble time-dependent or triggered by external effects as diffusion, rupture and
deposits are formed blocking the cracks [72,149–151]. In mortars, CA dissolution.
was able to close cracks (width of 250–400 μm) and also reduce the For a successful repairing effect, is important to know which chem
water permeability rate[130]. The crystallization process is affected by ical reactions and interactions are responsible for the healing process. As
wet/dry cycles and repeated crack-healing cycles can improve the important as the chemical crosslinkers, is fundamental to understand
healing efficiency [152,153]. In concrete, it was reported that additions from triggering process to structural factors, including diameter, wall-
of CA reduced compressive strength by 7,9% [154] and chloride thickness, shape, dispersion of the capsules and vascular network
permeability [73,155]. pattern.
In grouts, Wang et al. [156] showed that the CA did not change the A capsule-based self-healing method was investigated by Liu et al.
slump but increased both long-term (90 days) compressive strength and [161] who added 0, 1%, 3%, 5% and 8% (by grout weight) of urea/
modulus of elasticity. Zeng et al. [16] investigated the performance of a formaldehyde microcapsules (epoxy resin as core material) in a com
commercial grout (for sealing tunnel leakage) by adding different mercial cementitious grout (w/c = 0.13). The results showed that the
amounts of CA between 0% − 1.6% (by weight of cement). The authors flow decreased regardless of the number of capsules. The decrease was
reported that there was no change in setting time and viscosity for any by 8% for grouts with less than 3% of capsule content. Above 3%, the
addition. With 0.8% of CA, the compressive strength was slightly reduction was up to 45%. Similar reduction was observed in compres
increased. Between 0.8% and 1.2%, the increase in strength was better sive strength measurements at 1, 3 and 28 days for grouts containing
noticed. Starting at 1.2%, there were no significant changes. more than 3% of microcapsules.
SCM also has self-healing capability [138], but when combined with Bacteria have been explored to improve the durability and to remedy
CA, they improve the self-healing properties even more. Li et al.[157] cracks of cement-based materials [143]. The microorganisms can be
studied the healing effect of mortars containing CA and GGBS. The self- added by several methodologies, such as encapsulation, aggregates
healing capability was determined by compressive strength recovery, impregnation and mixed with water [141,142]. The crack sealing is a
crack closure ability and water absorption. The authors concluded that result of the precipitation of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) [143]. Joshi
1.2% (by cement weight) of CA increased the recovery of mechanical et al. [162] evaluated the microbially induced carbonate precipitation
strength. In addition, self-healing was improved with the addition of up (MICP) biobased approach on cementitious grouts to repair cracks in
to 10% (by cement weight) GGBS. In this case, the strength of the existing concrete structures. In the study, a mixture composed by
specimens with cracks performed after 28 days (and cured for 56 days cement, FA (cement replacement from 10% to 50%) and two bacterial
after cracking) was higher than those cured for 28 days. Above 10% of suspension-binder ratios (0.45 and 0.5) was evaluated to repair artificial
GGBS, the self-healing capability decreased. The benefits of GGBS on cracks. The cracks were made with a steel plate of 0.8 mm width and 20
early age cracks were not very noticeable and the recovery rate was mm depth - in horizontal and vertical positions. The water ingress was
practically the same of the specimens with only CA. measured by sorptivity tests that showed that the bacterial grout treat
In order to understand how the consumption of portlandite by FA ment was very efficient. The sorptivity coefficient of untreated concrete
might impact the crystallization process of CA, Wang et al. investigated was 0.03, while the coefficient of specimens with vertical and horizontal
the combination of FA with CA [158]. For this, they prepared mortar cracks were, respectively 0.005 and 0.002.
specimens (replacing OPC with 10%, 20% and 30% of FA by weight of
cement) with 1.2% of CA, by weight of cement. The addition of CA not 6. Conclusions
only contributed to the increase of compressive strength but even
improved the recovery rate of compressive strength. The results also This work has compiled the relevant topics on the development of
showed that the recovery strength was not improved with high amounts cementitious grouts highlighting the main constituent materials, prop
of FA. The authors concluded that FA compete with CA for calcium ions, erties and applications. “Grout” describes many types of injectable fluid
12
cementitious materials and their properties vary significantly according Acknowledgement

to numerous possibilities of mixing design. Therefore, this work has first
of all pointed out that there is no rigid pattern of grout behavior. As seen
throughout the sections, small differences in formulation (from the
granulometry of the aggregate to the excessive amount of SP) result into
infinite possibilities of results. From the information gathered the The financial support from the ITN-MSCA
following statements hold about the relationships between grout
composition and application-oriented performance, in whose fields ef
forts have to be done for a better comprehension of the correlation and a SMARTINCS project is acknowledged by all the authors. This project has
likely prescription-to-performance based treatment/funneling of the received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and
existing data: innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant
agreement No 860006.
- Cementitious grout is mostly composed by cement, water, sand and Funding for open access charge: Universidad de Córdoba / CBUA.
additive. Grout mixture is mainly optimized by adjusting its water/
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Construction and Building Materials 375 (2023) 130991

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

A comprehensive review of cementitious grouts: Composition, properties,

Fig. 1. Overview of some parameters required for a successful grouting.

S. da Rocha Gomes et al.

Construction and Building Materials 375 (2023) 130991

4.3. Consistency change in water and FA contents [80].

Table 4 weakening the crystallization capability of CA.

cementitious materials and their properties vary significantly according Acknowledgement

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