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 PREFACE

For a successful reconstruction assistance in Afghanistan, the fundamental issue of how to achieve the
reconstruction and restoration of Afghanistan independently and robustly is extremely important. From
this point of view, in Afghanistan, where more than 80% of the population lives in rural areas and 60% of the
working population is engaged in agriculture and livestock breeding, possibilities and measures for agricultural
development cannot be ignored.
Rural areas in Afghanistan are generally self-sufficient, have strong autonomy as social and economic units,
based on the spirit of common support, converging on Islam. In order to achieve stability of life and the
country, it is essential to strengthen the independence and resilience of rural societies. Since Afghanistan
is classified among the arid or semi-arid regions and rainfed agriculture is unstable, the development and
effective utilization of water resources and building of sustainable agriculture based on irrigation are the key to
reconstruction and restoration of Afghanistan.
However, even after more than 20 years of reconstruction assistance supported by the international community,
the lives of people of Afghanistan have not been sufficiently improved, due to the instability and security
throughout most of the country.
On the other hand, even under these circumstances, the irrigation project by PMS (Peace [ Japan] Medical
Services), which was led by Dr. Tetsu Nakamura, has produced remarkable outcomes, resulting in improving
the livelihood of local residents in the project area. It can be said that it is an effective model of success in
irrigation projects in Afghanistan. PMS produces simple and practical effects of flood control and water
utilization, which maximize the use of local resources, and enable the operation and maintenance of facilities
to be effectively performed by the local community in the project area. PMS also fostered community
ownership, by practicing project activities based on deep understanding and respect for the local community
and mutual trust. In difficult social and political situations, much of the success of the irrigation project owes
to the charisma and indomitable fighting spirit of Dr. Tetsu Nakamura, which has also earned the trust of local
residents. There is no doubt that these community-respecting techniques and processes underpin the success
of PMS irrigation projects. These guidelines were created based on the idea that such fruits should be widely
disseminated throughout Afghanistan.
JICA began discussions with Dr. Tetsu Nakamura on the preparation of these guidelines since around middle
of the year 2018, and the task required conducting some continuous and intensive studies. We planned a closer
discussion about the knowledge, experience, and philosophy of Dr. Tetsu Nakamura, regarding the PMS
irrigation project, the ingenuity of flood control and water utilization techniques, and the fostering and respect
for ownership by the local community, in order to reflect all these values in the guidelines. Unfortunately, on
December 4, 2019, Dr. Tetsu Nakamura was shot to death in Jalalabad. However, even with such obstacle, in
collaboration with the Peshawar-kai which is an international non-governmental organization to support Dr.
Tetsu Nakamura's activities, the PMS, and the Afghan government officials, we are very pleased that the "PMS
Method Irrigation Project Guidelines" have been completed timely. We would like to express sincere gratitude
to all those involved in creating the guidelines.
We hope, in the future, all stakeholders, including the central government, local governments, local
communities and residents, will work hard and cooperate toward the stability and prosperity of the local
community by utilizing the guidelines to demonstrate the power of teamwork. This is in line with the approach

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 of Dr. Tetsu Nakamura, who had long been advocating the importance of decision to go through, ingenuity,
and continuation in front of Afghan government officials. We sincerely hope that this will be carried on, and
that stability of people's lives and security will be realized throughout Afghanistan. We hope that the guidelines
will help accomplish it.

February, 2021

SAKAMOTO Takema
Director General,
South Asia Department
Japan International Cooperation Agency

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 Upon publishing “PMS Method Irrigation Project Guidelines”

On the 4th of December, 2019, Dr. Tetsu Nakamura was gunned down by unknown assailants. Even now, I can
hear his voice telling me, "We must continue this project. Dr. Nakamura, who was a doctor, decided to build
irrigation canals because he believed that medical treatment was not enough to keep people alive in Afghanistan
and that securing water and food was essential.
He said, "Water does not distinguish between good and bad people," emphasizing reconciliation rather than
confrontation. He created irrigation canals in accordance with the conditions of Afghanistan. After 16 years
of trial and error, he completed ten weirs around the Kunar River including Marwarid I and II Canals, and
finally established the standard design of the PMS intake system. When Dr. Nakamura told us, "My successor
is the irrigation canal," he meant, I presume, that if the people of Afghanistan need it, it will be passed on from
generation to generation.
The standard design that Dr. Nakamura has arrived at in his "Green Ground Project" is based on the traditional
Japanese method inherited from 300 years ago and the method used in Afghanistan. The tradition has been
passed on to the present while changing, and has been revived by the people in contact with the nature of
Afghanistan. The Afghans practiced these techniques in the field using the materials they had at hand, and
developed by themselves in accordance with their own culture. Finally standing at the starting line of the
dissemination of the PMS Method Irrigation Project across the country, those who have inherited the idea of
Dr. Nakamura in Japan and Afghanistan have completed this PMS Method Irrigation Project Guidelines in
dialogue with Dr. Nakamura in our minds. This is the result of the collaboration between Japanese and Afghan
people. I hope that this Guidelines will support the lives of people suffering from drought in Afghanistan and
will be passed on from generation to generation.
Dr. Nakamura has pointed out that critical climate changes such as drought are manifesting in the most
vulnerable areas as a result of global warming. This is why he emphasized having deep insight into nature and
dealing with it in harmony as the basis of the PMS philosophy. We must have reverence for natural order and
avoid construction projects, such as large dams, that attempt to control nature. We make minimal changes to
the flow and topography of the river to install a PMS oblique weir, and then take a small amount of water from
the weir and return it to the river after it has served for farming in the community. This is the irrigation model
that Dr. Nakamura worked out aiming to restore green land and spread the benefits of water widely and equally.
Global warming is a natural reaction caused by human economic activities, and it will take a very long time
for it to stop. Even in the midst of it, however, we must respect humanity, find the blessings of nature, and seek
practical ways to live in peace.
We expect that this Guidelines will be revised in the future with new findings through actual practices in many
specific projects. Nevertheless, the unchanging spirit will be inherited in the technology that reconciles with
nature. Dr. Nakamura describes it concretely as follows.
(1) To be able to tackle a problem with the simplest device possible.
(2) It should not cost a lot of money.
(3) Any community person with a certain level of knowledge can do the work.
(4) Use materials that are readily available and bring in as few non-local materials as possible.
(5) If damaged, local people should be able to repair it.
(6) You cannot cheat water. Be as honest as water.

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 I am feeling the revival of Dr. Nakamura's spirit in completion of the Guidelines. Again, I hear his voice saying,
"This book is the precious fruit of the cooperation of innumerable people who transcended their positions.
On behalf of the 600,000 farmers in Afghanistan, I would like to express my gratitude once again. I extend my
inexhaustible gratitude through the culmination of the work described here. (from Foreword to the Japanese
version of The Afghan Green Ground Project ) "
I pray that this Guidelines will be utilized across Afghanistan and that peace will come to its people soon.

February, 2021

MURAKAMI Masaru M.D.

Executive Director,
Peace Japan Medical Services (PMS)

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 PMS Method Irrigation Project Guidelines
Secure Water and Food

Published on 30 June, 2021

Edited and Published by JICA (Japan International Cooporation Agency)

supervised by PMS (Peace Japan Medical Services) & Peshawar-kai
Produced by Boyosha
Printed by Daido Printing co., ltd

No part of this publication may be reproduced or reprinted without written permission from the publisher.

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 [SUMMARY]

CHAPTER 1
WHAT ARE THE “PMS METHOD IRRIGATION PROJECT GUIDELINES”?
Dr. Tetsu Nakamura and PMS have carried out many irrigation projects in the Lower Kunar river basin of
the Nangarhar province in eastern Afghanistan, supplying water to 16,500 ha of irrigated areas as of 2020,
supporting the livelihood of 650,000 people, and contributing to the repatriation of refugees and former
soldiers, their incorporation into village societies and the improvement of their livelihoods. These PMS
method irrigation project guidelines summarize the processes, technologies, experiences / knowledge and
lessons learned from the existing PMS irrigation projects. The guidelines target mainly engineers, planners and
decision-makers involved in irrigation projects, and present process of dialogue with the beneficiaries, as well
as technical information needed for planning, design, construction, maintenance, and irrigated agricultural
technology of sustainable irrigation projects, suitable for Afghan conditions and Afghan communities. Their
purpose is to contribute to the sustainable development of Afghanistan's communities and irrigated agriculture.
As shown in Figure 1, the concept of the PMS Method Irrigation Project Guidelines is to promote sustainable
irrigation projects, suitable for Afghanistan, by understanding and practicing the PMS method irrigation
project accurately, by developing the method through its actual application and continuous innovation, and by
disseminating it.
Promotion of sustainable irrigation projects suitable for Afghanistan which enable the
operation and maintenance of the local community

Dissemination and utilization of the PMS method irrigation project

in the whole country of Afghanistan

▶Focus on the process of discussion with residents

▶Enable for residents to operate and maintain the
Using the PMS method Apply, devise and irrigation facilities by devising materials and
irrigation project guidelines develop the PMS construction methods for irrigation facilities that are
method irrigation suitable for the natural and social conditions of the area.
project
Practice the PMS method ▶Use universal ideas and technologies that can be used anywhere
irrigation project
▶Follow and strictly keep to the restrictions

▶Study the advantages of the PMS method irrigation project from its
characteristics and differences from other projects
Understand
the PMS method
▶Learn from the knowledge, experience, and lessons that PMS has gained
irrigation project through trial and error
▶Study the problems faced by PMS and how PMS solved them

Figure 1 Concept of the Guidelines

A PMS method irrigation project is an irrigation project in which water is directly drawn from rivers and
conducted to farmlands. As shown in Figure 1.3, the PMS method irrigation system is composed of intake
weir, sand flushing ditch, intake gate, steep gradient main irrigation canal, sand basin (regulating pond), main
irrigation canal, main drainage canal, reservoir, siphon, flood crossing bridge, dike (along the river), and stone
spur dikes (within the river flow). The PMS method irrigation project is a simple and practical irrigation
project which matches the natural conditions of the region and is based on the operation and maintenance
by the community beneficiaries themselves. The project implementation entities/persons respect the local
communities and their governance system, and aim to develop the capacity of beneficiary farmers. Beneficiary
farmers learn the basic civil engineering techniques of the PMS method irrigation project though the projects,
and become able to operate and maintain facilities by themselves.
*1 Also known as sediment trap.
*2 In Afghanistan, the word "levee" is often applied instead of the word "dike", but in this guideline, it will be unified to the word "dike" hereafter.

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 Figure 2 Functions of PMS Method Irrigation Facilities

Menu of PMS Method Irrigation Facilities ①Oblique Weir (KamaⅠ Weir)

❶Oblique Weir/❷Sand Flushing Ditch(Movable Weir),
❸Double Flush Board Method Intake Gate, ❹Steep
Gradient Main Irrigation Canal (Gabion Works, Wicker
Works), ❺Sand Basin with Transmission Gate and
Drain Gate, ❻Main Drainage Canal, ❼Reservoir, Sand
Siphon, Flood Crossing Bridge, ❽Flood Control Spillway Flushing
Ditch
Facilities(Dike and Stone Spur dike)
Oblique Weir

Function of Oblique Weir ; By damming the river water and raising the
water level on the upstream side, water intake during drought season will be
❶ easier. By extending the weir diagonally, the overflow water depth is lowered,
the tractive force is reduced, and the weir is less likely to be broken.
❸
❷
②Sand Flushing Ditch

KamaⅡWeir

Function of Sand Flushing Ditch；Sand flushing ditch is installed

as part of the intake weir adjacent to the intake gate and prevents the
inflow of earth and sand into the intake gate.
Steep Gradient
Main Irrigation
Canal ③Intake Gate
❹
❽
Sand Basin
❺
Main Drainage The irrigation water is
Canal ❻ conveyed to sand basin
❻ via steep gradient main
irrigation canal.

❼ Function of Intake Gate ; The intake gate is installed at the downstream

Main
Irrigation end of oblique weir to draw water into the irrigation canal and adjusts the
Canal amount of intake water.Two rows of flush boards are installed in front and
rear of the gate pier to create a reservoir. It reduces the water pressure applied
to the lower flush board on the river side and prevents the flush board from
breaking.

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 ④Steep Gradient Main Irrigation Canal and ⑥Main Drainage Canal
Main Irrigation Canal

Function of Main Drainage Canal ; Excess water other than the

required amount of irrigation water will be promptly returned to the
Function of Steep Gradient Main Irrigation Canal and Main river through the main drainage canal to prevent moisture damage at the
Irrigation Canal ; The steep gradient main irrigation canal conveys the irrigation beneficiary areas and to consider downstream water use.
sediment contained water drawn from the intake gate to the sand basin
without accumulating the sediments in the canal. The main irrigation
canal conveys the sediment-free water from the sand basin to the irrigation
beneficiary area. ⑦Reservoir etc

⑤Sand Basin

Transmission Drain gate

gate

Function of Reservoir etc. ; To protect the irrigation canal from flash

floods and debris flows from the foot of the mountain.When crossing
existing waterways and rivers, siphons and flood crossing bridges are
provided. To secure water retention in dry areas and contribute to the
Sand Drain Channel in Sand Basin growth of vegetation.
Transmission
Gate ⑧Flood Control Facilities
Drain
Gate

80cm lower

Function of Flood Control Facilities ; The dike has the function of

protecting irrigation beneficiary areas, residential areas, and irrigation
Function of Sand Basin (Regulating Pond) ; Sedimentation and canals along the river from floods. The stone spur dike prevents dikes and
flushing out of earth and sand contained in the irrigation water. Control of riverbanks from scouring and also has the function of fixing the alignment of
transmission water amount. river channel.

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 CHAPTER 2
HOW SHOULD A PMS METHOD IRRIGATION PROJECT BE LAUNCHED
TOGETHER WITH FARMERS?
2.1 Selection of Area Suitable for the PMS Method Irrigation Project
The target area for the PMS method irrigation project is selected according to the flow chart shown in Figure
3 with bestows priority to candidate sites, that the local community strongly desires to operate and maintain
facilities. Among the irrigation project candidate sites, listed by the government, based on the requests from
the local communities, firstly the areas are selected where there ii a strong demands from the local community,
or where the irrigation facilities are broken and irrigated agriculture is thus not possible. Next, secondary
priority selection is made regarding natural environmental conditions such as the appropriate land and soil
for irrigated agriculture, the availability of irrigation water, and the presence of construction materials in the
area. Finally, areas are evaluated based on the perspective of the socio-economic conditions of the community,
the local community's willingness to accept the PMS method irrigation project, the farmers' willingness for
irrigated agriculture, and the structure of the farmer's organization are confirmed, and the target area is finally
determined.

Primary Selection: Desktop

Selected from the list of existing contender sites by the Government
Lands at request from
the local community

Secondary Selection:
Desktop + Field survey
Natural Conditions (Infrastructural)
Land Irrigation Construction
water materials
Possibility of securing land Possibility to stably take in Availability and access to
with high crop the required amount of construction materials
productivity irrigation water such as boulders

Final Selection:
Field survey
Socio-Economic Conditions (Non-Infrastructural)
Farmers' Farmers
Local community organizational
situation situation
Structure
Most important thing
• Is the community willing to implement a PMS method irrigation project?
•Is the community willing to properly operate and maintain irrigation facilities?
•Does the community have that ability?
•Be sure to go to the site and check the history and current situation through
interviews with farmers.
•Let the local people talk.

Determination of Target Area

Figure 3 Flow of Target Area Selection of PMS Method Irrigation Project

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 In the PMS method irrigation project, it is extremely important to select a most suitable site for the intake weir.
In principle, the site of the intake weir should be near the old or current intake. However, if there is a problem
with water intake, it is best to have a site where the river is moderately wide, the flow is uniform and variations
not too extreme, and a channel to convey excess discharges during floods can be secured at the opposite bank.
In addition, the site should be with bedrock at the back of the weir and with a stable single sandbar. Finally, it is
necessary to consider the impact of the intake weir on the opposite banks, as well as the impact on upstream and
downstream river stretches. See Figure 4.
Image of suitable site Suitable site for PMS method intake weir

Bedrock
Fixed flow
Bedrock
bedrock
River at the back channel for flood
Intake
Weir
weir
Stable single sandbar
moderately wide river area

r
rive

Figure 4 Suitable Site for Oblique Weir with Boulders in PMS Method Irrigation Project

湿地
2.2 Formulation of Basic Concept of the PMS Method Irrigation Project through Discussion with
Farmers
The PMS method irrigation project is based on the formulation of the basic concept of the project through
dialogues and discussions with the local communities. The project implementation entities/persons
should understand the true needs of farmers, based on dialogue and consultation, in order to formulate the
basic concept of the PMS method irrigation project, which can meet those needs. Specifically, the project
implementation entities/persons discuss the contents of Table 1 and the role of the local community, to build
consensus and formulate the basic concept.
The contents of the basic concept are: 1) irrigation beneficiary area with balanced water distribution, 2)
expected project results, 3) estimated indicative project cost, annual maintenance cost and estimated indicative
project implementation and duration period, 4) consensus building on land acquisition and sufficient
compensation, 5) study and discussion / coordination related to the impact on the surrounding area, 6)
residents participation in construction projects and in operation/maintenance of irrigation facilities, 7)
ensuring security and safety management in the project, 8) construction of water wheels and demonstration
farm as ancillary projects.

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 Table 1 Discussions, Agreements and Allocation of Roles between Project Implementation Entities/
Persons and Local Communities
Allocation of Roles
Contents of Project Implementation Entities / Local Communities
Discussions and Persons Self-governing body (Community
Agreements (Central and Local Government, etc.) Development Council/Shura/Jirga)
Association (Water Users’ Association/
Irrigation Association), etc.
– Outline presentation of irrigation beneficiary – Confirmation and adjustment of irrigation
Irrigation beneficiary areas beneficiary areas
area, project effects, – Presentation of expected project effects – Confirmation of expected project effects
estimated project cost,
maintenance cost, – Presentation of estimated project cost and – Confirmation of estimated project cost and
project period maintenance cost maintenance cost
– Presentation of project period – Confirmation of project period
Land acquisition
– Coordination with each farmer based on laws
(irrigation facilities: main – Presentation of necessary land, etc.
and local customs
irrigation canal route, etc.)
Impact on the – Risk acceptance decisions and coordination
– Presentation of assumed risks
surrounding area (risks) with affected communities
– Request for participation in construction labor
– Adjustment of labor supply by farmers, etc.
by paying wages
– Confirmation of intention to acquire basic
– Presentation of capacity development program
civil engineering techniques
for basic civil engineering techniques
Residents participation – Confirmation of intention to improve
– Presentation of capacity development program
in construction projects operation and maintenance ability
related to operation and maintenance
and operation and – Implementation adjustment / confirmation of
– Presentation of allocation of roles for
maintenance of operation and maintenance activities after the
operation and maintenance of irrigation
irrigation facilities irrigation facility construction
facilities between residents and project
– Formulation of operation and maintenance
implementation entities/persons
plans and ensuring securing of budget by
– Presentation of large-scale repair plan and
residents
ensuring of budget
– Requests to ensure local security by local – Adjustment and presentation of security
communities measures
Security and safety
– Confirmation of safety measures for – Confirmation of safety measures for
construction projects construction projects

CHAPTER 3
HOW SHOULD WATER SOURCE RIVERS BE UNDERSTOOD?

Rivers are constantly changing, phenomena such as floods and droughts occur, and river topography
fluctuates. Before planning and implementing a PMS method irrigation project, it is first necessary to study the
characteristics of the river which will serve as the water source. To construct irrigation facilities which can stably
take water from the river during both floods and droughts and to properly operate and maintain them, it is
necessary to first know the river conditions during floods and droughts.
The river conditions which should be comprehended in the PMS method irrigation project and the method
of grasping them are as summarized in Table 2. Firstly, the existing information is collected, organized, and
analysed. Then, interviews and observations are conducted on site, to understand the river conditions. Finally,
river surveys for planning and designing the facilities are conducted. In situations where there is not enough

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 data, as in Afghanistan today, field interview surveys and observations are very important. When conducting
the observations and surveys, it is important to consider the ways to utilize the obtained information and data,
for planning, designing, constructing and maintaining the irrigation projects.

Table 2 River Conditions to be Comprehended and How to Grasp Them

River Conditions to be Comprehended How to Grasp River Conditions

•River basin conditions •Collection and organization of existing information

Flood and drought runoff characteristics and The existing information such as satellite images such as
groundwater recharge conditions are analyzed by Google Maps, existing topographic maps, digital
understanding the topography and visitation, etc. in the elevation models, geological maps, hydromet
river basins. In addition, what kind of water resources are information, water rights, and river structures is collected
being used, such as the existence of irrigated areas, cities and organized.
and villages in the river basin, and land use conditions are •Interview survey among residents
Be sure to go to the site and interview at the site. For local
grasped. situations and flood conditions, record interview
•River channel conditions information along with location information (latitude
Necessary information is obtained for facility planning and longitude, etc.) and local photos. In addition, various
and designing, such as checking river channel information is collected and organized. Then, their
fluctuations (stable streamway, flow direction, riverbed consistency is confirmed, and the accuracy of interviews
fluctuations) and sandbar fluctuations (stable sandbars, is confirmed.
sediment erosion / sedimentation), and grasping sites •Observation and measurement of river conditions and
where water intake is easy. their arrangement
•River flow conditions (flood and drought conditions) Existing information and interviews are often inadequate,
By grasping water level, velocity, and discharge of the and field observations and measurements are especially
river during floods and droughts, the river flow important for understanding river conditions. In order to
conditions are clarified. It is analyzed where flooding is grasp the constantly changing river conditions, it is
likely to occur, where the flood force is likely to necessary to visit the site on a regular basis and grasp the
concentrate, and how much water can be taken during situation at that time. In particular, it is important for the
droughts. It is utilized for facility planning and designing. person in charge of the project to visit and observe the
river and flow conditions both during floods and
The sediment transport volume and particle size and droughts. Results of observations and measurements are
water quality are grasped. organized using photos and sketches.
•Impact of river structure construction on river flow •River survey and survey study
and channel The cross-sectional survey, the profile survey, and the
The impact on the structures located on the upstream / topographic survey of rivers are performed, and drawings
downstream and left and right banks, river channels and are created. A riverbed material survey is also important
landside areas of the newly constructed river structures in for understanding river channel characteristics. Based on
the PMS method irrigation project is analyzed. In these materials, the hydraulic parameters of rivers are
particular, the new generation of flood inundation examined by non-uniform flow calculation.
occurrence due to backwater (rise of water level) at the
upstream by weir construction are carefully assessed.
•Impact of irrigation water extraction on downstream
water use
Investigate the water rights registered with The National
Water Affairs Regulation Authority (NWARA) Water
Rights Bureau, grasp the current water use situation near
the water intake point, and plan new irrigation water
intake above the water intake point. Carefully consider
whether it will affect water use on the downstream and
left and right banks, especially on the downstream side,
and coordinate with relevant parties.
The water rights registered in the Department of Water
Right of NWARA are investigated and the present water
use situation near the intake site is grasped. Then, the
planned new water intake for irrigation is carefully
studied, specially whether it affects the water use on the
upstream/downstream and the left/right banks. It is
coordinated with the stakeholders.

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 CHAPTER 4
HOW SHOULD IRRIGATION FACILITIES BE PLANNED AND DESIGNED?

Irrigation facilities need to be planned and designed to ensure a stable supply of irrigation water against floods,
droughts, sediment depositions, etc. The PMS method irrigation facilities consist of irrigation facilities and
flood control facilities.

4.1 Basic Concept for Planning and Design of Irrigation Facilities

In Afghanistan, a straight shaped simple barrier has been widely adopted as a water intake structure. However,
in this form of a barrier, flood erosion of the riverbed tends to slowly destroy the structure, and because it
usually does not have the function of adjusting the water intake amount, it becomes difficult to extract water
during the dry season. At the same time, flood flows and sediment inflows cannot be prevented. These were
important issues for operation and for maintenance of the facilities. In order to overcome these issues, the PMS
method irrigation project introduced a boulder oblique weir and a double flush board method intake gate. In
the boulder oblique weir, the entire weir surface from the riverbank to the sandbar is raised to prevent scouring
at the edge of the weir. By arranging the weir in a curved shape (in the layout) to extend the overflow line, the
unit width flow rate flowing over the weir is reduced. By collecting the water flow in the central downstream
section of the oblique weir, the energy of the flood flow is reduced. As a result, the destruction of the weir due to
scouring can be reduced or fully prevented and the impact on the riverbank can also be reduced. Furthermore,
a sand flushing ditch is provided on the weir to discharge the sediment deposited in front of the intake gate
downstream by flushing. At the double flush board method intake gate, closing the flush boards prevents the
flood flow from entering the main irrigation canal, and using the double flush board reduces the water pressure,
enabling easier manual operation of the flush board. When the water level is low, the flush board is lowered to
enable water intake. In addition, the inflow of earth and sand is prevented by extracting the water that overflows,

Table 3 Advantage of Boulder Oblique Weir in the PMS Method Irrigation Project to Conventional Intake Weir

Conventional Intake Weir (Simple groin) Boulder Oblique Weir in PMS Method Irrigation Project

Divided
water way

Oblique
Oblique weir
Scouring of Inflow of weir
opposite bank flooding
Scouring Sand Double
Without flushing flush board method
gate ditch intake gate
steep gradient main
Simple groin irrigation canal
Difficulty in taking water
due to the riverbed
degradation
Main canal
Drainage sliding Sand basin
by overflow drainage gate (Regulating pond)
Drainage canal Drainage canal Flush board-type
Water supply transmission gate
canal
Main canal

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 above the flush board. A steep gradient main irrigation canal combined with a sand basin reduces the inflow of
sediment into the irrigation distribution canals.
4.2 Layout Planning of Irrigation Facilities
Irrigation facilities should, in principle, ensure the adequate water quantity, with a sufficient water head which
would allow gravity flow of the irrigation water from intake site to irrigation area. In the planning of the layout,
adequate consensus building with the local community should be achieved by discussing with the residents the
availability of land for acquisition and land lease under construction as well as the construction schedule.
1) Existing cultivated land and existing intake points and irrigation canals should be confirmed, and
beneficiary areas including new irrigated land should also be confirmed, together with beneficiary farmers.
In addition, the candidate site for the new intake point would also be confirmed, as well as the junction
point between the new main irrigation canal and the existing irrigation canal (located usually near the
utmost upstream part of the beneficiary area).
2) From the new intake candidate site to the junction points, steep gradient main irrigation canals and main
irrigation canals are arranged along the shortest distance, and intake points for the distribution canals
and the fields, which can secure sufficient hydraulic gradient are selected. Suitable land for intake site is
determined by available gradient, river channel curve, bedrock presence, sand bar and other design elements.
Sediment-prone areas should be avoided as they can cause difficulties in water intake.
3) The sand basin and the regulating pond should be located near the river at the junction point of the existing
irrigation canal and the new main irrigation canal, and a main drainage canal should be provided for the
discharge of sediment and excess water.
4) Thhe layout route of the main irrigation canal should be arranged so that the sand basin and the regulating
pond at the starting point of each existing irrigation canal are connected. Areas with significant terrain
irregularities, sections with rock that are difficult to excavate, and sections with private houses and farmland
should be avoided.
5) Reservoirs, siphons and flood crossing bridges should be located where the main irrigation canal crosses
small valleys and slopes consist of washes which pass flash floods and flows of debris. Reservoir installation
should be avoided in the case that the basins of valleys and slopes are large, and the inflow of flash floods and
debris flows is large, or if the water level of the main irrigation canal is at high elevation, because the risk of
collapse increases. (See Figure 2)
6) The layout route of the main drainage channel for wetland should be determined in consideration of the
layout of the irrigation beneficiary area and the topographical elevation, and should be located in a place
where the ground elevation is lower compared to the elevation of surrounding area.

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 Sheiwa District

0 1.0 2.0km

Intake Mouth
Lower Shigi
Kachara

Behsud District Legend

Koti Dike＋Stone Spur Dike Existing
Farmland
Steep Gradient
Miran Bela Main Irrigation Canal New Restored
Farmland
Main Drainage Canal
Flood Plain or
Sand Basin, Linguoid Sand Bar
Regulating Pond
Taran Flood-damaged
Existing Area
Irrigation Canal
New Diversion Canal

Figure 5 Sample of Layout for PMS Method Irrigation Facilities (Irrigation Facilities and Flood Control Facilities)

4.3 Priorities to be Considered in Designing Irrigation Facilities

The priorities to be considered when designing and examining the specifications of each irrigation facility are as
follows.
・ The height of the boulder oblique weir should not be excessively huge and should be within about 2 m
height in order to ensure the stability of the weir body against the river flow during floods. In addition,
embedment depth of at least 1 m should be secured under the riverbed.
・ The boulder oblique weir should have a gentle slope as much as possible to prevent erosion caused by flood
flows. The weir should be designed so that the overflow water over the weir collects in the center of the
curved crest of the weir through the apron. The radius of curvature is set so that the center point of the
curved arc does not deviate from the plane range of the boulder oblique weir.
・ Since the part where the wing of the boulder oblique weir attaches to the sandbar and the foundation are
likely to be weak points structurally, the weir wing should be sufficiently embedded in the sandbar, and the
sandbar should be reinforced with boulders and cobble stones.
・ The steep gradient main irrigation canal should be designed to carry the required amount of irrigation water
and to prevent sediment deposition. If the longitudinal gradient is too gentle, the flow velocity will decrease,
sediment deposition will increase, the cross-sectional area of the main irrigation canal will become larger,
and the land occupancy range will become wider. Adversely, if it is too steep, the flow velocity will increase,
the stability of the revetment is impaired, and the peeling of the canal bed lining is promoted. Therefore, a
well-balanced longitudinal design should be made in consideration of the above trade-offs.
・ The sand basin should secure a capacity large enough to capture the suspended sediment contained in
the extracted irrigation water. From the maintenance viewpoint, it is advantageous that the depth of the

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 sand basin is not too large, but if it is too shallow, the required area of sand basin would become larger.
Therefore, the design should take into consideration both restrictions related to land acquisition and ease of
maintenance.
・ The main drainage canal should have a cross sectional area sufficient to discharge design drainage amounts,
but the width of the drainage canal should not be excessively large, to minimize the requisition of the
agricultural land.
・ While designing the wings of the intake weir and the embedment depth of the foundation in the ground, the
height of the intake weir, the boulder diameter, the cross-sectional area of the main irrigation and drainage
channel, etc., specifications should be set with a safe margin to stabilize the structure, secure the amount of
water intake during extreme drought, and secure the cross sectional area is sufficient during floods.

CHAPTER 5
HOW SHOULD FLOOD CONTROL FACILITIES BE PLANNED AND
DESIGNED?

Flood control facilities in the PMS method irrigation project are constructed by combining embankments
along the river and stone spur dikes within river flow.

5.1 Basic Concept of Flood Control Facility Planning and Design

Firstly, the areas which are likely to be eroded or submerged by flood water are identified. Dikes should be
provided in the flood risk area to prevent inundation.
A protruding stone spur dike should be provided in the area sensitive to erosion risk, to direct the flood flow
away from the riverbank toward the center of the river and to exert a hydraulic jump effect minimizing sediment
accumulation. However, when designing the dike, it is necessary to give due consideration to the land use on
the inland side of the dike. It is quite possible that an unexpected flood may occur and the dike breaks, so the
sophistication of land use in the hinterland (inland) of the dike should be strictly avoided. From this point
of view, dikes should be provided only in absolutely necessary cases. Within the inland areas where floods
have occurred in the past, land use restrictions should be imposed, based on the assumption that floods may
inundate more than planned, and people should never be allowed to live in these areas. The layout plan should
give due consideration to social and environmental impacts, such as land acquisition necessary for dikes and the
impact on the opposite river shore caused by changes of flow direction, induced by installation of spur dikes.

5.2 Layout Planning of Flood Control Facilities

As shown in Figure 5, the layout planning of flood control facilities such as dikes and stone spur dikes should
consider the layout of irrigation facilities, the conditions of the inland area to be protected, and the flood
conditions. In particular:
・ By conducting a field survey with reference to satellite images and land use maps, areas where flood
inundation and erosion are likely to occur need to be identified, and irrigation facilities, farmlands and
houses to be protected from floods need to be confirmed.
・ The dike should be provided along the river in the flood prone area, where the ground elevation is lower
than the design flood water level of the river. Dike construction on both sides of the river should be strictly

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 avoided. When a dike is planned on one riverbank, existence of a flood retarding area should be confirmed
on the opposite bank. If it is unavoidable to construct dikes on both banks, they should not be continuous,
but intermittent dikes such as open levee, and should have the function of letting the river flow escape to the
inland area, in the event of a large-scale flood.
・ On the outside of the curved part of the river channel, the flood flow velocity becomes high and collides
with the riverbank, so scouring and erosion are likely to occur and there is a risk of dike deterioration and
break. A stone spur dike should then be provided, in these sections, to direct the flood currents away from
the bank. In a general, the stone spur dike should be provided for the purpose of controlling the direction of
flood flow and fixing the ridges and sandbars.

Foot Protection or Stone Spur Dike with Boulders

Shisham, Eucalyptus
Berm Width Slope Dike Crown Width
more than 3.0m more than 8.0m

柳枝工
Wicker Works
Freeboard
Design Flood Water Level Slope Slope Gradient
(Recorded Highest Water) Gradient 1:1.5 ↓Drain Ditch
1:1.5
The embankment material
Flood Water Level is sandy soil based on local
in Average Year
Slope Gradient surplus soil.
Drought Water Level 1:1.5
in Averagce Year

Foot Protection Works

River Bed

Embedded Depth of Foot Protection Works : more than 1.0m

Figure 6 Standard Cross Section of Dike for the PMS Method Irrigation Project

Width 10m

Length
15∼30m
River Flow after
Installation of
Spur Dike
River Flow
before
Installation of 25∼100m
Spur Dike

∼85°
75°

Installation Interval
25∼100m
∼85°
75°

Figure 7 Example of Plane Arrangement for Upward Stone Spur Dike

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 5.3 Priorities to be Considered when Designing Flood Control Facilities
The priorities to be considered during designing and addressing each flood control facility are as follows.
・ The dike alignment should be parallel to a smooth radius of curvature along the shape of the river alignment
to prevent the formation of water streams which cause erosion. Along the dike embankment on the river
side, revetment works and foot protection works should be provided, ensuring sufficient embedment
depth, to prevent the embankment from breaking due to the erosion at the foot area. The height of the dike
embankment should include a freeboard over the design flood water level.
・ The length of the stone spur dike should be set appropriately with a norm of about 10% or less of the river
channel width after the dike embankment is provided. If the stone spur dike is extended to have more than
necessary length, to keep river alignment away from the riverbank, it may promote excessive scouring on the
opposite side bank. Therefore, length of the spur should be sufficient but not exorbitant.
・ The stone spur dike needs to be continuously monitored for possible damages and erosion as well as sand
deposition in the area surrounding it.is the spur should be designed such as to facilitate maintenance, i.e.
by use of gabions large boulders. In addition, since it is necessary to replenish boulders periodically, it is
necessary to stockpile boulders in places along the riverbank.

CHAPTER 6
HOW SHOULD PMS METHOD IRRIGATION FACILITIES BE
CONSTRUCTED?
6.1 Implementation System and Implementation Process of PMS Method Irrigation Project
It is expected that the Afghan government will become the project implementation entity/person using donors
or the government's own funds, and will implement and disseminate the PMS method irrigation project under
the project implementation system shown in Figure 8. The project implementation entity/person, together
with the "PMS Method Irrigation Project Advisory Team", formulates the basic concept in consultation
with the local community. Then, together with the Consultant who undertakes the consultant contract, in
collaboration with the beneficiary farmers, facility planning and design, project implementation planning and
construction supervision are carried out. During the facility planning process, it is necessary to discuss with
the residents, to attain information about matters, such as confirming the availability of land for acquisition
and settling the agreement on the contents of the planning and design. The construction company which
undertakes the construction contract employs neighboring residents to carry out the construction work. The
project implementation system will be maintained even after the construction is completed, and the operation
and maintenance of irrigation facilities by the water users association (WUA) or irrigation association (IA)
will be supported for a certain period of time by the Contractor. As for the project cost, indirect costs for
maintaining the corporate activities of consultants and construction companies and related expenses are
expected, in addition to the direct construction costs, and contingency costs need always to be secured to
prepare for unforeseen circumstances during construction and during the support period thereafter.

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 Project Implementation
Funded by donor or Entities/Persons
government budgets (governmental agency, etc.)

Construction
PMS Method Consultation
Consultancy contract,
Irrigation Project agreement Maintenance and
Advisory Team management
contract

Consultant Contractor
Construction
Planning/design Construction works
Bidding management Supervision Capacity
Construction development
management Reporting Operation and
Capacity development maintenance
Operation and
maintenance

Figure 8 Example of Establishing a Future Project Implementation System

(when a government agency is the executing entity)

6.2 Construction Supervision for PMS Method Irrigation Facilities

Construction supervision includes establishment of construction implementation system, procurement of
materials and equipment necessary for construction, securing of labor force and training of personnel, security
and safety measures during construction, process control, quality control, cost control, etc. It is expected
to complete in about two years. When it is a small-scale intake weir or intake gate irrigation project, the
construction work of the PMS method irrigation facility should be completed within one year, if possible,
aiming for early operation. If the construction period is multiple years for a relatively large-scale construction,
temporary intake for water should be provided, and water extracted from the river so that the supply of
irrigation water would not be interrupted, even during the construction period.
The priorities to keep in mind in construction supervision and construction work are as follows.
・ Construction Schedule: Since the intake weir is a structure located in the riverbed, it should be constructed
during the drought season. Since the construction of the intake gate and sand flushing ditch involves
placement of concrete, a temporary coffer dam should be constructed, and the construction should be
conducted under dry condition. Construction in the inland areas such as the main irrigation canal and sand
basin can be carried out all year round.
・ Construction Implementation System: The organizational structure, group formation and number
of people in the construction work are planned, and the efficient placement of workers is planned in
consideration of the flood season and drought season.
・ Procurement of Construction Materials and Equipment: The method of procuring construction materials
and heavy machinery required for the construction of the facility is also planned. In the case of procuring
boulders, the required transportation volume within the construction period should be anticipated, the
"daily transportation volume" of the dump truck is established, and the loading capacity is monitored at the
site. Also, it is necessary to keep a stockpile of boulders near the construction site to prepare for emergencies.
Here, in areas where there are no large boulders, some considerations such as using cobble stones as a filling

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 material for pilings of gabions shall be required.
・ Quality Control Plan: A method of ensuring the quality of each type of work and ensuring the construction
as designed (supervision of completed form) is planned. Particularly careful and attentive work is required
for those parts becoming invisible after works. These include structural foundations, wings of intake weirs
penetrating sandbar (natural ground) and backfilling portions of revetment.
・ Security and Safety Measures: Security measures should be coordinated and planned in collaboration
with local residents' associations and neighboring chieftains, and safety management education should
be provided during construction. For those who may suffer disadvantages by the construction works, the
purpose and contents of the project shall be carefully explained in advance, consensus building shall be
made, and sufficient compensation shall be provided.
・ Training / Education plan: On-the-job training and education of human resources related to the
construction will be planned in anticipation that the local residents, who participate in the construction
work would become core members of the maintenance group for the irrigation facilities after the
construction is completed.
・ A ground-breaking ceremony shall be held when the works get underway and a completion ceremony on
completion of construction. With the participation of the provincial governor and irrigation department
staffs in these ceremonies, revealing the event schedule will enhance the morale of workers toward the works
as well as boosting expectations for sense of community unity and ownership

CHAPTER 7
HOW SHOULD OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF PMS METHOD
IRRIGATION FACILITIES BE IMPLEMENTED?

The continuous operation and maintenance after construction is extremely important in the PMS method
irrigation project. Normal facility operation includes operation of flush boards on structures such as intake
weirs, and facility maintenance includes daily inspections, canal cleaning and dredging. After floods, irrigation
facilities should be carefully inspected and all possible damages repaired. Water distribution should be reviewed
in the event of unexpected drought, and distribution facilities should be restored accordingly. In other words,
after the construction of irrigation facilities, the residents themselves must operate and maintain the irrigation
facilities. It is important to contribute and cooperate to improve and continue sustainable and beneficial
irrigated agriculture according to the local situation, after the PMS irrigation facilities are constructed. By
maintaining fair and proper water distribution and through continuous inspection and improving of the
irrigation facilities, if any damage or malfunction is detected, the systems can fully and sustainably perform
their designed functions. In particular, regular sediment dredging in the irrigation canal is important to secure
the required amount of irrigation water.
From this perspective, based on the current situation of water governance in the local community, the
project implementation entities/persons or the government and the local community discuss and agree on
their respective roles and responsibilities in the operation and maintenance of irrigation facilities which are
clarified. Table 4 shows the basic roles and responsibilities of each organization for each necessary operation /
maintenance works. In principle, the normal operation and maintenance of irrigation facilities is carried out
by the beneficiary farmers, and efforts are made to maintain the functions of sustainable facilities. The project

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 implementation entities/persons or the government is required to respect the will of the local community and
beneficiary farmers, and to continue to be involved by ensuring a budget for large-scale repairs and restorations.
The typical destruction patterns and countermeasures for the existing PMS irrigation facilities so far are as
follows.
・ Washout of Sandbar at Intake Weir Abutment：Repair of joint of the weir and sandbar protection by
boulders and cobblestones;
・ Scouring at the Downstream Part of Intake Weir and at the End of Sand Flushing Ditch：Repair of the main
body of the weir by placing boulders;

Table 4 Roles and Responsibilities of Stakeholders in the Operation and Maintenance of Irrigation Facilities

Project implementation
Operation and WUA or IA by Mirab
entities/persons or
Maintenance Work Beneficiary Farmers (water manager)
Government
Operation of Irrigation Facilities - Intake Gate Operation and Water Distribution (Water Users’ Expense)
Water Allocation Plan • Formulation - • Support
Intake gate operation and • Pay mirabs • Intake gate operation and • Uunderstanding the
equitable water distribution • Proper on-farm water proper water distribution operational situation
management (Chapter 8)
Measuring and monitoring • Measuring the water level
water level and intake amount and intake amount
• Monitoring proper water
distribution
Response to extreme situations • Consensus building on • Implementing water • Joint discussion on
water distribution rules distribution rules during water distribution rules
during drought drought during drought
• Proper on-farm water • Response to floods • Response to floods
management (Chapter 8)
Maintenance of Irrigation Facilities (Water Users’ Expense)
Maintenance Plan • Formulation - • Support
(Irrigation facilities) • Implementation of repair • Inspection/ Observation • Understanding the
• Daily maintenance and work • Daily cleaning situation of
regular simple repairs • Regular cleaning • Regular cleaning maintenance activities
(participation in Hashar) (participation in Hashar) • Observation
(River channels)
• Regular survey
• Understanding rivers and
sandbars situation
Large-Scale Repair of Irrigation Facilities (Project implementation entities/persons’ or Government’s Expense)
(Irrigation facilities) • Ensuring of budget
• Repair of gabion at joint of • Inspection/
the weir Observation
• Repair of the weir and • Understanding of field
downstream erosion situation
• Repair of dike and • Implementing large-
revetment works • Labor Participation in repair work scale repairs,
restorations, and river
(River channels)
construction
• Sandbar protection
• Implementing as a new
• River bank protection
PMS method irrigation
• Excavation and dredging
project if restoration is
for ensuring division of
required
river channel
Note: Shura and RBC arbitrate mainly to resolve water disputes. Shura is customary arbitration, while RBC is arbitration based on the
water law. Shura convenes Hashar.

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 ・ Erosion of Riverbank around the Weir：Repair of revetment works, river bank protection, and repair of the
main body of the dike by constructing spur dikes or adding stones to the existing spur dikes;
・ Damages to Water Intake Due to Changes in Mainstream of Rivers and Changes in River Channels such as
Sediment Deposition：Excavation and dredging of the river and the sandbar for guiding the mainstream
and for maintaining the sandbar, and ensuring division of river channel;
・ Destruction and Sediment Deposition at Main Irrigation Canal Due to Flash Floods and Debris Flows：
Repair of revetment works, dredging of inflowing sediment by emergency response team, and extension or
installation of a flood passing bridge of the main irrigation canal, etc.

CHAPTER 8
HOW SHOULD AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION
TECHNOLOGY BE IMPROVED?

While the technology for constructing irrigation facilities that convey water to irrigated areas which require
water is very important, we must not forget the importance of irrigated agricultural technology for the efficient
use of water to produce crops. In the existing PMS irrigation project area, various issues have been found to
impact irrigated agricultural technology, and they have been improved one by one. Among these, sustainable
technologies related to irrigated agricultural technology are introduced. In the future, similar problems may
occur in irrigation projects in each region where PMS system projects are implemented, and it is necessary to
utilize the technologies shown here to improve the problems at an early stage and improve productivity.

8.1 Establishment of Demonstration Farm for Technical and Agricultural Extension

For agricultural workers who have little experience in crop cultivation, a demonstration farm is established for
the purpose of efficient disseminating of cultivation technologies in irrigated agriculture, and the outputs of the
PMS method irrigation project are ensured.

8.2 Irrigation Technology (Appropriate On-Farm Water Management)

Proper water use in irrigated fields is an important issue to prevent waterlogged damages and improve crop
productivity. If proper water use is known, fair water distribution based on it is possible, and it contributes to
water saving. Figure 9 shows the method of irrigation on ridges, with a drainage ditch in between two irrigation
furrows, which is one of the appropriate water management methods in the irrigated field.
Iriigated Place
(10-20㎝）

Width of ridge: Height of ridge:

Based on cultivated crops 20-30㎝
(80-100㎝）

This irrigation method has a high water saving effect because it irrigates only near the crop roots. In addition,
since only the top of the ridge is irrigated, the roots can grow healthily due to the improved drainage conditions.
Figure 9 New Method of Irrigation on Ridges in the Existing PMS Irrigation Project That is Effective
(irrigation methods that make wide ridges and supply water to the center of ridges)

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 8.3 Cultivation Technology
The effective technologies which solve the problems of cultivation and enable sustainable crop farming are
compiled. In particular, crop rotation, shading culture, alley cropping, sowing technology, nursery production,
etc. are effective cultivation technologies which have been demonstrated in the PMS demonstration farms and
can be carried out using local materials.

Photo 1 Shading Culture Photo 2 Alley Cropping

8.4 Soil Improvement Technology

The soils in Afghanistan are characterized as sandy and with high pH in general. Such soils have problems, such
as occurrence of nutrient deficiency like phosphoric acid and low water / nutrient retention in cultivating crops,
which is very difficult to manage. The countermeasures for maintaining crop productivity of farmland are
soil improvement technology, soil analysis for appropriate soil management, and improving soil fertility with
leguminous crops cultivation, etc.

Photo 3 Soil Fertility is Improved by Applying Nitrogen to the Soil by Mixed Cropping of Maze and Beans.

*? Low pH values (<5.5) indicate acidic soils, while high pH (>8) indicate alkaline soils. Soils with pH in between are best for crop or pasture
production..

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 CONTENTS
PREFACE
SAKAMOTO Takema Director General,South Asia Department Japan International Cooperation Agency …………………………………… 4

Upon publishing “PMS Method Irrigation Project Guidelines”

MURAKAMI Masaru M.D. Executive Director, Peace Japan Medical Services (PMS) ……………………………………………………………… 6

SUMMARY …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 9

CHAPTER 1
WHAT ARE THE “PMS METHOD IRRIGATION PROJECT GUIDELINES”? 43

1.1 Background …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………43

1.2 Purpose of the Guidelines ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 44
1.3 Concept and Contents of the Guidelines ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 44
1.4 Structure of the Guidelines …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………46
1.5 Target Beneficiaries of the Guidelines …………………………………………………………………………………………………………49
1.6 Overview of the PMS Method Irrigation Project ………………………………………………………………………………………51
1.6.1 | Outline of the PMS Method Irrigation Project ……………………………………………………………………………… 51

1.6.2 | Characteristics of the PMS Method Irrigation Project…………………………………………………………… 54

1.6.3 | Economic and Social Outcomes of the Existing PMS Irrigation Project …………………………………… 56
1.7 Basic Civil Engineering Techniques Used in PMS ………………………………………………………………………… 57

1.7.1 | Gabion Works ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 58

1.7.2 | Wicker Works ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 58
1.7.3 | Masonry ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 59
1.7.4 | Soil Cement Works ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 60

CHAPTER 2
HOW SHOULD A PMS METHOD IRRIGATION PROJECT BE LAUNCHED TOGETHER
WITH FARMERS? 61
2.1 Launching of a PMS Method Irrigation Project …………………………………………………………………………… 62

2.2 Selection of Area Suitable for the PMS Method Irrigation Project …………………………………………………… 62

2.2.1 | Basic Policy of Area Selection ………………………………………………………………………………………… 62

2.2.2 | Method of Irrigation Area Selection ………………………………………………………………………………… 63
2.2.3 | Primary Selection…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 64
2.2.4 | Secondary Selection - Selection Based on Natural Conditions …………………………………………… 64

2.2.5 | Final Selection - Selection Based on Important Socio-Economic Conditions of Local Communities …………… 74
2.3 Formulation of Basic Concept of the PMS Method Irrigation Project through Discussion with Farmers ……… 76

2.3.1 | Basic Policy for Formulating the Basic Concept Through Dialogue and Discussion with Local
Communities ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 77

2.3.2 | Consensus Building with Local Communities and the Basic Concept ……………………………………… 77

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 2.3.3 | Discussions on Irrigation Beneficiary Area from the Viewpoint of Equal Water Distribution ………… 79
2.3.4 | Expected Results of the PMS Method Irrigation Project ……………………………………………………… 81
2.3.5 | Outline of Facility Construction Cost, Annual Operation/Maintenance Cost and Project Period…… 83
2.3.6 | Consensus-Building on Land Acquisition and Sufficient Compensation…………………………………… 85
2.3.7 | Examination of Impact (Risk) on Surrounding Areas …………………………………………………………… 86
2.3.8 | Allocation of Roles in Construction, Operation and Maintenance of Irrigation Facilities ……………………87
2.3.9 | Security and Safety …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………88

2.3.10 | Construction of Water Wheels, and Demonstration Farm as Ancillary Projects ………………………… 88

CHAPTER 3
HOW SHOULD WATER SOURCE RIVERS BE UNDERSTOOD? 91

3.1 Why Should We Understand the River Conditions? ……………………………………………………………………… 92

3.2 Collection and Organization of Existing Information …………………………………………………………………… 95

3.2.1 | River Basin Condition ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 95

3.2.2 | River Channel Condition ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 96
3.2.3 | River Flow Conditions during Flood and Drought ………………………………………………………………… 99
3.2.4 | Impact of New Water Intake on Downstream Water Use ………………………………………………………104
3.3 Interview Survey with Residents …………………………………………………………………………………………………105
3.3.1 | Methods of Interview with Residents …………………………………………………………………………………105
3.3.2 | Organization of Interview Results ………………………………………………………………………………………107
3.4 Observation and Measurement of River Condition ………………………………………………………………………107

3.4.1 | Observation of River Channel Conditions ……………………………………………………………………………107

3.4.2 | Observation and Measurement of River Flow Condition …………………………………………………………114
3.5 River Survey Methods ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………127
3.5.1 | Riverbed Material Survey …………………………………………………………………………………………………127
3.5.2 | River Survey …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………129
3.5.3 | Contemporary River Survey………………………………………………………………………………………………133
3.6 Setting Basic Information for Irrigation Facility Plan and Design ……………………………………………………134

3.6.1 | Setting of Design Drought Discharge and Design Drought Water Level ……………………………………134
3.6.2 | Setting of Design Flood Discharge and Design Flood Water Level …………………………………………135
3.6.3 | Setup of Design Sediment Transport Volume and Design Sediment Particles Size ……………………136
3.6.4 | Estimation of Hydraulic Parameters of Rivers by Non-Uniform Flow Calculation …………………………136

CHAPTER 4
HOW SHOULD IRRIGATION FACILITIES BE PLANNED AND DESIGNED? 139

4.1 Layout planning and Design Process of Irrigation Facilities ……………………………………………………………140

4.1.1 | Layout Planning of Irrigation Facilities ………………………………………………………………………………140

4.1.2 | Design Process of Irrigation Facilities …………………………………………………………………………………143
4.2 Design of the Intake Weir and Intak Gate ……………………………………………………………………………………146

4.2.1 | Basic Design Policy …………………………………………………………………………………………………………146

4.2.2 | Type of the Intake Weir: Boulder Oblique Weir ……………………………………………………………………146

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 4.2.3 | Plane Design of the Intake Weir and Intake Gate …………………………………………………………………152
4.2.4 | Basic Specification Design for Intake Weir and Intake Gate ……………………………………………………159
4.2.5 | Specification Design of the Intake Weir ………………………………………………………………………………161
4.2.6 | Specification Design of the Intake Gates ……………………………………………………………………………168
4.2.7 | Specification Design of the Sand Flushing Ditch …………………………………………………………………175
4.3 Design of the Main Irrigation Canal ……………………………………………………………………………………………179
4.3.1 | Basic Policy for the Design of the Irrigation Main Canal …………………………………………………………179
4.3.2 | Type and Design Policy for the Main Irrigation Canal ……………………………………………………………181
4.3.3 | Specification Design of the Main Irrigation Canal …………………………………………………………………182
4.3.4 | Structural Design of the Main Irrigation Canal ………………………………………………………………………186
4.3.5 | Design of the Water Wheel in the Main Irrigation Canal …………………………………………………………190
4.3.6 | Effects of Vegetation Works along the Main Irrigation Canal …………………………………………………190
4.4 Sand Basin (Regulating Pond) Design …………………………………………………………………………………………192
4.4.1 | Basic Policy for Designing the Sand Basin (Regulating Pond) …………………………………………………192
4.4.2 | Type and Design Polity for Sand Basin (Regulating Pond) ………………………………………………………193
4.4.3 | Specification Design of the Sand Basin (Regulating Pond) ……………………………………………………196
4.4.4 | Structural Design of the Sand Basin (Regulating Pond) …………………………………………………………199
4.5 Design of the Reservoir, Siphon, and other Facilities ………………………………………………………………………201
4.5.1 | Basic Policy for the Design of the Reservoir, Siphon, and other Facilities …………………………………201
4.5.2 | Type and Design Policy for the Reservoir, Siphon, and other Facilities ………………………………………202
4.5.3 | Plain Design of the Reservoir, Siphon, and other Facilities ………………………………………………………204
4.5.4 | Cross-sectional and Structural Design of the Reservoir …………………………………………………………207
4.5.5 | Cross-sectional and Structural Design of the Siphon ……………………………………………………………208
4.5.6 | Cross-sectional and Structural Design of the Flood Crossing Bridge ………………………………………209
4.6 Design of the Main Drainage Canal ……………………………………………………………………………………………211
4.6.1 | Basic Policy for Designing the Main Drainage Canal ……………………………………………………………211
4.6.2 | Type and Design Policy for the Main Drainage Canal ……………………………………………………………212
4.6.3 | Specification Design of the Main Drainage Canal …………………………………………………………………213

CHAPTER 5
HOW SHOULD FLOOD CONTROL FACILITIES BE PLANNED AND DESIGNED? 217

5.1 Layout Planning and Design Process of Flood Control Facilities ………………………………………………………218
5.1.1 | Layout Planning of Flood Control Facilities …………………………………………………………………………218
5.1.2 | Design Process for Flood Control Facilities …………………………………………………………………………219
5.2 Dike Design ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………219
5.2.1 | Basic Design Policy of Dikes ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 219

5.2.2 | Type and Design Policy of Dike Revetments ………………………………………………………………………220

5.2.3 | Specification Design of Dikes ……………………………………………………………………………………………222
5.2.4 | Structural Design of Dikes ………………………………………………………………………………………………227
5.3 Design of Stone Spur Dikes ………………………………………………………………………………………………………231

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 5.3.1 | Basic Design Policy for Stone Spur Dikes ……………………………………………………………………………231
5.3.2 | Type of Stone Spur Dikes …………………………………………………………………………………………………232
5.3.3 | Design Policy and Specifications for Stone Spur Dikes …………………………………………………………235
5.3.4 | Structural Design of Stone Spur Dikes ………………………………………………………………………………237

CHAPTER 6
HOW SHOULD PMS METHOD IRRIGATION FACILITIES BE CONSTRUCTED? 241

6.1 Preparation of Construction Supervision and Construction Works …………………………………………………242

6.1.1 | Establishing Project Implementation and Execution Systems …………………………………………………242

6.1.2 | Planning of the Construction Schedule ………………………………………………………………………………245
6.1.3 | Procurement and Preparation of Construction Materials and Equipment …………………………………246
6.1.4 | Quality Management, Design Change and As-built Drawings …………………………………………………247
6.1.5 | Cost Management …………………………………………………………………………………………………………248
6.1.6 | Safety Measures for Construction Works ……………………………………………………………………………249
6.1.7 | Ensuring Security …………………………………………………………………………………………………………249
6.1.8 | Capacity Development of Local Farmers and Those Involved in Construction Work ……………………250
6.1.9 | Planning and Executing Temporary Works …………………………………………………………………………251
6.2 Construction Supervision of Intake Weirs and Gates ……………………………………………………………………253

6.2.1 | Construction Procedures of Intake Weir/Gate………………………………………………………………………253

6.2.2 | Construction Supervision of Intake Weir ……………………………………………………………………………255
6.2.3 | Construction Supervision of Intake Gate ……………………………………………………………………………259
6.2.4 | Construction Supervision of the Sand Flushing Ditch ……………………………………………………………262
6.3 Construction Supervision of the Reservoir …………………………………………………………………………………265
6.4 Construction Supervision of the Main Irrigation Canal and Wicker Works ………………………………………267
6.5 Construction Supervision of Siphon ……………………………………………………………………………………………273
6.6 Construction Supervision of the Sand Basin …………………………………………………………………………………275
6.7 Construction Supervision of the Drainage Canal …………………………………………………………………………277
6.8 Construction Supervision of Dike/Stone Spur Dike ………………………………………………………………………278

CHAPTER 7
HOW SHOULD OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF PMS METHOD IRRIGATION
FACILITIES BE IMPLEMENTED? 283
7.1 Establishment of Organizations and Institutions Related to Operation and Maintenance of Irrigation
Facilities …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………284
7.1.1 | Basic Concept of Operation and Maintenance of PMS Irrigation Facilities…………………………………284
7.1.2 | Understanding of the Current Situation of Organizations that Carry Out Operation and Maintenance
(Community Water Governance) ………………………………………………………………………………………284
7.1.3 | Understanding of Current Situations of Water Governance in Basins or Regions ………………………286
7.1.4 | Formation and Strengthening of Organizations that Implement Operation and Maintenance ………287
7.1.5 | Establishment of Institutions, Roles and Responsibilities of Organizations that Carry Out Operation
and Maintenance ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………289
7.1.6 | Ensuring Funds for Operation and Maintenance …………………………………………………………………291

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 7.2 Operation of Irrigation/Water Distribution Facilities (Intake Gates, Sand Flushing Ditches, Drainage
Gates, Transmission Gates and Distribution Gates) ………………………………………………………………………292
7.2.1 | Formulation of Water Allocation Plan for Irrigation Beneficiary Areas ………………………………………292
7.2.2 | Formulation of Operating Rules of Intake Gates ……………………………………………………………………292
7.2.3 | Operation Method of Sand Flushing Ditches, Drainage Gates, Transmission Gates and Distribution
Gates ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………296
7.2.4 | Operation of Intake Gates, Sand Flushing Ditches, Drainage Gates, Transmission Gates and
Distribution Gates ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………296
7.2.5 | Patrols Related to Water Use ……………………………………………………………………………………………297
7.2.6 | Response to Extreme Situations such as Droughts and Floods ………………………………………………298
7.3 Maintenance of Irrigation Facilities ……………………………………………………………………………………………300

7.3.1 | Formulation of Maintenance Plan ………………………………………………………………………………………300

7.3.2 | Examples of Daily Maintenance Activities and Regular Simple Repairs ……………………………………301
7.4 Large-Scale Repair and Restoration of Irrigation Facilities - Typical Destruction Patterns and
Countermeasures ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………302

CHAPTER 8
HOW SHOULD AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION TECHNOLOGY BE IMPROVED? 309

8.1 Establishment of Demonstration Farm for Technical Extension ………………………………………………………310

8.2 On-Farm Water Management ……………………………………………………………………………………………………310
8.2.1 | Irrigation Water Distribution Method …………………………………………………………………………………310
8.2.2 | Types of Irrigation Method in the Field ………………………………………………………………………………311
8.2.3 | Flood Irrigation, Furrow Irrigation and Border Irrigation Technology …………………………………………314
8.2.4 | New Irrigation Method Suitable for Afghanistan (Irrigation on Ridges) ………………………………………317
8.2.5 | Points to Note in On-Farm Water Management ……………………………………………………………………319
8.3 Cultivation Technology ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………320

8.3.1 | Sustainable Production by Organic Farming ………………………………………………………………………320

8.3.2 | How to Evenly Sow Seed in Small-Scale Farm ……………………………………………………………………321
8.3.3 | Effect of Shade for Improving Productivity …………………………………………………………………………323
8.3.4 | Raised Bed Cultivation in Wetland to Prevent Waterlogged Damage ………………………………………325
8.3.5 | Increase in Rice Cultivation and Countermeasures (Introduction of Appropriate Upland Rice
Varieties) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………326
（Kneaded Nursery Bed）…………………………………………………………326
8.3.6 | Improving Nursery Production
8.4 Soil Improvement Technology……………………………………………………………………………………………………328
8.4.1 | Topsoil Improvement by Soil Profile Survey …………………………………………………………………………328
8.4.2 | Soil Analysis for Appropriate Soil Management ……………………………………………………………………329
8.4.3 | Maintaining Soil Fertility with Leguminous Crops Cultivation …………………………………………………331

Text Block

2-1 Case Study in PMS Area …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 63

2-2 Characteristics of the Kunar River ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 67

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 2-3 An Example of Integrated Operation in Japan ……………………………………………………………………………… 70

2-4 Case of Marwarid II ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 70

2-5 Achievement of the Existing PMS Irrigation Project (Created based on the text by Dr. Tetsu Nakamura) ……………… 82

2-6 Assumption of Economic Outcomes of the Existing PMS Irrigation Projects (Created based on the text by Dr.
Tetsu Nakamura) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 83

3-1 Observation of Sandbar Fluctuations by PMS ……………………………………………………………………………… 112

3-2 How to check the river water level and water depth ……………………………………………………………………… 119
3-3 Estimation of Flow Velocity based on Observation of Riverbed Materials ………………………………………… 125
4-1 Background to the Plane Design of the Miran Intake Weir …………………………………………………………… 155
4-2 Flush Board Structure with the Double Flush Board Method ………………………………………………………… 173
4-3 Dredging Frequency of the Sand Basin ………………………………………………………………………………………… 198
4-4 Seepage Water from Reservoir and its Treatment (Report from Dr. Nakamura) ………………………………………… 208
6-1 Construction of Main Irrigation Canal ……………………………………………………………………………………… 248
6-2 Working People (Words of Dr. Tetsu Nakamura) …………………………………………………………………………………… 251
6-3 An Example of Changes Over the Years After Construction …………………………………………………………… 272
7-1 What to Do When There Is No Mirab System or WUA or IA ……………………………………………………… 289
7-2 Example of Cost Burden of Farmers in the Operation and Maintenance of Irrigation Facilities of the
Existing PMS Irrigation Project ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 291
7-3 Case of Emergency Response Actually Performed by PMS (From a Report of Dr. Nakamura) ……………………… 305
7-4 Damage Caused by Flush Floods and Debris Flows and Examples of Countermeasures ……………………… 308

Appendix
(1) TECHNICAL TERMINOLOGY……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 334
(2) REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 342

(3) SPECIFICATION OF INTAKE FACILITIES …………………………………………………………………………………………… 344

(4) CALCULATION SAMPLES …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 348

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 Figures
Figure 1.1 Concept of the Guidelines ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 45
Figure 1.2 Structure of the PMS Method Irrigation Project Guidelines ………………………………………………………………………… 46
Figure 1.3 Main Structures of the PMS Method Irrigation System ………………………………………………………………………………… 51
Figure 1.4 Functions of PMS Method Irrigation Facilities …………………………………………………………………………………………… 52
Figure 1.5 Procedures of the PMS Method Irrigation Project Which Emphasize Local Initiatives ………………………………………… 54
Figure 1.6 Economic and Social Outcomes of the Existing PMS Irrigation Project …………………………………………………………… 57
Figure 1.7 Gabion Works at Irrigation Canal …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 58
Figure 1.8 Masonry……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 59
Figure 2.1 PMS Method Irrigation Project Launching Process ……………………………………………………………………………………… 62
Figure 2.2 Flow of Target Area Selection ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 64
Figure 2.3 Location of Water Intake Site ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 69
Figure 2.4 Correlation between Irrigated Area and Intake Water in Existing PMS Irrigation Projects …………………………………… 80
Figure 2.5 Relationship between Water Intake Site and the Irrigation Beneficiary Area ……………………………………………………… 81
Figure 2.6 Existing PMS Irrigation Project Periods …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 85
Figure 2.7 Allocation of Roles of Entities/Persons during Construction, Operation and Maintenance ………………………………… 87
Figure 3.1 Water Cycle in River Basins After Severe Climate Change in Afghanistan ………………………………………………………… 94
Figure 3.2 Transition of Streamway ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 98
Figure 3.3 Example of River Flow Yearbook and Changes in Water Level and Discharge of Rivers Over a Year …………………… 100
Figure 3.4 River Flow Duration Curve ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 102
Figure 3.5 Estimation of Probabilistic Flood Discharge …………………………………………………………………………………………… 103
Figure 3.6 Estimation of Probabilistic Drought Discharge………………………………………………………………………………………… 103
Figure 3.7 Assessment of Impacts of New Water Intake on Downstream Water Use ……………………………………………………… 104
Figure 3.8 Example of Aerial View of the Whole …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 108
Figure 3.9 Stability of River Channels ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 113
Figure 3.10 Discharge Calculation Methods …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 117
Figure 3.11 Examples of Measuring Distance, Depth and leveling by Simple Surveying …………………………………………………… 121
Figure 3.12 Flow Velocity Measurement by Float ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 122
Figure 3.13 Flow Velocity Measurement by Video Recording …………………………………………………………………………………… 123
Figure 3.14 Relationship between Critical Particle Size and Flow Velocity……………………………………………………………………… 124
Figure 3.15 Calculation Method of Average Particle Size of Boulders …………………………………………………………………………… 125
Figure 3.16 Water Level (H) - Discharge(Q) Relationship ………………………………………………………………………………………… 126
Figure 3.17 Relationship with Discharge Data from Nearby Hydrological Observation Station ………………………………………… 126
Figure 3.18 Riverbed Material Survey …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 128
Figure 3.19 Riverbed Material Survey Results ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 129
Figure 3.20 Surveying Deep Rivers ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 130
Figure 3.21 Example of Plane Drawing ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 131
Figure 3.22 Example of Cross-Section Drawing ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 132
Figure 3.23 Example of Profile Drawing ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 133
Figure 3.24 River Water Level Profile by Non-Uniform Flow Calculation ……………………………………………………………………… 137
Figure 4.1 Workflow of the Layout Planning for Irrigation Facilities …………………………………………………………………………… 140
Figure 4.2 Examples of Layout Planning for the Intake Sites, Sand Basin and Main Irrigation/Drainage Canal …………………… 141
Figure 4.3 Design Process of Irrigation Facilities ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 145
Figure 4.4 Design Process of Intake Weir and Intake Gate ………………………………………………………………………………………… 147
Figure 4.5 How to Consider to Select the Plane Type for the Intake Weir …………………………………………………………………… 148
Figure 4.6 Plane Design Model of the Boulder Oblique Weir …………………………………………………………………………………… 151
Figure 4.7 Profile Design Model of the Boulder Oblique Weir …………………………………………………………………………………… 152
Figure 4.8 Example for Setting the Location of the Boulder Oblique Weir …………………………………………………………………… 153
Figure 4.9 The Whole Plane Diagram of the Miran Weir ………………………………………………………………………………………… 154
Figure 4.10 Plane Drawing of the Boulder Oblique Weir …………………………………………………………………………………………… 157
Figure 4.11 Hydraulic Jump Location at the Weir Apron …………………………………………………………………………………………… 158
Figure 4.12 Design Specifications for Intake Weir/Gate Elevation Setting …………………………………………………………………… 160

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 Figure 4.13 Process of Setting Basic Specifications for Intake Weir and Intake Gate ………………………………………………………… 161
Figure 4.14 Cross-sectional Drawing of the Boulder Oblique Weir ……………………………………………………………………………… 162
Figure 4.15 Profile Design of the Boulder Oblique Weir: an image for considering weir length ………………………………………… 163
Figure 4.16 Scouring of the Boulder Oblique Weir Parts attached to River Banks/Sand Bars …………………………………………… 163
Figure 4.17 Example of Needle-like Fascine Works ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 164
Figure 4.18 Example of a Method of Cobblestones filled inside the Boulder Frame ……………………………………………………… 164
Figure 4.19 River Flow : Normal Flow, Critical Flow, Torrential Flow, Hydraulic Jump and Returning to the Normal Flow ……… 166
Figure 4.20 The Stability Examination Model for Stone Masonry with Low Integrity in which the Tractive Force of the River Causes
Destruction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 167
Figure 4.21 Design Process of the Intake Gate ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 168
Figure 4.22 Example Plane Drawing of the Double Flush Board Method Intake Gate ……………………………………………………… 170
Figure 4.23 Example Cross-sectional Drawing of the Double Flush Board Method Intake Gate ………………………………………… 170
Figure 4.24 Example Profile Diagram of the Double Flush Board Method Intake Gate …………………………………………………… 171
Figure 4.25 Double Flush Board Method Controls the Water Pressure on the First Board ………………………………………………… 172
Figure 4.26 Sedimentation Pool Provided below the Area Immediately Upstream of the Intake Gate ………………………………… 172
Figure 4.27 Process for Designing Sand Flushing Ditch …………………………………………………………………………………………… 175
Figure 4.28 Example Plane Drawing of the Sand Flushing Ditch ………………………………………………………………………………… 177
Figure 4.29 Example Cross-sectional Drawing of the Sand Flushing Ditch …………………………………………………………………… 177
Figure 4.30 Example Profile Drawing of the Sand Flushing Ditch ……………………………………………………………………………… 177
Figure 4.31 Design Process for the Main Irrigation Canal …………………………………………………………………………………………… 180
Figure 4.32 Example Cross-sectional Drawing of the Main Irrigation Canal ………………………………………………………………… 182
Figure 4.33 Setting the Main Irrigation Canal Route along the Contour Line ………………………………………………………………… 183
Figure 4.34 Example Profile Drawing of the Steep Gradient Main Irrigation Canal ………………………………………………………… 185
Figure 4.35 Example Profile Drawing of a Steep Gradient Main Irrigation Canal …………………………………………………………… 185
Figure 4.36 How to Fill Stone Materials in Gabion Works ………………………………………………………………………………………… 187
Figure 4.37 Design Process for the Sand Basin (Regulating Pond) ……………………………………………………………………………… 192
Figure 4.38 Example Plane Drawing of the Sand Basin ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 194
Figure 4.39 Example Profile Drawing of the Sand Basin …………………………………………………………………………………………… 194
Figure 4.40 Example Plane Drawing of the Drain Gate ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 194
Figure 4.41 Example Profile Drawing of the Drain Gate …………………………………………………………………………………………… 195
Figure 4.42 Example Front View Drawing of the Drain Gate …………………………………………………………………………………… 195
Figure 4.43 Example Cross-sectional Drawing of the Drain Gate ………………………………………………………………………………… 195
Figure 4.44 Plane and Profile Schematic Drawings of the Sand Basin …………………………………………………………………………… 197
Figure 4.45 Image of Water Discharge from the Drain Gate ……………………………………………………………………………………… 201
Figure 4.46 Process for Designing the Reservoir, Siphon and other Facilities ………………………………………………………………… 202
Figure 4.47 Example Cross-sectional Drawing of the Reservoir …………………………………………………………………………………… 204
Figure 4.48 Example Plain and Cross-sectional Drawings of the Siphon ……………………………………………………………………… 204
Figure 4.49 Reservoir Installation at the Foot of the Mountain (Marwarid WeirⅠ) ………………………………………………………… 206
Figure 4.50 Siphon Installation in the Flood Area …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 206
Figure 4.51 Basic Structure of the Reservoir by Earth Material …………………………………………………………………………………… 207
Figure 4.52 Structure and Water Level of the Siphon ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 209
Figure 4.53 Flood Crossing Bridge Installation in the Flood Crossing Point …………………………………………………………………… 210
Figure 4.54 Photo and Drawing of the Flood Crossing Bridge …………………………………………………………………………………… 210
Figure 4.55 Process for Designing the Main Drainage Canal ……………………………………………………………………………………… 212
Figure 4.56 Cross-sectional Drawing of U-shaped Main Drainage Canal ……………………………………………………………………… 213
Figure 4.57 Example Connection between the New Drainage Block and Existing Drainage Network (Marwarid Weir) ………… 214
Figure 4.58 Stone Masonry for a Small Canal Wall …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 216
Figure 5.1 Example of the Layout of Irrigation Facilities, Dikes, and Stone Spur Dikes …………………………………………………… 218
Figure 5.2 Design Process for Flood Control Facilities …………………………………………………………………………………………… 219
Figure 5.3 Design Process for Dikes …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 220
Figure 5.4 Standard Cross Section of the Kunar River Dike / Revetment in the Existing PMS Irrigation Project (Example of a Dike
in the Behsud District) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 222
Figure 5.5 Plane Alignment Design of Dikes ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 223

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 Figure 5.6 Function of Open Levee ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 224
Figure 5.7 Design Process for Dike Profile ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 224
Figure 5.8 Visualization of Dike Height Determined by Hydraulic Calculation …………………………………………………………… 225
Figure 5.9 Example of Dike Longitudinal Profile …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 226
Figure 5.10 Strengthening Dikes by Planting Trees …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 228
Figure 5.11 Flow Velocity Correction in Curved Waterways (Rivers) …………………………………………………………………………… 230
Figure 5.12 Average Riverbed Elevation and Deepest Riverbed Elevation in an Actual River …………………………………………… 230
Figure 5.13 Design Process for Stone Spur Dikes ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 231
Figure 5.14 Installation Direction of Spur Dikes and Their Scouring and Sedimentation Characteristics……………………………… 234
Figure 5.15 L-Shaped Spur Dikes ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 235
Figure 5.16 Example of a Stone Spur Dike Plane View ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 237
Figure 5.17 Example of a Stone Spur Dike Cross Section …………………………………………………………………………………………… 237
Figure 5.18 Example of a Stone Spur Dike Front View ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 237
Figure 5.19 Relation Between Spur Dike Direction, Unit Width Discharge, and Scouring Depth ……………………………………… 238
Figure 5.20 Resupply of Boulders by Continuous Observation and Application of Gabions ……………………………………………… 239
Figure 6.1 Example of Establishing a Future Project Implementation System (when a government agency is the project
implementation entities/persons) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 243
Figure 6.2 Standard Executing System in PMS Method Irrigation Project …………………………………………………………………… 244
Figure 6.3 Example of Work Execution Process for PMS Method Irrigation Project ……………………………………………………… 246
Figure 6.4 The Whole Site Image of Intake Weir and Intake Gate (Kama Weir Ⅱ Project) ……………………………………………… 253
Figure 6.5 Construction Procedures of Intake Weir and Intake Gate …………………………………………………………………………… 254
Figure 6.6 Construction Process Location for Boulder Oblique Weir ………………………………………………………………………… 255
Figure 6.7 Construction Process Location for Intake Gate ……………………………………………………………………………………… 259
Figure 6.8 Construction Process Location for Sand Flushing Ditch …………………………………………………………………………… 262
Figure 6.9 Construction Process Location for Reservoir …………………………………………………………………………………………… 265
Figure 6.10 Construction Process Location for Main Irrigation Canal ………………………………………………………………………… 267
Figure 6.11 Design Example of Siphon ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 273
Figure 6.12 Construction Process Location for Sand Basin ………………………………………………………………………………………… 275
Figure 6.13 Design Example of U-shaped Main Drainage Canal ………………………………………………………………………………… 277
Figure 6.14 Construction Example of Dike/Stone Spur Dike …………………………………………………………………………………… 278
Figure 7.1 Water Governance in Basin or Region …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 287
Figure 7.2 Formation of WUA or IA …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 288
Figure 7.3 Image of Water Surface during Water Intake at the Double Flush Board Type of Intake Gate (Complete Overflow) ………… 293
Figure 7.4 Relationship between Overflow Depth at the First Row of Flush Board and the Water Intake Amount in the Double
Flush Board Type of Intake Gate …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 293
Figure 7.5 Image of Water Surface Shape at the Time of Water Intake at Double Flush Board Type of Intake Gate (Submerged
Overflow) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 294
Figure 7.6 Example of Water Supply Test in MarwaridⅡ ………………………………………………………………………………………… 295
Figure 7.7 Sedimentation at Miran Weir ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 306
Figure 8.1 Irrigation Water Distribution Method …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 311
Figure 8.2 Flood Irrigation Construction Procedure (Outline) ………………………………………………………………………………… 314
Figure 8.3 Ridge Slope, Maximum Flow Rate and Maximum Length Corresponding to Field Texture and Net Irrigation Depth 315
Figure 8.4 Net Irrigation Depth…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 316
Figure 8.5 Border Irrigation………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 317
Figure 8.6 New Effective Irrigation on Ridges Method in the existing PMS Irrigation Project ………………………………………… 318
Figure 8.7 Raised Bed Cultivation ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 325
Figure 8.8 Preparation of Kneading Bed ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 327
Figure 8.9 Soil Profile Survey by Soil Auger …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 329

Photos
Photo 1.1 Irrigation Facilities Using Locally Procured Natural Materials (Mainly Stone Materials) ……………………………………… 55
Photo 1.2 Kama Weir in Afghanistan and Yamada Weir in Japan ………………………………………………………………………………… 55

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 Photo 1.3 Outcome of Irrigation Project ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 57
Photo 1.4 Wicker Works ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 58
Photo 1.5 Soil Cement ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 60
Photo 2.1 Images of Cobblestones and Boulders ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 71
Photo 2.2 A Quarry Site (Gamberi Desert Islam Dara Valley) ……………………………………………………………………………………… 72
Photo 2.3 Use of Gabions …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 72
Photo 2.4 Reduced use of Boulders with Cobblestones (Kama Weir) …………………………………………………………………………… 73
Photo 2.5 Riverbed materials often seen after a torrent has passed ………………………………………………………………………………… 73
Photo 2.6 A case where a sandbar from which boulders were collected was washed away by a flood (Marwarid Ⅰ Weir) ………… 73
Photo 2.7 Examples of Demonstration Farm …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 89
Photo 3.1 Satellite Photo of Narrow River …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 109
Photo 3.2 Retarding Place of River ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 110
Photo 3.3 Simple Water Intake Creating Flood Water Path ……………………………………………………………………………………… 110
Photo 3.4 Area Expected to be Flooded Under the Existing Flood Control Facilities……………………………………………………… 111
Photo 3.5 Flood Situation ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 116
Photo 3.6 Relationship between Water Level During Floods and Height of Top of Intake Gate ……………………………………… 118
Photo 3.7 River Survey by Total Station ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 130
Photo 3.8 Contemporary Hydrological Measurement …………………………………………………………………………………………… 134
Photo 4.1 Regulating Pond from the Upstream Side (1) …………………………………………………………………………………………… 142
Photo 4.2 Regulating Pond from the Upstream Side (2) …………………………………………………………………………………………… 143
Photo 4.3 Aerial Views of the Oblique Weir ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 159
Photo 4.4 Foot Protection Works in the Sand Bar (Kama Weir I) ……………………………………………………………………………… 164
Photo 4.5 Gabion Grid Connection in the Foot Protection Works (Kama Weir II) ……………………………………………………… 164
Photo 4.6 Intake Gate under the Construction: constructing a reinforced concrete foundation ……………………………………… 174
Photo 4.7 Sand Flushing leveraging the Double Flush Boards …………………………………………………………………………………… 179
Photo 4.8 Example Gabion Works and Wicker Works in the Main Irrigation Canal ……………………………………………………… 187
Photo 4.9 Gabion Production …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 188
Photo 4.10 Galvanized Annealing Wires ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 188
Photo 4.11 Planting Wickers in Plots …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 188
Photo 4.12 Wicker Works Three Months after Planting …………………………………………………………………………………………… 188
Photo 4.13 Finishing Work by Soil Cement Lining ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 189
Photo 4.14 Canal Corner Filled by Soil Cement ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 189
Photo 4.15 Collapse of Canal Bed due to Improper Foundation Condition …………………………………………………………………… 189
Photo 4.16 Vegetation Works Frequently Applied …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 191
Photo 4.17 Concrete Sand Drain Canal at the Bottom of the Sand Basin and Drain Gate ………………………………………………… 199
Photo 4.18 Drain Gate Outlet of the Sand Basin and Drain Gate Outflow from the Sand Basin ………………………………………… 200
Photo 4.19 The Siphon (under construction) and Flood Crossing Bridge Crossing the Flood Area …………………………………… 206
Photo 4.20 Connection Point of the Slab of the Flood Crossing Bridge to the Ground …………………………………………………… 211
Photo 4.21 Laying the Precast Concrete U-shaped Canal ………………………………………………………………………………………… 215
Photo 4.22 Upper Earth Retaining Wall of the Main Drainage Canal ………………………………………………………………………… 215
Photo 4.23 Example Stone Masonry for a Small Canal Wall ……………………………………………………………………………………… 216
Photo 5.1 Stone Pitching on a Continuous Dike, Small Berm, and the Upper Slope of the Small Berm ……………………………… 227
Photo 5.2 Foot Protection Works applying Combined Gabions ……………………………………………………………………………… 228
Photo 5.3 Dike Crown utilized as Access Road ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 229
Photo 6.1 Example of a dike using as temporary road ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 252
Photo 6.2 Example of a temporary bridge……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 252
Photo 6.3 Coffer Dike (Cutoff Wall) …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 252
Photo 6.4 Temporary Irrigation waterway …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 252
Photo 6.5 Locating the Oblique Weir with Boulders ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 255
Photo 6.6 Stones with Height Mark for Piling up Boulders ……………………………………………………………………………………… 256
Photo 6.7 Laying out Filling Stones ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 256
Photo 6.8 Construction of Temporary Road on the Top of Weir ……………………………………………………………………………… 256
Photo 6.9 Pile-up Works of Boulders toward the River Center …………………………………………………………………………………… 257

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 Photo 6.10 The State of Water Flow in Spillway ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 257
Photo 6.11 Gabion Works and Fascine Revetment (Wicker) Works for Sand Bar Protection …………………………………………… 257
Photo 6.12 Fixing of Wickers ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 258
Photo 6.13 Completed Intake Weir ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 258
Photo 6.14 Construction of Spread Foundation 0.5 m or more Thickness……………………………………………………………………… 259
Photo 6.15 Form Works by Bricks ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 260
Photo 6.16 Gate Pier Reinforcement and Dry Construction Method by Temporary Coffer Dike Applied to Intake Gate
Construction …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 260
Photo 6.17 Structural Reinforcement of Gate Piers and Installation of Gate Ditch ………………………………………………………… 260
Photo 6.18 Reinforcement of Concrete Revetment…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 261
Photo 6.19 Construction of Intake Gate, Sand Flushing Ditch and Sedimentation Pool…………………………………………………… 261
Photo 6.20 Construction of Spread Foundation 0.5 m or more Thickness……………………………………………………………………… 262
Photo 6.21 Reinforcement of the Bottom Slab and Gate Piers …………………………………………………………………………………… 263
Photo 6.22 Reinforcement of Bottom Slab and Gate Piers in Detail …………………………………………………………………………… 263
Photo 6.23 Flush Board Removing Test ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 263
Photo 6.24 Apron and Downstream Bed Protection of the Sand Flushing Ditch …………………………………………………………… 264
Photo 6.25 Formulation of Apron and Downstream Bed Protection of the Sand Flushing Ditch ……………………………………… 264
Photo 6.26 Heavy Machines, Dump Trucks and Workers in the Dike Embankment ……………………………………………………… 265
Photo 6.27 A Wetland is Formed below the Dike Embankment Slope by Seepage Water (Lower Left) ………………………………… 266
Photo6.28 Blanket Works …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 266
Photo 6.29 Strengthening back slope of the Reservoir Embankment by Eucalyptus ………………………………………………………… 266
Photo 6.30 Under Construction of Soil Cement Lining and Other Canal Bed Works …………………………………………………… 268
Photo 6.31 Soil Cement Lining Works on the Canal Bed …………………………………………………………………………………………… 268
Photo 6.32 Creating and Laying Gabions (Lower Layer) …………………………………………………………………………………………… 268
Photo 6.33 Filling Soil Cement in the Canal Bed Corner of Main Irrigation Canal ………………………………………………………… 269
Photo 6.34 Creating and Laying Gabions (Upper Layer) …………………………………………………………………………………………… 269
Photo 6.35 Piling up the Canal Revetment by Gabion Works……………………………………………………………………………………… 269
Photo 6.36 Occurrence of Piping on the Main Irrigation Canal Bed …………………………………………………………………………… 270
Photo 6.37 Making Ridges prior to Wicker Works …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 270
Photo 6.38 Planting along the Canal …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 270
Photo 6.39 Wicker Works in Three to Four Months after Planting ……………………………………………………………………………… 271
Photo 6.40 Planting on the Back Slope of Canal Embankment ………………………………………………………………………………… 271
Photo 6.41 Irrigation Canal and Stone Spur Dike on the revetment …………………………………………………………………………… 271
Photo 6.42 The Status before Constructing the Siphon……………………………………………………………………………………………… 273
Photo 6.43 Construction of a Siphon …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 274
Photo 6.44 Construction of the Siphon Shaft Foundation ………………………………………………………………………………………… 274
Photo 6.45 Safety Measures for the Siphon ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 274
Photo 6.46 Height Difference at the Drain Gate ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 275
Photo 6.47 Construction of the Sand Basin Floor …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 276
Photo 6.48 Concrete Lining Works in the Sand Drain Channel ………………………………………………………………………………… 276
Photo 6.49 The Sand Basin Configuration ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 276
Photo 6.50 Installation of a U-shaped Canal in the Drainage Canal ……………………………………………………………………………… 277
Photo 6.51 Earth Retaining on the Upper Part of the Main Drainage Canal ………………………………………………………………… 278
Photo 6.52 Unwinding and Rolling Compaction of the Embankment Materials …………………………………………………………… 279
Photo 6.53 Riprap Works on the Riverside Dike Slope ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 279
Photo 6.54 Dike Protection by Vegetation Works …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 279
Photo 6.55 Construction of the Stone Spur Dike Foundation …………………………………………………………………………………… 280
Photo 6.56 Inputting Stone Materials to Construct the Stone Spur Dike ……………………………………………………………………… 280
Photo 6.57 Construction of a Group of the Stone Spur Dikes …………………………………………………………………………………… 280
Photo 6.58 River Flow at Installation Section of Stone Spur Dikes at the Curved Part Where Erosion is Most Intense …………… 281
Photo 7.1 Double Flush Board Type of Intake Gate. Overflow Water Falls Stepwise ……………………………………………………… 293
Photo 7.2 Operation of Intake Gate, Sand Flushing Ditch, Drainage Gate, Transmission Gate and Distribution Gate ………… 297
Photo 7.3 Examples of Daily Maintenance Activities ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 301

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 Photo 7.4 Examples of Regular Simple Repair ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 302
Photo 7.5 Stockpile of Stone ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 302
Photo 7.6 Scouring of Sandbar due to Floods ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 303
Photo 7.7 Restoration of Sandbar by Gabion Works ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 303
Photo 7.8 Ingenuity to Reduce the Warter Force from the Top of the Weir…………………………………………………………………… 303
Photo 7.9 Repair Work of Riverbed Scouring due to Torrents at the Ends of Apron and Sand Flushing Ditch …………………… 303
Photo 7.10 Riverbank Erosion Due to Flood Flow …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 304
Photo 7.11 Reinforcement of Riverbanks and Correction of Streamway by Installing Spur Dikes ……………………………………… 304
Photo 7.12 River Channel Excavation and Sediment Dredging at Miran Weir ……………………………………………………………… 306
Photo 7.13 Destruction of Main Irrigation Canal Due to a Flush Flood and a Debris Flow ……………………………………………… 307
Photo 7.14 Damage Caused by a Flush Flood and a Debris Flow ………………………………………………………………………………… 307
Photo 7.15 Extention Work of the Above Flood Passing Bridge and After Completion …………………………………………………… 307
Photo 8.1 Damage Caused by Water Pressure at the Water Outlet ……………………………………………………………………………… 319
Photo 8.2 Measures to Prevent Damage from Water Pressure at the Water Outlet (Placing of Stones or Bolder at Water Outlet) 319
Photo 8.3 Uneven Planting Density in PMS Project Area ………………………………………………………………………………………… 321
Photo 8.4 Seeder and Hand Seeder ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 322
Photo 8.5 Field Sown by Seeder ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 323
Photo 8.6 Alley Cropping in PMS Field ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 323
Photo 8.7 Case of Alley Cropping ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 324
Photo 8.8 Case of Shading Culture ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 324
Photo 8.9 Case of Swamp ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 325
Photo 8.10 Example of Intercropping and Mixed Cropping with Leguminous Crop ……………………………………………………… 332

Tables
Table 1.1 Comparison Between the PMS Method Irrigation System and the Conventional Irrigation System ……………………… 56
Table 2.1 Classification of Stones ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 71
Table 2.2 Discussions, Agreements and Allocation of Roles between Project Implementation Entities/Persons and Local
Communities ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 78
Table 2.3 Specifications and Construction Costs of Existing PMS Irrigation Projects ……………………………………………………… 83
Table 3.1 River Conditions to be Comprehended and How to Grasp Them…………………………………………………………………… 93
Table 3.2 River Channel Categories and Characteristics …………………………………………………………………………………………… 97
Table 3.3 Methods and Utilization of Interviews Survey with Residents …………………………………………………………………… 105
Table 3.4 Example of Interview Survey Form with Residents …………………………………………………………………………………… 106
Table 3.5 Viewpoints for Observing and Measuring River Channel Conditions ………………………………………………………… 107
Table 3.6 Viewpoints and Methods for Observing and Measuring River Flow Conditions (Water Level, Flow Velocity, Discharge,
etc.) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 114
Table 3.7 General Values of Roughness Coefficient ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 117
Table 3.8 Irrigation Facility applied Sediment Transport Volume and Sediment Particles Size and Design Method ……………… 136
Table 4.1 Comparison of the Intake Weir Types …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 149
Table 4.2 Comparison between the Boulder Oblique Weir and Conventional Intake Facilities ……………………………………… 150
Table 4.3 Types of the Intake Gate ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 169
Table 4.4 General Relations between the Height and Thickness of the Gate Pier when the Span Width is 1.5m ………………… 173
Table 4.5 Types of Sand Flushing Ditch ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 176
Table 4.6 Types of the Main Irrigation Canal ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 181
Table 4.7 Specifications of Gabion applied in the PMS Method Irrigation Project ……………………………………………………… 187
Table 4.8 List of Vegetation Works Frequently Applied ………………………………………………………………………………………… 191
Table 4.9 Sand Basin (Regulating Pond) Types ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 193
Table 4.10 Sand Sinking Speed …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 196
Table 4.11 Reservoir Types ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 203
Table 4.12 Countermeasure for Flush Flood and Debris Flow from Slope …………………………………………………………………… 205
Table 5.1 Comparison of Dike Revetment Types ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 221
Table 5.2 Design Flood Discharge, Freeboard and Dike Crown Width ……………………………………………………………………… 226

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 Table 5.3 Structural Types of Spur Dike ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 232
Table 5.4 Structural Types of Spur Dike ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 232
Table 5.5 Characteristics of Transparent and Nontransparent Spur Dikes …………………………………………………………………… 233
Table 5.6 Classification of Spur Dikes by Direction of Installation …………………………………………………………………………… 234
Table 5.7 Design Policy and Specifications for Stone Spur Dikes ……………………………………………………………………………… 236
Table 6.1 The Number of Personnel Allocated and Construction Costs in Existing PMS Irrigation Projects ……………………… 245
Table 7.1 Community Organizations and Roles to Operate and Maintain PMS Irrigation Facilities ………………………………… 285
Table 7.2 Official Agencies Involved in Watershed or Local Water Governance …………………………………………………………… 286
Table 7.3 Roles and Responsibilities of Organizations in the Operation and Maintenance of Irrigation Facilities ……………… 290
Table 7.4 Organizing the Results of Overflow Depth and Water Intake Amount ………………………………………………………… 295
Table 8.1 Characteristics of Irrigation Method in a Plot ………………………………………………………………………………………… 312
Table 8.2 Crop rotation and Characteristics of Each Group …………………………………………………………………………………… 320
Table 8.3 Example of companion crop ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 321
Table 8.4 Soil and Physical Property by Texture …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 328
Table 8.5 How to Estimate Texture by Feel ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 329
Table 8.6 Primary Cause and Countermeasure of High and Low of pH and EC in Soil ………………………………………………… 330
Table 8.7 Record Form of pH and EC ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 330

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 Abbreviations

ADB : Asian Development Bank

ADCP : Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler
AGCHO : Afghan Geodesy and Cartography Head Office
AGS : Afghanistan Geological Survey
AMD : Afghanistan Meteorological Department
CAD : Computer-Aided Design
CDC : Community Development Council
DAIL : District Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock Offices
DDA : District Development Council
DGEH : Department of Geo-Engineering and Hydrogeology
EC : Electric Conductivity
EC : European Commission
FAO : Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
GPS : Global Positioning System
HYMEP : Project for Capacity Enhancement on Hydro-Meteorological Information Management
IA : Irrigation Associations
IRDP : Irrigation Restoration and Development Project
IRRI : International Rice Research Institute
JICA : Japan International Cooperation Agency
MAIL : Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock
MRRD : Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development
NGO : Non-Governmental Organizations
NSP : National Solidarity Program
NWARA : National Water Affairs Regulation Authority
OJT : On-the-Job Training
PDCA : Plan, Do, Check, Action
pH : Power of Hydrogen
PIM : Participatory Irrigation Management
PMS : Peace ( Japan) Medical Services
PRRDD : Provincial Regional Rehabilitation and Development
RBA : River Basin Agency
RBC : River Basin Council
SRBC : Sub River Basin Council
USGS : United States Geological Survey
WB : World Bank
WUA : Water Users Associations

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 Measurement Units

Length Time
mm millimeter (s) s, sec second (s)
cm centimeter (s) min minute (s)
m meter (s) h, her hour (s)
km kilometer (s) d, day day (s)
y, yr year (s)
Area Volume
mm² square millimeter (s) cm³ cubic centimeter (s)
cm² square centimeter (s) m³ cubic meter (s)
m² square meter (s) l, ltr liter (s)
km² square kilometer (s) MCM million cubic meter (s)
ha hectare (s)
jerib 1jerib =0.2ha
Weight Speed/Velocity
mg milligram
g, gr gram (s) cm/s centimeter per second
kg kilogram (s) m/s meter per second
ton ton (s) km/h kilometer per hour

Currency Equivalents
(Exchange Rate)
US$1.00 = AFN 77.02 (JICA rate as of February 2021)
US$1.00 = JPY 103.90 (JICA rate as of February 2021)
AFN 1= JPY 1.35 (JICA rate as of February 2021)
(Land Area)
１jerib=0.2ha
１jerib = 2,000m2
１ha=10,000m2

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 CHAPTER

1
WHAT ARE THE “PMS METHOD IRRIGATION
PROJECT GUIDELINES”?
1.1 Background

Rural communities in Afghanistan are suffering from the scarcity of water, which in turn results in hunger. They
are exhausted, due to the recurring wars and natural disasters which continued for over 40 years. Farmlands have
become dry, and people in the local communities are unable to resume their traditional lives. Furthermore, in
irrigated agriculture, due to the lengthening of drought trends, changes in snowmelt patterns, frequent flood
damages as the result of climate changes in the recent years, and the inadequate operation and maintenance
of irrigation facilities, the traditional watering methods have become ineffective. This was particularly evident
during the worst drought4) in about 40 years which peaked in the year 2000, causing tremendous damages
all over Afghanistan. Approximately 12 million people, or about half of the population, were affected by the
drought and approximately 5 million people suffered from starvation. This drought tendency has continued to
present days.
In response to the situation, the Peace ( Japan) Medical Services (hereinafter referred to as the PMS ), an
international non - government organization (NGO), launched the Green Ground Project in 2002 in
Afghanistan, and started construction of irrigation canals in 2003. By 2020, the irrigation of 16,500 ha in
Behsud, Sheiwa, and Kama districts in the Nangarhar province was underway, and the PMS planned to support
the livelihood of 650,000 people, aiming to achieve effective irrigation by supporting the development of
irrigation facilities in all three districts. The first project, the Marwarid Irrigation Project, started in 2003 and
was completed in 2010, with the irrigation of 3,000 hectares of farmland including section of the Gamberi
Desert, to support the livelihood of farming communities. It is also estimated that some 150,000 refugees
have returned to the area. From 2010 to 2012, an irrigation facility was constructed on the Kabul River to
supply irrigation water to 60 - 70% of the cultivated land around the Kabul River in the Behsud district of the
Nangarhar province. In the watershed of the Kunar River, which has more rapid and frequent floods compared
to Kabul River, irrigation facilities were constructed in the Kama district during 2008 - 2012, Kashkot in
the Sheiwa district during 2012-2014, and Miran in the Behsud district during 2014 - 2016 period. Stable
agriculture has been achieved by supplying sufficient irrigation water to the lower Kunar River and the Behsud
district along the left bank of Kabul River. Based on their experience with implementing irrigation projects
(including trial experimental plots for about 20 years), PMS has succeeded in developing a model of the PMS
Method Irrigation Project , which include integrated irrigation and flood control facilities starting with intake
weirs and gates, through main irrigation canals, regulating ponds, up to drainage canals.
These PMS activities and irrigation projects have received peace awards, such as the Ramon Magsaysay Award
(Peace and International Understanding) in 2003 and the Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement
Award from the Japan Society of Civil Engineers in 2018. Dr. Tetsu Nakamura, who had led the existing PMS
irrigation project, was awarded Honorary Citizenship of Afghanistan, the Ghazi Mir Masjedi Khan High
State Medal, and he also received an Islam Commendation from the Ulama (religious leader) of the Nangarhar
province in Afghanistan.
Data Collection Survey on Agriculture and Rural Development in Afghanistan, conducted by JICA from
2017 5), and a previous study 6) list the following results of evaluation of the technology and achievements of the
existing PMS irrigation project:
1) Clarification of technical relevance of irrigation facilities;
2) Positive impact on local socio-economy by sufficient supply of irrigation water; and
3) Positive economic and social impact by the irrigation project process and improvement of awareness and

1.1 Background 43

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 capacity for operation and maintenance, in cooperation with the local communities.
Furthermore, the existing PMS irrigation project has achieved comprehensive results, such as the repatriation
of refugees and former soldiers, their incorporation into village societies and contribution to peace-building by
improving their livelihood.
During 2016, the Afghan government prepared the National Comprehensive Agriculture Development
Priority Program 2016 - 2020, aiming to take up food production increase as an important measure towards
achieving food security. The plan aims to reach a total irrigation area of 3.1 million hectares of pre-war level
by 2025 through rehabilitation of irrigated areas and development of new areas. The breakdown is 900,000
hectares of rehabilitation of irrigated lands and 120,000 hectares of new irrigated lands.
Finally, the existing PMS irrigation project, which has mainly been deployed in the Kunar river basin, is
worth disseminating throughout the country as an irrigation project suitable for the Afghan climate and local
communities, that supports the reconstruction of the Country.
Therefore, based on experience and lessons learned from the existing PMS irrigation project, and reflecting
the philosophy and will of Dr. Tetsu Nakamura, the PMS Method Irrigation Project Guidelines (hereinafter
referred to as the Guidelines ) have been created, to help disseminate the PMS method irrigation project all
over Afghanistan.

1.2 Purpose of the Guidelines

The PMS Method Irrigation Project Guidelines mainly target engineers, planners and decision-makers
involved in irrigation projects. It aims to contribute to sustainable development of irrigated agriculture for
Afghanistan s communities by presenting the philosophy of Dr. Tetsu Nakamura, process of dialogue with
the beneficiaries, and technical information needed for planning, design, construction, maintenance, and
irrigated agricultural technology of sustainable irrigation projects, suitable for Afghan conditions and Afghan
communities.
In order to achieve this purpose, the Guidelines state that the basic policy is to respect the independent
development of local communities, their ownership of the project and to enable them to operate and maintain
sustainable irrigation facilities for a period of 100 years, and the optimal form and the most suitable irrigation
technology for Afghan conditions. With the Guidelines, it is hoped that the local and central government
officials and technical staff, as well as people in the local communities, decision-makers and those involved
in aid, will rekindle with the initiative, ingenuity and commitment to go through for the recovery and
rehabilitation of Afghanistan, which was Dr. Tetsu Nakamura key objective.

1.3 Concept and Contents of the Guidelines

As shown in Figure 1.1, the concept of the PMS Method Irrigation Project Guidelines is to place importance
on the need of local communities, and to promote sustainable irrigation projects suitable for Afghanistan, by
understanding and practicing the PMS method irrigation project properly, by developing the method through
its actual application and continuous innovation, and by disseminating the PMS method irrigation project
across the entire country of Afghanistan.

44 CHAPTER 1 WHAT ARE THE “PMS METHOD IRRIGATION PROJECT GUIDELINES”?

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 Promotion of sustainable irrigation projects suitable for Afghanistan which enable the
operation and maintenance of the local community

Dissemination and utilization of the PMS method irrigation project

in the whole country of Afghanistan

▶Focus on the process of discussion with residents

▶Enable for residents to operate and maintain the
Using the PMS method Apply, devise and irrigation facilities by devising materials and
irrigation project guidelines develop the PMS construction methods for irrigation facilities that are
method irrigation suitable for the natural and social conditions of the area.
project
Practice the PMS method ▶Use universal ideas and technologies that can be used anywhere
irrigation project
▶Follow and strictly keep to the restrictions

▶Study the advantages of the PMS method irrigation project from its
characteristics and differences from other projects
Understand
the PMS method
▶Learn from the knowledge, experience, and lessons that PMS has gained
irrigation project through trial and error
▶Study the problems faced by PMS and how PMS solved them

Figure 1.1 Concept of the Guidelines2)

The Guidelines summarize the experience, knowledge and lessons learned from the existing PMS irrigation
project in the Lower Kunar river basin of the Nangarhar province in eastern Afghanistan. The existing PMS
irrigation project is based on local technology, adapted to the characteristics of the Kunar River and its
basin. However, the process of collaboration with the stakeholders, the ideas and techniques in planning /
designing and construction / maintenance of irrigation facilities can be applied universally in Afghanistan. The
application of the PMS method to other areas where natural conditions and river conditions are different is also
possible. The Guidelines show both the universal specifications of the PMS method irrigation system structures
which are not affected by natural and river conditions, as well as the specifications based on the local rivers and
natural characteristics. It also lists the points to take note of, including some restrictions to strictly keep to. In
other words, the Guidelines summarize the contents necessary for the local communities to follow, such as:
• to obtain the knowledge to properly carry out the PMS method irrigation projects in various areas,
• to actually discuss the method with the residents,
• to plan and design irrigation and flood control facilities, and
• to construct, manage and maintain the facilities by themselves.
The Guidelines mainly describe the distinctive technology of the PMS method irrigation project which plans,
constructs and maintains with participation of the local communities. For the technical contents required for
general planning, design, construction, maintenance of irrigation projects and public involvement, refer to the
existing policies / guidelines and manuals. The Guidelines provide a list of reference documents, and briefly
introduce some of them.
Furthermore, through continuous observation, feedback, and analysis in the areas to which the PMS method
irrigation project is applied, it is hoped that the knowledge and experience gained in each area will be utilized to
update the method to more appropriate ones for continuous improved application.

1-3
1.2 Purpose of the Guidelines - 1.3 Concept and Contents of the Guidelines 45

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 1.4 Structure of the Guidelines

As shown in Figure 1.2, the Guidelines consist of eight Chapters corresponding to: the overview of the
Guidelines, the basic concept building based on discussions with the residents, the river conditions survey,
planning and design of irrigation and flood control facilities, constructing and managing the PMS method
irrigation project, and operation and maintenance of the project facilities. Finally, the improvement of irrigated
agricultural technology under the PMS method irrigation project is described in the last Chapter.

Chapter 1. Background, Purpose, Concept, Contents and Composition of the PMS

Method Irrigation Project Guidelines

Chapter 2. Basic Concept of Irrigation Projects and Collaboration

Concept with Beneficiary Communities
Chapter 3. Understanding River Conditions

Chapter 4. Layout Plan and Design of Irrigation Facilities

Plan / Design / Chapter 5. Layout Plan and Design of Flood Control Facilities
Construction Chapter 6. Construction and Construction Supervision of the
PMS Method Irrigation Project

Chapter 7. Operation and Maintenance of the PMS Method

Operation and Irrigation Facilities by Residents
Maintenance Chapter 8. Improvement of Irrigated Agricultural Technology in
the PMS Method Irrigation Project
Figure 1.2 Structure of the PMS Method Irrigation Project Guidelines２)

Chapter 1 presents the background, purpose, concept, composition and targets for better understanding of the
PMS Method Irrigation Project Guidelines . Then, through presenting the overall picture of the PMS method
irrigation project and applying basic civil engineering techniques, the characteristics of the PMS method
irrigation project are elaborated, and the expected results of the irrigation project are presented. In addition,
the contents of each chapter of the Guidelines are briefly introduced, along with the goals, activities to be
implemented and contents to be decided at each stage of the PMS method irrigation project.

Chapter 2 explains the philosophy and the policy approach for developing the basic concept of the PMS
method irrigation project and for building a consensus, while working with the communities in the beneficiary
and surrounding areas, with respect to their governance system. This Chapter shows how the project s target
area and the area under control of the beneficiaries (irrigation land area) are determined, the approximate
amount of irrigation water is calculated, and the main irrigation canal route as well as the intake site, as along
with the weir location are roughly determined. The possible sources of construction materials such as stones
and embankment materials are also studied and compared, and the approximate project cost and project
development period are also estimated. These surveys involve consultations, interviews and exchanges of
opinions with the local residents and government engineers, based on the existing data and the results of river
surveys described in Chapter 3.

Chapter 3 describes the survey methods for rivers and river basins, which are necessary for planning and design
of the irrigation and flood control facilities of a PMS method irrigation project. This Chapter consists of the
following sections:
• Survey Methods Using Existing Information

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 •How to recognize river flow and runoff.
•How to recognize the transition of river channel at the planned sites of river structures.
• Probability assessment of river flow (flood discharge, drought discharge, etc.).

• How to assess the impact of river structure construction on future flow conditions and channels.

• How to assess the impact of irrigation water intake on downstream water use.

• Survey Methods Based on Interviews with Local Residents

• How to survey the situation of river, situation at the time of flood or drought, existing structures in the

vicinity, situation of water intake, etc., by interviews with local residents.

• River Observation / Measurement Methods
• Methods to identify the location of flood control facilities such as dikes*, spur dikes, and revetment

works, for deciding on the location of the places where flooding and severe erosion is likely to occur.
• Methods to grasp the flood water level and discharge required for planning and designing flood control

facilities.
• Methods of grasping river flow conditions and discharges and water levels during floods and droughts,

which are necessary for location selection, planning and designing of intake weirs and intake gates.
• Survey methods of riverbed material and grasping river sediment load, which is necessary for planning

and designing of sand flushing ditch of intake weir, steep gradient of the main irrigation canal and sand
basins (sediment trap).
• River Survey Methods
• Methods of measuring the longitudinal profile and cross sections of rivers, required to calculate the

discharges, water levels, flow velocities, etc., of rivers.

• Setting Basic Information for Irrigation Facility Plan and Design (Water Levels, Discharges, Sediment
Particles Size and Sediment Transport Volume)
• How to set the design drought discharge / drought water level, design flood discharge / flood water level,

design sediment transport volume and sediment particles size, required for designing irrigation facility.

Chapter 4 presents the methods of irrigation facilities layout planning, design specifications and detailed
design of structures. The outline process of the layout plan is as follows:
• The location of the intake is set according to the conditions of the alternative compared sites, selected as
in Chapter 2, along with the route of the steep gradient main irrigation canal are set in consideration of
topographical conditions, workability, and the size of the controlled land area.
• The sand basins and regulating ponds are placed at the junction of the existing irrigation canals and the new
main irrigation canals. The layout of drainage canals for flushing sediment and evacuation of excess water
discharges are located.
• The layout route of the main irrigation canal is arranged so as to connect the sand basin to the regulating
pond at the starting point of the existing irrigation canal.
• The layout route of the drainage canals for prevention of waterlogging is decided in respect of layout of
beneficiary farmland and topographical elevations of control area.
• The reservoir, the siphon and the flood passing bridge are installed at the location where flash flood flows
and debris flow cross the irrigation canal.
Next, the main specifications of each irrigation facility are planned and designed as follows:
• The layout designs of the intake weir, intake gate, and sand flushing ditch are decided in consideration of the
shape of the streamway and the stability of the riverbanks and sandbars.
• The elevations of the top of the intake weir and intake gate opening, and of the intake gate bottom/floor will
ensure stable water intakes during both flood and drought periods.
• The layout designs of steep gradient main irrigation canals as well as main irrigation canals are designed in

* In Afghanistan, the word "levee" is often applied instead of the word "dike", but in these guidelines, it will be unified to the word "dike" hereafter.

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 a way that minimizes land acquisition will be as much as possible. Longitudinal profile and cross-section
design, a standard cross section and profile gradient will all be determined in such a way that they can ensure
required irrigation water flow and design flow velocities with appropriate water level for ensuring irrigation
water amount, as well as preventing sediment deposition.
• For the sand basin (sediment trap), the capacity is set in such a way that can accommodate the suspended
sediment load contained in the water from the intake. After studying the required design drainage volumes,
the design of the longitudinal profile and cross sections of drainage canals will be determined so that the
drainage network can drain the calculated design drainage volume.
• The planar scale of the reservoir is set as the size of the valley surrounded by mountains and the main
irrigation canal.
• For the siphon, the cross section of the crossing culvert is designed in such a way that it can pass required
amount of irrigation water.
• For the flood passing bridge, the width is designed so that the flood discharge can be safely evacuated
downstream.
Finally, this Chapter presents determining of the detailed dimensions for each irrigation facility, structural
specifications of main civil works, foundation works and all appurtenant and ancillary facilities.

Chapter 5 presents the methods of layout planning, design specification and detailed structural design of flood
control facilities. The layout planning is structured as follows:
• The layout plan of the flood protection dikes is determined in consideration of the ground elevation. Where
the ground elevation is lower than the design high water level of the river, flood dikes are planned in order
to contain the flooded area and to protect the fields of the beneficiaries as well as the main irrigation canals
along the river from flooding.
• The layout plan of stone spur dikes is designed for the purpose of stabilizing the streamway and preventing
riverbank scour.
Next, the design specifications are as follows:
• For the layout plan design of flood dikes, the aim is to minimize private land acquisition as much as possible.
The longitudinal profile and cross section are designed in such a way that the freeboard above design flood
water level ensures dike safety and prevents overtopping.
• The layout plan design as well as the length and the installation interval of stone spur dikes are all set in
consideration of the design high (and low) water levels and the width of the river.
Finally, the detailed dimensions of each flood control facility, structural specifications of main civil works,
foundation works and appurtenant and ancillary facilities, are all specified in the design documents.

Chapter 6 describes the construction supervision and construction procedures for irrigation facilities,
including flood control facilities. Construction supervision includes construction implementation
arrangements, procurement of materials and equipment necessary for the construction, securing of labor force
and training of labor personnel, security and safety measures during construction, control of construction
schedule, quality control and cost management of the construction works.
• Construction material procurement section describes the methods of procuring materials such as boulders,
reinforcing bars, cement, aggregate, earth and sand, bricks, and gabion iron mesh wires necessary for facility
construction.
• Construction equipment procurement section describes how to procure heavy construction equipment
such as dump trucks, backhoes, bulldozers, and compaction rollers, all of which are necessary for facility
construction.
• The construction implementation arrangement at the building sites, organizational structure, group
formation, and number of people in the construction implementation are described.
• Security measures and safety management, security measures and safety management training, in

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 collaboration with local self-governing body (Shura / Jirgas) and neighboring community leaders and elders
are also described in this Chapter.
• The construction plan (construction procedures, operation process, project cost tracking ledger) describes
the construction procedure of each irrigation facility, the laborers allocation plan, both during the flood
season and the drought season, and the number of working days, the number of workers, and cost for each
type of work.
• The section on quality management plan describes the procedures for ensuring the quality of earthworks,
concrete works, reinforcement bar arrangement works, and for ensuring the adherence of the finished
product to the original design.
• Training section describes training and education with a view of ensuring the quality of facility construction
and effective maintenance after construction.
Finally, this Chapter includes the construction procedures for irrigation facilities such as intake weir and
irrigation canals, as well as flood control facilities such as dikes and stone spur dikes.

Chapter 7 presents the operation and maintenance of irrigation facilities. The PMS method irrigation project
aims to maintain sustainable irrigation facilities with farmers as the main actors. This Chapter describes the
procedures for confirming and establishing an organizational structure for operation and maintenance, for
formulating and operating regulations of fair and appropriate water distribution and use, and for carrying out
daily, routine and occasional large-scale maintenance works including repairs and restorations.

Chapter 8 presents ways to improve irrigated agricultural technologies for more productive irrigation. It
explores the problems of irrigated agricultural technologies observed in the existing PMS irrigation project and
proposes useful technologies for improvement. The main sections are as follows:
• Establishment of demonstration farm for technical extension
• On-farm water management
• Cultivation technology
• Soil improvement technology

1.5 Target Beneficiaries of the Guidelines

The Guidelines target all those who want to learn about the PMS method irrigation project, but necessary
contents and levels of learning differ depending on objectives of each Guidelines user. Therefore, the
Guidelines were prepared in two different versions corresponding to the assumed users as follows:
• PMS Method Irrigation Project Guidelines for Planners and Engineers
This is the main part of the guidelines. It explains the philosophy and technical contents for appropriately
disseminating the PMS method irrigation project, aiming at appropriate application, on each user s own
judgement, of the PMS method irrigation project at the location where the application is planned.
• PMS Method Irrigation Project Guidelines for Stakeholders and Decision-Makers
This is the summary of the guidelines. It is a compilation of key points of the PMS method irrigation
project for stakeholders and decision-makers. It clearly explains the philosophy and project contents for
disseminating the PMS method irrigation project. In addition, it is written in such a way that stakeholders
can understand the effects and impacts of the PMS method irrigation project.
In addition, the following brochure and video have been created to encourage understanding of the
guidelines:
• Brochure for Easy Understanding of the PMS Method Irrigation Project:
The main target users of this brochure are the decision-makers, donors, local residents and other
stakeholders. The PMS method irrigation project is introduced in such a way as to encourage people to
read the guidelines and implement them. To make it easier for the general public to understand the PMS

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 method, a lot of photographs are used to illustrate and explain the technical points.
• Video Showing the Contents of the PMS Method Irrigation Project Guidelines:
The main target users of this video are planners and designers. The video is an auxiliary teaching material
for better understanding of the guidelines, focusing on what kind of idea should be used to make a plan
described in Chapter 2 of the Guidelines, and on the content that explains the process of making a layout
plan. It does not give detailed technical instructions but simple ones. It explains how the PMS method
irrigation project differs from the methods adopted in past development projects of other donors and what
responsibilities and roles of each person in charge including the residents are involved.
• Key Reference Book, The Afghan Green Ground Project Written by Dr. Tetsu Nakamura:
In the words of Dr. Tetsu Nakamura, the outline of the PMS method irrigation project is described in an
easy-to-understand manner for beginners. This is a book that should be read first when introducing a PMS
method irrigation project. After getting an overview of the PMS method irrigation project in this book,
the PMS method irrigation project guidelines are referred to for a deeper technical understanding, and for
practical application of the PMS method irrigation project.

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 1.6 Overview of the PMS Method Irrigation Project

1.6.1 | Outline of the PMS Method Irrigation Project

A PMS method irrigation project is an irrigation project in which water is directly drawn from rivers and
conducted to farmlands. As shown in Figure 1.3, the PMS method irrigation system is composed of oblique
weir, intake gate, steep gradient main irrigation canal, sand basin (regulating pond), main irrigation canal,
main drainage canal, reservoir, siphon, flood crossing bridge, dike, and stone spur dikes. The PMS method
irrigation project is implemented through the process shown in Figure 1.5, respecting the local communities
and their governance system. The project implementation entities/persons are assumed to be a government
agency, the private sector, etc. The aim is to be able to operate and maintain the irrigation system by involving
local residents, starting from the basic concept stage, encouraging proactive participation by local residents
from planning to design, construction, operation, maintenance, irrigated agricultural technology to ensure
ownership and enhance the capacity of the local communities. In addition, locally available materials are
procured, and facilities are designed for local people to operate and maintain easily.

Intake gate

Steep Gradient
Main Irrigation
Canal
The intake water from
intake gate is conveyed Road
to the sand basin. Rock
Mainstream From the intake gate
to the main irrigation canal
Sand Basin/
Regulating Pond
The sediment that has
flowed in together with Oblique Weir and Intake Gate
the intake water is s tored The oblique weir raises the river water to secure the intake
and discharged. water level. The intake gate extracts the irrigation water, and
The amount of water sent conveys to the main irrigation canal.
to the existing irrigation
canal is adjusted.

Main Irrigation Canal

The sediment-free water from the sand Dike (with Stone Spur Dike)
basin is conveyed to the irrigation The dike protects irrigation facilities
Rock inland side from flood, and stone spur
beneficiary area.
dike prevents dikes and riverbanks from
Reservoir, Siphon, Flood scouring.
Crossing Bridge Diversion
The main irrigation canals are gate
protected from flash flood and
debris flow from mountain side.
Main Drainage Canal
Irrigation The excess irrigation water is drained to
Beneficiary Area the river.

Figure 1.3 Main Structures of the PMS Method Irrigation System２)

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 Figure 1.4 Functions of PMS Method Irrigation Facilities 1), 2), 3)

Menu of PMS Method Irrigation Facilities ①Oblique Weir (KamaⅠWeir)

❶Oblique Weir/❷Sand Flushing Ditch(Movable Weir),
❸Double Flush Board Intake Gate, ❹Steep Gradient
Main Irrigation Canal (Gabion Works, Wicker Works),
❺Sand Basin with Transmission Gate and Drain Gate,
❻Main Drainage Canal, ❼Reservoir, Siphon, Flood Sand
Crossing Bridge, ❽Flood Control Facilities( Dike and Spillway Flushing
Ditch
Stone Spur dike)
Oblique Weir

Function of Oblique Weir ; By damming the river water and raising the
water level on the upstream side, water intake during drought season will be
❶ easier. By extending the weir diagonally, the overflow water depth is lowered,
the tractive force is reduced, and the weir is less likely to be broken.
❸
❷
②Sand Flushing Ditch

KamaⅡWeir

Function of Sand Flushing Ditch；Sand flushing ditch is installed as

part of the intake weir adjacent to the intake gate and prevents the inflow of
Steep Gradient earth and sand into the intake gate.
Main Irrigation
Canal ③Intake Gate
❹
❽
Sand Basin
❺
Main Drainage The irrigation water is
Canal ❻ conveyed to sand basin
❻ via steep gradient main
irrigation canal.

❼ Function of Intake Gate ; The intake gate is installed at the downstream

Main
Irrigation end of oblique weir to draw water into the irrigation canal and adjusts the
Canal amount of intake water.Two rows of flush boards are installed in front and
rear of the gate pier to create a reservoir. It reduces the water pressure applied
to the lower flush board on the river side and prevents the flush board from
breaking.

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 ④Steep Gradient Main Irrigation Canal and ⑥Main Drainage Canal
Main Irrigation Canal

Function of Main Drainage Canal ; Excess water other than the

required amount of irrigation water will be promptly returned to the
Function of Steep Gradient Main Irrigation Canal and Main river through the main drainage canal to prevent moisture damage at the
Irrigation Canal ; The steep gradient main irrigation canal conveys the irrigation beneficiary areas and to consider downstream water use.
sediment contained water drawn from the intake gate to the sand basin
without accumulating the sediments in the canal. The main irrigation
canal conveys the sediment-free water from the sand basin to the irrigation
beneficiary area. ⑦Reservoir etc

⑤Sand Basin

Transmission Drain gate

gate

Function of Reservoir etc. ; To protect the irrigation canal from flash

floods and debris flows from the foot of the mountain.When crossing
existing waterways and rivers, siphons and flood crossing bridges are
provided. To secure water retention in dry areas and contribute to the
Sand Drain Channel in Sand Basin growth of vegetation.
Transmission
Gate ⑧Flood Control Facilities
Drain
Gate

80cm lower

Function of Flood Control Facilities ; The dike has the function of

protecting irrigation beneficiary areas, residential areas, and irrigation
Function of Sand Basin (Regulating Pond) ; Sedimentation and canals along the river from floods. The stone spur dike prevents dikes and
flushing out of earth and sand contained in the irrigation water. Control of riverbanks from scouring and also has the function of fixing the alignment of
transmission water amount. river channel.

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 Project Implementation
Entities/persons ※Collaborating with the local communities from an
Concept early stage and emphasize the initiative of the
(Chap. 2 and 3) communities
Community

Plan and Design Project Implementation

※Utilization of local experts and contractors
(Chap. 4 and 5) Entities/persons

Project Implementation ※Utilization of local experts and contractors

Construction Entities/persons
(Chap. 6) ※Participation in construction;
Community Application of appropriate technology that can be
constructed even by local residents.

※Strengthening the capacity of local communities;

Project Implementation Continued involvement of the project implementation
Operation and Entities/persons
Maintenance entities/persons.
(Chap. 7)
Community ※Including water users association; Maintenance by the
local community itself.

Irrigated
Agricultural
Technology Community
(Chap. 8)

Figure 1.5 Procedures of the PMS Method Irrigation Project Which Emphasize Local Initiatives２)

1.6.2 | Characteristics of the PMS Method Irrigation Project

PMS Method is advantageous in situations where hydrometeorological data are limited, because PMS
continuously observes the local rivers and structures to understand the situation and considers countermeasures
to realize stable irrigation through trial and error. Given that limited funds are available, a large amount of
natural building materials (mainly stones) that can be procured locally are used with as small number of
concrete structures as possible (see Photo 1.1). The practice is aiming to construct a sustainable irrigation
system which is strong during both flood and drought periods. Construction costs of the PMS method
irrigation project are generally lower than those of a conventional irrigation project, because a large amount of
locally available stone materials is used. Even if the facility is damaged to some extent due to floods or sediment
disasters, the local people can usually deal with the damage by using natural building materials. Only in the case
of large-scale damage, large-scale repairs are required. On the other hand, proper operation and maintenance
of irrigation facilities during the project implementation is extremely important for the PMS method irrigation
project. Once an irrigation facility is constructed, it is not an end of engagement, but the facility needs to be
protected, maintained and nurtured in the community.
The PMS method irrigation project is a simple and practical irrigation project that matches the natural

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 conditions of the region based on the operation and maintenance by the community beneficiaries themselves.
That has become a major success factor which has led to various technical, economic, social and comprehensive
achievements.

Weir Using Stone Material Irrigation Canal Using Stone Material Irrigation Canal Using Soil Cement

Photo 1.1 Irrigation Facilities Using Locally Procured Natural Materials (Mainly Stone Materials)1)

The PMS method irrigation system has the characteristics shown in Table 1.1, compared to the conventional
irrigation systems which are implemented in Afghanistan. The most distinctive structure among them is
the oblique intake weir with boulders. A typical example of this is the Marwarid-Kashkot continuous Weir
or Kama Weir constructed on the Kunar River. The model for this weir was the Yamada Weir, which is an
old oblique weir of masonry on the Chikugo River in Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan. The Marwarid-Kashkot
continuous Weir and Kama weir are made of cobbles and boulders, which are abundant locally, combining old
Japanese wisdom and the materials and masonry techniques of farmers of Afghanistan. With this weir, it was
possible to create the irrigation system that would allow stable water intake during the drought season without
being destroyed during the flood season.

Photo 1.2 Kama Weir in Afghanistan (Left) and Yamada Weir in Japan(Right)1)

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 Table 1.1 Comparison Between the PMS Method Irrigation System and the Conventional Irrigation System2)

Item PMS Method Irrigation System Conventional Irrigation System

Dam-up system Oblique Weir Simple Groin
Structure of the Intake without the Intake Gate / with the
Double Flush Board Method
Mouth Manually Sliding Sheet Type
Canal Bed Material Soil Cement Lining Simple Digging or Concrete Lining
Structure of the Irrigation
Gabion and Wicker Works Same as the above
Canal Wall
Storage Function Install the Sand Basin (Regulating Pond) None
Adjust the amount of water by the intake gate. Drain the
Overflow from a portion of the Main
Drainage of excess water Bottom Water and sediment through the Sliding Drain
Canal Wall
Gate installed at the Sand Basin (Regulating Pond)
Combined with a Sand Flushing Dich at the Intake
Sedimentation
Weir, and the Drainage Gate installed at the Sand Basin None
Countermeasures
(Regulating Pond)
Protection of irrigation
Installation of reservoir and siphon, flood crossing
canals from flash floods None
bridge
and debris flows
PMS
PMS Method
Method Conventional
Conventional System
System
Divided
Divided
waterwater
way way

Oblique
Oblique
weirweir
Scouring
Scouring of of Inflow
Inflow of of
opposite
opposite bank
bank flooding
flooding
Sand Sand Double Double Scouring
Scouring
flushing flushflush
flushing board
board method
method Without
Without
Schematic ditchditch intake
intake gategate Gate
Gate
Diagram SteepSteep gradient
gradient mainmain
irrigation
irrigation canal
canal Simple
Simple Groin
Groin
Difficulty
Difficulty in taking
in taking water
water
duedue to the
to the riverbed
riverbed
degradation
degradation
MainMain canal
canal
Sliding
Sliding Sand basin Drainage
drainage gategate Sand
drainage basin
(Regulating pond)
Drainage
by overflow
(Regulating pond) by overflow
Drainage Flushboard-type
canal Flushboard-type
Drainage canal Drainage
Drainage canal
canal
transmission
transmission gategate Water Supply
Water Supply
Main canal
Main canal Canal
Canal

main
main irrigation
irrigation canal
canal
1.6.3 | Economic and Social Outcomes of the Existing PMS Irrigation Project
The existing PMS irrigation project has stabilized and recovered the irrigated farmlands which had been
deserted. The project further constructed drainage canals on the part of the irrigated farmlands which had
become wetland, reclaimed new irrigated farmlands, increased agricultural production, ensured people s
livelihood, and finally turned the land which had been deserted into green land by implementing vegetation
covered waterway protection and planting trees along canals. It also impacted micro-climate in the area by
contributing to the reduction of local temperatures and sandstorm damages (see Photo 1.3).
The JICA Data Collection Survey on Agriculture and Rural Development in Afghanistan of 2018, the
questionnaire survey aimed to compare the rural living conditions before and after the existing PMS irrigation
project, shows that a stable supply of irrigation water can achieve positive economic and social outcomes
including the improvement of living standards. Figure 1.6 shows these economic outcomes (direct effects)
and social outcomes (ripple effects). The existing PMS irrigation project provided employment opportunities
for villagers and returnees as workers and craftsmen during the construction stage and enabled the refugees to

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 return and resettle after the project, making a significant contribution to DDR (Disarmament, Demobilization
and Reintegration) and peacebuilding. In other words, the existing PMS irrigation project has a large positive
impact on sustainable agriculture, ensuring the livelihood of local residents, improving the local environment
and building peace and stability.

2008: Gamberi Desert before the project 2009: After construction of the main
irrigation canal

2012: After planting for windbreaks 2019: Present condition

and erosion control

Photo 1.3 Outcome of Irrigation Project1)

Economic Achievements Social Achievements

(Direct Effect) (Ripple Effect)

Promoting the Return

PMS Irrigation Project
Implementation of existing

Stable Supply of Irrigation Water

Agricultural Production
Expansion of Refugees
Expansion of Farmland
Area, Significant Increase of Dietary Improvement
Cropping Intensity,
Productivity Improvement Decrease of
Engel Coefficient
Increase of Livestock Improvement of School
Rearing Number Enrollment Rate
Increase of More people going
Household Income to hospitals

Figure 1.6 Economic and Social Outcomes of the Existing PMS Irrigation Project5)

1.7 Basic Civil Engineering Techniques Used in PMS

After the completion of the PMS method irrigation project, the farmers responsible for operation and
maintenance of the facilities should command the techniques for gabion works, wicker works, soil cement

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 works and masonry. In the process of implementing the PMS method irrigation project with the local farmers,
these techniques must be transferred to them for their capacity development. Local farmers became able to
operate and maintain the PMS method irrigation facilities by acquiring these techniques. This section is only an
introduction, and details are given in Chapters 4 and 5.

1.7.1 | Gabion Works

Gabions are made of iron wire mesh baskets filled with local stones to form square or rectangular blocks, which
can be used for various purposes such as protecting the inner walls of irrigation canals and road slopes, material
for revetments and stone spur dikes, and reinforcing joints between sand bars and weirs. An example is shown in
Figure 1.7 below. The reason for using stone rather than heavy use of concrete is to enhance sustainability in the
area by using local materials that farmers are accustomed to.

PMS Method: Pile up square stones along the

outermost edges of the frame as if to create walls,
and then fill the inside space with crushed stones
and gravels.
Figure 1.7 Gabion Works at Irrigation Canal1)

1.7.2 | Wicker Works

Wicker works are used to protect the waterfront by planting trees such as willow trees, edging used in
combination with gabion, and the Pinholder type and fascine works for protection of the surface of sandbars.
Trees are also planted for windbreaks function, erosion control and deceleration of debris flows from valleys.
Appropriate type of tree planting shall be selected depending the vegetation on the purpose. The willow root
eventually entangles with the gabion stones and acts to strengthen canal wall. It also creates shade, lowers
temperature, and contributes to a richer ecosystem.

Photo 1.4 Wicker Works1)

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 1.7.3 | Masonry
Masonry is a pile of rubble stones which is used for small canal walls as well as outer walls of irrigation canals.
Basically, it is dry masonry, but mortar masonry is also applied where some reinforcement is needed. Use
of stone instead of concrete also contributes to reduction of the maintenance and facilitation of diverse
ecosystems.

Soil Cement Lining

Figure 1.8 Masonry1)

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 1.7.4 | Soil Cement Works
Soil cement works consist of a mixture of local soil and cement, and are mainly used for lining bottoms of
irrigation canals. (See Photo 1.5)

Photo 1.5 Soil Cement1)

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 CHAPTER

2
HOW SHOULD A PMS METHOD IRRIGATION
PROJECT BE LAUNCHED TOGETHER WITH
FARMERS?
How did the existing PMS irrigation project start?
Aiming at saving as many lives as possible, PMS focused on water and food prior to medical treatment, along
with building trust with the community.
Dr. Tetsu Nakamura (Former Executive Director of PMS) was assigned to the Peshawar Mission Hospital
in Pakistan in 1984 to work on leprosy treatment, and in 1986 he launched the medical team ALS (the name
later changed to PMS) composed of Afghans. At that time PMS began full-scale medical services for Afghan
refugees, but PMS also started mobile medical care in Afghanistan. In 1991, PMS opened its first clinic for
Afghanistan in the eastern part of Afghanistan. In 2000, when drought became severe all over Afghanistan,
it became clear that an urgent issue was to secure clean drinking water. In parallel with its medical activities,
PMS drilled 1,600 wells for drinking water and 13 wells for irrigation. In 2001, PMS also distributed food to
270,000 Afghans under the danger of air raids. Even if clinics are constructed, with doctors assigned, people
cannot survive without drinking water and irrigation water. As the drought progressed, the importance
of "one irrigation canal rather than 100 clinics" became recognized, and PMS launched the Green Ground
Project in 2002 for restoration of cultivated land in Nangarhar province in eastern Afghanistan. The project
aimed to provide what the local people needed, which is, "a life/ home in the village, where they can spend
time with their family and eat three meals a day." PMS has been promoting their irrigation projects since
then.
Through those project and support activities, Dr. Tetsu Nakamura and project staffs of PMS have built
mutual trust for delivering aid within the local communities.
How do you decide the target area for irrigation projects?
It is important to walk around the area, get to know the vicinity, and it is also very important to listen to the
voices of the people in the area.
Initially, primary selection of multiple contender sites for a PMS method irrigation project area are
performed, at a request of the local communities. Next, as the secondary selection, the areas suitable for
application of the PMS method irrigation project are selected from the viewpoint of natural conditions: such
as the features of rivers, soil and topography. As the final selection, the target area is selected in respect of the
majority of the farmers and the situation with the local communities, such as security situation and existence
of farmers’ organizations.
How do you talk to irrigation beneficiary communities and create a basic concept?
Do you know the past condition of the target area of the irrigation project?
Can you tell us about the current situation of the area?
Who are the local people?
What is your role in the community?
The emphasis is on: (1) knowing the history of local communities; (2) understanding the current situation
of local communities; and (3) confirming the willingness of local communities for engagement. In this way,
the project implementation entities/persons will understand the current situation of the area, recognize the
roles of project implementation entities/persons and the local community, and build basic project concepts
during the discussions. A PMS method irrigation project is not just a civil engineering endeavor which
constructs irrigation facilities. One has to keep in mind that it is a multifaceted regional restoration project
for economy, society, education, and hygiene which will support the lives of the people who reside there over
5, 10, 50, and 100 years.
The above is explained further in the following sections.

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 2.1 Launching of a PMS Method Irrigation Project

Before launching the PMS method irrigation project, the project area should first be selected. Following that,
the process of creating the basic concept takes place, in consultation with the farmers in the selected area. This
aims to establish local ownership and contribute to the independent local development of durable irrigation
facilities.

Area Selection

Desktop Study
Interview with farmers

Consultation with Farmers

in Selected Area
Communication of selection
results to farmers and
introduction of the PMS method
irrigation project

Field surveys such as interview

with farmers for the basic concept

Desktop Study

Formulation of Basic Concept

Explanation of basic concept

to farmers

Figure 2.1 PMS Method Irrigation Project Launching Process２)

2.2 Selection of Area Suitable for the PMS Method Irrigation Project
2.2.1 | Basic Policy of Area Selection
The existing PMS irrigation project in Nangarhar, which aimed for recovering local communities and make
farmers self-sufficient, started with lands they requested. Dr. Tetsu Nakamura reported that he started the PMS
irrigation project as he aimed that:
…the local people wanted ‘to be able to have three meals a day and to live with families in their homelands’."
In other words, the essential feature of the PMS irrigation project is to meet the needs of local people from the
very start. Considering this backdrop, the basic policy for selecting the target area of the irrigation project is set
as:
Prioritizing lands at request from the local community

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 Text Block 2-1 : Case Study in PMS Area

Recovery and expansion of arable lands may include:

1) Recovery of land ruined by drought for many years;
2) Cultivation of uncultivated land in the desert;
3) Recovery of lands where productivity was significantly reduced due to irregular irrigation (excessive
water in summer, drought in winter); and
4) Recovery of lands that could not be cultivated, having been wetlands.
Generally, the cases in 1) and 2) may be easy to understand, but in reality, less than half of those lands
have been recovered or cultivated while the cases like 3) are by far more common.
Table: Recovery Style of Arable Land3)
Unit：ha
Approach １.Recovery ２.Newly ３.Recovery 4. Recovery from
４.Recovery
cultivated with stable wetland
from dry land from wetland 2. Newly
Basin land irrigation 5％
cultivated land
Marwarid Weir 1500 1000 Unknown 500 7％
Sheiwa Weir 200 0 400 100
New Sheiwa Weir 0 0 500 100
Kashkot Weir 500 200 1000 0
Kama WeirⅠ 1000 0 500 0 3. Recovery
1. Recovery with stable
Kama WeirⅡ 3000 0 2500 0 from dry land irrigation
Behsud WeirⅠ 0 0 2000 0 37％ 51％
Behsud Weir Ⅱ 0 0 1100 Unknown
Tapu Weir 0 0 500 100
Total 6200 1200 8500 800

As shown in the Table, it is estimated that more than half of the decline in agricultural production is due
to unstable water supply in cultivated lands along large rivers. It is a result of those lands being hit both by
droughts and sudden floods throughout the year. Even if the cultivated lands look like a green area, they
are often barren wetlands, or low productivity land harvested on a whim. This is why PMS emphasizes
water intake regulation function towards stable irrigation.
(Source: Green Ground Project, p. 36)

2.2.2 | Method of Irrigation Area Selection

From the list of possible areas, created by the central and local governments of Afghanistan and the review
of existing documents in line with the requests of local communities, areas suitable for the PMS method
irrigation project are selected as shown in the following chart (Figure 2.2). The primary selection is performed
if the request came from the local communities as a result of interviews with the relevant agencies. The
elements examined for selection after the primary selection are: natural and socio economic conditions, and
each is examined from two points of view: 1) existing infrastructure related to facilities, and 2) non-existing
infrastructure related to implementation, operation, maintenance. From the areas selected in the primary
selection, the secondary selection is performed through desktop studies (including a review of existing
documents) and field surveys, combined with interviews with farmers in regard of the lands, possible irrigation
water resources and construction materials which all form natural environmental conditions. At the second
selection, the need of the local communities is reexamined, checking requirements presented in the primary
selection. Final selection is performed, based on the areas selected in the secondary selection. This includes field
survey and interviews with farmers, about socio economic conditions and organizational structure of the local
communities. These activities are explained further in the subsections below.

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 Primary Selection: Desktop

Selected from the list of existing contender sites by the Government

Lands at request from
the local community

Secondary Selection:
Desktop + Field survey

Natural Conditions (Infrastructural)

Land Irrigation Construction

water materials

Final Selection:
Field survey

Socio-Economic Conditions (Non-Infrastructural)

Farmers' Farmers
Local community organizational
situation situation
Structure

Determination of Target Area

Figure 2.2 Flow of Target Area Selection２)

2.2.3 | Primary Selection

During the primary selection, contender areas are initially selected through desktop study, based on the results
of interviews with relevant agencies, such as the central government and the local government offices.
Firstly, the lists of existing contender irrigation areas are obtained from the central and local government offices.
Within these existing contender irrigation areas, primary selection is performed, to determine whether the local
communities really have the needs, which is the basic policy for selecting the PMS method irrigation project
area.

2.2.4 | Secondary Selection - Selection Based on Natural Conditions

The following items are observed, through desktop study and field survey, to select the contender areas from
the areas which have been selected first. The selection is based on the three following natural conditions (land,
water, construction materials):
1) Possibility of Securing Highly Productive Land
Whether the contender area has a probability of high crop productivity and can sustain farmers' livelihood
from the viewpoint of soil and topographical conditions, is firstly examined.
2) Possibility of Securing Sufficient Irrigation Water
Whether it is possible to stably extract irrigation water for maintaining the planned crop production in the
planned irrigation area from the planned water source (river), is examined next.
3) Possibility of Obtaining Construction Materials
Finally, it is examined whether there is a possibility that materials for irrigation facility construction can be
easily obtained in the vicinity and surrounding areas.

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 Farmers living in the area are experts for local agriculture. During the field survey, the project
implementation entities/persons should speak less and devote more time to listening to the voices of local
farmers. In addition, the project implementation entities/persons should walk the site by feet as much
as possible. By walking around the site, it becomes possible to grasp the situation in the area more clearly
and get the sense of the lives of the people in the area. It is best to determine the selection of irrigation
projects based on (1) data, such as statistical data, (2) voices of local people, and (3) perspective acquired
by walking on one’s own. Dr. Tetsu Nakamura walked through the irrigation project site in Nangarhar
Province, and grasped the topography, observed the soil and stones in the location, state of the river in
each season which has deepened his understanding of the site by talking to people. Walking around the
site to deepen understanding is one of the key points during the selection stage. In addition, walking in the
field should give the project implementation entities/persons valuable on-site experience which cannot
be obtained by desk work alone. Thus acquired knowledge will be amassed as valuable experience of the
person in charge and will remain a future asset.

(1) Possibility of Securing Highly Productive Farmland Worth Irrigating

Soil is an important factor in assessing crop productivity. In Afghanistan, however, any soil map on a scale
that enables the selection of irrigation area (see Chapter 8) has not been developed yet. Without a detailed
soil map, the possibility of assessing possible crop production and sustainable farming, after construction
of irrigation facilities can be checked on site, based on the six conditions listed below. If there are new,
partially irrigated lands, the following check items are also applied to determine their suitability as irrigated
farmlands.
1) Causes of Abandoned Irrigated Lands
Often, the main causes of desolation of farmlands are the exodus and migration of farmers caused by
the civil war, by decrease and depletion of water resources due to climate change and by floods. The
causes of devastation in contender areas should be investigated and the results would be used as basis for
the selection. However, if there are serious obstacles which are difficult to overcome, in order to enable
agricultural activities, such as enormous amounts of gravel and accumulated sand due to flooding, it is
good to refrain from implementing the project.
2) Land Productivity
Survey interviews with farmers should incorporate discussions on crop yields. If the existing yields are
too low, the causes should be investigated, and it should be determined whether the soil is suitable for
irrigated agriculture.
3) Salt Accumulation in Soil
Survey interviews with farmers should also include occurrence of salt damage and accumulation on
their farmlands. Based on the results, after checking on site, the suitability of future use as farmland is
evaluated from the salinity standpoint.
4) Crop Nutrient Deficiency Symptom
Soil in Afghanistan is mainly calcareous and alkaline. Therefore, it is necessary to check the alkalinity
of soil. Generally, the alkalinity is checked using a pH meter. If there is no suitable equipment, the
occurrence of nutrient deficiency symptoms such as phosphoric acid and zinc that frequently occur in
alkaline soil should be checked. Alternatively, interviews with the residents should be conducted to make
a decision. Phosphate deficiency generally causes the lower leaves to turn purple, and zinc (Zn) deficiency
causes the upper leaf to turn yellow.
5) Formation of Impermeable Layer (Petrocalcic Layer)
Calcareous soils may form impermeable hard layers (petrocalcic horizon that reduces the rhizosphere in
the soil). To confirm this, a soil pit should be dug, and a survey should be conducted to see if these layers
exist at the planned irrigation area, because these layers inhibit the development of crop roots, adversely
affecting the penetrability of irrigation water and the growth of crops. In such cases, it is necessary to

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 break these layers by deep plowing and to establish an efficient drainage system before the irrigation.
6) Inclination of Farmland
The slope is defined as an inclination of the earth's surface and is measured in percent. Slopes of farmlands
affect flow velocity of irrigation water, soil drainage, erosion, machinery use, etc. Therefore, land slope is
important for crop selection and soil management. In general, gravity (surface) irrigation such as basin
irrigation and furrow irrigation observed in Afghanistan can be applied only at a slope of 2% or less.
In order to support the gravity irrigation system, it is essential to make surface slopes almost uniform by
leveling. However, land preparation should be done carefully, because the place where topsoil is removed
may result in a decrease in yield.

(2) Possibility of Securing Irrigation Water - The River Condition Suitable for the PMS Method
Irrigation Project
1) Prerequisite in Rivers
As a prerequisite for securing irrigation water, river flow and water quality should be confirmed. If water
has been taken from a river in the past, it should be deemed that there is no problem with the amount
and quality of the river water. However, in a new irrigation area or when water has not been taken
from the river in the past, it is to be examined, after coordinating with the parties concerned, that (a) a
sufficient amount of water with necessary water quality can be secured in the river throughout the year,
that (b) intake does not affect the opposite banks, upstream and downstream, and that (c) there are no
other major issues. The Kunar River, which has been the water source of the existing PMS irrigation
projects, has larger flows of water, compared to most other river basins. This is especially important to
emphasize when introducing the PMS method irrigation project in small and medium sized rivers in
Afghanistan which tend to have insufficient amount of water available. In addition, problems on the
opposite banks upstream/downstream can get worse, where the year-to-year fluctuation rate in the
amount of water in rivers becomes larger than the average flow. Therefore, even if the average amount of
upstream and downstream distribution is sufficient, the adverse effect on water use is large in some cases.
Chapter 3 described in detail how to check river flow and water quality. A detailed assessment of whether
a river has sufficient water volumes can be performed by comparing the river discharge and the required
irrigation water volume examined in Subsection 2.3.3. If it is determined that the river discharge is
sufficient for extracting required irrigation water volumes, the river is considered highly applicable and
being in a situation similar to the Kunar River which has been targeted for the existing PMS irrigation
project as shown in the following Text Block 2-2. If that is the case, the applicability is roughly judged
from the similarity of discharge conditions.

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 Text Block 2-2: Characteristics of the Kunar River

The Kunar River, which is the water source of the existing PMS irrigation project, has a catchment area
of about 26,000 ㎢ and its source is in a mountainous area of over 4,500m in altitude. As the gently
melting snow recharge groundwater, river flow does not dry up even in winter. In addition, there are river
channels with stable sandbars and streamway where it is possible to construct irrigation facilities which
can withstand summer floods.
The main features of the Kunar River Basin are: (1) The river is large with a catchment area of several
thousand to tens of thousands of square kilometers (㎢); (2) The water source is in a mountainous area
of over 4,500 m in altitude where snow remains even in summer; and (3) The existence of stable sandbars,
streamway and river channels with bedrock, etc. These are the main factors of river aspects for the success
of the PMS irrigation project.
On the other hand, the Kunar River is a torrent river, and there are many places where the riverbed
fluctuates greatly. It also has characteristics that are unsuitable for river intake, such as large fluctuations
in river water level in summer and winter. However, it has been proved in the existing PMS irrigation
projects that these characteristics can be overcome when the above three features are secured. In
summary:
• Basin area: Approximately 26,000 ㎢
• Topographical conditions: A range of mountains of around 4000 to 7000m in altitude. The snow line
is over 4,500m.
• River classification: Rapid river. The riverbed fluctuates drastically. Existence of stable sandbars and
streamways.
• Hydrological conditions: Snowfalls in winter and Kunar River overlooking the Hindu Kush
melting snow from glaciers supply river water. The Mountains: Rapid River

water level fluctuates greatly in summer and winter, but

the river discharge is abundant throughout the year.
• Major floods and droughts: Year 2000 droughts and
Year 2010 and 2013 - 2015 floods
Hydrometeorology of the Kunar River

Precipitation Temperature River discharge

Summer 40 ㎜ 32℃ 1,200 ㎥/s -Winter snow and glaciers perform a "water storage
function"
Winter 140 ㎜ 10℃ 110 ㎥/s -Snowmelt begins around March and peaks in early July
-The annual water level fluctuation at the intake is about
Annual 180 ㎜ 22℃ 470 ㎥/s 2m, and the water level fluctuation is severe.

Monthly average
60 1200
Monthly average precipitation discharge
50 1000
Precipitation (mm)

Discharge (m3/s)

40 800
30 600
20 400

10 200

0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 2 3 4 5
Month Month
Kunar River Hydrological Characteristics (Downstream of Pul i kama Station) 2)

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 2) Concept of Selecting Water Intake Site Candidates
Possible water intake site should be a location where water can be stably taken from river and intake
weirs/gates can be constructed, satisfying the conditions listed below. (See Figure 2.3). To secure
adequate slope of the main irrigation canal, the conventional water intake site or its upstream end is
selected. In addition, if old stone monuments exist around the irrigation facilities, this indicates that the
villagers have carefully been protecting the facilities for generations in the past. If such features are in
place, the old stone monuments are to be used as reference for selecting the possible water intake site.
• Locations where the flow of the river is set up, such as the convex part of the river flow curve (outer
curve), because at that location the river flow concentrates and it is easy to extract water stably.
• Locations with a bedrock at the back (at the immediately upstream of the weir). This is because the
river flow hits the bedrock and tends to concentrate making stable water intake easy. It is also because a
water intake site needs to be implemented on firm ground to prevent the facilities (especially where pile
foundation work is not possible) from being damaged or washed away in the flood season. However,
this also depends on the situation because the effect of bedrock may also be produced by boulders. At
the concave side of the river curve, with a bedrock at the back, not only the intake but also the gravel
deposit in front of it tends to be stable.
• Locations with a stable single sandbar: By connecting the weir to the sandbar, the entire water surface
from the sandbar to the intake point is raised, and stable water intake can be achieved. (It is possible to
prevent the water level from dropping due to scouring at the tip of a weir of the conventional method
which raise water by the groin.) In addition, this way is securing a flood way, by dividing the river
channel. A stable sandbar means a sandbar whose position has not changed for many years and whose
main riverbed material is composed of large boulders (15 to 20 cm or more in diameter). Where there
are no sandbars, it is necessary to secure a channel for floods to pass.
• Locations where the entire river area including the flood plains is moderately wide: If the river area
is moderately wide, water level fluctuation is comparatively small and stable water intake is easy to
construct. However, if the river is too wide, the streamway fluctuates easily, resulting in unstable water
intake.
Topographic maps (USGS) and Google maps are to be used to grasp the situation of possible water intake sites.
The conditions should be finally checked on site because the available topographic maps may not accurately
present the current situation. It should be comprehended from various sources which give information of the
past situation, in order to avoid making judgment based on a single piece of information.

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 Example 1)
Impact on the
Fixed flow upstream due
to backwater
Bedrock
River

channel for flood

Weir

Stable
sandbar

Consideration for the

opposite bank where
the flow of the river
hits directly

Wetland

Example 2) River

Weir

Fixed flow

channel Bedrock
weir
for flood

Consideration
whether downstream
Stable diversion will
sandbar decrease due to
water intake
upstream

Figure 2.3 Location of Water Intake Site２)

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 3) Integration of Water Intakes
In Afghanistan, usually each village has its own irrigation water intake facility. By integrating them,
more stable irrigation may be possible, but given the current situation in Afghanistan, it would be best
to install a larger number of small scale, easy-to-maintain weirs and intake gates (according to Dr.
Tetsu Nakamura). However, in the existing PMS irrigation projects, there are cases when water was
taken from multiple intakes of one irrigation canal, and some of them were combined into one intake
or one diversion from the sand basin, as in the cases of the Miran Irrigation Canal and the Marwarid II
Irrigation Canal. It is also necessary to keep in mind the possibility of integration of water intake sites in
the future, to meet changing needs of local communities in Afghanistan.

Text Block 2-3: An Example of Integrated Operation in Japan see4)

The Shogawa River, a first-class river that flows through Toyama Prefecture in Japan, used to have 12
intakes. These irrigation water facilities were constructed by arranging stones and trees in the river to
convey water into the intake, but they broke each time flood occurred, making it difficult to take in
water. In addition, the conflict between upstream and downstream was serious, and the conflict over
irrigation water was repeated during droughts. Since 1796, there have been many talks about integrated
operation, but it was not realized due to the opposition of upstream irrigation water users. Construction
of the Komaki Dam started upstream in 1925, and there was a risk that sediment would stop and the
riverbed would drop, making water intake difficult. Therefore, the Shogawa Goguchi Dam (integrated
operation) was completed in 1940, and stable irrigation was carried out.

Text Block 2-4: Case of Marwarid Ⅱ

In the Marwarid II irrigation canal, the intakes (the orange-colored squares in the below figure) that had
been taken from the river by each of Kachara, Koti, Taran, Bera, etc. were combined into one at the most
upstream point (The ● in the below figure).

0 1 2㎞
Intake Mouth

Kachara
Lower Shigi

ベスード郡
Koti
Legend
ミラーン Bela Main Irrigation Canal
Existing Intake Mouth
Existing Farmland
New Restored Farmland
Taran

Figure Case of MarwaridⅡ2)

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 (3) Possibility of Obtaining Construction Materials - Availability of Construction Materials such as
Boulders
1) Reason for the Necessity of Boulders
Since PMS irrigation facilities such as intake facilities of weirs and spur dikes, etc. are riprap works
that require exceptional quantity of stones, the availability of boulders as construction materials is an
important factor for irrigation area selection. The general definitions of boulders and cobblestones are
shown below. The boulders used for the PMS method irrigation facilities such as intake weirs and stone
spur dikes are 0.5 m to 2 m or more in diameter. Angular mountain stones should not be used for weirs
because they are susceptible to the pressure of flowing water. River stones should be used.

Table 2.1 Classification of Stones2), see 5)

Name of Stone Particle Size (㎜)
boulders 256 - 4096
cobbles 64 - 256
gravel ２ - 64
sand 0.062 - ２
silt 0.004 - 0.062
clay 0.00024 - 0.004

Cobblestones Boulders
1)
Photo 2.1 Images of Cobblestones and Boulders

2) Confirmation of Availability
The availability of boulders as construction material should be checked by the following methods:
• Interviews with farmers: The location of boulders can be confirmed from farmers familiar with the
local situation.
• Locating places where debris flow down, and valleys where heavy floods flow down: Locations of debris
flow in the past are checked since boulders that have rolled down from mountains tend to accumulate
at the exits where flash floods flow.
• Grasping the geology: Since boulders are likely to exist where sedimentary rocks spread, locations of
sedimentary rocks are checked based on the USGS Geologic map.

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 Photo 2.2 A Quarry Site (Gamberi Desert Islam Dara Valley) 1)

If boulders are not available, use of gabions (stone-filled wire mesh cages) is considered in rivers with gentle
slope and low bed load (see Photo 2.3). Experiences in the existing PMS irrigation projects found that the use of
large cobblestones is effective in reducing the amount of precious boulders (see Photo 2.4).

Photo 2.3 Use of Gabions1)

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 Note: If the river slope is gentle and the tractive force is weak, the amount of boulders can be
reduced by laying 10m squares of boulders around the outer edges with cobblestones of 25cm
in diameters packed inside.

Photo 2.4 Reduced use of Boulders with Cobblestones (Kama Weir)1)

When collecting boulders from a river, it should be kept in mind that the place of collection may be eroded
and washed away by future floods. Therefore, the appropriate quarrying place is selected where there will be no
problem even if the sandbar is washed away. The sandbar at the Marwarid I Weir was washed away in 2010, and a
probable cause was that a large amount of boulders, which had been quarried from the sandbar as shown in

Remaining
Eroded riverbed opposite
bank

Photo 2.5 Riverbed materials often seen after a torrent Photo 2.6 A case where a sandbar from which boulders
has passed were collected was washed away by a flood (Marwarid
Ⅰ Weir)

3) Confirmation of Quarrying Permit

It is necessary to obtain permission for quarrying from the village authorities. In addition, as an
administrative procedure, it is necessary to obtain the provincial government s approval.
4) Access to Quarrying Site and Weir Candidate Sites
Since it is necessary to secure an access route through which construction vehicles can pass, the means of
access to possible sites of irrigation facilities such as quarrying sites and weir sites should be confirmed. If
there is no means of access, it will be necessary to construct access roads.

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 2.2.5 | Final Selection - Selection Based on Important Socio-Economic Conditions of Local
Communities
The socio-economic situation of a local community is an important factor in implementing irrigation projects
and maintaining the facilities. The most important thing in socio-economic survey is to confirm whether the
community is willing to implement the irrigation project, and whether the community is motivated to properly
operate and maintain the irrigation facilities. In addition, capacity development of local communities through
the project is an important issue, and it is important to judge whether or not they have the necessary ability.
Therefore, project target areas should be selected by confirming the following three socio-economic conditions:
1) Confirmation of situation and willingness of local community: Grasp the history and current situation of
local communities by asking local people to talk and confirm their willingness for the project by making the
local communities understand the benefit of irrigation facilities.
2) Confirmation of farmers situation and sustainability of irrigated agriculture based on farmers' motivation
and cultivation technology: Confirm the condition of local people (including the number of refugees
and absent family members who are separated as displaced persons), problems which farmers are facing,
land ownership, means of livelihood and their willingness to engage in agriculture and maintenance of the
facilities.
3) Confirmation of farmers organizational structure: Confirm whether there is a farmers organization or
water users association (irrigation association) for the maintenance of irrigation facilities, or whether such
association can be organized immediately, in addition to the strength of local communities (Shura, Jirga).
It is important to walk around the site on one s own foot for grasping the local socio-economic situation.
The project implementation entities/persons should make sure to visit the site and take enough time for the
interviews with farmers. When interviewing farmers, it is important to let the local people talk freely. This is
because people in local communities know more about what the problems are, and what the characteristics
of the land are, as well as what social aspects are to be emphasized in their communities. At the time of the
interviews with farmers, this is noted that it is rare that there is a head-on local opposition to the provision
of something new or service to local communities with funds from other institutions, such as foreign aid or
government funding. Farmers will be willing to try something new if it will not hurt their pockets. Irrigation
facilities are to be protected and nurtured by the local communities. It is necessary for the local communities
to be willing to maintain and manage the irrigation facilities as they are vitally important to them. The most
important point is to know whether or not the local communities need the facilities, and not to impose on
them. Therefore, it is necessary to consider in detail whether an aid/government project is necessary for the
local community as shown below.

(1) Confirmation of Local Community’s Will and Situation

In order to confirm the willingness of the local community, first, their history and current situation are to be
understood through literature and field surveys. The willingness of the local community is to be confirmed
by field surveys, together with the local community person concerned who will be involved in the project.
The history of the community is important information in order to judge the necessity of irrigation and its
impact on the local community, such as: i) land use of the target irrigation beneficiary area since the 1960s
(or earlier when the situation was stable), ii) kinds and area/yields of crops, iii) farmers' livelihood (how
they live at present, without project), iv) village situation, v) land area and inheritance of each farmer, vi)
damages to Karezes and the irrigated areas due to war against the Soviet Union and the subsequent civil
wars, vii) presence or absence of fruit trees, and viii) trend of refugees and displaced people. Furthermore,
indirectly though, it is important to build rapport with the people in the contender irrigation project sites
while interviewing on the history of the local community. Following this process, it will be possible to
meet with the key people in the community, and to collect appropriate information even after the project
implementation entities/persons leaves the site, by getting their contact information.
The main purpose of understanding the social conditions of local communities is to understand the

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 current situation of the target area. By comparing the history of the local communities with the present
situation, it is possible to judge the necessity of irrigation projects more clearly. Comparing the past with
the present will reveal more clearly what kind of historical process resulted in the present situation, and
how many households can have improved livelihood, by the planned irrigation. For public works such as
irrigation projects, the needs and impacts are often considered through snapshots. However, interweaving
the snapshot situation with changes through a long span of history will ensure more accurate judgement of
suitability of the project.
At the same time, the security situations including conflicts among villages and ethnic groups should be
confirmed. In the cases of a single-tribe community, a well-organized village with territorial and blood ties,
or of a respected local self-governing body called Shura and Jirgas, there would be very few conflicts with
the neighboring villages and the local self-governing-body would be well maintained. Therefore, the social
conditions such as the situation of ethnic groups should be judged from the strength of local self-governing
body of Jirgas and through interviews with the farmers.
It is important to confirm the willingness of local communities in order to measure their commitment,
ownership (awareness and attitude to maintain irrigation facilities as their own) and cooperation on
the irrigation project. The irrigation facilities can benefit local communities for a long time if the local
communities take the initiative in maintenance and management and carry on the maintenance for a long
period of time. Adversely, if the community is not willing to maintain and manage the irrigation facilities,
they would soon be abandoned and become useless, and the funds invested would be wasted. Therefore, it
is important to observe and confirm how much the local communities are willing to be actively involved.
Their willingness can also be judged by how seriously the local people explain their history and present
conditions and what kind of people in the community they have introduced to you. Building mutual trust
would further strengthen the commitment of a local community to a planned irrigation project.
In addition, the frequency, causes and backgrounds of any destruction of existing irrigation facilities are
to be confirmed. The necessity of introducing the PMS method irrigation project is to be discussed with
consideration of maintenance, such as restoration of destroyed existing irrigation facilities and damages to
crops caused by the inability to bring water due to the destruction of irrigation facilities.
The above dialogue with the local community should be taken carefully and allowed time. It is important to
have the patience of sitting with the local people, drinking tea, and letting people talk (instead of speaking
on one s own). Note that during field surveys, local people may find it difficult to speak to higher educated
officials and engineers. It is important that the interviewers create an atmosphere that makes it easy for local
people to talk. Only this can get people's voices heard.
At this point, it is necessary to be careful not to lightly make promises to the local communities as to
whether or not the project can be implemented.

(2) Grasping Farmers’ Situation to Confirm the Sustainability of Irrigated Agriculture in Terms of
Farmers’ Motivation and Cultivation Techniques
It is important to clarify and confirm the conditions under which farmers are able to continue their farming
practices after the construction of irrigation facilities. The incentives for them to continue depend on the
area to be irrigated. Therefore, after clarifying the issues at each possible site, based on the following survey
contents, likely measures for the issues are to be discussed to select areas with high project continuity.
In order to select a highly sustainable irrigation target area, confirm the target farmers' willingness and needs
for irrigated agriculture with the possibility of improving their livelihood as an incentive for irrigation. For
confirmation, the information on the following elements should be collected and analyzed:
1) Are the target farmers self-employed and the owners of their farmland?
It is generally understood that self-owned farmlands give the farmers high motivation to improve their
production and livelihood. Therefore, one should investigate whether the farmers participating in the
project own their farmland.

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 2) Is irrigated agriculture an important means for improving livelihood of target farmers?
Many Afghan farmers have other income sources in addition to agriculture. If the productivity and
profitability of irrigated agriculture is low, compared to their other sources of income, there is a high
possibility that their motivation for agriculture would be low. Poor access to the market can also
adversely affect crop production activities.
3) Are the target farmers willing to engage in irrigation facility construction and maintenance activities?
Establish willingness of target farmers to engage in the construction of irrigation facilities in the project
and to continue with maintenance of the facilities after the project is confirmed. Once the irrigation
facilities are constructed, it is important to maintain the function of the irrigation facilities. Since the
PMS method irrigation project aims to enable farmers to be self-sufficient in a sustainable manner, it
is necessary for the farmers themselves to take the initiative in facility construction and maintenance
activities.
4) Do the target farmers have experience in irrigated agriculture and have an irrigation technology
dissemination system in place?
Whether or not the target farmers have experience in irrigated agriculture is an important indicator to
determine if the farmers can earn sufficient profit to maintain their livelihood. Confirmation is needed
whether the system for disseminating farming technology is in place to further improve productivity, and
whether the farmers have the basic ability/experience in acquiring cultivation technology and willingness
to disseminate them. In Afghanistan, it is necessary to check the security situation because agricultural
extension workers are often unable to operate in unsafe or insecure areas. If there is no possibility of
public technology dissemination through agricultural extension workers, it is worth considering a
possibility of technology dissemination by most efficient farmers in the village.

(3) Confirmation of Farmers’ Organizational Structure

It is necessary to confirm the existence and functionality of farmers organizations (including the Mirab
system) and water users associations (irrigation associations) for proper facility management, such as
maintenance of irrigation facilities and fair water distribution. If these do not exist or are not functioning,
it is instantly necessary to establish a farmers organization (including the Mirab system) or a water users
association (an irrigation association) to develop capacity. At this time it is necessary to confirm whether the
participating farmers are willing to form a water users association (an irrigation association) and whether
forming an association is possible.

2.3 Formulation of Basic Concept of the PMS Method Irrigation Project through
Discussion with Farmers

The project implementation entities/persons should understand the true needs of farmers based on dialogue
and consultation, in order to formulate the basic concept of the PMS method irrigation project which can meet
those needs. After the provincial and central governments approve the construction of irrigation facilities, the
budget is ensured and the construction started. The procedure onwards is as follows:
1) Planning of basic concept through dialogue with farmers: Implemented mainly by the Government in
collaboration with farmers.
2) Formulation of the basic concept and approval of the project: Government-led, partly under contract
between Government and Consultant. Explain the final basic concept to the beneficiary farmers and revise
it as necessary to finalize it.
3) Financing from international donors: ADB (Asian Development Bank), EC (European Commission),
JICA ( Japan International Cooperation Agency), WB (World Bank), etc.
4) Implementation of planning, design, bid management, and construction management: Implemented
under a contract between the Government and a Consultant.

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 5) Implementation of construction work: Implemented under a contract between the Government and a
construction company which, in turn, should employ local residents as the labor force and craftsmen and
thus strengthen capacity of construction technology through OJT (on-the-job training).
6) Capacity development for maintenance by farmers themselves (3 years from the completion of
construction work): Implemented under a contract between the Government and a construction company.

2.3.1 | Basic Policy for Formulating the Basic Concept Through Dialogue and Discussion with
Local Communities
Since the number of diarrhea patients increased rapidly due to the drinking water shortage caused by the
drought in 2000, PMS started a water source securing project, focused on well drilling from June 2000 as part of
its medical project, and in 2001 carried out food-distribution project within the "Fund for Life" in Afganistan
initiative. After that, in 2002, as the "Fund for Life / Phase 2 Plan" continued, aiming at increase of food
production, the "Green Ground Project" was launched. It was an irrigation project for promoting multifaceted
agricultural production including cereals, potatoes, vegetables, orchard trees, livestock, beekeeping and others.
PMS emphasized requirement of meeting local needs without competing with the United Nations or other
foreign organizations, by negotiating directly with the Afghan government and discussing and cooperating
with the local Shura and Jirga (autonomous organization of senior residents). In other words, for the purpose of
reconstruction of rural societies and self sufficiency of farmers suffering from drought, plans were formulated to
decide on target areas, project period and project contents.
Initially, PMS utilized such irrigation water sources as Karezes, Jui (a stream drawn from highlands), and
irrigation wells. However, the groundwater levels dropped, and irrigation using groundwater was becoming
inconceivable. In 2003, PMS started construction of irrigation canals including weir construction, aiming at
stable water intake from rivers, and has been developing long-term reconstruction projects expecting rural
reconstruction from drought damage and the return of many refugee farmers. As a result, by 2019, they
accomplished irrigation of 16,500 hectares of farmlands benefitting approx. 650, 000 people.
In this way, PMS learned to set their project concept flexibly according to the needs and circumstances of local
communities. As a result, the reconstruction of local rural communities and self sufficiency of farmers was
achieved. Therefore, the PMS method irrigation project is based on the formulation of the basic concept of the
project through dialogues and discussions with the local communities.

2.3.2 | Consensus Building with Local Communities and the Basic Concept
This Chapter shows what to discuss and how to reach an agreement with the local communities in formulating
the basic concept of the PMS method irrigation project. In the process of building consensus with the local
communities, an agreement document is made and recorded. A list and contact information of stakeholders in
the local communities is made to secure a state of constant contact with the local communities. The following
are key steps in this process:
1) Understanding of the history and current situation of the local communities. (See Subsection 2.2.5).
2) Introduction of the PMS method irrigation project: The PMS method irrigation project should be
explained using brochures and videos for dissemination. It has to be explained that the project is community
led and there is a strong necessity of ownership (awareness and attitude to maintain irrigation facilities as
their own) by local communities, which is a distinctive characteristic of the PMS method irrigation project.
In other words, it should be explained that irrigation facilities are maintained and operated by the local
community.
3) Explanation of the draft basic concept to the local communities including the following items, and
revision of the concept while incorporating the opinions of local communities. (Details are described in the
following sections.)
• Irrigation beneficiary area.
• Project effects.

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 • Estimated indicative project cost, annual maintenance cost and estimated indicative project duration
period.
• Land acquisition.
• Impact on the surrounding area.
• Residents participation in construction projects and operation/maintenance of irrigation facilities,
which is the basic policy of the PMS method irrigation project.
• Ensuring security and safety management in the project.
4) Recognition, discussion and agreement on the allocation of roles between project implementation
entities/persons and local communities: Table 2.2 shows the allocation of roles and agreement between
project implementation entities/persons and local communities. With this as reference, talks with local
communities continue, discussions and revisions of details are frequent. Then, when the consensus of local
communities will be obtained, the basic concepts will be formulated. Careful dialogue with communities
can take time and effort. However, it should be cognizant that projects started with careful dialogue will be
able to obtain support from the community in the long term.

Table 2.2 Discussions, Agreements and Allocation of Roles

between Project Implementation Entities/Persons and Local Communities2)

Allocation of Roles
Contents of Project Implementation Entities / Local Communities
Discussions and Persons Self-governing body (Community
Agreements (Central and Local Government, etc.) Development Council /Shura/Jirga)
Association (Water Users’ Association/
Irrigation Association), etc.
-Outline presentation of irrigation beneficiary -Confirmation and adjustment of irrigation
Irrigation beneficiary areas beneficiary areas
area, project effects, -Presentation of expected project effects -Confirmation of expected project effects
estimated project cost,
maintenance cost, -Presentation of estimated project cost and -Confirmation of estimated project cost and
project period maintenance cost maintenance cost
-Presentation of project period -Confirmation of project period
Land acquisition
-Coordination with each farmer based on laws
(irrigation facilities: main -Presentation of necessary land, etc.
and local customs
irrigation canal route, etc.)
Impact on the -Risk acceptance decisions and coordination
-Presentation of assumed risks
surrounding area (risks) with affected communities
-Request for participation in construction
-Adjustment of labor supply by farmers, etc.
labor by paying wages
-Confirmation of intention to acquire basic
-Presentation of capacity development
civil engineering techniques
program for basic civil engineering techniques
Residents participation -Confirmation of intention to improve
-Presentation of capacity development
in construction projects operation and maintenance ability
program related to operation and maintenance
and operation and -Implementation adjustment / confirmation of
-Presentation of allocation of roles for
maintenance of operation and maintenance activities after the
operation and maintenance of irrigation
irrigation facilities irrigation facility construction
facilities between residents and project
-Formulation of operation and maintenance
implementation entities/persons
plans and ensuring securing of budget by
-Presentation of large-scale repair plan and
residents
ensuring of budget
-Requests to ensure local security by local -Adjustment and presentation of security
communities measures
Security and safety
-Confirmation of safety measures for -Confirmation of safety measures for
construction projects construction projects

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 2.3.3 | Discussions on Irrigation Beneficiary Area from the Viewpoint of Equal Water
Distribution
(1) Determination of Irrigation Beneficiary Area
As a general rule, areas which were irrigated in the past (former irrigated areas) are the irrigation beneficiary
areas, but, if possible, newly irrigated areas shall also be considered. Once a potential area for irrigation
beneficiaries is identified, survey is locally conducted. For simplicity, the initial survey can be done using
hand-held GPS as well. The elevation of irrigation beneficiary areas is checked, and it should be confirmed
that sufficient hydraulic gradient from the irrigation water intake site can be secured. The decision on the
irrigation beneficiary area is very important for the local communities and should be based on careful
consultation and coordination with the local communities. Efforts should be made to ensure the fairest
possible water distribution in the irrigation beneficiary area. Even at this stage, it should be pointed out the
importance of walking on the site by oneself. By walking frequently, the project implementation entities/
persons should be able to exchange opinions with the local people and better understand the actual
situation. At the same time, it can facilitate to grasp the soil, characteristics and natural environment of the
area.

(2) Rough Estimation of Irrigation Beneficiary Range, Land Area and Required Irrigation Water
1) Irrigation beneficiary range and land area
If the irrigation beneficiary area cannot be clearly determined, an interview on the current situation
and past situation of irrigated agriculture is conducted, and the extent of the irrigation beneficiary area
is estimated. When interviewing residents, one should take note that irrigated areas in the past may
have become uncertain due to the years of confusion and disasters, and that the methods of measuring
length and area may differ depending on the village or region. If so, the irrigation beneficiary area shall
be calculated from satellite and topographic maps firstly considering the elevation. Following that,
the extent of the irrigation beneficiary area should be clearly indicated in consultation with the local
communities. Finally these should be confirmed locally, together, and agreed upon. In addition, there is
a possibility that some families may be absent as refugees and displaced persons, and their farmland and
houses should be carefully checked. If necessary, Shura and Jirga should make necessary arrangements, in
order to minimize the problems that may arise if and when families who have left the area as refugees or
displaced persons return after the irrigation facility is constructed.
2) Required irrigation water volume and intake amount
The required amount of irrigation water should be estimated by analyzing the hydrological and
meteorological conditions, geology and soil texture of the target area, and by conducting interview on
the crop varieties in the irrigation beneficiary area and the planting condition in the field. To estimate
the required irrigation water amount accurately, FAO documents 6),7) are referred to. In this case, the
required irrigation water amount is calculated from the reference evapotranspiration, effective rainfall,
irrigation efficiency, and by comparing crop varieties and cropping patterns. On the other hand, in
order to quickly and easily develop initial estimates of the required amount of irrigation water, refer to
the correlation between the area of irrigation beneficiary land and the amount of irrigation water in the
existing PMS irrigation project farmland downstream of the Kunar River Basin where wheat is cultivated
in winter and rice in summer (Figure 2.3.1).
Ten percent of the required amount of irrigation water should be added as a reserve to take water with a
margin, considering future increase in water demand, the amount of water drained from the sand basin
for drainage and to envisage climate change impact. The idea is to return the excess to the river. After the
required water intake is determined, it is confirmed that the river flow of the water source (see Subsection
2.2.4) is sufficiently large compared to the required water intake. If the river flow of the target river is
insufficient or not large enough compared to the required water intake, consideration is given to the
reduction of the required irrigation water amount by reducing the irrigation beneficiary area or changing

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 the crop varieties.
Finally, when taking the required amount of irrigation water, it should be confirmed whether or not
vested water-rights are given based on prevalent law. If the river does not have a water right, the procedure
for acquiring the water right should be carried out.

Winter Summer
10.0 10.0
Estimated Intake Water (m /s)

Estimated Intake Water (m³/s)

9.0 9.0
8.0 8.0
7.0 7.0
6.0 6.0
5.0 5.0
4.0 4.0
y = 0.0007x + 2.5386
3.0 3.0 R = 0.7738
y = 0.0005x + 1.105
2.0 R = 0.8386 2.0
1.0 1.0
0.0 0.0
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000
Irrigation Area (ha) Irrigation Area (ha)

Figure 2.4 Correlation between Irrigated Area and Intake Water in Existing PMS Irrigation Projects２)

(3) Determination of Location of Main Irrigation Canal and Intake Sites

Firstly, the existing irrigation canal network in the irrigation beneficiary area should be confirmed to
determine the connection point, while the elevation is measured by hand-held GPS or similar instrument.
Then, the water level during the dry season or the ground height near the water intake point at the potential
water intake site selected as in Section 2.2 should be measured, also by GPS. Based on each elevation, a
sufficient canal slope should be secured from the potential water intake site to the connection point, and it
should be checked whether water can be conveyed by gravity. The canal slope shall be 1/670 to 1/1,670 (I
= 0.0015 to 0.0006) to prevent both erosion and sediment deposition in the canal (see Section 4.3). Since
the specifications of intake gate such as the design intake level (see Chapter 4) would not yet be decided at
this stage, the plan should be on a conservative side- with as much room as possible. In case that there is not
enough canal slope, it would be necessary to carry out the detailed planning, as described in Chapter 4.
The layout route of the main irrigation canal connecting the water intake point and the connection point of
the irrigation beneficiary area should be tentatively decided to be as short as possible in consideration of the
surrounding land use, residential area, and possibility of land acquisition. Decision should be made through
discussions, and consensus should be formed with the local communities.
Even at this stage, it is important for the project implementation entities/persons to continue to walk
around and check the site. This takes time and requires physical strength. In order to work on the irrigation
project, which is a project that will significantly change the local community, it is useful to walk around and
check the site in detail.

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 Elevation at the water edge
(Intake Site) during drought season (or (Irrigation Beneficiary Area)
ground height)

Distance：L1

Elevation
difference Distance：L2
Distance：L1
Slope：1.5‰ Elevation
Distance：L2 difference
Elevation at the starting point of Slope：1.0‰
the existing canal network Elevation at irrigation
beneficiary area

Eleva tion difference at the intake site and the starting point of the existing canal network (m) ＞0.0015 x L1
Elevation difference at the starting point of the existing canal network and irrigation beneficiary area (m) ＞0.001 x L2

Figure 2.5 Relationship between Water Intake Site and the Irrigation Beneficiary Area２)

2.3.4 | Expected Results of the PMS Method Irrigation Project

The assumed irrigation project effect is mainly shown by the effect of the irrigation land area calculated above. If
possible, the irrigation beneficiary population should be estimated from the number of households in each village in
the irrigation beneficiary area and the population per household (PMS assumes 10 people per household). However, it
may be difficult to grasp the demographics in Afghanistan. Therefore, the estimation should be for reference only. If it
is difficult to grasp it from the interview, it should be estimated from the irrigated land area, assuming that one family
can usually live on a 0.3 hectares of cultivated land. There was a case where this method was applied, when planning the
Marwarid II Irrigation Canal. In addition, as the ripple effect of the existing PMS irrigation project such as promoting
the return of refugees has been grasped, this can be used as reference in assuming the effect of the irrigation project.
Since it takes time for the effects of productivity and agricultural income to appear, they are estimated considering the
project period. By hiring farmers for the construction work, it is expected that their income would increase at that time
and their capacity would be improved by learning, for example, how to repair maintenance facilities and the like.
The economic effect is the increase in farmers' income due to the growth in agricultural output. Interview with
farmers should be conducted, and quantitative evaluation should be made, based on the expansion of irrigation area,
improvement of cropping intensity and increase of the crop yield per unit.
Irrigation projects usually have lower benefits compared to the costs invested, and it can be difficult to evaluate a
project solely on investment efficiency. If that is the case, it is necessary to evaluate the project in consideration of basic
human needs, poverty reduction, peacebuilding, social effects, etc.

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 Text Block 2-5: Achievement of the Existing PMS Irrigation Project
(Created based on the text by Dr. Tetsu Nakamura)

PMS achieved for stable irrigation by 2020 in the areas shown in the table below. The information in
the table is about intake weirs constructed by PMS based on (1) the land area calculated with satellite
map, and (2) the number of households in each village in the basin based on the interview with the water
gatekeeper. These numbers were consistent with the impression of PMS.
The irrigated arable land area of weirs/main canals and the cultivated arable land area of the entire county
do not match because of the overlapping water systems. The total of the county cultivated arable land is
close to the actual situation. Even in the existing arable lands, there are many areas where productivity
had not increased due to unstable water supply and the occasional flood damage. Currently there are
many areas where double and triple cropping became possible with stable irrigation.
Accurate grasp of demographics is difficult in Afghanistan. This is because (1) difficulty keeping accurate
records, and (2) population migration freely occurs between the Kashkot area of Kama and Sheiwa
Districts and the northwestern autonomous region of Pakistan where virtually no border exists. The
movement may be seasonal or due to political turmoil, but the main reason is that they cannot live
on farming in the area and escape in search of jobs. In fact, explosive increase in population has been
observed when stable irrigation is achieved. Therefore, as far as eastern Afghanistan is concerned, a
considerable number of so-called Afghan refugees may reasonably be called as economic refugees or
environmental refugees due to drought strikes.
Table: Achievements of the Existing PMS Irrigation Project 1)

Intake Illrigated District Population

Weir Construction Name of Administrative Irrigated area arable cultivated that can be Projec
No. period weir division (Village group) land arable be self- cost(US$)
area（ha） land area（ha） employed
Sheiwa, Shigi,
1 2003∼2010 Marwarid Gamberi, 3,000 16,496,529＊1
Right bank of Slam poor, Shetrau 3,500
2 2007∼2008 Sheiwa Sheiwa Sheiwa 500 −
Approx.
3 2014∼2015 Shigi Shigi upstream 600 324,109
200,000
Bal-Kashkot people
4 2012∼2014 Kashkot 1,700 3,110,116
Left bank of Kuz-Kashkot
2,500
5＊2 2016∼2018 MarwaridⅡ Sheiwa Kachara, Koti, 3,343,945
Taran, Bela 814
5 2018∼2020 MarwaridⅡ 2,063,469
6 2011∼2012 Qasimabad Western Behsud 2,500
500 3,787,076＊3
2011∼2012 Tapu Behsud, Tapu (Integrated to Approx.
(abolished） Behsud Miran in 2016） 3,500 150,000
2010∼2012 Behsud 1,100 people
Embankment Eastern Behsud (After 3,371,980
integrating
7 2014∼2016 Miran Tapu 1,600)
8 2008∼2010 KamaⅠ Kama high area 1,500 -
9 2010∼2012 KamaⅡ Kama middle low 5,500
area Approx.
Rehabilitation Kama 7,000 300,000
2017∼2019 work of people 789,622
KamaⅠ& II
Weirs
Approx.
Total of three counties 16,500 650,000 33,286,846
peopl
＊1 ; The budget for Marwarid I Weir includes all construction, until 2012, of 25 km of main canal, 50-60 km of
Implemented as PMS independent project
drainage channel, 30 km of diversion channel, Kama I Weir, Sheiwa Weir, and development of Gamberi Desert.
＊ 2; The Marwarid II Weir project was implemented as a JICA joint project for the first phase (Oct. 2016 - JICAjoint project
Sep.2018) and as an independent PMS project for the second phase (Oct.2018 - Dec.2020).
＊3; This includes the cost of the construction of Kama II Weir in 2010-2012.

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 Text Block 2-6: Assumption of Economic Outcomes of the Existing PMS Irrigation Projects
(Created based on the text by Dr. Tetsu Nakamura) 3)

The Green Ground Project states that the expenses will be recovered in 2 to 3 years based on the yield of
wheat, and the effect will continue every year. Due to issues such as distribution and maintenance costs,
it does not go as calculated, but it is a great investment. In addition, if it contributes to the stability of
public security and the reduction of illness, it will lead to the reduction of a huge public burden. If food
prices fall due to increased production, farmers nominal income and GDP will fall, but since they are
domestic consumption (self-sufficiency), they will be able to eat for the time being, and people s lives will
be stable.

2.3.5 | Outline of Facility Construction Cost, Annual Operation/Maintenance Cost and

Project Period
(1) Facility Construction Cost of A PMS Method Irrigation Project
The specifications and construction costs of the existing PMS irrigation projects are shown in Table 2.3.
According to this table, the facility construction cost per unit irrigated area is USD 540 to 6,643 per hectare
depending on whether the project is a new project or a restoration project, or on what kind of facilities
are constructed such as the length of revetments and dikes. Among the existing PMS irrigation projects,
the Marwarid Irrigation Project and Marwarid II Irrigation Project were new projects with comparatively
long main irrigation canals of 25.71 km and 5.55 km including 8 km revetment works, and their facility
construction costs per unit irrigated area of USD 3,299 and 6,643 per hectare were comparatively high.
The facility construction costs per unit irrigated area of all existing PMS irrigation projects is approximately
USD 2,000 per hectare. The one except Marwarid Irrigation Project and Marwarid II Irrigation Project is
approximately USD 1,000 per hectare.
This figure can be considered as an approximate facility construction cost per unit irrigated area in the PMS
method irrigation project 8), and can be used as a guide for the estimation of construction cost for now.
Table 2.3 Specifications and Construction Costs of Existing PMS Irrigation Projects1)

Irrigated Facility Facility Construction

Main Irrigation
Name of Weir Cultivated Construction Cost per Unit Irrigated
Canal Length (m)
Land (ha) Cost (USD) Area (USD/ha)
Marwarid*1 5,000 16,496,529 3,299 25,710
Shigi 600 324,109 540 200
Kashkot 1,700 3,110,116 1,829 1,992
Marwarid II 814 5,407,414 6,643 5,550
Qasimabad, Miran, KamaⅡ 9,600 7,159,056 746 1,720
Total 17,714 32,497,224 1,835 35,172
Total except Marwarid, Marwarid II 11,900 10,593,281 890 3,912
＊1 ; The irrigated cultivated land and the facility construction cost of Marwarid include the ones of Sheiwa and Kama

The reasons why the facility construction cost of the existing PMS irrigation projects is so low are listed
below. (Note that if a PMS method irrigation project is to be implemented by the government in the future,
the construction cost per unit area may increase by about 20% due to the following reasons and price
escalation due to economic development in Afghanistan.)
• Most of the construction materials required for irrigation facility construction such as boulders are
obtained directly in the vicinity of the construction site.

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 • In projects outsourced to private companies, as is a case of a government project, the profit of the
company such as indirect cost and overhead for maintaining the project activities is included. On the
other hand, in the existing PMS irrigation projects, PMS staffs were directly in charge of planning
and designing the facilities, and the PMS staffs and local residents jointly carried out the project
management process from construction to maintenance, which made the projects less expensive. Local
people and farmers are very good at handling stones. By breaking the stones in the area and packing
them into gabions, the knowledge that people currently have can be used.

(2) Annual Operation and Maintenance Costs

The annual operation and maintenance of the PMS method irrigation project is roughly divided into three
categories: (1) Direct labor of beneficiary farmers in general daily maintenance, (2) Small scale repair
and construction of new facilities by farmers (skilled work groups) who acquired basic civil engineering
techniques, and (3) Daily water management by Mirabs (water gatekeepers). The costs required for
operation and maintenance are basically covered by the project beneficiary farmers as mentioned below.
As a result, the ownership of irrigation facilities by beneficiary farmers strengthens, and sustainable
maintenance can be expected.
1) Direct labor of beneficiary farmers regarding daily maintenance in general: A typical maintenance work
is regular dredging of sediment deposited in irrigation facilities. In addition, beneficiary farmers are also
in charge of other general daily maintenance work that can be carried out by farmers' direct labor. All of
these are carried out by direct labor of the irrigation beneficiary farmers therefore there is practically no
cost. However, large-scale damage requires large-scale repairs. Therefore, it is necessary for the government
(or the local community) to always prepare the budget required for eventual large-scale repairs.
2) Small-scale repair/construction of new facilities by farmers (skilled work groups) who have acquired
basic civil engineering techniques: When small-scale repair/construction work such as repair of weirs
and gates damaged by flood or construction of new irrigation canals is required, skilled work groups
is engaged. Group members usually live locally as farmers, so that work can be started immediately as
necessary. As a reward, beneficiary farmers are provided with settlements and reclaimed lands where they
are encouraged to lead a self-sufficient life on farming on a daily basis. This skilled work group usually
consists of farmers whose livelihood is farming. They can develop their skills while being engaged in
construction projects and those with particularly high abilities will form a skilled work group.
3) Daily water management by Mirabs (water gatekeepers): The Mirab is in charge of daily operation
and management of gates of irrigation facilities and perform tasks related to water distribution. In the
irrigation project area, existing or new water users associations (irrigation associations), consisting of
beneficiary farmers, hire Mirabs, collect association fees from beneficiary farmers according to their
beneficiary land area, and pay wages to the Mirabs. Payments to Mirabs are not necessarily monetary;
payments with crops are also permitted (see Subsection 7.1.7 for details). When establishing a new
association and starting the operation and maintenance of irrigation facilities, it is necessary for project
implementation entities/persons to provide support for about three years.

(3) Large-Scale Disaster Recovery Costs

In Afghanistan, when the irrigation facility is damaged after completion, due to a large-scale natural disaster,
in some cases the damage is left unrecovered and irrigated agriculture cannot be implemented, which
is one of the major issues with irrigation projects in Afghanistan. Large-scale disaster recovery requires
a huge amount of money, which is often impossible to be provided by beneficiary farmers (unlike the
above-mentioned annual operation and maintenance cost). The necessary costs then must be borne by the
project implementation entities/persons (relevant government agencies). In Afghanistan, it is difficult to
immediately cover the cost of recovery from a large-scale disaster. However, since facilities of any irrigation
project can be damaged, a certain percent (for example, 10%) of contingency budget should be included in

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 each irrigation project cost for disaster recovery during and after the construction work. This is a temporary
proposal, while a new mechanism for disaster recovery costs is required.

(4) Project Period

The project periods of the existing PMS irrigation projects are shown in Figure 2.6. It took about two years
or more to construct an intake weir. Construction of small-scale intake weirs and small scale intakes can
be done in a single year, but an intake network which involves construction of a long main irrigation canal,
requires a construction period of three or more years. In order to improve the maintenance capacity of the
beneficiaries, the project implementation entities/persons provide capacity development programs for at
least three years after the completion of construction work. As shown in the figure below, this maintenance
period of the existing PMS irrigation projects was initially around five years, but at present, it can be reduced
to around three years because the PMS irrigation method was gradually refined over time.

Name of Weir Location

2003
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
∼10
see footnote
Marwarid Jaribaba, Kunar Province (１）
see (２） see (3） see(4) see (5) see(6)

Sheiwa Kanrey, Sheiwa District, Nangarhar

Kama Ⅰ Upper Kama District, Nangarhar Improving
weir

Kama Ⅱ Lower Kama District, Nangarhar Improving

weir

Qasimabad Qasimabad, Behsud District, Nangarhar

Tapu Tapu, Behsud District, Nangarhar Discontinued and integrated into Miran Weir

Kashkot Kashkot, Sheiwa District, Nangarhar

Miran Miran, Behsud District, Nangarhar
Shigi Shigi, Sheiwa District, Nangarhar
Marwarid II Kachara, Sheiwa District, Nangarhar
Bar Kashkot Bar Kashkot, Sheiwa District, Nangarhar

Gamberi Supply and Drainage canal

Gamberi Farm
Miran training center (Dissemination program of PMS
intake method）
Maintenance period (1) Shigi Extension (2) Sand Basin repair (3) Completion of Main Canal
Implementation period (4) re-lining (5) Drainage of Shigi branch (6) re-lining

Figure 2.6 Existing PMS Irrigation Project Periods 1)

2.3.6 | Consensus-Building on Land Acquisition and Sufficient Compensation

The project implementation entities/persons, communities and farmers need to forge an agreement on land
acquisition based on dialogue and consultation. The project implementation entities/persons should define the
size of land required for the construction of irrigation facilities, such as the main irrigation canal, and convey
the information to the local communities. The local communities should coordinate with the farmers the
acquisition process, based on prevalent law and local customs. Specifically, the project implementation entities/
persons should indicate to the local communities the main irrigation canal layout route, along with the width
of the land strip required, as outlined in Subsection 2.3.3(3), and support the local communities in this process,
initially around five years. This support period at present can be reduced to around three years, because the
PMS irrigation method was gradually refined over time. Service roads are required along the main irrigation
canals and drainage canals, and this should be remembered to add the required width to the canal area span. It
is essential to maintain public interest prioritized compared to personal interests, but it is also necessary to give
consideration, care, and support including sufficient compensation to the residents, if their livelihood is at risk,
as a result of necessary land acquisition for the project.

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 2.3.7 | Examination of Impact (Risk) on Surrounding Areas
The hydraulic impact on upstream and downstream river stretches, on the left and right riverbanks, and
the impact on the ecosystem caused by the intake of irrigation water in the PMS method irrigation project
should be investigated and confirmed. If there is a concern about the impact being significant, the project
implementation entities/persons and local communities in the beneficiary area should work together to
develop effective measures to avoid or mitigate the impact. The project implementation entities/persons and
the representatives of the beneficiary areas should explain the adverse effects of the project and the required
countermeasures to the representatives of the affected areas. This is followed by establishment of agreement on
implementation of the PMS method irrigation project. If an unpredictable hydraulic impact occurs, the project
implementation entities/persons, representatives in the beneficiary area, and the representatives of affected areas
should discuss and coordinate with each other actions necessary to resolve the problem. Since cooperation with
the local community is essential for such negative impacts, it is important to engage in dialogue with the local
community carefully (taking time) and build a solid relationship based on mutual trust.

(1) Hydraulic Impact on Upstream and Downstream, Opposite Bank, and Other Sectors
By conducting an interview survey with the community, the situation of ethnic/village conflicts can be
understood. The effects and the situation worsening can be predicted, and measures can be taken to prevent
the situation from worsening, from the following viewpoints:
• It should be checked whether irrigation water intake by the PMS method irrigation project will affect
various water use on the downstream of the river. If there is a significant impact, consultations with the
affected community are conducted, in order to coordinate actions and reach an agreement.
• It should also be necessary to evaluate the river flow condition on the upstream/downstream/opposite
bank area and the impact on existing structures due to the construction of new intake weirs and flood
control works such as dikes and spur dikes. Any effects to the flow and conditions should be explained
to and coordinated with representatives of villages in the affected upstream/downstream/opposite
bank areas, and countermeasures are to be considered. In particular, one should be aware that the
opposite bank may be eroded after the installation of spur dikes. Also, one should be aware that if a weir
is constructed in a location where the river flow heads toward the opposite bank, the negative impact
on the opposite bank may be increased.
• The possibility of wetlands creation due to release of the surplus irrigation water is confirmed with
topography check and interview on the downstream area of the irrigation target area. If there is a risk of
wetlands creation, the water utilization plan should be re-examined, or the necessity of drainage canal
construction is assessed.

(2) Impact on the Ecosystem and Cultural Properties

In implementing the PMS method irrigation project, based on the Environmental Law of Afghanistan 9),
the relocation of residents and the impact on the ecosystem and cultural properties should be confirmed.
If there are concerns about significant impacts on the ecosystem or cultural properties, it is necessary to
formulate and implement measures to mitigate the impacts. Following are some potential impacts:
• The project area is not located within the protected area stipulated by national law and international
treaties. The project will not affect the protected area or cultural properties.
• The project area does not include habitats for ecologically important plants and animals or cultural
properties.
• The project area does not include habitats for valuable species that need protection under national laws
and international treaties.
• The project may not cause loss of a breeding ground or feeding ground for valuable wildlife.
• There is not an impact on the habitat of wildlife due to overgrazing and deterioration of the ecosystem
such as desertification.

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 • The construction work is not likely to have an adverse effect on the natural environment or cultural
properties.

2.3.8 | Allocation of Roles in Construction, Operation and Maintenance of Irrigation Facilities

During constructing of irrigation facilities, the roles and responsibilities of the project implementation
entities/persons, local communities and farmers shall be clarified and performed in collaboration with each
other. As shown in Figure 2.7, the community and the farmers themselves are responsible for construction of
irrigation and drainage canals in the farmlands. On the other hand, project implementation entities/persons
are responsible for river structures (weirs, water gates, irrigation and drainage canals along rivers and flood
control works, etc.) and main/tributary irrigation and drainage canals. The residents and farmers of the local
community are required to provide labor and earn wages as workers and field craftsmen, and to acquire basic
civil engineering techniques on the PMS method irrigation project (see Section 1.7). It is important to be
always aware that local residents and farmers are skilled workers in handling stones. The project implementation
entities/persons should be responsible for developing skills of workers and craftsmen. In this way, the PMS
method irrigation project has the character of a joint endeavor between local communities and the project
implementation entities/persons.
After the construction is completed, small-scale repair of major structures such as river structures and operation
and maintenance of irrigation and drainage canals should be carried out by the farmers organizations and water
users associations (irrigation associations). During this period the project implementation entities/persons
support and develop capacity on water distribution management and facility repair/maintenance, utilizing
basic civil engineering techniques for three years after the construction of the irrigation facilities. After that, the
irrigation facilities are to be handed over to the local community for their proper operation and maintenance.
If large-scale repairs are required due to flood damage, etc., the project implementation entities/persons either
should spend the contingency budgets or implement a restoration work as a new project. PMS secures a budget
for maintenance every year and accumulate it in anticipation of possible large-scale restoration works.
Construction
Construction

Project implementation Water users

entities
Project /persons
implementation associations/farmers
Water users
entities /persons associations/farmers

Operation and Maintenance

Operation and Maintenance
Water user associations/farmers/Mirabs
Water user associations/farmers/Mirabs

(Project implementation entities /persons

for mainly
(Project Large-scale repair/restoration）
implementation entities /persons
for mainly Large-scale repair/restoration）
Figure 2.7 Allocation of Roles of Entities/Persons during Construction, Operation and Maintenance2)

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 2.3.9 | Security and Safety
In order to ensure security in the areas where a PMS method irrigation project is implemented, it is important
to keep a neutral position and obtain support from Shura and Jirgas and the government. Security and safety are
discussed with the local communities starting from the basic concept stage, so that the movement of people can
be determined accurately, and that safety measures are strengthened by making the best use of kinship among
regions. It is also beneficial when the regions are stabilized, in cooperation with the government.
Rural areas populated by a single tribe or with territorial/blood ties, as well as the dignity of village heads and
elders are often well-ordered. After confirming such social conditions in the local communities targeted for the
project, the support for ensuring security and safety from Shura and Jirgas, etc. is obtained based on customs.
In other words, if the irrigation facility is important to the local community, there may be an offer from the
local community to ensure safety. Such an offer would be a clear statement of local community s need for the
irrigation project. If the circumstances are such that it becomes difficult to ensure security and safety, the project
should be suspended, or security should be strengthened by the project implementation entities/persons.
Under these circumstances, it would be necessary for the staff and workers to be guarded when moving to and
from the sites.
Finally, it is important for the project to hire capable local personnel to facilitate communication with the local
communities, and it is necessary to maintain public interest so that the irrigation project does not contribute
to the promotion of personal interest. Careful operation should be made not to upset the social balance of the
area.

2.3.10 | Construction of Water Wheels, and Demonstration Farm as Ancillary Projects

If necessary, water wheels are installed to distribute water to areas where irrigation water cannot be drawn by
gravity, even when located along the main irrigation canal due to high elevation. This will also have a positive
impact by having farmers along the main irrigation canal cooperate in irrigation canal conservation. The water
wheels should be installed by project implementation entities/persons, and after several months of test run,
handed over to the residents who should be, in principle, responsible for maintenance works. However, when
installing water wheels, there should be diligent management, to avoid random installment of new wheels for
illegal water intakes.
Furthermore, the establishment of demonstration farms to promote balanced irrigated agriculture is also
recommended. (See Photo 2.7) In cases where crop productivity has not improved even after the development
of irrigation facilities, they may not have been utilized effectively and this will not lead to the promotion of
irrigated agriculture. Therefore, it is extremely important to disseminate technologies that effectively use
irrigation water and increase agricultural productivity.
The National Comprehensive Agriculture Development Priority Program 10) cites improving land and
water productivity through rational irrigation technology as an important issue to be promoted. In addition,
achieving and keeping the expected productivity is related to the livelihood of farmers and the motivation for
irrigation projects, which has a great influence on the sustainability of irrigation projects. In the future, it may be
essential to introduce materials and equipment which can save water, but at present, it is not possible to invest a
large amount of money in introducing such materials and equipment to individual farmers.
In recent years, PMS has been proving an effective method (see Chapter 8 for details) of irrigated agriculture
where ridge width is set wider and water is provided into the center of ridges. It is, therefore, possible to improve
irrigated agricultural technology of neighboring farmers by opening demonstration farms or establishing
training facilities in fields that can introduce such water-saving technologies. (See following Photos)

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 Photo 2.7 Examples of Demonstration Farm

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 CHAPTER

3
HOW SHOULD WATER SOURCE RIVERS BE
UNDERSTOOD?
Before starting a PMS method irrigation project, from what point of view do we need to
know the water source river?
Before planning and implementing a PMS method irrigation project, it is first necessary to study the
characteristics of the river which will serve as the water source. Rivers are constantly changing, and
phenomena such as floods and droughts occur. To construct irrigation facilities that can stably take water
from the river during both floods and droughts and to properly operate and maintain them, it is necessary
to first know the river conditions during floods and droughts. Therefore, existing data, information and
documents related to the target river basin and river channels are collected and studied. Interviews and
observations are locally conducted, and river surveys are also conducted for the planning and designing of
irrigation facilities. It is further essential to genuinely visit the site and observe it. Through these activities,
the specific conditions of the target river are confirmed as follows:
• Check river channel movement (stable streamway, flow direction, riverbed fluctuation) and sand
bar fluctuations (stable sand bar, erosion/sedimentation), and recognize a location where water can
be easily taken.
• Observe the river flow condition during floods and droughts, and identify locations where floods
are likely to occur, in particular where the flood force is likely to be concentrated and estimate how
much water can be extracted for irrigation purpose during droughts.
• Understand the water level, velocity and discharge of the river during flood and drought in order
to prevent overtopping and facility destruction due to floods and to allow irrigation water to be
extracted even during droughts.
The series of survey methods necessary for understanding these river conditions are explained in the
following pages.

 91

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 3.1 Why Should We Understand the River Conditions?

Before global warming effects became evident in river basins of Afghanistan, where rivers originate from
mountains below 4,500 m in altitude, snowfalls near the summit did not disappear even in summer, snowmelt
gradually recharged groundwater during spring, and rivers and groundwater at the foot of mountains remained
moist and saturated even in winter (during the drought period). Farmers used such river water and groundwater
as water source to irrigate farmlands by traditional irrigation facilities such as Jui (small irrigation canals from
small and medium-sized rivers) and Karez (underground drain which conveys water from ground canals to
the surface). However, since the 1990s, global warming has become remarkable, and snow cover regularly
disappears in summer, causing precipitation to flow all at once without underground being recharged. As a
result, some rivers run out of water in summer, groundwater level dropped significantly, and water intake by Jui
and Karez became difficult, which has in turn become a matter of life and death for the farmers (See Figure 3.1).
The only way to deal with these problems was to deepen and restore the Karez, or construct dams/reservoirs.
When these measures are not possible, farmers have to focus on agriculture at a certain period during the year.
On the other hand, in large river basins headed by mountains with elevations above 4,500 m, the snowline does
not disappear in summer and a certain amount of water still flows in rivers during winter. In these situations,
irrigation water can still be taken at the gate. The snowline gradually rises in summer (the flood season) and the
melting snow result in flows into rivers. However, due to the impact of global warming, the snowline suddenly
rises in summer, and sudden snowmelts can cause serious floods. Therefore, when targeting large rivers as water
sources, it has become an important issue to anticipate and minimize flood damage, while still ensuring a stable
water intake.
In order to safely and stably take the necessary irrigation water from the rivers during both flood season and
drought season, it is necessary to have an intake weir which raises the water level of the river, and an intake gate.
To protect these structures and farmlands from floods, levees, revetments, and flood control works are also
necessary. Such irrigation facilities and flood control facilities are constructed in river channels or adjacent to
rivers. Therefore, in order to plan and design safe and stable structures, it is essential to understand the river
conditions during flood and drought periods. In addition, when a structure is constructed in the river, the
river flow on the left and right banks upstream and downstream of the structure will be affected, and the river
conditions will change. Furthermore, when water is extracted from rivers, flow conditions downstream change.
The decrease of discharge especially in winter may in turn affect downstream water use.
Based on the above, the river conditions which should be comprehended in the PMS method irrigation project
and the method of grasping them are as summarized in Table 3.1. Firstly, the existing information is collected,
organized, and analyzed. Then, interviews and observations are conducted on-site, to understand the river
conditions. Finally, river surveys for planning and designing the facilities are conducted. When conducting the
above observations and surveys, it is important to consider the ways to utilize the obtained information and
data, for planning, designing, constructing and maintaining the irrigation projects.

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 Table 3.1 River Conditions to be Comprehended and How to Grasp Them1)

River Conditions to be Comprehended How to Grasp River Conditions

•River basin conditions •Collection and organization of existing information

Flood and drought runoff characteristics and The existing information such as satellite images such as
groundwater recharge conditions are analyzed by Google Maps, existing topographic maps, digital
understanding the topography and visitation, etc. in the elevation models, geological maps, hydromet
river basins. In addition, what kind of water resources are information, water rights, and river structures is collected
being used, such as the existence of irrigated areas, cities and organized.
and villages in the river basin, and land use conditions are •Interview survey among residents
Be sure to go to the site and interview at the site. For local
grasped. situations and flood conditions, record interview
•River channel conditions information along with location information (latitude
Necessary information is obtained for facility planning and longitude, etc.) and local photos. In addition, various
and designing, such as checking river channel information is collected and organized. Then, their
fluctuations (stable streamway, flow direction, riverbed consistency is confirmed, and the accuracy of interviews
fluctuations) and sandbar fluctuations (stable sandbars, is confirmed.
sediment erosion / sedimentation), and grasping sites •Observation and measurement of river conditions and
where water intake is easy. their arrangement
•River flow conditions (flood and drought conditions) Existing information and interviews are often inadequate,
By grasping water level, velocity, and discharge of the and field observations and measurements are especially
river during floods and droughts, the river flow important for understanding river conditions. In order to
conditions are clarified. It is analyzed where flooding is grasp the constantly changing river conditions, it is
likely to occur, where the flood force is likely to necessary to visit the site on a regular basis and grasp the
concentrate, and how much water can be taken during situation at that time. In particular, it is important for the
droughts. It is utilized for facility planning and designing. person in charge of the project to visit and observe the
river and flow conditions both during floods and
The sediment transport volume and particle size and droughts. Results of observations and measurements are
water quality are grasped. organized using photos and sketches.
•Impact of river structure construction on river flow •River survey and survey study
and channel The cross-sectional survey, the profile survey, and the
The impact on the structures located on the upstream / topographic survey of rivers are performed, and drawings
downstream and left and right banks, river channels and are created. A riverbed material survey is also important
landside areas of the newly constructed river structures in for understanding river channel characteristics. Based on
the PMS method irrigation project is analyzed. In these materials, the hydraulic parameters of rivers are
particular, the new generation of flood inundation examined by non-uniform flow calculation.
occurrence due to backwater (rise of water level) at the
upstream by weir construction are carefully assessed.
•Impact of irrigation water extraction on downstream
water use
Investigate the water rights registered with The National
Water Affairs Regulation Authority (NWARA) Water
Rights Bureau, grasp the current water use situation near
the water intake point, and plan new irrigation water
intake above the water intake point. Carefully consider
whether it will affect water use on the downstream and
left and right banks, especially on the downstream side,
and coordinate with relevant parties.
The water rights registered in the Department of Water
Right of NWARA are investigated and the present water
use situation near the intake site is grasped. Then, the
planned new water intake for irrigation is carefully
studied, specially whether it affects the water use on the
upstream/downstream and the left/right banks. It is
coordinated with the stakeholders.

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 Over 4,500m
Lower than 4,500m
Melted snow gushes into minor
rivers in summer Sudden rise of snowline
in summer
Evening showers
Less water absorbed Random downpour
into the ground Rapid snow melting

Karez
depletes
Mountain foot villages Big river
Underground stream Floods > Extremely
decreases Well low water level
Water level lowers

Intake from big river

unstable

Villages along river

Figure 3.1 Water Cycle in River Basins After Severe Climate Change in Afghanistan3)

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 3.2 Collection and Organization of Existing Information
3.2.1 | River Basin Condition
The conditions of the subject river basin are investigated. The characteristics of flood runoff in the flood season,
the baseflow runoff in the drought season, and the conditions of the recharge of precipitation to groundwater
are all analyzed and used as essential data for planning, designing, constructing and maintaining the irrigation
projects. The survey target elements and main survey contents are as follows:
[Topography] Mountains, collapsed areas, valley plains, fans, floodplains, old river meanders, etc., are all
categorized topographically based on satellite images such as Google Maps, existing topographic maps 4) and
digital elevation models (DEM). Then, high potential areas of natural disaster risks (such as flood inundation
and landslides) are identified and this information is used as essential data for water intake site identification. In
addition, the basin boundaries of the main river and major tributaries, basin area, major mountain ranges and
elevations, water sources, water systems (main rivers and major tributaries), etc. within the target river basin are
investigated. These fundamental data are required for hydrological cycle and river flow analysis to be described
in the following survey element [hydrometeorology]. In addition, the information on cities, villages, access
roads, etc., near the target river, all of which are necessary for the field survey, are confirmed.
[Geology] The geology of the target river basin is roughly reviewed and a preliminary survey on water
retention in the basin is conducted based on the existing geological maps of the United States Geological
Survey (USGS)5), Afghanistan Geological Survey (AGS), Department of Geo-Engineering and Hydrogeology
(DGEH), etc., and field surveys. In general, river basins containing many geological features such as highly
permeable igneous rocks and conglomerates have high water retention capacity, which can replenish ground
water with precipitation, and one can expect more abundant river runoff during the drought season (which can
be used as irrigation water source). In the case of constructing an irrigation reservoir in the river basin with high
water retention capacity, it has been seen that it facilitates groundwater recharge around the reservoir which
helps to expand vegetation coverage. Furthermore, it can be expected to lead to the functional recovery of many
Karezes which have become unusable due to the decline of groundwater.
[Hydrometeorology] The hydrometeorological parameters and data such as temperature, precipitation, and
snowfall in the target river basin are established. Based on the above-mentioned topography and geological
information, the headwaters of the target river basin and the direction of river flow and groundwater recharge,
conditions are analyzed to grasp the outline of the hydrological cycle in the target river basin. In addition,
runoff characteristics such as the manner how the river flow responds to rainfall in the river basin and how
the river flow responds to snowmelt and temperature is understood. If necessary, runoff analysis and runoff
model formation is performed and analyzed. Furthermore, understanding meteorological conditions such
as precipitation is useful for setting work schedules and safety management for irrigation projects. The
meteorological data required for analysis are available from three agencies: 1) The Afghanistan Meteorological
Department under the Afghanistan Civil Aviation Authority (AMD); 2) The Ministry of Agriculture,
Irrigation and Livestock (MAIL); and 3) The National Water Affairs Regulation Authority (NWARA).
NWARA has the leading role as data source for river flows.
[Vegetation] According to Dr. Tetsu Nakamura of PMS, due to the climate change in Afghanistan, the natural
forest of cedar and walnuts which had spread like a belt near the snowline was thinned, and the number of
Sheesham (the evergreen broad-leaved tree of the legume family that grows naturally in South Asia) which was
seen in a small plain along the river has drastically decreased. This is contributing to the land becoming arid. In
respect for such situation, the time series vegetation change of the target river basin is confirmed based on the
Landsat satellite images and the 1/500,000 map of the Provincial Landcover Atlas of Afghanistan (FAO).
[River Water Quality] Regarding river water quality, it is important to confirm the effects of upstream
domestic effluent and irrigation drainage containing chemicals such as pesticides, etc., and it is also important
to confirm whether water suitable for irrigation can be obtained at the intake site. In particular, if there is a
concern that water quality deteriorates due to the development of towns and industries in the upstream and

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 neighboring areas, the present and future river water quality is thoroughly examined.
[Irrigation Facility] In Afghanistan, there are two main irrigation intakes: there is the Jui (small irrigation
canals from small and medium-sized rivers) and then there is a large-scale irrigation intake weir, reservoir,
dam, and pumping stations which were constructed with assistance from Russia, China, and the United States
before the 1970s. In addition, there are Karezes which bring groundwater to the surface. If these facilities exist
in the target river basin, the current usefulness of these facilities is confirmed. The necessity and suitability of a
new PMS method irrigation project is evaluated. Furthermore, it is confirmed that the PMS method irrigation
project should not reduce the effective functioning of existing irrigation structures.
[Flood Control Facility] In Afghanistan, there are flood control facilities such as dikes and revetments
constructed by existing projects. The existence of flood control facilities point to the fact that the area was
exposed to the threat of floods and thus flood control facilities were constructed. Therefore, the presence of
these facilities is confirmed, to assess the risk of flood inundation and the efficacy is verified. On the basis of
that, the necessity and appropriateness of measures for the PMS method irrigation project are evaluated.
[Land/Water Resource Use] The existence of irrigated areas, cities/villages and other land use conditions in
the target river basin is confirmed. In addition, it is verified what kind of water resources use there is. Lands
titles, etc., are confirmed from 1/5,000 public maps and land ownership survey maps of the Afghan Geodesy
and Cartography Head Office (AGCHO).

3.2.2 | River Channel Condition

(1) Classification and Characteristics of River Channel
Rivers can be classified into sections having similar characteristics, as shown in Table 3.2. Generally,
rivers have larger discharges, deeper water depths, gentler slope, and smaller bed materials particles in the
downstream sections. With these as reference, it is important to imagine in advance the characteristics of the
target river channel and its flow conditions. Afghanistan s river basins, which tend to be mountainous, are
roughly classified into mountainous areas and valley plains and the segments are under M, 1 and 2-1 in the
following table. For accurate classification, it is necessary to understand the characteristics of the target river
channel from river surveys and bed material surveys.

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 Table 3.2 River Channel Categories and Characteristics 2), see 6)

Segment M Segment 1 Segment 2 Segment 3

２-１ ２-２
← Mountainous → ← Alluvial fan →
Terrain ← Valley bottom plain →
classification ← Natural levee →
← Delta →
Representative
particle size of
Various 2cm or more ３㎝∼１㎝ １㎝∼0.3㎜ 0.3mm or less
riverbed material
dR
Sand and silt may ride
Riverbank on the surface layer, but
Often rocks on the A mixture of fine sand, silt and clay.
it is thin and is
constituent banks of the However, the lower part is the same as the Silt, clay
occupied by the same
materials riverbed riverbed material
substance as the
riverbed material.
Gradient guide Various １/60∼１/400 １/400∼１/5,000 １/5,000∼flat
Meandering is intense, but 8 character Some have large
Meandering Various little bending meandering or islands occur where the river meanders, others
width / depth ratio is large have small meanders

Riverbank Medium Weak

Very intense Very intense (The larger the riverbed material, the better (Most river channel do
erosion river channel moves) not move.)
Average depth of
Various 0.5∼３m ２∼８m ３∼８m
river channel
Green: Many Afghanistan river channels are categorized here.

(2) Understanding River Condition at Planned Sites of River Structure

Using topographic maps, Google maps, satellite images, etc. while referring to the characteristics of river
channels, the historical changes in meandering conditions and bank erosion are clarified. It should be
checked whether the river flow outside of the curved part is fixed, whether the river has changed from the
recent past to the present, whether the structures site is with the bedrock at the back, whether there is a
stable sandbar in the river, and whether the river is wide or narrow. In particular, the present location of the
streamway and changes in the past streamway are confirmed. These are important elements in determining
the site of intake weirs and intake gates.
When looking across the river channel, the deepest part is the streamway, which is the part where the
majority of the river water flows. The transition of the streamway in the Kunar River is shown in Figure
3.2 as obtained from a satellite image. This figure shows the site of the weir constructed under the existing
PMS irrigation project. It can be said that the streamway at the Marwarid I and II weirs and the Kama I and
II weirs are stable with little changes over time and are suitable for water intake. On the other hand, at the
Miran Weir, the streamway moved frequently, so that maintenance works, such as riverbed excavation is
essential for stable water conveyance to the intake.

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 There is little
transition of
streamway at the
weir site.

MarwaridⅠ

Sheiwa
Shigi

Marwarid Ⅱ

0 3km

Green point: Weir point

1984
1989
Meeran 1994
1999
2004
2009
2010
KamaⅠ 2014
2018
Kama Ⅱ

There is little Streamway at

transition of the weir site is
streamway at slightly
the weir site. fluctuating.

Figure 3.2 Transition of Streamway 2)

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 3.2.3 | River Flow Conditions during Flood and Drought
Information on river flow conditions during floods and droughts are collected and confirmed to ensure that
river structures can safely perform their full functions during floods and droughts. In addition, impacts of the
intake of irrigation water on the river flow conditions at the upstream and downstream, both along left and
right banks are analyzed and identified.

(1) Collection and Organization of Existing Hydrometeorological Data

Hydrometeorological data recorded at observation stations near the target area of the irrigation project are
collected and organized to check the flood and drought discharges. The parameters of hydrometeorological
data collected are precipitation, temperature, river water level, river discharge, etc. The agencies for
collection are as follows:
• Data such as daily precipitation and river discharges, as yearbooks of precipitation and discharges,
issued by NWARA. For reference, Figure 3.3 shows an example of the river flow chart and annual
fluctuation of the discharge graph. It includes statistical values such as annual maximum/minimum/
average/specific discharge. NWARA also organizes and summarizes the results of frequency analysis of
precipitation and discharge. Through the Project for Capacity Enhancement on Hydrometeorological
Information Management by the Japan International Cooperation Agency ( JICA-HYMEP)7) and
the Irrigation Restoration and Development Project by the World Bank (WB-IRDP) 8), NWARA has
developed hydromet stations throughout Afghanistan, stored data, conducted hydrometeorological
analysis, and established systems for observation, storage and disclosure of hydrometeorological data.
Moreover, the water levels for estimating the discharges have been measured.
• Meteorological data recorded at agromet stations under the control of MAIL and the weather stations
under the control of AMD.
• Past discharge data and hydrological frequency analysis results are available from USGS website 9).
Specifically, it should be noted that the discharge data up to the 1970s (maximum/minimum/average
monthly, discharge frequency analysis results, etc.) is old and may differ from the present situation.
A hydromet station near the target area of the irrigation project means the station closest to the planned
intake site. It is preferable that the station is within the same river basin. If there is no observation station in
the river basin, the data of observation stations in nearby basin is used, but attention is paid to the difference
in runoff characteristics in the river basins. As a general rule, the discharge at the planned intake site is
calculated from the discharge data at the observation station based on the river basin area ratio at both
sites, i.e., the discharge at the planned intake site is estimated from the specific discharge at the observation
station. The longest period of hydrometeorological data is collected as possible, at least, for the last 10 years
or more. If the discharge data is not in the vicinity, measuring the discharge for about one year is required
(see Subsection 3.4.2 for discharge observation). If the downstream locations which may affect water use at
irrigation water intake are distant or there is a confluence such as a tributary between them, the discharge
data at the downstream affected locations also is surveyed and estimated.

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 河川流量年表の例
Example of River Flow Yearbook

河川流量の年間変動図の例
Example of Annual Fluctuation Figure of River Flow
Figure 3.3 Example of River Flow Yearbook and Changes in Water Level
and Discharge of Rivers Over a Year 10)

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 Based on the long period daily discharges yearbook at the planned intake sites, an annual fluctuation
figure of river discharge is created, as shown in Figure 3.3, aimed to understand the annual fluctuation
characteristics of river discharge. That is, it is necessary to understand when and how much the river flow
increases, when it stops increasing and starts to decrease and how much it decreases. Furthermore, it is
necessary to check how much the discharge changes from year to year.
It is important to consider the mechanism of changes in water levels and discharges over a year. By carefully
and continuously observing rivers in the mountainous area, at the upstream of the river basin and the
surrounding areas, a hypothesis should be made which can explain the structure of water level and flow
changes over the year. It should be verified with data provided by public agencies and project-monitoring
findings. It is also necessary to pay attention to the effects of climate change, such as rising of the snowline
in the mountains during summer and the decreasing rainfalls. It is important to verify the hypothesis of the
mechanism of annual water levels and flows changes in the river, through existing data and continuous cycle
of observation and monitoring.
For example, in the Kunar River Basin, the accumulated snow in winter thaws from early spring to summer.
The Kunar River has abundant flow, and the river water level and flow from spring to summer can be roughly
predicted by observing the snowfall in winter. Through repeating these observations and verifications, it
became known that the Kunar River stabilizes the river flow when there is a lot of snowfall during the severe
winter season, and floods easily occur in the spring when there is much snowfall in late winter. Furthermore,
it is known that floods easily occur when the temperature is high.
On the other hand, a scientific approach based on measurement data is also important. It is possible to
estimate river discharges under various weather conditions and climate changes by performing runoff
simulations with computers, with modeling river basins and rivers. In this way, it is necessary to grasp the
river conditions by integrating local observation and monitoring with scientific knowledge.
To carry out the runoff simulation, it is necessary to establish rainfall, snowfall, and temperature data in the
basin. It is also necessary to estimate, not only the runoff of rainfall, but also the snowmelt runoff model,
based on the temperatures. If a runoff model including such snowmelt can be assembled, it is possible to
deepen the understanding of floods and droughts in the river basin. Future research is expected to improve
this approach.

(2) Organization of River Flow Condition

To know the fluctuation of the river flow and the profusion of water volume for one year, a flow duration
curve is created as shown in Figure 3.4. The flow duration curve is a sequence of discharge data for 365
days observed in a river, sorted in descending order. In Japan, there are the following four indicators which
represent river flow conditions. Globally, 75% (Q75) and 95% (Q95) of the horizontal axis of the flow
duration curve are often used as indicators of low and drought flow.
• High discharge: Discharge which occurs during less than 95 days (26%) through the year
• Normal discharge: Discharge which occurs during less than 185 days (51%) through the year
• Low discharge: Discharge which occurs during less than 275 days (75%) through the year
• Drought discharge: Discharge which occurs during less than 355 days (97%) through the year
From such river flow regime indices, it is understood how much (or less) a certain amount of discharge is
flowing in a certain river for a certain number of days, when a certain amount of irrigation water is taken,
and how much it is affected downstream. Similarly, by plotting the river water level data for one year in
descending order, it is possible to grasp the highwater level, normal water level, low water level, and drought
water level.

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 1500
Discharge in ㎥/s

1000

Equivalent to high flow

500

Equivalent to average flow

低水流量相当
Equivalent to low flow
Equivalent to drought flow
0
0 25 50 75 95 100
Percent of time exceeded (Cases used worldwide)

95 days 18days 275days 355days

(Case of Japan)

Figure 3.4 River Flow Duration Curve ２)

(3) River Flow at the Time of Flood

How often (once in how many years) and how much flood flow will likely occur in the target area can
be understood by performing frequency analysis of river flood flow. As shown in Figure 3.5, the relation
between flood discharge and return period can be graphed to show flood discharge against the probability
scale. The lower horizontal axis shows the probability of occurrence, the upper one shows the return period,
and the vertical axis shows the flood discharge. In the figure, the flood discharge with a 10-year return
period (once in 10 years) is approximately 2,000 ㎥/s. If the slope of this line is steep, it means that the flood
discharge varies greatly depending on the return period. Also adverse, if the slope is gentle, it indicates that
the flood discharge does not change so much depending on the return period. In general, large rivers have a
gentle slope, and small/medium rivers have a steep slope of the flood duration curve.
When a long period of hydrometeorological data is available, generally, a target return period is set
to determine the design flood discharge. Then, flood control facilities and structures are planned and
designed. However, if there are very few data, the probable flood discharge obtained as above is not reliable.
Therefore, in the PMS method irrigation project in Afghanistan, in situations where hydrometeorological
information has not been sufficiently recorded, the water level and discharge at the time of maximum flood
are confirmed based on interview with residents regarding the maximum flood and the flood marks from
the past. Then, planning and designing river structures is performed in such a way that the system would be
flood resilient, able to withstand high floods which occurred at the river in the past. Even if there is a little
flood data, it is possible to get a rough indication as to what year the probability of the past maximum flood
was by drawing a probabilistic flood discharge graph as shown in Figure 3.5.
As described above, when using probabilistic flood discharges for planning and designing, it is necessary to
fully consider the number and accuracy of data obtained, and the possibility of flood characteristics which
differ from past trends due to climate change and human influences.

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 Return Period
Probability year
1.0 1.1 2 5 10 50100 500 10000
10000
Discharge in ㎥/s

Flood
Discharge

1000

100
0.9999 0.999 0.99 0.9 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.02 0.05 0.001 0.000
Probability

Figure 3.5 Estimation of Probabilistic Flood Discharge２)

(4) River Flow at the Time of Drought

River flow at the time of draught is grasped as to how often (once in how many years) and how much
discharge may decrease in the target area by conducting a frequency analysis of drought discharge. Similar to
the river flow during floods described above, the drought discharges for each probability scale is calculated
by graphing the relationship between drought discharge and return period as shown below. The drought
discharge (which occurs once in five years) is approximately 80 ㎥/s in this case.

Return Period
Probability year
1.0 1.1 2 5 10 50 100 500 1000
1000
Discharge in ㎥/s

100
Drought Discharge

10
0.9999 0.999 0.99 0.9 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.02 0.05 0.001 0.000
Probability
Figure 3.6 Estimation of Probabilistic Drought Discharge ２)

(5) Impacts of New River Structures on River Channels and River Flows
When river structures, such as intake weir and spur dikes are constructed, they affect riverbanks and river
flows, more or less, somewhere on the left/right banks, or upstream/downstream stretches. Therefore, the
situation related to the following structures, river channels and landside areas located on the left and right
banks, upstream and downstream of the PMS method irrigation facility planned site are understood and
arranged in advance:
• Existing or planned river structures (irrigation facilities, intake gates, spur dikes, dikes, revetment
works, etc.).

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 • Topography, geology and land use conditions of river channels and landside areas which are considered
vulnerable during floods.
Based on this information, the impact on other structures, river channels and landside areas of the newly
constructed river structures in the PMS method irrigation project is analyzed. For example, the possibility
of increasing the water level on the left and right banks/upstream and downstream, changing the flow, and
promoting erosion with the construction of intake weirs and spur dikes are examined. In particular, the new
generation of flood inundation occurrence due to backwater (rise of water level) at the upstream by weir
construction are carefully assessed.

3.2.4 | Impact of New Water Intake on Downstream Water Use

When irrigation water is abstracted, the discharge downstream of the intake always decreases. In addition, if
the upstream water use increases, the water intake of the irrigation project may be affected. To understand such
impacts, firstly, the water rights registered in the Department of Water Right of NWARA are investigated and
the present water use situation at upstream/downstream and left/right banks (who, where and how much water
is taken) is grasped. Then, the planned new water intake for irrigation is carefully studied, specially whether it
affects the water use on the upstream/downstream and the left/right banks. Furthermore, the fluctuation of
river flow over the year is grasped to confirm whether the intake is relatively small, compared to the river flow.
Specifically, studies are conducted, and the results evaluated as described below. The reduction of water volume
should be evaluated by making a diagram such as shown in Figure 3.7 which indicates the planned drought
discharges and the planned water intake volumes, inflow of tributaries, and return flows from irrigation canals
and irrigated farmland, etc. If new water use has a large impact on the downstream flow, the local situation
is carefully checked and adjusted based on laws and customs with coordination among representatives of
downstream water users and relevant government agencies (NWARA, MAIL, MRRD, etc.). In some cases, it is
necessary to take flexible measures such as reducing the amount of new water intake, increasing the number of
reservoirs, or incorporating downstream water use into the project. The PMS method irrigation project does
not assume new water resources development, such as dams and large-scale reservoirs.

River
Planned Drought Discharge
100
Weir① Design intake amount 5 ㎥/s
Weir② Design intake amount 5 ㎥/s
90

Weir③ Design intake amount 10 ㎥/s

80

Inflow of tributaries 7 ㎥/s Return flow from irrigation canals and

irrigated farmland 3 ㎥/s
90

Hydrological observation station

Weir④ Design intake amount 5 ㎥/s

85

Figure 3.7 Assessment of Impacts of New Water Intake on Downstream Water Use２)

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 3.3 Interview Survey with Residents

Residents living near the target area often know the river condition during floods and droughts. Therefore,
interview survey with residents is conducted to collect and organize various river information useful for the
PMS method irrigation project, such as river water levels and depth of fluctuations, flow and water levels during
floods and droughts, and flood inundation situations.

3.3.1 | Methods of Interview with Residents

Interviews are conducted with as many residents as possible by targeting the village heads, elders, residents and
boatmen near the planned construction site, intake weir, intake gate, flood control facilities, and the beneficiary
village heads, elders and representatives of Mirab and WUA (IA) who are familiar with the past and present
local and river conditions. Table 3.3 shows the interview survey target areas, target persons, recording methods
and survey items required for such interviews with residents. Table 3.4 gives an example of a survey form of the
interview with residents which can be used when conducting an interview survey.

Table 3.3 Methods and Utilization of Interviews Survey with Residents ２)

Interview survey target Vicinity of beneficially irrigation areas and planned construction sites for intake weirs, intake gates, flood
area control facilities, etc.
Target persons for Village heads, elders, Mirabs, WUA (IA) representatives, residents, boatmen, etc. who are
interview survey familiar with past and present local and river conditions
• Be sure to go to the site and interview at the site and write the results of the interviews in the answer
column.
Recording methods • Record the latitude and longitude of the interviewed sites and river survey sites with GPS, etc.
• Take photos or draw diagrams to keep a record that allow you to check the local situation and what
of interview survey you interviewed. In particular, be sure to record photos and figures of water levels, traces of erosion,
and changes in river channels and sandbars due to past floods.
• It is also necessary to obtain photos of river conditions, floods and droughts that the interviewee has.
Interview survey items Detailed items Utilization methods
Annual fluctuations of rivers, water level, discharge, Understanding the water level required for facility
and water quality during floods and droughts design and selecting water intake sites
Understanding the ease of water intake such as the
Location and stability of river channels, fluctuations
River conditions stability of river channels and sandbars, and
in sandbars, sedimentation and scouring situation
selecting water intake sites
Recent changes in precipitation, temperature,
Understanding the impact of climate change
floods, droughts (frequency, scale, timing, etc.)
Understanding the flood water level required for
Flood date, river water level at the time of flood
facility design
Flood inundation location, inundation extent
Flood situation Confirming the need for dikes and spur dikes by
(area, latitude / longitude coordinates, ratio),
grasping the flood situation
inundation depth, inundation duration
Damage situation etc. Understanding the flood damage situation
Drought date, water level, location, stability of river Understanding the drought water level required for
during drought facility design
Drought situation
Affected extent (area, latitude / longitude
Understanding the drought damage situation
coordinates, ratio), damage situation, etc.
Existing structures and Existing structures and river use situation on the Examining the impact of new facility construction
upstream and downstream / left and right banks of
water intake situation new river structures and water intake, and selecting water intake sites

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 Table 3.4 Example of Interview Survey Form with Residents ２)

Interview Site (GPS coordinates)：

Date and Time：
River survey Site (GPS coordinates)：
Interviewer Name： Contact：
Interviewee Name： Contact：
Village Information Village Name： Number of People：
Number of Households： Area：
Cultivated Land Area： Irrigation Area：
Ⅰ. River Conditions
1. When and how much does the water level of a river rise at the maximum in a year?
Answer (photo / figure):
2. When and how much does the water level of the river drop at the lowest in the year?
Answer (photo / figure):
3. Is there enough water in the river for irrigation?
Answer:
4. Is there a problem with the water quality of the river when irrigating?
Answer:
5. Does the location and shape of the channel at the planned weir site of the river change frequently?
Answer (photo / figure):
6. Does the location and shape of the sandbar at the planned weir site change often?
Answer (photo / figure):
7. What are the changes in precipitation, temperature, floods and droughts in recent years?
Answers (frequency, scale, timing, etc.):
Ⅱ. Flood Situation
8. When did the highest flood water level ever occur and how much did the river water level rise?
Answer (photo / figure):
9. Did an inundation occur at that time? How much were inundation depth, inundation area, and inundation duration?
Answer (photo / figure):
10. Where did the flood water come from?
Answer:
11. Where and how much did riverbank erosion occur?
Answer:
12. Did any damage occur? How much damage was it?
Answer:
Ⅲ. Drought Situation
13. When did the worst drought ever occur? How low was the river water level at that time?
Answer (photo / figure):
14. Did a drought damage occur? How much damage (severity and amount of damage) was it?
Answer:
Ⅳ. Existing Structures and Water Intake Situation
15. How did you take water from the river so far (with or without a weir, etc.)?
Answer:
16. What was the problem when you couldn t take water? (Frequency, cause, crop damage due to inability to take water)
Answer:
17. Is there water intake or river use on the upstream and downstream / left and right banks?
Answer:
18. Where and how much water is taken and what areas are irrigated?
Answer:

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 3.3.2 | Organization of Interview Results
The interview survey results include records for filling in the interview survey form, drawings recording the
survey results, photos taken, and photos collected from the residents. These are organized by item and place.
When arranging the survey results, it is necessary to confirm the accuracy of information firstly.
In some cases, the surveyor may not properly interview the residents. Photos are then taken during the interview
survey to confirm that the residents are properly interviewed. In addition, residents may provide incorrect
information due to wrong memories or misunderstandings. When organizing the survey results, it should be
made sure that the answers obtained from multiple people are consistent with each other.
Furthermore, by comparing the existing materials/data collected in Section 3.2 with the results of the interview
survey, the consistency of the information/data is confirmed to increase certainty. For example, it is possible to
confirm the consistency of the history of maximum floods and droughts and the transition situation of river
channels and sandbars from hydrological data and satellite images. In addition, the results of interview survey
of irrigation water intake in the surrounding area are compared with the registered water right information
collected to grasp the consistency between the actual conditions and the registered information. If these are
checked and they are not consistent, interviews are conducted again, and existing information are re-examined
as well. It should be strived to collect information as accurately as possible.

3.4 Observation and Measurement of River Condition

Information such as river water level, flow velocity and discharge, are required in order to plan and design
a sustainable and stable PMS method irrigation project which can prevent overtopping and destruction of
facilities due to flooding and which can allow sufficient water intake even in low water. In Afghanistan at
present, there is often insufficient information on these river conditions. Therefore, it is particularly important
to observe and grasp the river conditions on site. Rivers are constantly changing, and it is necessary to visit the
site on a regular basis and grasp the situation in order to understand these changes. In particular, it is important
for the person in charge of the project to visit and observe the river and flow conditions both during floods and
droughts.

3.4.1 | Observation of River Channel Conditions

(1) Viewpoints and Methods for Observing River Channel Conditions
Before observation of river channel conditions, the river channel conditions are grasped in a plane view from
existing topographic maps, Google Maps and Google Earth, or similar. The history of river changes from
the past to present are organized based on old maps, past satellite images, and the results of interviews with
local residents.
It is important to carry out the observation of river conditions from the viewpoints shown in Table 3.5. It is
also essential to visit the site and work practically with use of the five human senses.

Table 3.5 Viewpoints for Observing and Measuring River Channel Conditions ２)

Flood Drought
-Where is the flood likely to occur? -Where can water be taken stably?
-Where are flood flows gathering and erosion likely to occur? -Search for stable streamway from the transition history of
-How will the sandbar change? streamway and the direction of flow
-How will the river channel change? -Search for stable sandbars and sedimentary zones based on
the historical transition of riverbeds and sandbars.

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 The intake weir and the intake gate are particularly important structures in irrigation projects, and the
planned site must be looked down from a high place to comprehensively understand the local river channel
conditions. If there are no high places, a tower is set up and the whole area around the intake site is observed.
When taking an aerial view of the river condition, the viewpoints shown in the table above are referred to
and the conditions of the entire river channel understood, including the area around the intake site such as
the streamways and the meanders of the river, the location of bedrock, the low-lying areas where floods are
likely to occur, the sandbars and the sedimentation zone. The whole view is recorded on a plane to create the
base map used for the facility layout planning discussed in Chapter 4.

・Observe from a high place and take an aerial view of the site. Understand the whole picture. Build a tower, if there is no high place.

•Grasp and record in a plane. Record the streamway, river meander, bedrock location, low low-lying areas, etc. while referring
to the above local photograph.

bedrock
flood pathway
1.5㎞
floodplain or double-row 2㎞
sandbar
farmland low-lying area
low-lying area 3㎞ Kachara
river

3.7㎞
bedrock bedrock
4㎞
lower Shigi Location of
top right photo

Figure 3.8 Example of Aerial View of the Whole1）,2）

4.8㎞

(2) Observation and Organization of Overtopping and Inundated Areas during Floods
The river topography shown in bold font below is observed, and the places where floods are likely to occur
are confirmed while keeping in mind the relationship between river topography and erosion, overtopping,
inundation, and damage due to floods. Those places are marked on a map and the local characteristics
are noted and recorded in photos or sketches. Such information can be effectively used for planning and
designing flood control works such as levees and spur dikes.
• In places where the river is narrow, it becomes difficult for the river to flow downstream, and the upstream

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 part is flooded (see Photo 3.1 and Photo 3.2).
• In places where the flow is slow such as retarding areas of the river, the water level easily rises, and
overflow easily occurs.
• The river channel along the bedrock is often deep and rapid, and the flow path does not change even
during a heavy flood, so it is suitable for water intake. On the other hand, on the other riverbank of the
bedrock side, if it is not bedrock, erosion is severe and flood damage tends to occur in the downstream area
of bedrock 11). The flood damage depends on the river topography and the flood level as follows: 1)
･If the riverbed is wide, the extent of flood damage is wide, and if the riverbed is deep, the flood damage is
large.
･If the flood flow of the river is large, the inundation area is wide, and if the flood water depth is large, the
flood damage is large.
･Flood damage expands when a flood enters along the canal, and damage is likely to occur if the soil is
susceptible to erosion.
• Water colliding fronts such as the outer curved part where the flood flow hits are easily eroded if there is no
bedrock.
• River channels with a lot of boulders naturally are likely to be floodways.
• Flood flow may flow into from the existing canal intake and cause inundation (see Photo 3.3).
• If there are existing flood protection facilities, it is highly likely that the site had been damaged by floods in
the past, and floods are likely to occur (see Photo 3.4).
• Areas which have not been cultivated for a long time are prone to damage by disasters such as floods and
may have been damaged in the past.

Photo 3.1 Satellite Photo of Narrow River1)

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 Photo 3.2 Retarding Place of River 1)

Flood currents may enter from existing irrigation canal intakes

and cause flooding (Photo of dangerous water intake. It is
possible to take water into the lowlands easily by excavation.
However, in the summer, it becomes an entry of flood. As a result,
the riverbank line recedes year by year, and the cultivated land
becomes devastated. It is natural and not due to only disasters.)

Photo 3.3 Simple Water Intake Creating Flood Water Path1)

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 If there is an existing flood protection facility, it is highly
likely that the site was damaged by floods in the past,
and it can be said that flooding is likely to occur.
(The photo shows multiple lines of protection that tried
to prevent floods.)

Photo 3.4 Area Expected to be Flooded Under the Existing Flood Control Facilities1)

(3) Observation of Sandbar Fluctuation

Sandbars can move and change in shape in long term, especially after a major flood. Such long-term changes
in sandbars are fully understood in advance by using existing satellite images and interviews with local
residents (see Sections 3.2 and 3.3). In addition, the movement and changes of sandbars are observed at the
site on a long-term and regular basis, especially, the changes of sandbars after a large flood (see Column 3-1).
Moreover, not only the fluctuation of sandbars from the past to the present, but also the future possible
changes of sandbars, are estimated. In general rivers, sedimentation becomes remarkable at the location
where the river is wide and the flow is gentle, and the sand bars tend to move in the straight parts of the river
and get fixed in the curved parts. The future sandbar movements are estimated by taking into consideration
such general tendency and the sandbar movements from the past to the present in the target area.
When constructing the intake weir in the PMS method irrigation project, the sandbar is often connected
as an abutment. Therefore, by grasping the characteristics of sandbar fluctuations in the target river channel
(such as sandbar stability and riverbed scouring conditions), it is possible to provide extremely important
information to the planning and design of safe and stable intake weirs and flood control facilities.
The method of analysis of sandbars and scouring using hydraulic parameters is shown in the Appendix,
which is referred to, for a more detailed analysis of sandbar fluctuations.

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 Text Block 3-1: Observation of Sandbar Fluctuations by PMS

stone spur dikes front of

sandbar line
upstream of sandbar
Gr avel deposits are occurring. sedimentation
The joint between the we ir and weirⅠ
the sandbar is protected by embedded gyabion
sedimentation.

weirⅠ
Joint between weir
and sandbar

scouring
sedimentation weirⅡ
sandbar
Joint between weir
and sandbar
scouring

sedimentation

Changes in river channels and

sandbars due to f loods in July
and August 2015 (Yellow areas remains of
are sedimentation areas, blue a gabion at the joint
area s are scour areas.) weirⅡ
scouring

sandbar

The remains of a gabion

embedded at the joint of th e weir
and the sandbar, and the eroded
sandbar.

Figure: Changes in Sandbars 1)

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 (4) Stability of River Channels and Estimation of Fluctuations
It is extremely important to know the stability and fluctuations of the river channel, i.e., the changes such as
possible future rise or fall of the riverbed, for planning and designing flood control works and river facilities.
Figure 3.9 shows one of the methods to evaluate such river channel stability and fluctuation. This figure
shows the relationship between friction velocity and representative particle size based on the survey of rivers
in Japan. The lower left of the graph is the downstream section where the flow velocity is relatively slow,
and the riverbed material particle size is small. On the contrary, in the upper right area, the flow velocity
is relatively high, and the upstream section is where the riverbed material has large particles size. In the
target river, it is possible to evaluate the stability of the river by obtaining the frictional velocity U* and the
representative particle size dR of the riverbed material and plotting them on this graph. For example, if the
plotted points deviate from the black solid line, it is estimated that in the future, changes in the river width
or water depth or changes in the riverbed material occur, and channel fluctuations that approach the black
solid line occur. On the other hand, if the plotted points are close to the black solid line, the river is stable.
The relation between friction velocity of the riverbed material and the representative particle size in the
vicinity of the Marwarid II Intake Weir in the Kunar River are shown in blue circle on the right side of the
figure below. As shown, it is expected that riverbed materials will become finer or the friction velocity will
increase (the water depth will increase or the river width will decrease).

（cm/s）
２

2000

1000
800 Increase in water depth
600 (shape change that
friction velocity

narrows the river width)

400

200 finer riverbed

material
100
80
60
40

20

10
0.01 0.02 0.040.06 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 10.0

Representative particle size dR（cm）

Y-axis: Friction velocity（ , where R: hydraulic radius, g: gravitational acceleration, I: riverbed
gradient, critical particle size for sediment movement d）、R＝A（flow areas）／S（wetted perimeter）
X-axis: Representative particle size（dR, see Figure 3.19）
Figure 3.9 Stability of River Channels 2), see 12)

The method of analysis of river channel stability and scouring conditions, using various hydraulic
parameters is shown in the Appendix, which is referred to for more detailed riverbed change analysis.

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 (5) Understanding of River Conditions for Planning of Intake Weir Site
If there is a sandbar on the opposite bank of the intake site and the intake weir is connected to the sandbar,
the river channel topography is carefully observed and understood at the upstream and downstream of the
intake weir site, paying attention to the following points:
• Whether the mainstream of the river heads toward the intake site side (opposite side of the sandbar) at
the time of flood.
• Whether the river water that overflows the weir is concentrated in the center of the river and its energy
is reduced.
• Whether the construction of a weir erodes the sandbars on the opposite bank.

3.4.2 | Observation and Measurement of River Flow Condition

(1) Viewpoints and Methods for Observing and Measuring River Flow Conditions
The river flow conditions are observed from the viewpoints shown in Table 3.6 after analyzing the results of
interviews with local residents.

Table 3.6 Viewpoints and Methods for Observing and Measuring River Flow Conditions
(Water Level, Flow Velocity, Discharge, etc.) 2)

Item Season Viewpoint of Method of Observation/ Utilization

Observation/ Measurement
Measurement

-The water level at the -Check the water level record at the -Determine the height of the
time of the maximum exposed rocks dike and the height of the intake
past flood and the -Perform fixed-location measurements gate
Flood water level during the of water levels throughout the year to -Determine the height of the
flood every year understand changes in river water weir
-Overflow water level levels during floods and droughts
Water in past floods -Continue water level measurement by
Level establishing an observation system
-The water level at the
during and after the project
time of the maximum
drought and the water
Drought
level during the
drought season every
year

-Flow velocity along -Visually observe the places where the -Estimate the energy of flood
river water paths, river flow velocity is fast flow working on river facilities
banks and dikes (shallows) and the places where the -Estimate the river flow velocity
flow velocity is slow (pools) from the relationship between
Flow qualitatively. the average particle size and the
Flood
Velocity -Simply measure flow velocity at critical flow velocity
various river flows throughout the year
using float
-Investigate the average particle size of
boulders at the river

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 Item Season Viewpoint of Method of Observation/ Utilization
Observation/ Measurement
Measurement

-Maximum flood -Observe water level, flow velocity, flow -Multiply the flowing cross-
discharge width, and water depth throughout sectional area (= flowing width x
Flood -Flood discharge every the year, and simply measure. water depth) by the flow
year, flow width, water velocity, and grasp the estimated
depth discharge at various seasons.
Discharge -Minimum drought
discharge
-Discharge during the
Drought
drought season every
year, flow width, water
depth

-Observe bedload, -Measure bedload rolling on the -Determine the capacity of the
suspended load and riverbed sand basin from the sediment
wash load -Measure suspended load and wash transport volume
Sediment -Observe the color of load by sampling river water -Check water quality
Transport river water -Observe the color of river water -From the color and temperature
Flood
Volume -Observe odor, visually or by drawing water into a of the river water, it may be
and Water foaming, water white bucket. possible to estimate whether the
Quality temperature, etc. -Check if there is a cause of water cause of the flood is snowmelt
pollution (big cities, factories, etc.) in (light gray and cold) or rainfall
the upstream area or in the vicinity. (brown, etc.) from the
experiences of local residents.

When a flood occurs, it is necessary to visit the site as possible and observe the river flow conditions with
your own eyes. At that time, it is required to pay sufficient attention to safety. The river flow condition of the
flood is recorded as shown in Photo 3.5, and its characteristics are comprehended and recorded in a record
book.

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 River Flow Conditions during Floods (Kama Ⅱ Weir) River Flow Conditions during Floods
A muddy stream that swirls and flows. The front side is the end (Behsud Weir)
of the curved riverbank, and the weir is violently dammed by The flood water level of the Kabul River is approaching the
centrifugal force and the flow velocity is fast. The turbulence at top of the intake gate.
the center is hydraulic jump.

Photo 3.5 Flood Situation1）

(2) Organization of Observation and Measurement Results

In order to grasp and understand the river situation, a wide variety of information such as flow velocity,
discharge, slope, terrain inclination, location and state of rock and sandbar, curved parts of river lines,
riverbed material, etc., are necessary. It is important to remember them as a scene of a picture and be
able to follow them on the time axis. Therefore, when returning to the office from the site of observation/
measurement, the survey records are organized as follows:
• Photos and memos are sorted by date and location, stored not only on a paper basis but also as
electronic data. Field memos, etc. which have been memorized locally are also stored.
• Photos are taken with GPS location (Geotag) so that the location can be specified. The right bank, left
bank, upstream, downstream, river direction, etc., are shown.
• Regularly, on-site memos, photos, etc., are organized to check changes in river conditions, such as
monthly or quarterly.
• It should be ensured that observations of the change in river conditions after the flood are in place. If
possible, the river flow conditions during the flood are observed.

(3) Basic Formula for Grasping River Flow Conditions: Manning’s Formula
As a general rule, the flow velocity and discharge of a river are calculated from the following Manning s
formula:
Manning s formula: …………………………………………………………(3.1)
Q = A×V ………………………………………………………………………………(3.2)
Where, Q: discharge (㎥/s)
V: flow velocity(m/s)
n: roughness coefficient (see Table 3.7)
A: cross section of flowing area (㎡)
R: hydraulic radius (m)（＝A/S）
S: wetted perimeter (m)
I: riverbed slope

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 Table 3.7 General Values of Roughness Coefficient 2), see 13)

Rivers and Waterways Conditions Manning’s n Range

Plain small channels, no weeds 0.025~0.033
Plain small channels, weeds, shrubs 0.030~0.040
Natural River

Small channels in the plain, weeds, gravel bed 0.040~0.055

Mountain channels, gravel, boulders 0.030~0.050
Mountain channels, boulders, large boulders 0.040 or more
Large channel, clay, sandy floor, less meandering 0.018~0.035
Large channel, gravel bed 0.025~0.040

Velocity (Ｖ)

Wetted perimeter (S)

Water depth
Discharge (Ｑ)＝Ａ＊Ｖ

Flow area (Ａ)

Figure 3.10 Discharge Calculation Methods 2)

(4) Observation and Measurement of River Water Level and Utilization of Results
The water level at the time of the past maximum flood and the annual flood can be grasped from the existing
hydrological data, the experience of local residents, and the past flood marks on the rocks (see Text Block
3-2). Annual fluctuations in river water level can be grasped from river observation and measurement
records (see Text Block 3-2). Using this information, the heights of the dike and intake gate are determined
with some freeboard (see Photo 3.6).
In addition, the minimum water level during the drought season can be grasped from the existing
hydrological data and interview with local residents. Utilizing this, the weir height and the base elevation
of the intake gate are determined, so that the required amount of water can be extracted with extra amount
even during the drought season.

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 The height of the intake
gate is the height that adds
a freeboard to the water
level during flood.
freeboard

Water level during

flood

Photo 3.6 Relationship between Water Level During Floods and Height of Top of Intake Gate1)

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 Text Block 3-2: How to check the river water level and water depth

Grasp the marks of past water levels engraved Interview the boatman who is familiar with the
on the rock local situation

2.5m

River Water Level Observations and Results Throughout the Year

at the Marwarid Weir on the Kunar River

River Water Level Observations and Results Throughout the Year

（ｍ） at the Marwarid Weir on the Kunar River
3.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
water level at Marwarid weir
2.50
2014
2015
2016
2.00
2017
2018
2014
1.50

1.00
2016
2017
2018
0.50
2015

0.00
5 Aug.

15 Aug.
20 Aug.
25 Aug.
30 Aug.
4 Sep.
9 Sep.
14 Sep.
19 Sep.
24 Sep.
29 Sep.
4 Oct.
9 Oct.
14 Oct.
19 Oct.
24 Oct.
29 Oct.
3 Nov.
8 Nov.
13 Nov.
18 Nov.
23 Nov.
28 Nov.
3 Dec.
8 Dec.
13 Dec.
18 Dec.
23 Dec.
28 Dec.
1 Jan.
6 Jan.
11 Jan.
16 Jan.
21 Jan.
26 Jan.
31 Jan.
5 Feb.
10 Feb.
15 Feb.
20 Feb.
25 Feb.
2 Mar.
7 Mar.
12 Mar.
17 Mar.
22 Mar.
27 Mar.
1 Apr.
6 Apr.
11 Apr.
16 Apr.
21 Apr.
26 Apr.
1 May.
7 May.
12 May.
17 May.
22 May.
27 May.
1 Jun.
6 Jun.
11 Jun.
16 Jun.
21 Jun.
26 Jun.
1 Jul.
6 Jul.
11 Jul.
16 Jul.
21 Jul.
26 Jul.
31 Jul.

10 Aug.

Feb 2015 Feb 2015 early - mid Jul 2015 heatwave Jul,
completion torrential rain, Aug torrential rain
of channel flood at the Kabul river
early - mid Jul 2015 heatwave Jul, Aug torrential rain
Jan 2017
sand flushing ditch blockage May-Dec 2016 abnormal small amount of rainfall

Jan- Feb abnormal small

amount of rainfall Apr-Dec 2017 abnormal small amount of rainfall

level in summ er tends to be low after 2014, and especially in 2018 (red line),
the water level in summer is low and the water level fluctuation is large.

Figure: How to Check River Water Level Fluctuations and Water Depth1)

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 (5) Observation and Measurement of River Flow Velocity and Utilization of Results
The methods for estimating the river flow velocity are: 1) the method by Manning s formula; 2) the method
of measuring directly on site; and 3) the method of roughly estimating from the riverbed materials. Direct
observation and measurement of river flow velocity is indispensable for the calculation of discharge and
energy estimation of flood flow. In addition, when the water flow is low, the flow velocity of the river should
be checked at shallow areas and also at pool areas, due to the difference in the formation of sandbars by
qualitatively visually observing places where the flow velocity is high (shallow water) and places where the
flow velocity is slow (pool). The results are used for planning and designing weirs, intake gates and flood
control facilities.
1) Method by Manning’s Formula
The rough estimation of river flow velocity from the Manning s formula is done by assuming that the
flowing water section is rectangular, performing the following simple survey on site, and calculating from
the obtained river width and water depth and the approximate river slope. When it is required to calculate
the river velocity more accurately, river survey is needed as described in Section 3.5.
• Length, such as river width: A thick thread on both banks of the river is tightened so that it is as
straight as possible at right angles against the river. The thread is measured on a metric scale. A laser
rangefinder can measure the distance more easily if it is available (see the photo in Figure 3.11).
• River water depth, river channel scouring depth, etc.: Staffs (levelling rods) and rods can be placed on
the river to measure water depth and scouring depth (see the photo in Figure 3.11.
• Vertical slope and height difference of such as dike height: Water is put in the hose to level it, and simple
levelling is performed to measure the height difference. This method can also be used to measure the
profile slope of irrigation canals. The profile slope of the river should be also grasped from topographic
maps.

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 Simple Surveying Method for Distances such as River Width using Thread1)

・Pass the thread to the opposite bank, take a

straight line distance, and measure the thread on
a metric scale.

Simple Method of Measuring Depth such as Water Depth and Scour Depth1)

・Bathymetry using staff and rods

Leveling 2)

・Leveling using a hose

Figure 3.11 Examples of Measuring Distance, Depth and leveling by Simple Surveying

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 2) Method of Direct Measurement on Site
There are the methods, using a current meter and methods using a float for directly detecting the flow
velocity in the field. The float method estimates the flow velocity from the distance and time that the float
flows as shown in Figure 3.12. It is also possible to estimate the flow velocity by taking a video of the float in
the case of sand flushing ditch on a weir under high flow velocity (see Figure 3.13).

Approach section ≧30m Measurement interval

≧50m

float

1st cross 2nd cross

section section
Figure 3.12 Flow Velocity Measurement by Float 2)

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 Fixed Camera:
Installed to overlap poles ❶ and ❷ on the screen
(Install on the extension of survey line ②.) pole ❷

pole ❶ survey line ②

survey line ①

Length of
measurment interval
Ｌ＝6100mm

Flow velocity measurement method by video recording

in sand flushing ditch of intake weir (draft):
I: Survey line setting
Install tapes as survey lines ① and ② in the order of upstream and downstream at the two double-flush board
installation sites of the upstream and the downstream of the sand flushing ditch. Survey line ① is the place where
the float for measuring the flow velocity is thrown in, and survey line ② is the place to check the passing time with
a fixed position camera.
II: Pole installation on the left and right banks of survey line ②
Stand the pole vertically at the place where the double-flush board of survey line ② is installed. At this time, make
sure that no one stands between the camera and the pole so that no one gets in the way when shooting a movie.
III: Camera installed on the extension of survey line ②
Fix the camera on a tripod and install it on the extension of survey line ②. At this time, fix the poles ❶ and so that
they overlap in the center of the camera. In addition, make sure that throwing of the float can be shown on survey
line ① at the right end of the camera so that the float landing on the water it can be seen clearly while shooting the
movie.
IV: Throwing float and recording video
Based on the precautions in I ∼III above, throw the float from survey line ① while shooting a video. Change the
throwing point in order from the front and throw the float multiple times. Be sure to throw the float directly from
above of survey line ①.
Be careful so that the float appears on the video screen after throwing. In some cases, raise the camera fixing
position so that it can look down from above.
V: Measure time using video editing software
Using commercially available and free video editing software, measure the time it takes for the float to pass from
survey line ① to survey line ② using functions such as slow motion. Video editing software displays a timeline
below the video in units of one-hundredth of a second, so that the video can show the landing time of the float and
the time to pass survey line ②. With this feature, more accurate time than manual measurement on-site is possible.

Figure 3.13 Flow Velocity Measurement by Video Recording 1),2)

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 3) Method of Roughly Estimating from Riverbed Material
The river flow velocity at the time of flood can be roughly estimated indirectly from the riverbed material
size. Figure 3.14 shows the relationship between the flow velocity and the critical particle size for sediment
movement. The flow velocity of the largest flood flow can be roughly estimated from the riverbed material
size.
The relationship between the flow velocity and the critical particle size for sediment movement is calculated
from the Manning s formula, friction velocity formula, and the Iwagaki s formula shown below.

Manning s Formula: ………………………………………………… (3.3)2),see14)

Friction Velocity Formula: ……………………………………………… (3.4)2),see14)

Iwagaki s Formula: Empirical formula related to the relationship between friction velocity and the critical
particle size for sediment movement. 2), see 14)

Where, V: flow velocity (m/s), R: hydraulic radius (m), g: gravitational acceleration (m/s2), I: riverbed
gradient, n: roughness coefficient, U* : Friction velocity, U*c: friction velocity at the critical particle size for
sediment movement, dc: the critical particle size for sediment movement (m)

At a riverbed where boulders are spread, the average particle size (or typical particle size) is measured by
measuring the three sizes of the average boulders at the riverbed, which are the length, width, and height. shown
in Figure 3.15. By the riverbed material survey, it is necessary to confirm that the flood flow has certainly flowed
at the riverbed, and that it is not a place where debris flow flows, artificial excavation takes place, or stones are
being dumped. A more detailed method of riverbed material survey is shown in Subsection 3.5.1.

Relationship between Critical Particle Size and Flow Velocity

80.00

70.00 y = 18.102x1.4991
R² = 1
critical particle size：D (mm)

60.00

50.00

40.00

30.00

20.00

10.00

0.00
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
flow velocity：V (m/s)

Figure 3.14 Relationship between Critical Particle Size and Flow Velocity2)

ａ
ｂ
ｃ

124 CHAPTER 3 HOW SHOULD WATER SOURCE RIVERS BE UNDERSTOOD?

長径ａ
中径ｂ
短径ｃ
平均粒径ｒ＝(a×b×ｃ)1/3 単位：（ｍ）
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 20.00

移動
10.00

0.00
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
流速：V (m/s)

ａ
ｂ
ｃ

major diameter a
medium diameter b
minor diameter c
ｒ＝(a×b×ｃ)1/3 r: average particle size (m)
Figure 3.15 Calculation Method of Average Particle Size of Boulders １),２)

Text Block 3-3: Estimation of Flow Velocity based on Observation of Riverbed Materials

(Words of Dr. Tetsu Nakamura) It is well known that the flow velocity of a river can be estimated
fairly accurately by the size of the boulders in the river. When constructing revetments and weirs, we
always measure the size of the stone, estimate the flow velocity, and adopt a method that matches
the velocity. Heavy stones remain and light stones are washed away. In the Kunar River, the riverbed
generally has a thick layer of boulders just below the thin sand layer on the surface, and those with a
large particle size in proportion to the flow velocity (bed load) are exposed. According to a textbook,
the rapid flow of 3 to 5 m/s had passed. In this case, the size of the stone is 25 cm to 75 cm.

Photo: Observation of Riverbed Material 1)

(6) Calculation and Utilization of River Discharge

The discharge (Q) is calculated from the formula (Q = V × A) from the observed/measured water level/
water depth and flow velocity (V), and the flow cross section (A) obtained by simple measurement or survey.
From the measurement results of various water levels, flow velocity and flow cross section throughout a
year from low water level to flood water level, the relationship between discharge and water level is plotted
as shown in Figure 3.16, and the relational expression (rating curve) between discharge and water level is
created. Using the rating curve, the river discharge is calculated from the measured river water level, and the
annual discharge fluctuation should be grasped.
By comparing the discharge data obtained with the existing discharge data of neighboring hydrological
stations, the reliability of the existing hydrological data is verified and the relationship to the discharge data

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 of neighboring hydrological stations (see Figure 3.17) is investigated, and a correlation equation is created.
Based on this, the discharge at the target site can also be estimated from the discharge data of nearby
observation stations. If there is no existing data, the discharge data from such rough measurement is used for
planning and designing irrigation facilities, but one should be aware that the roughly estimated discharge
may contain large uncertainty, requiring comparison with the other discharge estimation methods, to be
used carefully with comprehensive judgment.
The most reliable year-round river discharge data is obtained through the existing hydrological data,
interviews with residents, and own observations/ measurements. Using this, the river flow condition (flow
regime), probable drought discharge, probable flood discharge, etc., are all calculated again to grasp a more
accurate river flow condition. Utilizing these highly reliable flow data, it should be examined whether the
required amount of intake water can be extracted, as well as the planning and design of irrigation facilities,
including the impact of structures and water intake on the upstream and downstream/left and right banks.
Water
Water
Level
Level
(H) Data from flow measurement
(H) Data from flow measurement
Approximate curve (H-Q
curve) inferredcurve
Approximate from(H-Q
flow
measurement
curve) inferreddata
from flow
measurement data

Calculate discharge from

water level using
Calculate the approxi-
discharge from
mate
watercurve
level using the approxi-
mate curve
Discharge (Q)
Discharge (Q)

Figure 3.16 Water Level (H) - Discharge(Q) Relationship 2)

Discharge at Flow observation and data

a nearby at
Discharge from observation
Flow a nearby observation
and data
observation
a nearby station
from at the same
a nearby time
observation
station
observation station at the same time Estimated approximate curve
station Estimated approximate curve

Using the approximate curve,

discharge at the target curve,
Using the approximate site is
estimated from
discharge at thethe discharge
target site is
at a nearbyfrom
estimated station.
the discharge
at a nearby station.

Discharge at the target site

Discharge at the target site
Figure 3.17 Relationship with Discharge Data from Nearby Hydrological Observation Station2)

(7) Observation/Measurement of Sediment Transport Volume/Water Quality and Utilization of

Results
Sediment discharge includes wash load, suspended load, and bedload. The bedload is discharged to
downstream as possible from sand flushing ditches of the weir, and the inflow of the bedload to the
irrigation canal is prevented by the base elevation of the intake gate and flush boards. On the other hand,
it is difficult to prevent the inflow of suspended load and the wash load into the irrigation canal. In this
paragraph, the surveillance and measurement of the wash load and suspended load are described in more
detail, while the bedload is observed and measured as needed.

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 For the measurement of wash load and suspended load, the running water in the river is collected with a
bucket, or similar container, and the volume is measured. Then, after drying, the particle size distribution
of the remaining sediment is examined, and the weight of the sediment is measured. Finally, sediment
concentration (mg/ℓ) is calculated with respect to the weight of sediment against the volume of water.
In the Miran Weir of the Kunar River, the sediment concentration of the river water during the highest
turbidity season is about 2,000 mg/ℓ. The particle size characteristics and sediment concentration of
the wash load and suspended load of irrigation water flowing into the irrigation canal are used to set the
minimum flow velocity in the irrigation canal and the capacity of the sand basin.
The color of the river water is also observed, because the river water becomes murky when there is a lot of
wash load and suspended load. In the Kunar River area, it is judged from the color of the river water that
if the river water is brown, it is runoff created from rainfall (although strictly speaking, the soil quality
differs depending on the valley where the inflow comes from), and if it is grayish white and cold, it is
runoff originated from snowmelt. Since there is a possibility of various assessments in various areas, the
characteristics of river flow condition is grasped from the color of river water, utilizing the wisdom of local
residents.
The quality of river water is visually examined, and also measured using a simple water quality measurement
instrument. If there is a foul odor or foaming, it is highly possible that the water quality is poor, and a more
thorough water quality survey is required. In particular, if there is a large town or industrial area nearby, there
is a possibility of wastewater flowing into the river. Thereafter, the situation of the wastewater discharge site
is checked. In addition, if the water temperature is higher than that of the surrounding area, or if the water
temperature is high even though it is snowmelt water, there is a high possibility that wastewater got mixed in.

3.5 River Survey Methods

The methods of the detailed riverbed material survey, the cross-sectional survey, the profile survey and the
topographic survey of rivers which are required for planning, designing and construction of the PMS method
irrigation facilities are described below. Contemporary survey methods are also introduced.

3.5.1 | Riverbed Material Survey

The riverbed material survey methods can be divided into three types, according to the particle size of riverbed
materials. The area grid method is applied for gravel beds with a maximum particle size larger than 300 mm.
The line grid method is applied for sandy gravel beds with a maximum particle size between 100 and 300 mm.
The volumetric method is applied for sand beds with a maximum particle size between 75 μm and 100 mm
(see Figure 3.18). If the particle size is smaller, the sedimentation method is applied. As a result of the riverbed
material survey, a particle size accumulation curve, as shown in Figure 3.19, is created, and the particle size with
an accumulation rate of 60% is used as the representative particle size. These riverbed material characteristics
are used for grasping the classification and characteristics of river channel as shown in Table 3.2 in page 97,
and for estimating the roughness coefficient for the Manning s formula, which is essential for calculating river
flow and flow velocity. This is an important information, necessary to grasp the river conditions. In addition,
representative particle sizes are required for detailed hydraulic analysis such as the estimation of river channel
stability [Subsection 3.4.1(4)] and scouring conditions (see Appendix).

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 Area Grid Method
10

greater than the maximum particle size of gravel

size of gravel
greater than the maximum particle
0
1
2
3
4

10
5
6
7
8
9
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Line Grid Method

re-gular interva（ls (greater than the maximum

particle size of riverbed materials)

Volumetric Method

Sieve Analysis • The area grid method collects and analyzes 100 stones at
the intersection of the frames. It is accurate when it is
necessary to grasp the plane distribution or when the
particle size is large, and it is possible to grasp the local
change in surface particle size. The size of the surface grid
is about 1 m to 2 m on each side, and the grid spacing is
about the size of the maximum particle size.
• The line grid method collects and analyzes 100 stones on
a straight line at regular intervals (intervals of the
maximum particle size). It requires the fewest tools and is
also advanced in terms of random sampling of riverbed
gravel.
• The volumetric method is applied to sandy riverbeds
with small particle size, and the riverbed material pit with
dimensions of 0.5 m in length × 0.5 m in width × 0.3 m
in depth is collected from a depth of 30 cm below the
surface. After collecting the riverbed materials, a sieving
test is conducted.

Figure 3.18 Riverbed Material Survey 2)

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 Example of riverbed
material survey site selection

Example of riverbed material survey results

1.20

1.00
Accumulation Rate

0.80 0.6 (D60) is called the representative particle

size, which is the particle size of the typical
riverbed material at the survey site.
0.60

0.40

0.20

0.00
0 2 4 8 16 32 63 128 256 512 1024
D60=91.33
Grain Size (mm)
Figure 3.19 Riverbed Material Survey Results 2)

3.5.2 | River Survey

Detailed river surveys are required for understanding river topography, which would facilitate layout planning/
designing irrigation facilities. In river surveying, river cross section, profile, and topographic surveys are
conducted using equipment such as the total station (see Photo 3.7). For deep places in rivers, the water depth is
measured using the echo sounder, etc. (see Figure 3.20). For the results of surveys, cross-sectional views, profile
views, and plan views are created using software such as CAD, (see Figure 3.21 to Figure 3.23). River surveys
are carried out preferably during periods of low water levels, when it is easier to survey the riverbed. While
surveying, one should be on alert, aware of possible sudden rise of water level.

3.5 River Survey Methods 129

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 Photo 3.7 River Survey by Total Station 2）

Right bank

io n
irect
e r fl ow d
R iv
Upstream
Target
sandbar Raft ←Wire
(2 people
on board) 1. Install props to fix the wire on one bank of the river
Echo sounder ←prop and on the sandbar.
(Depth measurement) 2. Move the raft along the wire and measure the
coordinates and water depths at the change point
of the riverbed. The coordinates measure the
↑Fixing the
position of the raft using a total station. The water
base by masonry depth is measured and recorded with an echo
sounder.
Left bank 3. Obtain the cross-sectional distance from the
coordinate data measured by the total station, and
obtain the depth of the riverbed from the water
Total station depth data of the echo sounder. Draw a cross section
(Measurement of
coordinates at the raft） by drawing the horizontal distance and water depth
with C AD.
4. Complete the river cross-sectional view by connect-
ing the cross-sectional view of the running water
section and the cross-sectional view of the river
channel without running water.

Figure 3.20 Surveying Deep Rivers 1),2)

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 Figure 3.21 Example of Plane Drawing 15)

3.5 River Survey Methods 131

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 Figure 3.22 Example of Cross-Section Drawing 15)

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 610
0.31%
600 1/323

0.25%
ground elevation [m]

590
1/400
580 0.24%
1/417
570 0.30%
1/333 0.28%
560 1/357

550

540
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
Distance [m]
Figure 3.23 Example of Profile Drawing 15)

3.5.3 | Contemporary River Survey

Some contemporary river survey methods, the use cases of the auto-tracking type of total station, three-
dimensional laser survey instrument, drone and acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) are briefly described
below. Compared with the existing total station, these methods can perform more efficient and more precise
surveys and are expected to be used in Afghanistan in near future.
• The auto-tracking type of total station is a machine which can automatically perform surveying by operating
the target with a built-in control unit and can save labor.
• The three-dimensional laser survey instrument can perform precise 3D surveying by recording the local
situation as 3D point cloud data with a 3D laser scanner.
• Drone is a surveying instrument which has been attracting attentio in recent years. It is possible to create 3D
data by taking aerial photographs with a drone and analyzing and integrating these multiple aerial images.
• ADCP can perform underwater surveys and since it can measure the flow velocity along with the
underwater river channel topography, it is possible to calculate the discharge. ADCP was introduced to
NWARA and has been used practically.

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 Auto Tracking Type of Total Station2) Three Dimensional Laser Survey Instrument 2)

Drone 2) ADCP16)
Photo 3.8 Contemporary Hydrological Measurement

3.6 Setting Basic Information for Irrigation Facility Plan and Design
(Water Levels, Discharges, Sediment Particles Size and Sediment Transport Volume)

The design methods for irrigation facilities and flood control facilities are explained in Chapters 4 and 5. In
order to design irrigation facilities, it is necessary to set the following design conditions of rivers:
• Design conditions for intake weirs/intake gates: 1) Design drought discharge/Design drought water
level; 2) Design flood discharge/Design flood water level;
• Design conditions for steep gradient main irrigation canals/sand basins, main irrigation canals/ reservoirs,
etc.: 1) Information on sediment transport volume and sediment particle size;
• Design conditions for dikes/stone spur dikes: 1) Design flood discharge/design flood water level.

3.6.1 | Setting of Design Drought Discharge and Design Drought Water Level
These settings aim to ensure that the required amount of intake water can be extracted even during drought. For
the purpose of planning of irrigation facilities, the expected drought scale is decided first.
In the PMS method irrigation project as shown in the graph of river water level fluctuations in Column 3-2, the
annual water level and discharge fluctuations in the river at the weir are observed and the minimum drought
water level during the drought season (winter) is estimated. This water level is verified by interview survey. In
Afghanistan, there are many rivers for which water sources are snowmelt, and the baseflow occurs during the
drought season (winter), which is the time of the minimum drought water level. It is considered that there is no
significant difference in the water level from year to year. Therefore, it is considered that there is no large error

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 in the drought water level even if the design drought water level is judged by observing the water level during
the drought period of a limited number of years. However, it should be kept in mind that the water levels may
change from year to year due to riverbed fluctuations caused by sediment transported by floods. Since the
general density of hydrological observations is low in Afghanistan, hydrological data at appropriate locations
may be insufficient, and it is desirable to set the design drought water level according to the drought water level
at the site. If the minimum drought water level during a major drought in the past is known, the design drought
water level is set appropriately from the probability evaluation described below.
The design drought discharge is the discharge corresponding to the design drought water level. For the
discharge conversion methods, see Subsection 3.4.2. However, it should be kept in mind that errors may occur
if the cross section of the river channel is not the same as when the design drought water level occurred. In
addition, the probability scale of the set design drought discharge is grasped. Generally, in the planning of
irrigation projects, the 5-year return period (10-year return period in Japan) is adopted as the design return
period, which has been studied for the existing PMS irrigation facilities, to take water at the 5-year return perio.
It should be noted that there is high uncertainty involved, because the probability evaluation data, used for
probability evaluation of drought water levels at the intake site, are from the hydrological station site, where
the data may be limited, and it may differ from the past trends, due to climate changeand human influence. It
should be also noted that there is a difference between the discharge at the station site from the discharge at
the weir site. Therefore, it is necessary to improve the accuracy by converting the discharge at the hydrological
observation station into the design drought discharge at weir site. This requires consideration of the inflow of
tributaries upstream and downstream and water extraction volumes. If the probability scale becomes extremely
small, it means that a smaller discharge than the design drought discharge frequently occurs. Therefore, it
should be checked whether or not the discharge conversion from the design drought water level is appropriate
and whether the design drought water level is appropriate for the above sites, and should be reset accordingly
when necessary. Similarly, when the probability scale becomes extremely large, the validity should be confirmed
and reset.

3.6.2 | Setting of Design Flood Discharge and Design Flood Water Level
The design flood discharge/design flood water level is the flood discharge/flood water level targeted when
planning the safety of river structures such as dikes and spur dikes. In the PMS method irrigation project, the
design flood water level is determined by observing or by interviewing residents on the mark of the highest
flood water level at the time of flood during the past period.
The design flood discharge is the discharge corresponding to the design flood water level. The probability
scale of the design flood discharge is grasped. As with the setting of the design drought discharge, it is reset as
necessary by considering the design points to keep in mind. The design flood water level is calculated by the
method shown in the profile design of the dike in Chapter 5, 5.2.3 (2), in order to consider its impact to the
weir.
There are two methods for setting the design flood water level and design discharge: one is to refer to the
observed water level and the mark of water level, and the other is to calculate it. In the existing PMS irrigation
project, the design flood water level is based on the observed water level in the past, also considering the
effects of climate change in Afghanistan. There is some uncertainty with the calculation method, due to the
data quality and quantity, and the insufficient human resources capable to calculate. However, when the
design discharge is decided, it is still necessary to calculate it, as precise as possible and make a comprehensive
judgment (cross check) by referring to various methods through interviews. The method by calculation is to
determine the target return period, set the discharge of the target return period as the design discharge from
the probability evaluation at the hydrological observation station, and calculate the water level by the uniform/
non-uniform flow calculation under the condition with the weir from the discharge (calculation from the
observation station site to the weir site) as the design water level.

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 3.6.3 | Setup of Design Sediment Transport Volume and Design Sediment Particles Size
The PMS method irrigation facility shown in Table 3.8 is designed with the sediment transport volume and the
sediment particles size during design drought or flood as design conditions.

Table 3.8 Irrigation Facility applied Sediment Transport Volume

and Sediment Particles Size and Design Method2)

Design Specifications
No. for PMS Irrigation Design Methods
Facilities

・When the design flood discharge flows down the river channel, the sediment particle
size that flow from the upstream of the intake weir and deposit on the back of the weir
Design of sand flushing is calculated from the relationship between the flow velocity and the critical particle
１ ditch (width and slope) at size for movement.
the intake weir ・ Set the width and bottom slope of the sand flushing ditch using the Manning s formula
so that the velocity can be secured to discharge sediment with a particle size that is
expected to deposit at the back of the weir.

・Set the cross section (width / depth) of the steep gradiemt main irrigation canal so
that the flow velocity can be secured and the suspended load contained in the water
Cross section and slope of taken from the river does not deposit even when the amount of irrigation water flows
２ steep gradiemt main down during the drought season.
irrigation canal ・Check whether the sand with the particle size obtained by the particle size survey is
washed away without any problem at the flow velocity of the steep gradiemt main
irrigation canal and no sediment deposition occurs.

・Set the shape of the sand basin where the sand conveyed from the steep gradiemt
main irrigation canal to the sand basin can deposit. Set a shape that can secure an
appropriate surface loading rate and moving velocity that allow sand of the target
particle size to deposit.
３ Shape of sandbasin
・Estimate the sediment volume from the concentration of suspended load contained
in the intake water. Set an appropriate sand basin capacity and the number of sand
basin installation sites considering the maintenance frequency such as dredging of the
sand basin.

3.6.4 | Estimation of Hydraulic Parameters of Rivers by Non-Uniform Flow Calculation

There are the uniform flow calculation and the non-uniform flow calculation as the methods of calculating
the water level and the flow velocity when a certain constant discharge flows through a river. The uniform flow
calculation is used when a constant discharge flows through rivers and waterways where the cross-sectional
shape and slope are not expected to change longitudinally, and the water level and flow velocity of artificial
waterways are calculated using the Manning s formula. On the other hand, the non-uniformflow calculation
is used when a constant discharge flows in a river or waterway where cross-sectional shape and slope change
gently. It is used for calculating the water level and flow velocity of many rivers. Finally, if the temporal change in
the discharge cannot be neglected, the longitudinal and temporal changes in the water levels and flow velocities
of the river are calculated using the unsteady flow calculation method.
To calculate the non-uniform flow of a river, a cross-sectional view of the river measured at regular intervals is
required such as the fixed interval of 200 m, 500 m, etc. In Japan, the river surveying interval is appropriately
determined according to the scale of the river with 200 m as the standard. When calculating non-uniform
flow, the average water level shape cannot be obtained with a small interval of cross-section in a case of a wide
river, with large width. Therefore, there is also a concept that the interval should be about the width of the
river or more. The interval is decided appropriately according to the scale of the river. If the non-uniform flow
calculation is performed on the assumption that a constant discharge flows in multiple cross sections of the

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 river from upstream to downstream, the river water level and flow velocity is calculated in each cross-section,
and the longitudinal shape of the water level is grasped (See Figure 3.24). This is useful information when
determining the height of dikes. In addition, hydraulic analysis such as river channel stability (see Figure 3.9)
and scouring (see the Appendix) are performed using the calculation results of hydraulic parameters such as
flow width, water depth, and flow velocity under the assumed discharge. A lot of softwares which can calculate
non-uniformly is available free of charge, and HEC-RAS of the US Army Corps of Engineers Hydrologic
Engineering Center is one of the most commonly used.

566

564

562

560

elevation（m）
558

556

554

552

550

dike elevation ground elevation water level 548

546
0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

2600

2800

3000

3200
distance（m）

Figure 3.24 River Water Level Profile by Non-Uniform Flow Calculation 2)

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 CHAPTER

4
HOW SHOULD IRRIGATION FACILITIES BE
PLANNED AND DESIGNED?
How should irrigation facilities be planned and designed?
The irrigation facilities and the flood control facilities are the two main components of the facilities that will
be implemented in the irrigation project. Irrigation facilities include intake weir, sand flushing ditch, intake
gate, steep gradient main irrigation canal, sand basin, main irrigation canal, siphon or flood crossing bridge,
reservoir and main drainage canal. By combining these facilities, the PMS method irrigation facilities are
planned and designed to meet the following conditions:
• To secure a sufficient amount of irrigation water stably, even during drought season.
• To have all facilities function stably when anticipated flooding occurs, and to minimize facility damage
even when flooding exceeds the envisaged scale.
• To avoid failure of water intake and conveyance to the intake gate and main irrigation canal due to
sedimentation/blockage.
• To give full consideration to the social environment in the process of acquiring land for the main irrigation
canal, planning for reservoir and sand basin, and in distributing water.
• To keep economic construction with good workability in mind when planning the facility location
avoiding rock excavation and large-scale excavation/land reclamation work as much as possible.
• To ensure that local residents can operate, maintain and manage the facilities sustainably.
Each intake facility is designed as follows, with a structure to facilitate maintenance and management by local
residents using locally procurable boulders, bricks, timber, iron plates/ annealing wires, cement and soil.
• For the intake weir, the size of stones comprising the weir body is properly dimensioned, wings
are fully protected and the weir height is minimized to prevent being swept away. Moreover, to
maintain the intake water level and the water depth of the main irrigation canal even during
drought season, the weir height is secured to ensure sufficient amount of irrigation water reaches
the irrigation beneficiary area.
• For the sand flushing ditch, a cross-sectional area and flow velocity allowing sediments to be
discharged are secured to avoid the area upstream of the intake weir from being buried by
sediments.
• For the intake gate, its function of taking and adjusting the amount of water required for irrigation
with a stable structure against water pressure from the river and sediment load is ensured.
• The cross-sectional shape and revetment structures of the steep gradient main irrigation canal and
main irrigation canal shall be stable against the inner hydraulic pressure and external earth pressure
by securing a certain flow velocity and ensuring no sediments are deposited in the canal.
• The sand basin structure shall ensure that deposited sediments can be easily discharged. (sand
drainage canal, sand drain gate)
• Since constructing the reservoir involves large-scale embankment works, the stability of reservoir
embankment is secured by taking seepage water countermeasures including the application of silty
cray on the internal slope surface of the reservoir as fully treating the foundation.
• A certain flow velocity is secured in the siphon to prevent sands from accumulating in the canal,
and a safe underground culvert structure against the vertical load and earth pressure shall be
provided. The flood crossing bridge shall be secured the width for flowing down the flood water.
• The main drainage canal is capable of promptly discharging excessive water from the irrigation
beneficiary areas to the river. Such like the main irrigation canal, the cross-sectional shape and
revetment structures shall secure the stable condition against the internal water pressure and
external earth pressure.

The following pages give commentary on the above contents:

139

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 4.1 Layout planning and Design Process of Irrigation Facilities
4.1.1 | Layout Planning of Irrigation Facilities
Based on the basic concept jointly established with local residents and other concerning parties and the river
survey result, a layout planning for irrigation facilities of the PMS method irrigation facilities, that are, intake
weir, intake gate, steep gradient main irrigation canal, main irrigation canal, sand basin, reservoir, siphon and
main drainage canal. These irrigation facilities shall, in principle, ensure the sufficient water head that allows to
flow irrigation water by gravity from candidate intake site to irrigation beneficiary area. Accordingly, the layout
planning is established by the following process :

Start

[Checking the existing status]

Existing cultivated lands, intake point and irrigation canals are checked

[Selecting irrigation beneficiary areas]

・Discussions with farmers are organized to decide on the target irrigation beneficiary
areas, including new irrigation areas.
・The point conveying water from the new intake site (near existing intake site) is selected. See
Chapters 2
and 3
[Layout planning of the steep gradient main irrigation canal
and the intake site]
・The intake site shall be set at a point where the required hydraulic gradient can be
secured. The steep gradient main irrigation canal shall be arranged by the shortest distance
to the target water conveyance areas.
・Suitable land for intake site is determined by gradient, river channel curve, bedrock, sand
bar and other elements.

[Locating the sand basin and reservoir]

・The sand basin is provided in a location around the nearest existing intake site from the
new intake site and near the river. In the case multiple intake sites are integrated into one
line with one intake location, a regulating pond will be installed near the original existing
intake sites in the downstream section of the sand basin, and it will be a diversion point and
a junction point with the new irrigation canal.

[Layout planning of the main irrigation canal

(including reservoir, siphon, etc.)]
See
・The main irrigation canal is provided in the downstream section of sand basin. Chapter 4
・A siphon or flood crossing bridge shall be provided in case a canal is likely to cross other
waterways, rivers, streams and wadi. And the reservoir shall be provided in case a canal is
likely be damaged due to flash floods and debris flows from slopes and tributaries.

[Layout planning of main drainage canal]

・The main drainage canal is provided on a low elevation ground where drainage is
required due to tendency to be damped.

End

Figure 4.1 Workflow of the Layout Planning for Irrigation Facilities２)

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 Sheiwa

Regulating
Connecting regulating pondⅡ Regulating PondⅠ
0 1.0 2.0km ponds at the shortest (Sand Basin)
distance Drainage
canal２ Intake
Mouth
Kachara
Lower Shigi
Installation in an
intersection between Regulating
existing canal and the pondⅢ Drainage Installation in an intersec-
new main irrigation canal canal１ tion between existing
canal and the new main
Drainage irrigation canal
canal３
Koti
Legend
Dike＋Stone Spur Dike Existing Farmland
Bela
Regulating Steep Gradient New Restored
pondⅣ Main Irrigation Canal Farmland

Taran Main Drainage Canal Flood-damaged

Area
Sand Basin,
Regulating Pond
Existing Irrigation
Drainage
Canal
canal４
New Diversion Canal

Taran
Figure 4.2 Examples of Layout Planning for the Intake Sites, Sand Basin
and Main Irrigation/Drainage Canal２)

(1) Layout Planning for Intake Weir and Intake Gate

The intake weir/gate location is considered based on the status of the river channel alignment, sand bar,
riverbed, riverbank and other river conditions around the candidate intake sites. Based on whether the
stability of the weir body has been secured, water utilization is prevented due to sediment deposition and any
problems with workability and other perspectives occur, the optimum location of the intake weir and gate
is decided. The locations where rock distribution may hinder construction work or where sand bars have
formed near the riverbank and may well block the intake shall be avoided. In addition, in large-scale rivers,
it shall be confirmed that the possibility of securing a flow path for flood divergency by dividing the river
channel by sandbars.
(2) Configuration for the Steep Gradient Main Irrigation Canal and Main Irrigation Canal
The steep gradient main irrigation canal conveys suspended and wash loads contained in the irrigation water
from the intake gate to the sand basin without depositing them in the canal while the main irrigation canal
carries irrigation water from the sand basin to the beneficiary irrigation area, which shall be routed to go
from the sand basin to the starting point of the existing canal as directly as possible (preferably linear). Both
canals shall be routed considering the status of land use (private land, farmland, etc.) and obstacles (other
canals, buildings, roads, rock distribution, uneven geographical features, etc.) and avoiding such conditions.
(3) Location of the Sand Basin
The sand basin is a facility which deposits and drains sediment having flown in through the steep gradient
main irrigation canal. It shall be located at the end of the steep gradient main irrigation canal and within 1
km or so from the intake gate, considering the topographic gradient, canal gradient, sand basin depth and
other aspects. Since sands and water in the sand basin are removed to the river via a drain gate, the sand basin
is located as close to the river as possible and a (sand) drainage canal shall be provided between the sand
basin and the river. In many cases, the sand basin is also utilized as a regulating pond as described below.

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 (4) Location of the Reservoir
In cases where a small slope with relatively steep gradient is located right next to the steep gradient main
irrigation canal and the main irrigation canal routes and the canals are prone to damage from flash floods
and debris flows, a reservoir shall be provided. However, no reservoirs should be installed in any large-scale
valleys.
(5) Location of the Siphon
In cases where the main irrigation canal traversing other waterways, rivers, stream, wadi and other elements
is inevitable, an (inverted) siphon or flood crossing bridge shall be provided to protect the canal from flash
floods and debris flows.
(6) Location of the Regulating Pond
A regulating pond is provided at the intersection between the proposed main irrigation canal and existing
canal in order to remove suspended and wash loads. At the same time, transmission gate and diversion gate
are provided to distribute the water properly. If the main irrigation canal is not so long, sand basin is utilized
as a regulating pond.

Main
Transmission Irrigation
diversion Drainage Drain gate gate
channel Canal
channel
Drain gate
diversion
gate

Sand
drainage
channel

Photo 4.1 Regulating Pond from the Upstream Side (1)

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 Main
Irrigation Drainage
Canal channel
Transmission
diversion gate Drain gate
channel

Photo 4.2 Regulating Pond from the Upstream Side (2)

(7) Layout Planning for the Main Drainage Canal

The main drainage canal is a facility which drains off excess water and rainwater from irrigated farmland to
the river promptly without retaining them to prevent water damage and significantly extend the cultivation
area. Centered on the main drainage canal, it shall be planned as a drainage network covering the whole area
and ensuring the drain water flows from the existing/new drainage canal networks to the main drainage
canal. The main drainage canal route shall be arranged at a lower ground level where the topography is
depressed compared to the surrounding area.
Based on the arrangement shown above, a project briefing is organized for residents residing near the steep
gradient main irrigation canal/main irrigation canal, sand basin and other facilities to be constructed
to discuss the agreement on land acquisition with them, the lease for constructing the aforementioned
structures and the layout planning. The discussion with residents will address the specific scope area
and period of the land acquisition and lease during construction separately once the facility design and
implementation schedule are clarified.

4.1.2 | Design Process of Irrigation Facilities

The PMS method irrigation facilities, namely the intake weir, intake gate, steep gradient main irrigation canal,
main irrigation canal, sand basin, reservoir, siphon and main drainage canal, shall be designed following the
design process as shown in Figure 4.3. The approach to design each facility is detailed from Sections 4.2 to 4.6.
Canals like the steep gradient main irrigation canal, main irrigation canal and main drainage canal shall ensure
a certain flow velocity which is exceeded to prevent suspended load sedimentation but also limit the flow
velocity to prevent canal section erosion. Although a sufficient cross-sectional area shall be secured to ensure
the required amount of irrigation water can be discharged, the flow rate varies widely according to the canal
gradient which is generally related to a factor of the ground elevation where the canal is located. Moreover, the
feasibility of acquiring land, economic efficiency and workability of the canal route shall also be considered.
Referring to the Manning equation, the various trade-offs for such canal design can be summarized as follows:

………………………………………………………… (4.1) 2), see 11)

Here, Q: flow rate (㎥/s), V: flow velocity (m/s), n: roughness coefficient, A: cross-section area (㎡), R:
hydraulic radius (m) (R＝A/S), S: wetted perimeter (m), I: riverbed gradient

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 • Assuming that the cross-sectional area and flow velocity maintain a certain level (flow rate), when the
cross-section is designed to be vertically longer by increasing the design water depth of the canal, a steep
canal gradient is required, given the extended wetted perimeter and the reduced hydraulic radius. When
the cross-section is designed to be horizontally longer by decreasing the design water depth of the canal,
the canal gradient can be gentle since the wetted perimeter becomes shorter and the hydraulic radius is
extended.
• If the ground gradient is gentle, a horizontally-long cross-section with excavated canal shape is preferable
with workability and economic efficiency in mind, since a vertically-long cross-section requires a dike. If
the ground gradient is steep, however, a vertically-long cross-section is economically more efficient since
the excavated soil amount will generally increase for a horizontally-long cross-section.
• The land area to be acquired increases in amount if the canal shape is widened and vice versa. To narrow
the canal shape, the water level gradient must increase. In turn, the weir height must be heightened which
raises the risk of flooding and pushes up the construction cost.
The irrigation water is temporary stored in a sand basin and reservoir to capture suspended loads and distribute
the water over irrigated farmland. If increasing the reservoir depth to secure a certain amount of storage water,
the land area to be acquired declines and is more easily managed. Conversely, reducing the depth makes the
bottom of the reservoir more accessible and more easily managed during dredging while enlarging the land area
to be acquired.
As above, when designing the ground layout plan of the intake weir and gate, main irrigation canal, main
drainage canal, sand basin and reservoir and designing the specifications, profile and cross-section, secure the
required functions by considering various trade-offs as well as constraints on land acquisition, workability,
economic efficiency and manageability of the facility.
In designing a series of facilities constructed from the intake site to the irrigation beneficiary area, the difference
in elevation between the intake site and irrigation beneficiary area is particularly crucial to secure the head.
If the weir height is lowered to stabilize the weir body, the water level at the intake and main irrigation canal
declines, meaning the cross-section has to be horizontally extended. This may increase the land area having
to be acquired and the earth extraction, according to the surrounding topography, adversely affecting both
workability and economic efficiency. Conversely, when introducing a vertically-long cross-section by limiting
the land area and earth amount, the required head must be secured by boosting the weir height to ensure
the water level remains high at the intake and main irrigation canal. In some cases, the intake site must be
rearranged upstream.

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 Start
・Stability of abutment and sandbar
・Formation of riffles and pools
・Sedimentation at intake mouth Plane design of the intake weir/gate, etc.
・River survey result If relocation is
(4.2.3) necessary

Specification design of the intake weir/gate, etc.

・Flood discharge/water level (4.2.4) If a height
・Drought discharge/water level change meets
・Required irrigation water amount Plane and profile/cross-section design of
the requirement
the steep gradient main irrigation canal
(4.3.2)

Plane and size design of the sand basin

・Required irrigation water amount (4.4.2)
・Sediment discharge & particle size
・Topographical/ Plane and profile/cross-section design
geological conditions of the main irrigation canal
(4.3.2)

Secure the head that Feedback

conveys water to
the beneficiary area No

Yes

Structural design of the intake weir/gate, sand flushing ditch,

steep gradient main irrigation canal, sand basin and main irrigation canal

(4.2.5 ∼ 4.2.7, 4.3.3, 4.3.4, 4.4.3)

Plane and cross-sectional reservoir design

・Side slope gradient of the main
irrigation canal (4.5.2)
・Basin area
・Flow down of flash flood and Plane and profile/cross-sectional siphon design, etc.
debris flow
(4.5.2)

Plane and profile/cross-sectional

・Drainage water amount design of main drainage canal
・Farmland layout and
the ground elevation (4.6.2, 4.6.3)
Structural design of reservoir, siphon, water wheel,
main drainage canal, etc.
Legend
(4.5.3 ∼ 4.5.5, 4.6.4)
：Input of consideration
(Based on information
from Chapters 2 and 3) Discussion with residents
・Land acquisition
：Various specifications design ・Agreement on plan/design

：Various structural designs The possibility of land acquisition is

considered when completing a
：Item to consider and discuss facility layout plan. If feedback is
End given during discussion with
( ) ：Corresponding described section residents, revise designs as needed.

Figure 4.3 Design Process of Irrigation Facilities２)

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 4.2 Design of the Intake Weir and Intak Gate
4.2.1 | Basic Design Policy
When designing the intake weir and intake gate, the following key matters must be avoided. The design process
of the intake weir and intake gate is shown in Figure 4.4
• The intake gate shall not be located in a place prone to sedimentation in river channels. This is to avoid
intake failure due to sedimentation in the intake gate.
• The plain shape of oblique weir is not a straight alignment but a curved shape that is concave toward the
downstream. This is because the water flowing down from multiple directions of the concave curved weir
are collected in the center downstream of the weir to offset the flow energy and preventing the opposite
side bank from scouring.
• The height of the intake weir shall not increase excessively. This is because the higher the weir, the greater
the risk of collapse due to river flow when flooding intensifies.
• The apron immediately downstream of the intake weir shall not have a steep slope. This is to prevent
erosion as much as possible, since the apron is the most prone to erosion caused by the water flow.

4.2.2 | Type of the Intake Weir: Boulder Oblique Weir

(1) Adoption of the Boulder Oblique Weir
The intake weir is a structure designed to secure the intake level by raising the level of the river. In the PMS
method, a boulder curvilinear oblique weir is adopted as the intake weir; constructed as a convex shape
toward upstream and diagonally toward downstream by piling up boulders to construct the weir body and
reinforcing its attachment part to sand bars using boulders and cobblestones.
The boulder oblique weir is arranged as follows to secure its stability during a flood. Accordingly, its features
include anti-erosion against flooding, allowing water to be taken in stably, even during drought seasons.
Moreover, the construction remains affordable and it is easy for local residents to maintain and manage.
Accordingly, the boulder oblique weir is one of the key highlight features in the PMS method irrigation
project.
Consideration of a plane form for curvilinear oblique weir is processed under the course of types: a) simple
groin, b) full width weir at right angles to the center of the stream flow, c) linear oblique weir and d)
curvilinear oblique weir as shown in Figure 4.5. Each concept has the following characteristics:
a. Simple groin: a groin is built out from one bank, which may cause scouring of the portion immediately
downstream of the groin edge that hinders efforts to secure the intake level.
b. Full width weir at right angles to the center of the stream flow : the weir body is constructed over the
full width of the river at right angles to the center of the river. Compared to (a), the intake level is surely
secured while the load to weir body is greater given the large unit width discharge.
c. Linear oblique weir: the weir is provided diagonally toward the flow direction. The weir width exceeds
(b), which allows the unit width discharge to be controlled and mitigates loads on the weir body.
Meanwhile, as shown in (c) of Figure 4.5, overflow from the weir may scour the river banks and sand
bars eroding the weir body part attached to them.
d. Curvilinear oblique weir: as shown in (d) of Figure 4.5, this weir curves around the shape of the linear
oblique weir as shown in (c) as above and is wider than the linear oblique weir. The large weir width
means a longer overflow length while reducing the unit width discharge at the weir crest. This reduces
the tractive force on the weir body and secures weir body stability. Moreover, a long overflow length
can also effectively control any fluctuation in water level caused by changing the river flow discharge.
Further, strong flows from the sand flushing ditch and spillway and overflows from top the weir gather
in the center of the curved part and the flow velocity is reduced by setting off flow energy to prevent
erosion of the weir body part attached to the river banks or sand bars.

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 Start

1. Measurement survey at the intake site

・The profile and cross-sectional topological conditions at the intake weir
construction point are understood following a measurement survey at
the intake site.

2. Plane design of intake weir and intake gate

・The specific installation locations of the intake weir and intake gate are
decided from the surrounding topological conditions in the target site as
well as determining the plane shape, including the installation angle of
the oblique weir and the curvature of the curved part.

3. Organizing conditions for the design water level

・Design flood water level ・The design flood and drought water levels are recorded on the survey
・Design drought water level drawing as conditions for the design water level.

4. Setting the intake gate base elevation

・Based on the design drought water level, the base elevation of intake gate
is set at a similar level of design drought water level.

5. Setting the intake weir height

(overflow water level, canal cross-section)
・Design flood discharge
・Design drought discharge ・The weir crest height is temporarily defined more or less + 50 to 80 cm
・Required irrigation from the intake gate base elevation at the weir point.
discharge ・The overflow water level (intake level during a drought) is defined from
the water depth of the design drought water discharge, which overflows
the weir and whether the required irrigation water can be secured at the
intake gate is verified to determine the intake weir height.

6. Cross-sectional design of intake weir and intake gate

・Topographic Survey result ・Based on the conditions of the intake gate ground elevation and the
intake weir crest height, cross-sections of intake weir and intake gate,
sand flushing ditch and spillway are designed.

7. Profile design of the intake weir

・The profile of the intake weir remains around ten times of the current
riverbed gradient (e.g. the Kunar River) considering weir stability during
flooding and the gradient between the weir body and apron and weir
length are determined.
・The length of the weir wings attached to river banks and sand bars and
the riverbed foundation should secure sufficient length and penetration
depth into the ground.

8. Structural design of the intake weir and intake gate

・Design flood discharge ・The boulder diameter is determined which compose the weir body.
・Geological conditions ・The structure of intake weir wings attached to riverbanks or sand
・Load conditions bars are designed.
・The intake gate and sand flushing ditch structures are designed.

End

Figure 4.4 Design Process of Intake Weir and Intake Gate ２)

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 : Scoured part
：洗掘発生部
: River flow

a. Simple groin b. Full width weir at right angles to

the center of the stream flow

c. Linear oblique weir d. Curvilinear oblique weir

Figure 4.5 How to Consider to Select the Plane Type for the Intake Weir ２)

(2) Comparison between the Boulder Oblique Weir and Concrete-fixed Weir/Sluicegate Weir
The type of the intake weir combining a fixed weir with a reinforced concrete and sluice gate is adopted in
many countries and usually constructed at right angles to downstream direction. The common features
of the intake weir and boulder oblique weir and their applicability to Afghanistan are shown in Table 4.1,
suggesting that the boulder oblique weir remains suitable in Afghanistan.

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 Table 4.1 Comparison of the Intake Weir Types ２)

Concrete-fixed weir/sluice gate

Item Boulder Oblique Weir
(frequently adopted in irrigation projects
(adopted in PMS method irrigation project)
in many countries)

ay
il lw
Sp Fixed weir

Spillway

Outline Sand flushing

drawing ditch
Bedrock Sand flushing ditch

Sand
flushing
ditch Spillway Fixed weir
Sand flushing
ditch Spillway

・The weir is provided diagonally to the flow ・A fixed weir and sluice gate are provided to
direction and will have a convex shape toward traverse the river and raise the water level.
Features the upstream. ・Since it is usually constructed at right angles to
・The weir body is constructed by piling up the river flow, it shall be a solid concrete
boulders on the riverbed and reinforcing the structure to withstand the flow velocity.
wings with boulders and cobblestones.

・The weir is provided diagonally to the river ・It can withstand the flow energy thanks to the
flow so that flow energy can be reduced. concrete structure.
・The weir body also functions as a training ・The concrete structure needs comparatively
Merits dike wall, smoothly conveying river water into little maintenance and management.
the intake.
・The construction is relatively affordable.

・Regular maintenance and management is ・A concrete structure is time-consuming and

required, such as additional input of stone costly to repair once damaged.
materials. ・The sluice gate and other facilities must be
Due diligence sufficiently maintained and managed. Once
points damaged, repairs are time-consuming, costly
and almost impossible for residents to do so
alone.
・Construction is relatively costly.

・Easy for local residents to maintain and ・Maintenance and challenging for local residents.
manage.
Applicability ・It is a structure applying stone materials which
to Afghanistan are abundant in many regions.
・There are many PMS method irrigation project
cases.

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 (3) Comparison between the Boulder Oblique Weir and Conventional Intake Facilities
In many cases, when water is drawn from rivers in Afghanistan, the following difficulties emerge:
• The intake gate is vulnerable to flooding.
• There is considerable sediment inflow while flooding.
• Stable water intake is difficult to ensure during flood and drought seasons.
Focusing on these difficulties, Table 4.2 compares intake facilities by PMS centered on the boulder oblique
weir and conventional intake facilities. Many of the latter have a simple groyne form, the riverbed of which
often declines at the edge and seems incapable of securing the intake level. Moreover, amid unchanged
intake amount, the water intake function may not be available during a flood season and it may be vulnerable
to flood and sediment inflow. Meanwhile, the PMS method irrigation project overcomes such challenges
by developing and adopting a unique, simple and practical intake system (boulder oblique weir, intake gate,
steep gradient main irrigation canal and sand basin).

Table 4.2 Comparison between the Boulder Oblique Weir and Conventional Intake Facilities ２)
Boulder Oblique Weir
Conventional Intake Weir (Simple groin)
in PMS Method Irrigation Project

(1)

(1)
(3)
(2)
(3) (1)
(1)(3)
(2) (4) (4)
(5)
(5)
(5)
:Scouring part :Simple groin : Scouring protection :Boulder oblique weir

Issues Countermeasure
・ There is concern about possibility of washout or ・Flood diversion channel is secured by dividing the river
(1) destruction of the weir itself. channel by sand bar.
(1) ・Curved full-width weir reduces unit width overflow
・ It is difficult to secure the water intake level because discharge.
(2) the weir body is broken due to riverbed decline by
scouring at the tip of the groin. ・The entire width and gentle gradient of weir body from the
(2) riverbank to the sandbar prevents scouring at the immedi-
・River water route moves due to opposite side bank ately downstream tip of the weir and secures the intake
(3) scouring, and the water cannot flow into the intake water level.
mouth.
・The strong flows from sand flushing ditch, flood spillway
(3)
(4) ・ There is no function to adjust intake water amount and overflow from top of the weir are collected in the center
at the intake mouth. downstream of the curved weir to offset the flow energy and
prevent scouring on the opposite side bank.
・Flood flows directly into the irrigation canal.
・There is a lot of sediment inflow into the irrigation ・The intake water amount can be adjusted manually with the
(5) canal. (4) double flush board method at intake gate and sand flushing
・There is no sand settling function for the extracted ditch.
water, and there is a lot of sediment accumulation in
the main irrigation canal. ・Flush board method prevents flood flow from flowing into
the irrigation canal.
・Extracting overflown water above the flush board can
(5) prevent the inflow of sediment to the main irrigation canal.
・Sediment inflow and deposition in the main irrigation
canal can be prevented by providing a sand flushing ditch
and a sand basin.

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 (4) Basic Policy of the Boulder Oblique Weir Design
According to the actual construction in the existing PMS irrigation project, the specifications of the
boulder oblique weir are as follows. Benchmarking these, the boulder oblique weir is designed in line
with regional conditions. The following three types and specifications will be the standard designs in the
PMS method irrigation project: 1) a boulder oblique weir is introduced as an intake weir securing a wider
weir width, 2) the weir wings attached to the river banks and sand bars are reinforced by boulders and
cobblestones and 3) the intake weir is provided diagonally; curbing against the river flow. The height, length
and stone size of the intake weir are determined according to the design flood discharge, required irrigation
water, locally available size and amount of boulders and cobblestones and other regional conditions. The
design of the boulder oblique weir follows Figure 4.6, Figure 4.7 and the following items.

- Intake weir plane design： The axis direction of weir body is provided at an angle of 30 to 45 degrees
diagonal to the river flow.
The weir width is twice to three times of river width and in convex shape
to the upstream direction.
- Intake weir profile design： The weir height is around two meters or lower.
The apron gradient and weir height are set as 2.0% or lower.
- Intake weir cross-sectional The intake weir crest elevation is set at around 0.5 to 0.8 m higher than the
design： base elevation of intake gate.
The base elevation of intake gate follows the design drought water level.
The base elevation of sand flushing ditch is around 0.7 to 1.0 m lower than
the intake gate elevation.
The secured width of spillway is 10 to 20 m and depth is around 1m.
- Intake weir structural design： The size of boulders comprising the intake weir body is 0.5 to 2.0 m.

30°
∼45°
River flow
Weir
length
River width Weir crest

Weir width
Sand flushing (overflow length)
ditch

Intake gate

Figure 4.6 Plane Design Model of the Boulder Oblique Weir ２)

Weir length
- Protection of wings and Abutments (wings) are protected using boulders. The weir foundation
Weir crest
foundations of the weir body： shall be embedded
ien
t below the riverbed.
d
n gra Weir height
Apro

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 Sand flushing (overflow length)
ditch

Intake gate

Weir length
Weir crest
t
d ien
n gra Weir height
A pro

Figure 4.7 Profile Design Model of the Boulder Oblique Weir２)

4.2.3 | Plane Design of the Intake Weir and Intake Gate

(1) Location of the Intake Weir
The intake weir location is decided from among several candidate points considering the following:
• Whether sand bars and riverbanks attached to the wings of the intake weir body are stable and whether
the upstream and downstream lengths of the attaching parts to be reinforced are sufficiently secured.
• If it is located immediately downstream of the rock and is suitable in terms of both stability and
workability against flooding.
• Whether there are such concerns that the intake is blocked, including the distribution of sand bars near
the planned construction site of the intake gate.
The above points are explained in Figure 4.8 as a pattern diagram. Since the weir part at opposite bank is
attached near the edge of the sand bars in Location 1, the sand bar is likely be eroded by flooding, damaging
the stability of the weir body from its attaching part. Moreover, its workability is low since constructing
the intake gate and sand flushing ditch involves rock excavation. Sand bars are distributed near the planned
intake gate site in Location 3 and sedimentation raises concerns. Accordingly, Location 2 is the most
suitable for installing the intake weir.

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 Confirmation of weir body River channel
attaching part
100m

200m +0.10m

90m
950m
Proposed location +0.02m
120m
of the weir River channel
+0.06m 900m
Sand bar 1 +0.58m
ck Bedrock distribution
184m Ro
147m B1
Channel
-0.75m Location Alignment
-0m Location 1
-1.35m Intake gate of weir
Sand
flushing ditch
-1.5m Location 2 Sediment
Sand bar 2
Sand deposition line
River channel 150m
Location 3
0m=base level of intake gate
-4.5m
Sand bar ３ Low water channel

High water channel

Sand bar distribution

Figure 4.8 Example for Setting the Location of the Boulder Oblique Weir 4)

Those matters to be noted when constructing an intake weir in a river channel with unstable flow reference the
Miran intake weir as shown in Column 4-1. In the Miran intake weir location, the original main channel was
blocked by sedimentation and the riverbank eroded by the other newly formed main channel. The intake had to
be relocated several times due to changing river channels, which made it difficult to define a proper location. In
such cases, the following measures allow the intake weir to be provided where the main channel is fixed to some
extent:
• A stone spur dike is constructed at the river curved part along the newly formed main channel.
• Former main channel blocked by sedimentation is dredged and recovered to control the water flow into
the current main channel.
• A boulder oblique weir with sand bars between the former and current main channels as its wings is
constructed by reinforcing the wings and integrating sand bars and weirs.
As above, the intake weir can be provided in those instable river channels by preventing riverbank erosion, fixing
the current main channel, stabilizing sand bars and fixing the intake.
The whole plane diagram of the Miran Weir and surrounding protection as planned under the above policy are
shown in Figure 4.9.

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 Sand bar Sand flushing ditch
Weir with boulders Stone spur dike with 5-10m length
Stone masonry with Stone spur dike with 15-20m length
boulders, Wicker &
Fascine works
Gabion

0m
Starting point of
continuous di ke Kunar River

Sand bar 2380m

Sand bar 2200m

600m
Sand bar
Nat
iona
l roa

1000m 1600m
d

1200m
Intake ⇒ 1400m
gate
Irrigation main canal

Figure 4.9 The Whole Plane Diagram of the Miran Weir2)

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 Text Block 4-1: Background to the Plane Design of the Miran Intake Weir

■Changing intake location

The riverbank of the Kunar River in Behsud Province is prone to severe flooding. In the decade
since 2003, the intake location was changed three times: Intake A (2004) ⇨Intake B (2005)
⇨ Intake C (2010) ⇨ Intake D (2013). This was due to large floods destroying the intake and
causing the main channel to be relocated.
■Background to the changing flow directions
・Consecutive dikes were deeply eroded, causing the emergence of new river channels (i) along the
dikes.
・Sedimentation occurs in river channels (iii) to (v) due to significant flooding in 2010 and 2013,
increasing the flow rate in the channel (ii).
・Straight channels (i) and (ii) are merged with the increased flow rate, forming a new main
channel.
■Countermeasures
The natural flow before engineering intervention shall be recovered as much as possible.
1. After recovering the flow rate in the former natural channels (iv) and (v) by river channel
excavation and returning the main channel to its original natural channel, new channels (i) and
(ii), whose flow rate was reduced, were blocked. By taking the revetment line in 2013 as the design
dike line, erosion of farmlands by changing main channels was prevented.
2. To prevent the expansion of new main channels (i) and (ii), the intake weir was constructed as a
disaster prevention facility.

❺
❹ Kunar River
❷
❶ ❸

River bank line in 2013

River bank line in 2014

New main channel formed Miran main
irrigation canal

❺ Former natural channels

❹ were recovered
❷ ❸ Kunar River
❶

Miran main
Design dike line irrigation canal

Figure Riverbank Erosion and Countermeasures to the Intake Gate in Miran 4)

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 (2) Plane Design of the Boulder Oblique Weir
The plane design of the intake weir in PMS method irrigation facilities are as follows:
• The intake weir type shall be a boulder oblique weir, the body of which is constructed by stone masonry of
boulders.
• To stabilize the weir body by controlling the river flow overflowing the weir for each unit width discharge,
the weir is provided diagonally to the flow and a weir width twice to three times as long as the river width
is secured.
• The plane alignment of the overflowing part is shaped convex relative to upstream and its curvature radius
shall be around 70 to 150 m. The larger the curvature radius, the shorter the weir width, or vice versa.
• The average weir installation angle is 30 to 45 degrees to the flow. The larger the angle, the shorter the weir
width, or vice versa.
• While the weir width is determined by several elements, including the curvature radius and flow angle as
above, a weir width capable of securing weir body stability shall be set when applying unit width discharge
during the overflow as defined by the weir width to 4.2.5 (4) Confirmation of the Stability of Stone
Materials composing the Boulder Oblique Weir .
• The size of boulders comprising the weir body is based on particles of 0.5 to 2.0 m which can remain in
place, despite the tractive force of the design flood water discharge. The validity of the boulder size is
evaluated by 4.2.5 (4) Confirmation of the Stability of Stone Materials composing Boulder Oblique
Weir as shown below.
If boulders of the required size are unavailable around the site, the required boulder sizes can be reduced
to a certain extent by reducing the overflow amount per unit width, lengthening the weir width, reducing
the weir installation angle, changing the curvature radius of the curved part or other measures. Moreover,
the oblique weir, due to its form features, has a weir length around the sand flushing ditch near the intake
gate shorter than the length of the opposite bank and the gradients of the weir body and apron steepen.
Accordingly, the length of the weir parts attached to the opposite riverbank and sandbar shall be as long
as possible to stabilize the weir body, and spillway shall be provided to prevent excessive concentration of
running water on the intake gate side. Figure 4.10 shows a plane drawing of the boulder oblique weir.

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 Protection of the weir
attaching part
(boulders, cobblestones
or gabion mattress)
10 m at right angles
to the riverbank slope

R=70m ∼150m

Apron
Flow control by spillway
Width: 10 to 20 m

30°
∼45 °
Bed protection
works

Weir width: twice

or more the river width

Boulders
Apron for (scouring prevention)
sedimentation
pool

Figure 4.10 Plane Drawing of the Boulder Oblique Weir 2)

(3) Layout Design of the Intake Gate and Incidental Facilities for the Boulder Oblique Weir
Intake facilities comprise an intake weir and intake gate while a sand flushing ditch, spillway and weir wings
protection are also provided in the boulder oblique weir as incidental facilities. The layout of these intake
gate and incidental facilities is as follows:
• The intake gate will be located on the riverbank connecting to the boulder oblique weir abutment. The
weir crest functions as a training wall conveying the river water into the intake gate.
• The sand flushing ditch is provided on a part of the weir body adjacent to the intake gate located on the
riverbank connecting to the boulder oblique weir abutment, discharging soils accumulated upstream of
the intake weir to prevent sediments from flowing into the intake gate. Moreover, a flush board of the
sand flushing ditch is provided at an abnormally low water level to secure the water level of the intake gate.
Accordingly, the sand flushing ditch also serves as a movable weir.
• A spillway is provided at around the top of the convex-shaped boulder oblique weir gathering flows of the
spillway and sand flushing ditch into the center of the river channel to set off their force. The spillway is 10
to 20 m width and at least 1 m depth. The flow of the sand flushing ditch is directed to the river center.
• To control the intake amount at the intake gate in the case of abnormal drought and discharge sediments
at the sand flushing ditch, movable flush boards shall be provided at the gate pier. Accordingly, the gate
pier and foundations of the intake gate and sand flushing ditch are constructed by reinforced concrete to
firmly fix them in place.

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 • A reinforced concrete apron is provided as a sedimentation pool immediately upstream the intake gate
and sand flushing ditch to form a solid integrated structure of the intake gate, sand flushing ditch and
apron. The apron gradient is set on the side of the sand flushing ditch to promote sand flushing.
• Consecutive protection works 10 m width or more and 50 m length (weir length) are provided to ensure
the weir wings in the opposite bank of the intake gate are attached to the river banks and sand bars.

(4) The place where Hydraulic Jump Occurs

As shown in Figure 4.11, the water overflowing-weir channels to the apron from several directions at the
curved weir crest. It is deemed that when each water momentum is triggered (decelerated), a hydraulic jump
occurs at around the midpoint of the apron. Since apron works also function to protect the bed originally
provided immediately after the hydraulic jump point, a curvature radius allowing overflowing water from
multiple directions to gather at the middle of the apron must be set when deciding on the curved shape
(radius) of the oblique weir crest. Specifically, the curvature radius is set to ensure the center of the radius of
arc in the major overflowing part is within the area of boulders filled in the apron. Accordingly, the area of
boulders filled in the apron covers where hydraulic jumps occur in the apron.

Hydraulic jump

River flow

Figure 4.11 Hydraulic Jump Location at the Weir Apron 2)

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 Photo 4.3 shows the photographs before and after the rise of river water level during the transition from the
drought season to the flood season at the intake weir location where the above mentioned phenomenon can be
observed. Between late April and early May when the water level rose, hydraulic jumps in the apron more or less
occurred in the apron area filled with boulders.

Kama Weir I viewed from downstream: Marwarid Weir II viewed from upstream:
February/25/2019 January/3/2018

Kama Weir I viewed from downstream: Marwarid Weir II viewed from upstream:
April/26/2019 May/5/2019

Photo 4.3 Aerial Views of the Oblique Weir １)

4.2.4 | Basic Specification Design for Intake Weir and Intake Gate
The first basic specifications to be determined when designing the intake weir and intake gate are the base
elevation of intake gate, weir crest elevation and weir overflow level (see Figure 4.12). The following basic
specifications adopted in past PMS method irrigation projects can be referenced. However, as a general rule,
the base elevation of intake gate is set to a design drought water level based on the lowest level during a winter
season (see Chapter 3) and shall remain unchanged until further notice.
• Base elevation of intake weir (as a general rule, the design drought water level): 0.7 to 1.0 m higher than the
current riverbed height and 0.5 to 0.8 m lower than the weir height
• Intake weir height (weir crest elevation): 1.2 to 1.8 m higher than the current riverbed elevation
• Overflow water depth at the intake weir (the overflow level is the design intake level of the intake gate): 0.5
to 1.5 m

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 Design flood water level The LWL of the main
Dike height/Ground height + freeboard or higher irrigation canal and
required irrigation water
during a drought period
Design flood water level (when the design flood water are secured at this level.
is discharged) ▽HWL ▽
Intake gate
Design drought water level (when the design
drought water is discharged) ▽LWL ▽
▽堰天crest height
▽Weir
Overflow water depth ▽Intake gate
when design drought base elevation 0.5∼0.8m
water is discharged.
Sand flushing ditch 0.7∼1 .0m
Current riverbed height

Mix of stone materials with

sizes ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 m.

Figure 4.12 Design Specifications for Intake Weir/Gate Elevation Setting 2)

These basic specifications for intake weir and intake gate are determined by the following process of trial and
error based on the elevation difference with the irrigation beneficiary area and the design water level of the
standard cross-section of main irrigation canal (see Figure 4.13):
1) The design drought water level of the river is determined as the intake gate base elevation.
2) The weir height is assumed to be between 1.2 to 1.8 m, referencing the existing PMS irrigation project.
3) The design drought (design intake) water level at the intake gate is determined as the overflow level when
design drought water is discharged in the weir. The overflow water depth is calculated by the following
overflow formula as reference:
Overflow formula ……………………………………………… (4.2) 2), see 5)
Here, Q: overflow amount, C: overflow coefficient (around 0.35 when completely overflowing),
B: overflow length, H: overflow water depth and g: gravitational acceleration (g=9.81)

4) Based on the intake gate base elevation, design drought intake water level and elevation of irrigation
beneficiary area as determined, the gradient, standard cross-section and design water level of the main
irrigation canal are assumed by which the required irrigation water can be discharged.
5) Assuming that the main irrigation canal is constructed with the gradient and standard cross-section as
above, the need for land acquisition is considered and the workability and construction costs analyzed by
calculating the quantity of works, including embankment and excavation, to consider the validity of the
gradient and standard cross-section assumed.
6) In case if they are insufficient, the weir height and overflow level are reconsidered reverting to process 2).
For example, when making the canal width narrower than the assumed standard cross-section, the design
drought water level at the intake gate is increased by raising the weir height or increasing the overflow
water depth.
7) Combination of basic specifications and gradient and standard cross-section of main irrigation canal is
considered continuously until reaching their optimum balance.
8) When finding the optimum combination, their values are determined eventually as the basic
specifications for intake weir and intake gate and gradients and the standard cross-section of the main
irrigation canal.

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 Setting the intake gate base elevation

Determining the intake weir height (the weir crest elevation)

Determining the intake weir overflow depth Feed Back

(design water level of the intake gate)
Revising basic specifications, etc.
Determining the gradient/standard cross-section
of the main irrigation canal

Land acquisition, NO
workability,
economic efficiency

YES
END

Figure 4.13 Process of Setting Basic Specifications for Intake Weir and Intake Gate 2)

4.2.5 | Specification Design of the Intake Weir

(1) Cross-sectional Design of the Boulder Oblique Weir
Following the determination of basic specifications for intake weir and intake gate (intake gate base
elevation, weir crest elevation and weir overflow level), the cross-section of the boulder oblique weir is
designed as follows (see Figure 4.14):
• A spillway is provided around 20 m - or at least 10 m - from the opposite bank where the location
separates the wings from the main flow during a flood. Its bottom width is 10 to 20 m in accordance with
the aforementioned plane design. The spillway base elevation is around the intake gate base elevation
(reference height) at the weir crest, ensuring that the river water can be conveyed into the intake gate side,
even during the severest of droughts.
• The reference base level of the sand flushing ditch is ‐0.7 to −1.0m and it is 2.0 m x 4 spans width.
The span width of the sand flushing ditch is standardized by the flush board length, which is, in turn,
determined in terms of yield strength against sand and water pressures on the board. The number of
spans for the sand flushing ditch depends on the design drought water discharge of the river, which is
determined by the method described in 4.2.7 (5) Cross-sectional Design of Sand Flushing Ditch (span
width and the number of gates) .
• Based on the above concepts, designs (spans and height) for the intake gate and sand flushing ditch are
standardized and the number of spans arranged according to the flow amount in each basin. To do this,
the flush boards are also standardized.
If the design intake level is not achieved due to riverbed deformation or drought once the irrigation facility
operation is underway after completion of works, sufficient irrigation water shall be secured by decreasing
the cross-sectional size of the spillway or increasing the span numbers of the intake gate.
In preparing a cross-sectional drawing of the intake weir, the following shall be noted:
• As well as specifying external dimensions and specifications, such as width, base elevation and crest height,
for intake weir and intake gate, sand flushing ditch and spillway, the basic conditions for the water level,
including the design drought water level, design flood water level, design intake water level and overflow

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 level are specified.
• Basic specifications are set out for the concrete, boulders gabion and other materials comprising each
structure.
• The consistency of each structure shown on the cross-sectional drawing shall be in line with its location
on the plane drawing.

▼Design flood water level

▼Expected weir crest height (+0.5 to 0.8m)

▼Baseline±0 ▼Designed drought water level:
most drought level in winter (±0)

20m
（10m以上）

▼Weir crest height (+0.5 m to 0.8m)

▼Baseline±0
▼Sand flushing ditch base elevation ▼Spillway base
(-0.7 to -1.0m) elevation (around the
Intake Sand intake gate base elevation)
gate flushing
ditch Spillway

Figure 4.14 Cross-sectional Drawing of the Boulder Oblique Weir 2)

(2) Profile Design for the Boulder Oblique Weir

The profile design for the boulder oblique weir is prepared as follows:
• The weir length is sufficiently secured and the weir body crest inclined downstream to increase the height
of the entire river channel by piling boulders.
• The longitudinal gradient downstream of the weir body including the apron shall be about 1/70 to
1/50 (1.5% to 2.0%) so that the stability of the boulder oblique weir can be ensured. Thanks to this
arrangement, the structure prevents scouring by setting off the tractive force with the immediately
downstream flow from the weir crest during flooding.
• The weir body foundation shall secure an embedment 1 m deep or more (penetrating depth from the
riverbed) from the current deepest riverbed on both the upstream and downstream sides. At the same
time, boulders are also filled in on the current riverbed surface for around 20m to the river profile in the
area furthest downstream of the apron, to prevent scouring between the weir body and current riverbed
ground surface.
• The apron on the upstream side of the weir body is usually provided to prevent scouring of the riverbed
by overflow. For an oblique weir constructed by stone masonry, it is considered that the upstream part of
the weir body is protected by piling up boulders at an internal friction angle in water (around 38°when
using cobblestones which is the maximum slope angle capable of maintaining stability voluntarily without
collapsing when they are piled up in water), functioning as the upstream apron.
The length of the boulder oblique weir includes the weir body and apron, which can be calculated by the
gradients of the riverbed around the weir location, weir body and apron. If the apron is located at a steep
slope, the overflow velocity increases and may impair the weir body stability. If lowering the apron gradient,
particularly where the riverbed gradient is steep, the weir length becomes longer and the cross-section is
rendered economically inefficient. Accordingly, the profile gradient of the intake weir is set within the
scope of its stability by 4.2.5 (4) Confirmation of the Stability of Stone Materials composing Boulder
Oblique Weir ensuring that an excessively low gradient shall not be set. Figure 4.15 shows an image for the
consideration of weir length.

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 If the riverbed gradient is steep,
in particular, the weir length
becomes longer, resulting in an
uneconomical profile.

Depth of embedment:
1 m or more

If the apron gradient is

steep, the weir body may
become less stable.
Riverbed gradient

Figure 4.15 Profile Design of the Boulder Oblique Weir: an image for considering weir length 2)

(3) Protection of the Boulder Oblique Weir Part Attaching to Riverbanks and Sand Bars
As shown in Figure 4.16, when a solid weir body constructed by boulders is placed on soft gravel and soil,
gaps between them are scoured, resulting in significant erosion. Accordingly, the parts to which the intake
weir wing and river banks/sand bars are attached shall be as long as possible to ensure stability of the weir
body wings.

Without protection at the attached With the protection at the attached

part to the sand bar part to the sand bar

Sand bar When the water level rises, Protection on

erosion the sandbar will be inundated. the sand bar

Scouring

Weir body
Weir body
Intake is impossible Canal
due to the degradation
of water level.

Intake water level cannot be secured with sand bar Intake water level can be secured
erosion and water level degradation. without sand bar erosion.

Figure 4.16 Scouring of the Boulder Oblique Weir Parts attached to River Banks/Sand Bars 3)

To protect all the sand bars supporting the intake weir body wings, gabion grid connection or needle-like
fascine works methods applying fascine works in gabion works shall be applied, as shown in Photo 4.5 and
Figure 4.17. However, considering workability and applicability to rivers with high flow velocity like the Kunar
River in mind, cobblestone filling in the boulder frame method is established as the ultimate form of sand
bar protection as shown in Figure 4.18, whereby all sides are surrounded by boulders and cobblestones are filled

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 inside.
Although the early PMS method irrigation project adopted sand bar protection using a gabion as shown in
Photo 4.4, it is not applied nowadays to protect sandbars. However, there are still cases where only gabions are
applied for the purpose of preventing soil from being drawn out at the edge of the sand bar in some cases.

Photo 4.4 Foot Protection Works in the Sand Bar Photo 4.5 Gabion Grid Connection in the Foot
(Kama Weir I) 1) Protection Works (Kama Weir II) ）1)
To ta l c u ttin g s a r e 6 0 -7 0 .

2.0m
Gabion 2.0×2.0×0.6m
Gabion 2.0×2.0×0.6m
3.0m
3 .0 m

2.0m
2.0m

3.0m
3.0m

3)
Figure 4.17 Example of Needle-like Fascine Works

2.0ｍ 2.0ｍ
All sides are surrounded by
boulders and the inside is
filled with cobblestones.

Figure 4.18 Example of a Method of Cobblestones filled inside the Boulder Frame 1)

(4) Confirmation of the Stability of Stone Materials Comprising the Boulder Oblique Weir
In a narrowing river channel and with the weir body and apron at a steep slope, flow accelerates and its
impact on the weir body intensifies. Since the boulder oblique weir body comprises masonry and boulders,

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 the stability of the latter needs to be confirmed. In other words, there is a need to construct the weir body
using larger boulders that do not move and are not eroded, even when the design flood water is discharged
over the weir.
A stone size comprising a stable boulder oblique weir shall be set as it ensures stability against the tractive
force of higher flow velocity among 1) critical flow at the weir crest, 2) flow velocity at the apron and 3) flow
velocity at the time of overflow (the area downstream of the weir apron). If boulders of a designated size are
unavailable around the project site, there is scope to design a stable weir with available stone materials by
lowering the gradient of the weir body and apron, securing the overflow weir width to reduce the unit width
discharge of the design flood water discharge or taking other measures.
When considering the velocity and depth of the river flow traversing the weir body and apron, 1) design
flood water discharge, 2) weir width, 3) weir height and apron gradient (weir length) and other relevant
data are required. The image of the river flow is shown in Figure 4.19, and the specific calculation method is
described as follows:
a) Calculation of critical flow at the weir crest
The critical water depth and flow around the weir crest portion can be calculated using the following
formula. If a unit width discharge can be reduced, the velocity of water overflowing the weir can be reduced.

…………………………………………………………… (4.3) 2), see 6)

Here, vc: critical flow (m/s), hc: critical water depth (m), g: gravitational acceleration (m/s2), q: unit width
discharge (㎥/s/m) (q = design flood water discharge / weir width)

Figure 4.19 shows the water surface profile when the river flow goes from a gentle to a steep slope, then
reverts back to the channel at a gentle gradient. The flow becomes torrential at a critical level from the
normal flow, then reverts to normal after a hydraulic jump. During flow shift from normal to torrential, the
critical flow occurring marks the boundary point between normal and torrential flows. The flow velocity
and water depth at this moment collectively constitute the critical flow and critical water velocity. The
phenomenon at this boundary point can be shown as Fr =1 using the following Froude number (Fr):

Froude number: ……………………………………………………… (4.4) 2), see 6)

Here, v: average flow velocity (m), g: gravitational acceleration (m/s2), h: water depth (m)
Flow exceeding the critical water depth (Fr =１) is a normal flow ( Fr <１) while a shallower flow is
torrential (Fr >１). The normal flow is gentle and involves water table fluctuation being transmitted from
downstream to upstream. The torrential flow involves great force and water table fluctuation that is not
transmitted from downstream to upstream.

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 Uniform flow
Normal flow
Uniform flow
M2
water depth ↓Critical flow (control section h0＝hc)
Start point of
uniform flow
Low gradient ib＜ic S22 to be
Torrential flow Uniform calculated
flow
Normal flow
S teep gradient ib＞ic Hydraulic
jump h2 h0
M 2
h1 hc
Low gradient ib＜ic

Figure 4.19 River Flow : Normal Flow, Critical Flow, Torrential Flow, Hydraulic Jump and Returning to the
Normal Flow 2)

b) Calculation of flow velocity at the weir apron portion

The flow velocity of the weir apron can be calculated using the following Manning formula. The greater the
unit width discharge and the steeper the weir apron gradient, the higher the flow velocity.

……………………………………………………………………(4.5) 2), (see 6))

Here, v: average flow velocity (m), n: roughness length, R(=A/S): hydraulic radius (m), A: discharge area
(㎡), S: wetted perimeter (m), I: riverbed gradient
c) Calculation of flow velocity at the area immediately downstream of the weir apron
i. Design water discharge used for the stability analysis of boulders composing the weir body is calculated
by the following formulas (4.6)(4.7) to judge whether the water overflowing the weir is a complete or
submerged overflow. In the case of complete overflow with the deigned flood water discharge, the water
flow is set as the designed water discharge. In the case of submerged overflow with the designed flood
water discharge, the maximum water flow to become a complete overflow (the river flow meeting hc + D =
h2) is set by the following formulas (4.6)(4.7) as the designed water discharge.

……………………………………………………………………… (4.6) 2), see 6)

…………………………………………………………(4.7) 2), (see 6))

Here, hc: critical water depth (m), D: drop height (m), h2: uniform flow water depth downstream (m), Q:
water discharge (㎥/s), n: roughness coefficient of the river channel, I: riverbed gradient of the channel
ii. Calculation of the flow velocity in the area downstream of the apron (v1a)
The flow velocity in the area immediately downstream of the weir apron is calculated by the following
formula of energy conservation, while the water depth at the edge of the downstream part of the apron
(h1a) is calculated using the following formula and taking frictional damage of the apron slope surface
into consideration. The greater the water flow and the greater the drop between the area upstream and
downstream of the weir, the higher the flow velocity.

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 …………………………………………………… (4.8) 2), see 6)

…………………………………………………… (4.9) 2), see 6)

To achieve φ = ψ in the above two formulas, the water depth at the edge of the downstream portion of the apron
(h1a) is calculated from the critical water depth at the weir crest and the flow velocity (v1a) can be calculated
using the following formula (4.10):

………………………………………………………………………… (4.10) 2), see 6)

Here, Z1: weir height, h1: critical water depth (m), Q: water flow (㎥/s), A1: flow-section area (㎡), A1a:
flow-section area at a low gradient (㎡), n1: roughness coefficient of the river channel, n1a: roughness
coefficient at a low gradient, R1: hydraulic radius of the channel (m), R1a: hydraulic radius at a low
gradient (m), l: weir length (m), h1a: water depth in the downstream of the apron (m), v1a: flow velocity in
the downstream of the apron (m/s)
d) Calculation of the stable stone size
The highest flow velocity among the aforementioned critical flow velocity around the weir crest, in the weir
apron part and at the overflow water depth (the area immediately downstream of the weir apron) is applied
as design flow velocity to calculate the required stone size corresponding to the design flow velocity using
the following formula of stability examination model for stone masonry with low integrity . When the
weir apron gradient is low and the Froude number is , Fr no torrential flow, critical water depth or critical
flow velocity apply. In this case, the required stone size is calculated using the flow velocity of normal flow in
the weir apron part.
e) Stability examination model for stone masonry with low integrity
Earth and water pressures will be major causes of destruction when the slope gradient exceeds 1:1.5 while the
fluid force will be a major destruction cause when the gradient is lower than 1:1.5. Since the boulder oblique
weir comprising stone masonry using natural boulders has a low gradient, the stone masonry is destroyed
by the tractive force, rather than the yield strength exerted from the rear by earth pressure. Accordingly, the
stability of the boulder oblique weir shall be considered using the following stability examination model
for stone masonry with low integrity .
For stone masonry with low integrity with adjacent members, the key is whether the critical tractive force of
all stone material exceeds the tractive force of the river and remains stable.
Treat as a single unit

Figure 4.20 The Stability Examination Model for Stone Masonry with Low Integrity in which the
Tractive Force of the River Causes Destruction2), see 7)

The stability of stone materials used for the boulder oblique weir is examined using the following basic
formulas. These formulas are used to calculate the stone size applied in riprap works, determining the relation
between the representative flow velocity V0 and the stone size, since the tractive force exerted on the stone

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 materials does not exceed the movement limit of the stones. Formula (4.11) is for horizontally provided ripraps.
When installing ripraps on the slope surface with a slope angle θ, Formula (4.12) is used to calculate the
correction coefficient K and the riprap diameter is obtained as K・Dm, multiplying Dm by K.

……………………………………………………… (4.11) 2), see 7),8)

…………………………………………………………… (4.12) 2), see 7),8)

Here, Dm: average particle shape of stones (m), V0 : representative flow velocity (m/s), : stone density
(kgf･s2/m4)【kg/㎥】, : gravitational acceleration (m/s2), : water density (kgf･s2/m4)【kg/㎥】: is
usually around 2.65, E1: experimental coefficient showing the turbulence intensity (usually, E1=1.2), φ:
internal friction angle in water of stone materials (around 38°for natural stones while around 41°for
crushed stones)

4.2.6 | Specification Design of the Intake Gates

(1) Intake Gate Design Procedures
The intake gates leading to the river water extracted at the intake weir and channelled into the main
irrigation canal are designed via the process shown in Figure 4.21.

Start

[Cross-sectional design of the intake gate]

・Design flood water level ・The span width and the number of gates of the intake gate are
・Irrigation discharge determined.

[Profile design of the intake gate]

・Vertical arrangement design of the intake gate with double flush boards
・Scouring prevention on the river side of the intake gate

[Design of flush boards and each part]

・Cross-sectional design of flush boards (height, thickness,
・Geological conditions reinforcement, etc.)
・Load conditions, etc. ・Consideration of slab, gate pier and foundation

[Consideration of intake gate operating rules]

・Rules for operating intake gate flush boards are considered based on
・Annual river water level
the relation between the river water level and irrigation discharge.
fluctuation
・Irrigation discharge
by season
End

Figure 4.21 Design Process of the Intake Gate 2)

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 (2) Type of Intake Gate: Double Flush Board Method
Intake gates are connected to the portion of the intake weir wings immediately upstream, comprising
double flush board method, gate piers, flush board hoisting equipment, etc. Electrically operated steel gate
is adopted in many countries for the gate while the manual double flush board method is adopted in PMS
method irrigation facilities. To avoid sand infiltrating the main irrigation canal as much as possible, the
overflow water above the flush boards is drawn. A Himalayan cedar flush board reinforced by steel plate is
applied, which is hoisted with a Charkha - a traditional equipment in Afghanistan hoisting and lifting a rope
in well digging.
Compared with an electrically operated steel gate, the intake gate using the manual double flush board
method is affordable when it comes to both initial costs and maintenance and management costs. Since it
can be constructed using materials available in Afghanistan (woods, bricks, steel plate, etc.), local residents
are fully capable of maintaining and managing the facility. Table 4.3 shows a comparison of the types of
intake gate.
Table 4.3 Types of the Intake Gate

Manual double flush boards Electrically operated steel gate

(adopted as a PMS method irrigation facility) (adopted in many countries)

Source of photo: 1) Source of photo: JICA

(3) Basic Policy for Designing an Intake Gate with Double Flush Board Method
According to the result of works in the PMS method irrigation project, the specifications of the double
flush board method are shown as follows. As for the span width per intake gate and specifications of flush
boards, the existing PMS irrigation project shall constitute the standard benchmark design, taking the
yield strength of flush board against the water pressure into account. Meanwhile, the intake gate height,
number of gates, interval between the first stage and second stage flush boards and the foundation depth are
determined according to their regional conditions, such as design flood discharge, design high water level,
required irrigation water and foundation ground in the target region. The items and details for the intake
gate design are described as follows. Figure 4.22 to Figure 4.24 show an example design drawing of the
double flush board method.
- Cross-sectional design of the The height of the intake gate shall be 3.0 to 4.0 m from the base elevation.
intake gate： The span width and number of gates shall be the width 1.5 m x 4 gates as
standard.
- Profile design of the intake The distance between the first stage and second stage columns of the
gate： intake gates shall be secured the interval of 6.5 to 8.0 m.
- Flush board design： The Himalayan cedar and other Pinaceae boards are applied.
Flush board length: 1.7m, height: 20cm, thickness: 5cm, steel plates 4 mm
thick are provided on one side of the board as reinforcement.
both sides as reinforcement.

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 - Intake gate structure The gate pier shall be a reinforced concrete structure.
For the foundation structure and to stabilize the structure, existence of
boulder layer is confirmed and cement is poured into the cobblestones and
gravel layer (over 50cm) to establish the direct foundation and a reinforced
concrete slab (40cm) is provided above the direct foundation.

2
13000

2000 9000 2000

Intake gate 1500 1500 1500 1500

1000 1000 1000
B1500×H2700×4

F.L -800
F.L 0.00
1000

1 1
Gate4 Gate3 Gate2 Gate1
600
200
2800

2000

Span width
3800

3800
13000

600
200
2800

2000

2000
2600

600
Main canal

Figure 4.22 Example Plane Drawing of the Double Flush Board Method Intake Gate 3)

13000

2000 1000 1000 1000 2000 1-1

1500 1500 1500 1500
Gate number
1650
300

Gate 1 Gate 2 Gate 3 Gate 4

H.W.L 1.70
3000

Height
L.W.L 0.70 RC concrete
4800

F.L 0.00
1000 400

RC concrete
Plain concrete
Boulder layer

Figure 4.23 Example Cross-sectional Drawing of the Double Flush Board Method Intake Gate 3)

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 13000
2-2
1000 600 200 2000 4400 200 4600

Stop log Stop log

1650
300

300

3000
Distance between the first

4800
gate and second gate RC concrete
F.L 0.00

1000 400
F.L -400

RC concrete

Boulder layer Plain concrete

Figure 4.24 Example Profile Diagram of the Double Flush Board Method Intake Gate 3)

(4) Cross-sectional Design of the Intake Gate (height, span width and the number of gates)
In the PMS method irrigation project, the intake weir is kept lower to minimize flood damage and this
explains why the overall width of the intake gate is wider. The standard span width per intake gate shall be
1.5 m considering the yield strength of flush board against the water pressure. This span width is determined
by deducting the ditch width of 10 cm on the left and right sides of the standard flush board length of 1.7 m
(see 4.2.5 (6) below). The number of spans is determined considering the width of the main irrigation canal
as examined in 4.3.3 Standard cross-sectional design of main irrigation canal , The intake gate height shall
be secured the height obtained by adding the freeboard shown in Table 5.2 of Chapter 5 to the design flood
water level.

(5) Profile Design of the Intake Gate

Controlling the water pressure on the flush board of the first column with the double flush board method
as shown in Figure 4.25, the double flush board method of the intake gate causes the water pressure on
the first-column board to decline by creating a water pool between the boards. Accordingly, the water
pressure generated by the amount of water raised by the second-column board counters the weight on the
downstream side of the first-column board, respectively controlling significant water pressure on the lower
board portion of the first column. The standard interval between the boards on the first stage and second
stage columns shall be 6.5 to 8 m to ensure the function of water level rising by flush board on the second
column.

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 First gate Second gate

Securing an interval of 6.5 to 8m The water pressure by the

First gate water level
Second gatelifted by the second
stage boards helps counter and
control the water pressure on
Securing an interval of 6.5 to 8m the first stage
The board.
water pressure by the
water level lifted by the second
stage boards helps counter and
control the water pressure on
the first stage board.

Figure 4.25 Double Flush Board Method Controls the Water Pressure on the First Board 2)

Installation of a sedimentation pool in the area below the immediately upstream of the intake gate
A sedimentation pool of 0.7 to 1.0 m depth is provided below the area immediately upstream of the intake gate
to control the sand inflow into the main irrigation canal and promote sand discharge from the sand flushing
ditch of the intake weir as shown in Figure 4.26.

A sedimentation pool is provided below

the area immediately upstream of the intake
Double gate to promote sand flushing.
Intake flush boards
gate Overflow level A sedimentation pool is provided below
the area immediately upstream of the intake
Sand Double gate to promote sand flushing.
Intake flushing flush boards
ditch
gate Overflow level
0.7∼1.0m Sand 河床高
flushing
ditch

0.7∼1.0m 河床高

Figure 4.26 Sedimentation Pool Provided below the Area Immediately Upstream of the Intake Gate 2)

(6) Design of the Flush Board

The standard flush board structure applied with the double flush board method shall be 1.7 m length, 20
cm height and 5 cm thickness, with one side of the Himalayan cedar board reinforced by 4 mm-thickness
iron plate. This design was obtained as a result of trial and error during the existing PMS irrigation project,
examining the yield strength of the board against water pressure, scope to lift the board weight manually
using charkha and other factors. Separate examination of strength against bending, shearing and deflection
revealed a high level of practicality.

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 Text Block 4-2: Flush Board Structure with the Double Flush Board Method

The original flush board applied with the double flush board method was only structured by the
board 1.7 m length, 20 cm height and 5 cm thickness, which did not work successfully due to
buoyancy. Accordingly, a 2.5 mm-thickness iron plate was placed on the board and butyl rubber
and rubber sponge were applied to a part attached to another board to ensure sealability. However,
these rubber materials easily peeled off, exacerbating the leakage. Eventually, the board was shaved
in a straightforward manner at the processing factory stage to ensure sealability between the boards.
This method was then successfully applied to intake facilities in Sheiwa and Kama. (a report from Dr.
Nakamura: received on April 7, 2010)

Photo 5cm-thickness iron plate is put in place Photo Charkha hoists the board, which lifts up
and a hook is welded. A hook at the end of boulders when digging a well. This is traditional
the rope is hooked and the board is lifted by a engineering of Afghanistan. 1)
hoisting device. 1)

(7) Design of the Gate Pier

As shown in Figure 4.22, the cross-sectional shape of the gate pier provided with the double flush board
method shall be an oval with a semi-circular shape on the upstream and downstream sides to reduce flow
water resistance as much as possible. The gate pier height shall be at the design flood water level, adding
a freeboard or higher. When the size of rectangular cross-section of the gate pier is based on a 1.5 m span
width, an empirical formula (4.13) usually shows values as shown in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4 General Relations between the Height and Thickness of the Gate Pier when the Span Width is 1.5m 2)

Gate pier height Gate pier thickness

2.0m 0.53m
2.5m 0.59m
3.0m 0.65m
3.5m 0.71m
4.0m 0.77m

An empirical formula: tp=0.12 (Dp+0.2Bt)±0.25 ………………………………… (4.13) 2), see 9)

Here, tp: gate pier thickness (m), Dp: gate pier height (m), Bt: span width (m)

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 Referring to the general cross-sectional shapes of the gate pier as above, the gate pier stability is examined
based on the structural stability calculation. The following points are confirmed regarding gate pier stability
for direct foundations : 1) stability against falling down (rotation), 2) stability against sliding, 3) stability of
ground-bearing forces and 4) stress of each member within allowable stress intensity. The gate pier stability
in the case of pile foundations needs to be examined separately. The types of load on the gate pier are: (i) the
weight of the gate pier, (ii) weight of the flush board hoisting machine, (iii) weight of flush board, (iv) weight
of floor slab for the crest part, (v) water pressure on flush board, (vi) earth pressure by sedimentation, (vii)
seismic force, (viii) uplift pressure and others.

(8) Design of the Intake Gate Foundation

In most past PMS method irrigation
projects, the intake gate foundation was
constructed in the gravel layer, mixing and
consolidating locally collected aggregates
(cobblestones and sands) and establishing
the direct foundation at a depth of the
1 m. Further, a solid reinforced concrete
slab 40 cm thickness was established on
the direct foundation. See Photo 4.6.
Although gravel mixed with cobblestones
originally has a strong soil bearing
capacity even when unprocessed, more
rigid ground was formed by said method
to secure the stability of the superstructure
Photo 4.6 Intake Gate under the Construction: constructing
of intake gate.
a reinforced concrete foundation1)
Moreover, boulders are filled in the
boundary between the sediment pooling
apron in the area immediately upstream of the sand flushing ditch and the current riverbed, which prevents
scouring of sediment pooling apron foundation.

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 4.2.7 | Specification Design of the Sand Flushing Ditch
(1) Process for Designing the Sand Flushing Ditch
Figure 4.27 shows the process for designing the sand flushing ditch.

Start

[Setting the sand particle size to be discharged]

・The critical particle size of flowing (moving) sands at the design flood
・Riverbed material discharge is calculated to define the sand particle size accumulated
survey result upstream of the intake weir.
・Design flood discharge
・Measured river section
[Cross-sectional design of the sand flushing ditch]
・The span width and the number of gates of the sand flushing ditch are
decided to prepare a cross-sectional drawing.

[Profile design of the sand flushing ditch]

・The plane layout design and profile design of the double flush board
method sand flushing ditch
・The bottom gradient of the sand flushing ditch is defined.

[Design of the flush boards and foundation of the sand

flushing ditch]
・Cross-sectional design of the flush board
・Geological conditions (board height, thickness, reinforcement, etc.)
・Load conditions, etc. ・Structural consideration of the sand flushing ditch body and foundation
・Rules for operating the flush board of the sand flushing ditch are
established.

End

Figure 4.27 Process for Designing Sand Flushing Ditch 2)

(2) Sand Flushing Method: Sand Flushing Ditch containing “Partially Movable Weir” leveraging Manual
Double Flush Boards
In the PMS method irrigation project, a sand flushing ditch is installed as a piece of ancillary equipment
for the intake weir with the following functions: 1) discharging bedload flowing toward the intake gate to
the downstream side of the weir to reduce the sedimentation below the intake gate and sediment flowing
into the intake gate, and 2) functioning as a partially movable weir which secures the intake water level by
closing the sand flushing ditch when drought water levels are abnormally low. In other words, the sand
flushing ditch of the intake weir in the PMS method irrigation project shall also function as a partially
movable weir . This ditch is installed by cutting off part of the intake weir constructed near the intake
gate, comprising a reinforced concrete channel, gate pier, double flush boards and hoisting equipment. The
board thickness, height and material specifications shall be the same as those of the flush boards applied
in the double flush board method intake gate. The flush board operation involves the use of a Charkha - a
traditional tool in Afghanistan used for hoisting a rope when digging a well. To fully perform its function
as a partially movable weir in the PMS method irrigation project, the sand flushing ditch also serving as a

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 partially movable weir by manual double flush boards shall be standardized equipment that facilitates
maintenance and management.
Setting up and maintaining and managing the movable weir with manual double flush boards is more
affordable than for a movable weir with an electrically operated steel gate. Since it can be constructed using
materials (wood, iron plate, concrete, etc.) easily available in Afghanistan, it is also easier for local residents
to maintain and manage it. In addition, when the weir is repaired, it can be temporarily bridged and used as a
transportation route. Table 4.5 shows a comparison of the types of sand flushing ditch.
Table 4.5 Types of Sand Flushing Ditch

Partially movable weir by manual double flush boards Partially movable weir by electrically operated steel
(applied as a PMS method irrigation facility) gate (adopted in many countries)

Source of photo: 1) Source of photo: JICA

(3) Basic Policy for Designing the Sand Flushing Ditch

According to the result of works in the PMS method irrigation project, the specifications of the sand
flushing ditch are shown as follows. As for the specifications of the span width per sand flushing ditch
and flush boards, and the structure of the sand flushing ditch body and foundation, those of the existing
PMS irrigation project shall be the standard design. The flush board specifications are defined taking the
water and earth pressures on the board into account while the structure of the sand flushing ditch between
multiple reinforced concrete spans is devised to discharge sediments having accumulated immediately
below the intake gate. Meanwhile, the sand flushing ditch height, number of gates and bottom gradient, etc.
are determined according to their regional conditions, such as the design flood discharge, water level and
riverbed materials while referring to the following specifications from past projects. The items and details
for the sand flushing ditch design are described as follows. Figure 4.28 to Figure 4.30 show example design
drawings of the sand flushing ditch.
- Cross-sectional design of the The top elevation of the sand flushing ditch shall be 10 to 20 cm lower
sand flushing ditch： than the intake weir crest.
The bottom elevation of the sand flushing ditch shall be 0.7 to 1.0 m lower
than the bottom elevation of the intake gate.
The span width and the number of gates shall be the width 2.0 m x 4 gates
as standard.
- Profile design of the sand The bottom gradient of the sand flushing ditch shall be 5 to 8% (1/200 to
flushing ditch： 1/125).
- Flush board design： The Himalayan cedar and other Pinaceae board are applied.
Flush board 2.2 m length, 20cm height, 5 cm thickness. Steel plates 4 mm
thickness are installed on one side as reinforcement.

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 Span width
Sedimentation
Apron pool

Intake gate

Bed protection by boulders (>500mm)

Figure 4.28 Example Plane Drawing of the Sand Flushing Ditch 3)

19000

4000 2000 2000 2000 2000 4000

1000 1000 1000
1-1
Slab

RC concrete
1550

Height

F.L -850
400

RC concrete

Plain concrete
t=1000mm

Boulder layer

Figure 4.29 Example Cross-sectional Drawing of the Sand Flushing Ditch 3)

over 10000 5000 500 3000 8000 3000

2-2
Bed protection Apron
by boulders (>500mm) Sedimentation pool
1550

∼
∼

No.6 No.5 No.4 No.3 No.2

F.L -1050 F.L -1000 F.L -1000 F.L -900 F.L -850 F.L -850

Figure 4.30 Example Profile Drawing of the Sand Flushing Ditch 3)

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 - Sand flushing ditch structure： The sand flushing channel and gate pier shall be a reinforced concrete
structure.
For the foundation structure and to stabilize the structure, existence of
boulder layer is confirmed and cement is poured into the cobblestones and
gravel layer (over 50cm) to establish the direct foundation and a reinforced
concrete slab (40cm) is provided above the direct foundation.

(4) Setting the Particle Size of the Sands to be Flushed

Firstly, the flow velocity V and hydraulic radius R at the designed flood discharge in the target river are
calculated using the Manning equation (4.14) to determine the critical friction velocity U*c using the
formula (4.15). Using this value allows the particle size of sands to be flushed at the ditch to be calculated
as the critical particle size for sediment movement from Iwagaki s formula as shown in Chapter 3. It is
expected that gravel of size smaller than the critical particle size flows from upstream during flooding and is
accumulated upstream of the intake weir.

Manning equation : ……………………………………………………(4.14) 2), see 11)

Formula for the critical particle size for sediment movement : ……………(4.15) 2), see 11)
Iwagaki s formula (see Chapter 3): the critical particle size for sediment movement is determined by an
empirical formula concerning the relation between the critical friction velocity and critical particle size for
sediment movement.
Here: V: flow velocity (m/s), R: hydraulic radius (m), g: gravitational acceleration (m/s2), I: riverbed
gradient, n: roughness coefficient, U*c : critical friction velocity

(5) Cross-sectional Design of the Sand Flushing Ditch (span width and the number of gates)
The span width of the sand flushing ditch shall allow flush boards to withstand the water and earth pressures
from upstream and flush away any accumulated gravel. The span width design is basically the same design
as the double flush board method intake gate. In terms of dimensions, the flush board is 1.7 m length, 20
cm height and 5 cm thickness with a span width of 1.5 m for the intake gate (see 4.3.5 (4)) while the sand
flushing ditch is 2.2 m length, 20 cm height and 5 cm thickness with a span width of 2.0 m. The span width
of the sand flushing ditch is secured to exceed that of the intake gate. This is because it may become difficult
to achieve sufficient flow velocity to flush away accumulated gravel, since the smaller span width at the sand
flushing ditch will cause the hydraulic radius to decline: R=(A/S) (A: flow section, S: wetted perimeter)
resulting in a smaller flow velocity and causing the flow velocity determined by the Manning equation to
decline. As the height of the sand flushing ditch (around 1.5 m) is lower than the intake gate (3.5 to 4.0 m),
the flush board of the ditch is subject to less water and earth pressure than the intake gate, hence the span
can be widened.
Further, the base elevation of the ditch bottom has the same height consecutively with the sedimentation
pool apron in the area immediately upstream of the ditch and is almost equivalent in height to the current
riverbed.
Sufficient sand flushing gates are secured to ensure the flushing volume at the ditch, even at the designed
drought water discharge in the target river. The target flow rate in the sand flushing ditch is determined by
the designed drought water discharge - flow rate in the spillway while the number of flushing gates are
determined by the target flow rate in the ditch ÷ flow rate per gate .
The flow rate per gate can be calculated from the cross-section and vertical gradient (as described later) of
the sand flushing ditch using the Manning equation. Photo 4.7 shows the sand flushing ditch with double
flush boards.

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 Photo 4.7 Sand Flushing leveraging the Double Flush Boards 1)

(6) Profile Design of the Sand Flushing Ditch

Since the edge of the sand flushing ditch is prone to riverbed scouring due to the harsh flow of water
and sand, sufficient bed protection works shall be secured over several dozen meters. As a minimum, the
bed protection works for the sand flushing ditch shall be installed until the tip of the apron in the area
downstream of the intake weir body.
The vertical gradient of the bottom of the sand flushing ditch shall allow sand of the target particle size to
be flushed as considered in the above (4). With the formula as shown in the above (4), the critical friction
velocity is determined from the hydraulic radius (R) and vertical gradient (I) at the sand flushing ditch
and the critical particle size for sediment movement in the ditch is calculated using Iwagaki s formula.
Subsequently, the vertical gradient (I) is defined using the Manning equation to ensure this critical particle
size exceeds that of the target sand particle.

(7) Design of the Gate Pier, Flush Board, and Foundation of the Sand Flushing Ditch
The same design method as shown in 4.2.6 Design of Intake Gate is applied for the gate pier, flush board
and foundation of the sand flushing ditch.

4.3 Design of the Main Irrigation Canal

4.3.1 | Basic Policy for the Design of the Irrigation Main Canal
When designing the main irrigation canal, the priorities are shown as follows. The procedures for designing the
main irrigation canal are shown as the design process in Figure 4.31.
• A canal route with good workability and allowing smooth land acquisition is selected for the main
irrigation canal. For these routes, rock excavation or routing over farmland or private land shall be avoided
as far as possible. While establishing a consensus with regional residents, the route is decided and the
construction works shall be promoted.
• When constructing the main irrigation canal on soft ground, the foundation shall be treated carefully,
ensuring the main irrigation canal is not damaged by piping occurred on the bed.

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 Start

[Plane design of the main irrigation canal]

・Based on the current topographic survey data, the plane alignment
・Current topographic data is designed to Start
minimize earthworks and facilitate seamless
・Survey result alignment of the main canal.

[Plane design of the main irrigation canal]

・Based on
[Profile design of the
the current main irrigation
topographic canal]
survey data, the plane alignment
・Current topographic data ・Considering
is designed tothe head lossearthworks
minimize in the mainand
irrigation canal,
facilitate the elevation
seamless
・Maximum
・Survey result
design difference
alignmentbetween the design
of the main canal. intake level, the ground elevation of the
irrigation discharge irrigation beneficiary area and the water gradient, a longitudinal
profile gradient allowing sufficient irrigation water to be discharged to
the beneficiary area shall be designed.
[Profile design of the main irrigation canal]
・Considering the head loss in the main irrigation canal, the elevation
・Maximum design difference between the design intake level, the ground elevation of the
[Cross-sectional design
irrigation beneficiary ofthe
area and thewater
main irrigation
gradient, canal]
a longitudinal
irrigation discharge ・profile
A cross-section allowing sufficient
gradient allowing the maximum amount
irrigation of to
water irrigation water to
be discharged
to be
the discharged
beneficiary is designed,
area ensuring the design water depth and
shall be designed.
canal width shall not be excessive dimension.

[Cross-sectional design of the main irrigation canal]

・A cross-sectionof
[Confirmation allowing the maximum
the structural amount
stability of irrigation
of main water
irrigation
to beand
canal discharged is designed,
its ease ensuring the design water depth and
of maintenance]
・Maximum/minimum ・The
canal width shall
structural not beofexcessive
stability dimension.
canal revetment is confirmed at the designed
maximum irrigation discharge.
design irrigation discharge
・The suspended load contained in the intake water is not accumulated
・Data related to sediment in the canal at the designed minimum irrigation discharge.
particle size ・The stability of the
[Confirmation canal
of the foundation.
structural stability of main irrigation
canal and its ease of maintenance]
・Maximum/minimum ・The structural stability of canal revetment is confirmed at the designed
maximum 次頁に続く
irrigation discharge.
design irrigation discharge
・The suspended load contained in the intake water is not accumulated
・Data related to sediment in the canal at the designed minimum irrigation discharge.
particle size ・The stability of the canal foundation.

次頁に続く
[Consideration of canal specifications in the specific
section]
・Since the water level rises in a partial section with a moderate
・Profile and cross-sectional gradient, the cross-sectional dimension is reviewed by calculating the
design water level.
designs of the main ・Countermeasures are designed to prevent scouring of the canal bed in
irrigation canal a partial section with a steepspecifications
gradient.
[Consideration of canal in the specific
section]
・Since the water level rises in a partial section with a moderate
・Profile and cross-sectional gradient, the cross-sectional dimension is reviewed by calculating the
[Design of ancillary
design water level. facilities]
designs of the main ・Installation
・Countermeasuresof a water wheel istoplanned
are designed prevent in a placeofalong
scouring the main
the canal bed in
irrigation canal irrigation canal where the ground elevation
a partial section with a steep gradient. is too high to convey the
water.
・Vegetation works are designed, including a windbreak, erosion
control forest and debris flow control other than wicker works for
reinforcing
[Design the gabionfacilities]
of ancillary works in the main canal.
・Installation of a water wheel is planned in a place along the main
irrigation canal where the ground elevation is too high to convey the
water.
・Vegetation works Endare designed, including a windbreak, erosion
control forest and debris flow control other than wicker works for
reinforcing the gabion works in the main canal.2)
Figure 4.31 Design Process for the Main Irrigation Canal

End

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 4.3.2 | Type and Design Policy for the Main Irrigation Canal
(1) Type of the Main Irrigation Canal
The main irrigation canal comprises the revetment on the canal side and the bottom lining. The canal type
with precast concrete lining or unsupported excavation earth canal are usually applied. In the PMS method
irrigation project, the standard canal comprises a gabion revetment combined with wicker works and a
bottom lined with soil cement.
This canal type in the PMS method irrigation project is affordable compared with a concrete canal. Since
the materials used (stones, wire for gabion and cement) are available in Afghanistan, even if it breaks, it is
easy to partially repair it and local residents are fully capable of maintaining and managing the facility. Table
4.6 shows a comparison of the types of main irrigation canal.
Table 4.6 Types of the Main Irrigation Canal

The canal with a gabion revetment combined with The canal with concrete lining
wicker works and a bottom lined with soil cement (adopted in many countries)
(applied as a PMS method irrigation facility)

Source of photo: 1) Source of photo: JICA

(2) Design Policy for the Main Irrigation Canal

The design specifications of the main irrigation canal in the existing PMS irrigation project are shown as
follows. The following structure and roughness coefficient of the canal shall constitute the standard design
of PMS method irrigation project. Meanwhile, the route, length, gradient, cross-section and design water
depth of the canal are designed in accordance with regional conditions, such as the topographical features
and irrigation discharge in the target region while referring to the following actual specifications from past
projects. Figure 4.32 show an example design drawing of the main irrigation canal.

- Main irrigation canal The side bank of the main irrigation canal comprises a gabion and wicker
structure: works. The canal bed structure is lined with soil cement.
- Roughness coefficient of the A roughness coefficient of n=0.012 to 0.013 is adopted.
main irrigation canal:
- Main irrigation canal Steep gradient main irrigation canal: I=0.001 to 0.0015(1/1000 to 1/670)
gradient: Main irrigation canal: I=0.0006 to 0.001(1/1,670 to 1/1,000)
- Main irrigation canal section: Main irrigation canal bed width: 4.0 to 5.0 m width
Main irrigation canal depth: 1.6 to 2.0 m depth
- Design water depth of the At the minimum irrigation discharge (LWL) 0.4 to 0.6 m (2.5 to 6.0 ㎥/s)
main irrigation canal :
(Design water discharge) At the maximum irrigation discharge (HWL) 0.7 to 0.9 m (5.5 to 11.0
㎥/s)

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 5 Wrickers/m

0.25 7.5 0.25 1.0

unit (m)
Gabion 5.5 Gabion
0.6
1.0×0.6 1.0×0.6
5.0 1.6
1.0×1.0 Design Water Depth 1.0×1.0 1.0
0.4∼0.9m

Soil Cement Layer 0.3

Sand and Cobble Layer 1.0ｍ or more

Figure 4.32 Example Cross-sectional Drawing of the Main Irrigation Canal 2), see 3)

4.3.3 | Specification Design of the Main Irrigation Canal

(1) Plane Design of the Main Irrigation Canal
The plane design procedures for the main irrigation canal are shown as follows:
1) Prior to designing, a topographic survey is conducted at the central line defined in the main irrigation
canal, mainly carrying out a profile and cross-sectional survey.
2) The standard main irrigation canal cross-section, as considered in 4.3.3 (3), is inserted in the cross-
sectional drawing surveyed along the planned main irrigation canal route. The elevation and plane
location of the main irrigation canal are defined from the outlined main irrigation canal route considered
in Chapter 2.
3) Lines are inserted in the center and at both ends of the main irrigation canal on the provisional canal
cross-sectional drawing and their points are plotted on the plane drawing.
4) The plane alignment of main irrigation canal is determined by joining the points plotted on the plane
drawing in smooth linear alignment. Subsequently, a plane drawing of main irrigation canal is prepared,
which consists of reviewing the plane alignment of main irrigation canal to ensure the line connecting
both ends does not overlap private houses and farmland.
5) The central line of the main irrigation canal shall preferably be straight. When incorporating a curve in
the central line of main irrigation canal, the curve radius shall be ten times (or at least five times) larger
than the canal width to facilitate the flow condition.
6) As above, the plane alignment of main irrigation canal is confirmed. The slope lines of the center and
both ends of the main irrigation canal on the plane drawing are inserted in the surveyed cross-sectional
drawing to complete it.
When preparing the plane design of the main irrigation canal, the following points shall be noted:
• Since large-scale excavation and embankment will particularly affect workability, hill and valley terrain
shall not be selected as the site. Any route requiring excavation of hard rocks shall also be avoided in
particular. In very hilly places or those with many valleys, it is impossible to define a linear route for main
irrigation canal. Accordingly, it is preferable to set the route along the contour line, as shown in Figure
4.33.
• The stability of the cut slope and large-scale embankment is fully considered. In particular, a proper slope
gradient and small steps shall be considered in the design and stability of the embankment and their
construction shall be fully supervised during the works. The design and stabilization measures for large-
scale embankments are shown in "4.5.2 Type and Design Policy for the Reservoir, Siphon, and other
Facilities" and "4.5.4 Cross-section and Structural Design of the Reservoir ".

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 • When the main irrigation canal traverses any sections which may be bisected by roads, other canals, rivers,
streams, wadi and debris flows, measures shall be taken by applying the canal as a siphon or installing a
flood crossing bridge, for example (see Figure 4.54).
• When the main irrigation canal is provided on a river floodplain, dikes, spur dikes and other flood
countermeasure works are included in the plan.

山沿いは岩掘削を伴う
Since ため、
rock excavation involves
traversing mountains, a linear route
直線的なルートにはできない。
cannot be applied.

Satellite view of the main irrigation canal route in the Marwarid WeirⅠ

Topographic view of the main irrigation canal route in the Marwarid WeirⅠ
Figure 4.33 Setting the Main Irrigation Canal Route along the Contour Line ２)

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 (2) Profile Design of the Main Irrigation Canal
The profile design of the main irrigation canal is prepared as follows. And Figure 4.34 and Figure 4.35 show
the design examples of the main irrigation canal.
• Regarding the main irrigation canal structure, the revetment on the side bank comprises gabion and
wicker works and a soil cement lining for the canal bed. With the lining structure of the canal bed, the
Manning roughness coefficient will be n=0.012 to 0.013.
• Based on the intake gate base elevation as determined in 4.2, the profile design of the main irrigation
canal is prepared. The longitudinal gradient of the main irrigation canal is linked to its flow velocity. If
the gradient is too gentle, sedimentation in the canal progresses. On the other hand, if the gradient is
too steep, stability of canal revetment is impaired and the soil cement lining on the canal bed is removed.
Accordingly, the reference gradient of the steep gradient main irrigation canal shall be I=0.001 to 0.0015
(1/1000 to 1/670), while that of the other main irrigation canals shall be I=0.0006 to 0.001 (1/1,670 to
1/1,000).
• In the profile design of the steep gradient main irrigation canal, the canal gradient and flow velocity are
defined while ensuring no sedimentation occurs in the canal. To ensure that the stability of gabion applied
as the canal revetment and soil cement on the canal bed do not deteriorate, the flow velocity of the steep
gradient main irrigation canal shall preferably be set below 1.7 to 1.8 m/s.
• Whether sedimentation occurs in the main irrigation canal or not is confirmed as follows: at the
minimum irrigation discharge, the critical particle size for sediment movement is calculated using the
Manning equation, formula of critical friction velocity and Iwagaki s formula as shown in Chapter 3.
When this critical particle size exceeds the sediment particle size included in the canal, it is evaluated that
no sediment accumulates in the canal.
• Meanwhile, sediment is reduced in the sand basin, which allows head loss to be controlled by lowering
the canal gradient of the main irrigation canal and distributing the irrigation water to a wide area along
the canal. However, it is desirable to secure a minimum flow velocity of about 0.7m/s or more in the main
irrigation canal.
• As a general rule, the water in the irrigation canal flows at a constant gradient. However, when the
elevation difference between the design intake water level at the intake gate and the ground elevation
in the irrigation beneficiary area is large, drop works are installed in the main irrigation canal or other
measures shall be taken. Conversely, when the above difference is small, low gradient sections are partly
installed. There may also be a need to set a steep or low canal gradient locally when there are hard rocks
or unavoidable structures along the way. In such cases, the following measures shall be taken, but no low
gradient sections are installed in the case of a steep gradient main irrigation canal:
- Since flow velocity declines and the canal water depth on its immediately upstream section rises in
gentle-gradient sections, the uniform flow calculation at the section is conducted to determine the
canal water depth and confirm the lack of canal revetment height to ensure the canal cross-section
whose revetment is higher than that of the standard section.
- Since the flow velocity increases in steep gradient sections, raising the risk of partial erosion of the
revetment and canal bed, the riverbed is made uneven using stones and bricks to increase roughness
and reduce the flow velocity.

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 Double flush board method Steep gradient Sand basin

▽ intake gate main irrigation

canal
=Regulation Pond

Oblique weir

Sand flushing
ditch
▽
Transmission
irriga Steep gra
tiion
cana dient main gate
：
l i=0.0
01∼0
.0015
Drain of
sand

Drain gate

Drain of
sand

Figure 4.34 Example Profile Drawing of the Steep Gradient Main Irrigation Canal 2), see 3)

Behsud II water gate one drain gate

two conveyance gates

Road crossing bridge

3.0 m
bridge gates
2.0 m 2.0 m
vertical drop
0.85 m
less than 1.2 m
soil cement lining (slope=0.0015) reservoir
2.35 m 0.8 m

12 m 188 m 10 m 150 m 40 m 9.6 m 24.5 m

structure water gate main canal bridge main canal reservoir 2nd gate canal joint total
length 12 188 10 150 40 9.6 24.5 434.1 m
incline 0.0025 0.0015 plain level 0.0063 0.0045 0.0020
vertical drop 0.030 0.527 0.120 0.060 0.110 0.847m

Kunar River at Meeran ; HWL 2.0∼2.5 m, LWL 0.2∼0.4m

(maximum 2.5∼3.0 m when the largest flood observed in 2010, 2013)

Figure 4.35 Example Profile Drawing of a Steep Gradient Main Irrigation Canal 1)

(3) Standard Cross-sectional Design of the Main Irrigation Canal

The standard cross-sectional design of the main irrigation canal is prepared as follows:
• The standard cross-section of main irrigation canal comprises multiple gabions and wicker works in the
side bank and an average revetment gradient of 1:0.5; revealing an inverted trapezoid shape with a single
cross-section. The canal bed shall be a soil cement lining structure (see Figure 4.32).
• The cross-section of main irrigation canal is designed to allow the required irrigation water to discharge as
considered in Chapter 2. The water discharge amount in the main irrigation canal is calculated using the
Manning equation.
• In designing the bottom width and depth of the main irrigation canal, the width shall be as wide as
possible and the design water depth as low as possible to ensure the heading-up by the intake weir is not
excessive. It is preferable to set the cross-section of main irrigation canal to determine a large hydraulic
radius (R) by the Mining equation (wetted perimeter(s) is/are shorter). When the relation between
water depth (h) and canal width (w) is 1:2, this generally achieves a hydraulically optimum cross-section.

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 However, the wider the canal width, the more land needs to be acquired and the deeper the water depth in
the canal needs to be to increase the weir height. Accordingly, the balance between the canal width, water
depth and canal gradient shall be taken into consideration. In terms of revetment stability, the canal depth
is set to ensure that the revetment height is 5 m or less. When the height likely exceeds 5 m, cutting the
back soil of the revetment or partially rerouting the main irrigation canal shall be considered.
• Since the intake gate base elevation is set at the lowest water level, the bottom height of the subsequent
main irrigation canal usually becomes lower than the ground elevation along the main irrigation canal
so that the main irrigation canal has an engraved cross-section. In addition, the design water depth of the
main irrigation canal is set as low as possible. Accordingly, the main irrigation canal in the PMS method
irrigation project allows to secure sufficient freeboard.
As a reference, the means of calculating freeboard in a general irrigation canal is shown in the following
formula:
Fb = 0.05d + β・hv + hw …………………………………………………………(4.16) 2), see 10)
Here, Fb: freeboard height (m), d: water depth to the design water discharge (m), hv: flow velocity head
(m) (=V2/2g), V: flow velocity (m/s), β: conversion coefficient to static head at the flow velocity
head (=0.5 to 1.0), hw: freeboard to the water surface vibration (m) (=0.1 to 0.15m), g: gravitational
acceleration (=9.81)

4.3.4 | Structural Design of the Main Irrigation Canal

In order to establish a main irrigation canal that is easy and stable for beneficiary farmers to maintain and
manage, proper construction materials available on site shall be considered. In the PMS method irrigation
project, gabion works using stone materials and annealing wires and wicker works are applied for the revetment
of main irrigation canal and soil cement lining is applied to reinforce the canal bed.

(1) Revetment of Main Irrigation Canal (gabion and wicker works)

Gabion works are applied for the internal walls of the main irrigation canal, combining with wicker works.
Gabion is unbreakable, flexible, easily repairable, adaptable to vegetation/ecosystem, affordable and has
other features. While uniform cobblestones are usually filled in the gabion applied in many countries, large
square stones (rubble) are piled up on all sides in a wall-like shape and smaller size gravel is filled to complete
this work as shown in Figure 4.36. The case body becomes much more stable, the weight increases more
than when uniform cobblestones are filled in and almost no suction occurs in the back. The example of
constructed gabion works is shown in Photo 4.8.

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 Filled by uniform Combination by large square
cobblestones stones and smaller size gravels
(adopted in many
countries)

Figure 4.36 How to Fill Stone Materials in Gabion Works ３)

Photo 4.8 Example Gabion Works and Wicker Works in the Main Irrigation Canal 1)

Annealing wires forming the gabion to be applied have an external frame of 4 mm and a net part of 3 mm,
galvanized, soft, handmade, and available in Afghanistan and its neighbouring countries. Each hexagonal
side of the mesh shall be twisted three times to ensure it will not come loose easily, even if a single part is
torn. Table 4.7 shows the specifications of the gabion. Photo 4.9 shows the production process of the gabion
frame, and Photo 4.10 shows the photo of the annealing wires.

Table 4.7 Specifications of Gabion applied in the PMS Method Irrigation Project ３)

Mesh Gabion
Height Width Length Capacity Stones filled Total unit weight
diameter weight

Gabion A 600㎜ 16kg 1.2㎥ Square stones of over Approx. 2000kg

Approx. 20 cm diameter or
1000㎜ 2000㎜
120㎜ cobble stones of over
Gabion B 1000㎜ 21kg 2.0㎥ 15cm diameter Approx. 3300kg

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 Photo 4.9 Gabion Production 3) Photo 4.10 Galvanized Annealing Wires 3)

As for wicker works, 10 to 12 wickers, 40 to 80 cm length and 15 to 20 mm in diameter are planted per 1 ㎡
as shown in Photo 4.11. They are densely planted, remain short as shrubs, and widely rooted. Thin roots are
divided like a small web and fill the gap between stones in the gabion, fixing the stone materials and making
the gabion steady. Photo 4.12 shows the situation 3 months after the planting.

Photo 4.11 Planting Wickers in Plots 1) Photo 4.12 Wicker Works Three Months after Planting 1)

(2) Reinforcement of the Canal Bed Surface for Main Irrigation Canal (soil cement lining)
A soil cement lining 30 cm or more thickness is applied on the main irrigation canal bed in the PMS
method irrigation project to reinforce and control seepage, ensuring that the water flow capacity of the main
irrigation canal remains constant, considering that the lining is not easily removed by the flow of water.
Although the cement composition depends on the nature of the ground, proper fixation can be achieved at
150 to 200 kg/㎥ on the gravel ground, 200 kg/㎥ with silty clay on the canal bed and 100 kg/㎥ with silty
clay in the canal corner. Since the canal bed portion requires more strength like a floor slab to some extent,
the amount of cement composition is larger than that of the canal corner portion. When the ground in the
canal foundation is soft, the soft soil is replaced with quality soil containing the proper amount of sand and
clay and a soil cement lining is applied following sufficient compacting. The situations of soil cement lining
are shown in Photo 4.13 and Photo 4.14.

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 Photo 4.13 Finishing Work by Soil Cement Lining 3) Photo 4.14 Canal Corner Filled by Soil Cement 3)

The foundation surface of main irrigation canal may be dropped out by piping under the canal bed caused
by water flowing in from external parts as well as water seeping from the canal bed. Such external water may
be caused by water seeping into the canal side due to the rise in the water level in the main irrigation canal
along the river, rainwater seeping into the canal bed from the slope surface in the canal side, if applicable,
or leakage from the adjacent regulating pond. When such external water seepage is expected, the main
irrigation canal bed foundation shall be carefully treated. In addition to the infiltration of water, as shown in
Photo 4.15, there are cases where the irrigation canal bed collapses due to improper foundation conditions,
so confirmation before construction work is required.

１)
Photo 4.15 Collapse of Canal Bed due to Improper Foundation Condition

(3) Erosion of Gabion Revetment of the Main Irrigation Canal and Stability Against Back-earth Pressure
The gabion revetment of main irrigation canal shall not be eroded by the flow and shall remain stable against
the back-earth pressure causing falling (rotation), sliding and ground bearing. The gabion revetment of the
main irrigation canal in the PMS method irrigation project ensures structural stability as follows:
• Stability to withstand erosion of the revetment for main irrigation canal: the flow velocity within the

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 steep gradient main irrigation canal is set as 1.7 to 1.8 m/s which is sufficiently below the allowable design
velocity of the multiplied gabion revetment of the main irrigation canal (around 5 m/s).
• Stability to the back-earth pressure of the revetment for main irrigation canal: since the height of the
gabion revetment of the main irrigation canal is less than 5 m, it remains fully stable against falling
(rotation), sliding and bearing provided the back of the revetment is properly backfilled.

4.3.5 | Design of the Water Wheel in the Main Irrigation Canal

(1) Purpose of the Water Wheel
Any farmland located at an elevation higher than the canal, or even along it, cannot usually benefit from
the canal. However, using a water wheel allows water to be conveyed into such farmland if the elevation
difference is 3 to 5 m or less, which is also expected to encourage farmers to participate in maintaining and
managing the canal. Meanwhile, disordered installation will reduce the canal flow discharge amount as well
as decreasing the flow velocity, hindering the required amount of water from reaching downstream. Also,
the irrigation canal themselves are very vulnerable to damage the canal bed by installation of water wheel.
Accordingly, when installing a water wheel, care shall be taken to fully consider that the water wheel is not
installed chaotically and without permission by discussing with the water users association or irrigation
association which oversees maintenance and management of the irrigation facilities.

(2) Design of the Water Wheel

The water wheel is installed in a place with an appropriate flow velocity/discharge amount for its operation,
such as downstream of the drop works. The following shall be noted for the water wheel construction:
• A wheel made of iron and partly aluminium alloy is applied. For the shaft and bearing, which will be the
most prone to wear, a shaft used as a small hydraulic power generator is diverted.
• A bucket is attached to both sides of the water wheel and an iron U-shaped ditch is combined to convey
the water away.
• Since the flow around the water wheel is likely to fluctuate and riverbed erosion may occur, it shall be
considered that the wheel body is likely to be damaged by erosion of the post foundation supporting the
wheel bearings.

4.3.6 | Effects of Vegetation Works along the Main Irrigation Canal

Wicker works are applied to reinforce the gabion revetment on both banks of the main irrigation canal. Other
than this, vegetation works are useful for many purposes, including as windbreaks, erosion control forest, flash
flood and debris flow control and for protecting the external embankment walls. Wickers are suitable for
protecting the gabion revetment of the river and canal; Tamarisk and eucalyptus for the erosion control forest
and eucalyptus for protecting the embankment slope with much seepage water. In addition, olive, viyella and
mulberry are usable for embankment slope protection.
Eucalyptus grows extremely fast while the tree hinders visibility. In cropland areas, it blocks sunlight, affecting
crop raising. And Eucalyptus is effective as windbreaks to prevent sedimentation caused by wind in the canal
and improve the environment of human activity by mitigating hot air and sandstorms from deserts. Table 4.8
and Photo 4.16 shows the list of vegetation works frequently applied in existing PMS irrigation projects.

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 Table 4.8 List of Vegetation Works Frequently Applied ３)

Plant Tree height Characteristic Planting method Purpose

Wicker 5 to 7m Thrives at waterside Cutting Wicker works, bank protection
Tamarisk 10 to 15m Thrives in a dry desert Cutting Windbreak, erosion control forest
Windbreak, erosion control forest,
Eucalyptus 10 to 15m Thrives in wetland Raising seedlings and transplanting
revetment
Olive 1.5m to 3m Suitable for dry areas, deep-rooted Transplanting young saplings Embankment slope protection
Mulberry 5 to 10m Withered by over-humidity Transplanting young saplings Embankment slope protection
Transplant naturally grown young Bank protection, firewood
Shisham 8 to 15m Grows naturally at riverside
tree production
viyella 3 to 5m Grows naturally in a desert Raising seedling and transplanting Embankment slope protection

Flash flood control by a Eucalyptus plantation zone Tamarisk applied as a windbreak in a desert

Slope protection by Eucalyptus Dike surface slope protection by Shisham

Photo 4.16 Vegetation Works Frequently Applied3)

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 4.4 Sand Basin (Regulating Pond) Design
4.4.1 | Basic Policy for Designing the Sand Basin (Regulating Pond)
The following priorities shall be taken into account when designing the sand basin (regulating pond). The
procedures for the sand basin design are shown in the design process in Figure 4.37.
• The sand basin (regulating pond) must not be excessively deep and preferably around 2 m, to secure
workability and conduct carrying out of accumulated sediment.
• A regulating pond is provided to facilitate interchange among the canal branch/junction point and
gradient change points of multiple canals.

Start

[Plane and capacity design for the sand basin (regulating

pond)]
・Particle size of the ・Based on the particle size and suspended load volume of the draining
draining sands sands, the plane arrangement, required area (length, width) and depth
・Suspended load volume of the sand basin (regulating pond) are designed.

[Design of the revetment at the sand basin (regulating

pond) and the sand drain canal]
・The revetment at the sand basin and the sand drain canal which conveys
the sedimentation to the sand drain gate are designed..

[Drain gate design and sand drain capacity confirmation]

・The drain gate which discharges sand having accumulated in the sand
basin (regulating pond) to drainage canal is designed.
・Confirmation of whether adequate flow velocity for the sand drain has
・Geological conditions been secured at the drain gate is obtained.
・Load conditions, etc.
・Rules for the drain gate operation are established.

[Design of the water transmission and water diversion

gates]
・The structures of the water transmission and, if necessary, diversion gates
for conveying clean water from the sand basin (regulating pond) to the
irrigation main canal are designed. (slab, gate pier and foundation)
・Rules for the water transmission and diversion gates are established.

End

Figure 4.37 Design Process for the Sand Basin (Regulating Pond) 2）

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 4.4.2 | Type and Design Polity for Sand Basin (Regulating Pond)
(1) Sand Basin (Regulating Pond) Type
A sand basin is provided at the end of the steep gradient main irrigation canal, comprising the revetment
surrounding the basin, the sand drain canal at the bottom, drain gate and water transmission and diversion
gates. A regulating pond is provided where the main irrigation canal and existing water channel come
together, and its function and structure are the same as the sand basin. While the sand basin (regulating
pond) can be formed by placing concrete on all sides, the PMS method irrigation project adopts the stone
masonry and gabion revetment method, and a concrete sand drain canal installed at the bottom. Moreover,
a manual slide gate with flush board is equipped for the water transmission and diversion gates.
The stone masonry and gabion revetment method is affordable compared to a sand basin placing cast-
in-place concrete on all sides. Since it can be established by materials (stones, annealing wires for gabion,
bricks, cement, woods, iron plate, etc.) that are available in Afghanistan, local residents are fully capable of
maintaining and managing the facility. Table 4.9 shows a comparison of the types of sand basin.

Table 4.9 Sand Basin (Regulating Pond) Types

The stone masonry and gabion revetment method Placing concrete on all sides
with a concrete sand drain canal on the basin bottom (adopted in many countries)
(applied as a PMS method irrigation facility)

East West
transmission transmission
gate gate

Drain gate

Source of photo: 1) Source of photo: JICA

(2) Design Policy of the Sand Basin (Regulating Pond)

The design specifications of the sand basin (regulating pond) in the existing PMS irrigation project
are shown as follows. Given the need to maintain and manage the sand basin, the following depth and
installation interval of the sand basin (regulating pond) shall constitute the standard design of the PMS
method irrigation project. Meanwhile, the sedimentation particle size, area/capacity of the sand basin and
specifications of the drain gate/water transmission and diversion gates are designed in accordance with
regional conditions, such as the irrigation discharge and suspended load volume in the target region, while
benchmarking the following actual specifications from past projects. Design drawings of the sand basin are
exemplified in Figure 4.38 to Figure 4.43.

- Particle size of sedimentation: Sand 0.08 mm or larger

- Sand basin depth: Around 2 m (with maintenance and management in mind)
- Installation location of the sand basin: Within approximately 1 km from intake mouth
- Area and capacity of the sand basin: 1,100 to 1,600 ㎥
- Drain gate and water transmission/diversion Drain gate: 1.6 x 1.6 x 1 gate
gates: Water transmission gate: 1.5 m width x 3 gates
Water diversion gate: 1.5 m width x 1 gate

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 Diversion gate
Drain gate
Bridge
Main irrigation canal
Transmission gate
gates

Drain gate

Figure 4.38 Example Plane Drawing of the Sand Basin ３)

1-1
Bridge Transmission gate
lanes Diversion gate Drain gate gates

RC concrete

Figure 4.39 Example Profile Drawing of the Sand Basin ３)

RC concrete

Figure 4.40 Example Plane Drawing of the Drain Gate ３)

Gate
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RC concrete

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RC concrete
 Gate
1-1

RC concrete

RC concrete

RC concrete

Plain concrete

Boulder layer
Figure 4.41 Example Profile Drawing of the Drain Gate ３)

2-2 Gate
Gate
RC concrete
RC concrete

RC concrete
RC concrete

Plain concrete
Plain concrete
Boulder layer
Boulder layer
Figure 4.42 Example Front View Drawing of the Drain Gate ３)

3-3

RC concrete
RC concrete
RC concrete
RC concrete

Plain concrete
Plain concrete Plain concrete
Boulder layer Boulder layer
Plain concrete
Boulder layer Boulder layer

Figure 4.43 Example Cross-sectional Drawing of the Drain Gate３)

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 4.4.3 | Specification Design of the Sand Basin (Regulating Pond)
The sand basin has the role to settle any inflowing sand. And the surface loading factor is an indicator
representing this settling function. When the inflow rate to sand basin is Q and the sand basin area is A, the
surface loading factor (V0) is calculated as , meaning the sinking speed at which sand particles
flow in from the upper end of the sand basin is accumulating at the bottom of the basin outlet . Here, when
the sinking speed of the actual particles is U, the sand removal rate is Therefore, to enhance removal
performance, possible methods include enlarging the sinking area (A) in the sand basin, reducing the flow rate
(Q) and increasing the sand sinking speed (U) (target particle size).
As above, the sand basin is designed by the following method based on the target particle size of the sand
settled, flow velocity in the sand basin and surface loading factor (see Figure 4.44).
• The sand basin is provided at the end of a steep gradient main irrigation canal. However, amid
considerable inflow sediment, there may be a need to provide multiple sand basins given the required
maintenance frequency. Even where the capacity of the sand basin cannot increase sufficiently due to land
restrictions, installation of multiple sand basins is planned.
• The sand particle size to be settled shall be 0.08 to 2 mm and silt and clay with smaller particles will not
settle. Since they sink very slowly, most are suspended and do not subside to the riverbed. Usually, settling
sands remain in the water for 10 to 20 minutes. Planning a sand basin to encourage this silt and clay to
subside would involve an excessive facility.
• A cross-sectional shape (width and depth) of the sand basin is determined to achieve an average flow
velocity of 2 to 7cm/s in the sand basin. It is empirically proven that the settled sands do not resurface
when the average velocity is maintained at this level. Moreover, the sand basin shall be around 2 m
depth given its maintenance and management. When enlarging the sand basin area, the depth becomes
shallow and vice versa. Although the area shall be reduced in the case of land restriction, maintenance and
management - including sand dredging - will be easier when enlarging the area and reducing depth.
• The length of the sand basin is calculated by the following formula and the relation between the sand
particle size and sinking speed is shown in Table 4.10. Since the scope includes sand particle sizes up to
0.08 mm, when the sinking speed (U) is 0.6 cm/s (0.006 m/s), valid water depth (H) 2.0 m and average
flow velocity in the sand basin (V) is 7 cm/s (0.07 m/s)m the required sand basin length is calculated as
. Thus, the sand basin length is determined as 40 to 50m.

L＝K×(H/U×V ) ……………………………………………………………(4.17) 2), see 12)

Here, L: sand basin length (m), K: coefficient (safety ratio) K=1.5 to 2.0, H: valid water depth (m), U:
sinking speed of sand to be removed (cm/s), V: average flow velocity in the basin (cm/s)

Table 4.10 Sand Sinking Speed 2), see 12),13)

Particle size Sinking speed Sinking speed

(㎜) (㎝/s) (m/s)
0.30 3.2 0.032
0.20 2.1 0.021
0.15 1.5 0.015
0.10 0.8 0.008
0.08 0.6 0.006
0.06 0.3 0.003
0.04 0.1 0.001
0.02 0.03 0.0003
0.01 0.01 0.0001

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 • Assuming a 100% sand removal ratio in the sand basin, the sinking speed is 0.6cm/s (0.006 m/s) when the
sedimentation particle size is 0.08 mm or larger. Accordingly, the required sand basin area is calculated as
the surface loading factor : is set to 0.6 cm/s (0.006 m/s). When the particle size exceeds 0.08 mm, the
surface loading factor (V0) can be increased while reducing the sand basin area (A). Conversely, when a
smaller particle size is needed, the surface loading factor (V0) shall be decreased while enlarging the sand
basin area (A).
• Dredging in the sand basin shall be carried out each time the sedimentation depth becomes around
50 cm to prevent the intake suspension period from being too long due to dredging works. The daily
sedimentation volume in the sand basin is determined using the sand concentration obtained by the
sediment discharge survey (Chapter 3) as follows:

………………………………………………………… (4.18) 2)
………………………………………………………………………… (4.19) 2)
Here, V: daily sedimentation volume (㎥/day), d: sand concentration (g/ℓ), Qi: intake discharge
amount (㎥/s), Qd: drain discharge amount (㎥/s), F: dredging frequency (day), A: sand basin area (㎡),
unit sedimentation weight: 1900g/㎥, sedimentation depth: 0.5m
As shown in the above formulas, the higher the sand concentration and intake discharge amount, the
more the sedimentation volume increases. Accordingly, the dredging frequency becomes more. In
addition, the larger the sand basin area is, the less the dredging frequency.

Main drainage
canal
Main drainage
Drain canal
gate
Drain
gate
Regulating Gap from -0.8m
pond basinfrom
Regulating Gap bottom
27m pond -0.8m
basin bottom
27m
Lining area -0.7m
Main Slope：
Lining （15㎝/10m）
0.015
area -0.7m
irrigation
Main
10m Slope：0.015 （15㎝/10m） -0.6m
canal
irrigation 10m -0.6m
canal
Transmission
gate
Transmission
gate

Transmission
gate
Transmission
gate
40m
40m

Plane schematic drawing of the sand basin (regulating pond)

0.25m
2.0m 0.25m
Transmission
gate
Transmission
2.0m FL+0.0m
gate
FL-0.4m
FL+0.0m
0.4m FL-0.4m
FL-1.2m
0.4m FL-1.2m
Transmission
gate
Transmission Drain gate
gate Drain gate
Profile schematic drawing of the sand basin (regulating pond)

Figure 4.44 Plane and Profile Schematic Drawings of the Sand Basin 3)

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 Text Block 4-3: Dredging Frequency of the Sand Basin

The sand basin in the Miran project applied the following specifications described on Green
Ground Project . According to the record of existing PMS irrigation project, the sedimentation
volume in the sand basin in summer in Miran was 450 ㎥ per week, requiring weekly dredging works,
while dredging works in winter were required every two months.

Table Sand Basin Specifications in the Miran Project 3)

Weir Specifications Capacity Intake discharge amount

Drought period:：2.0㎥/s
Miran 27m×40m×２m 2,160㎥
Flood period:：4.0㎥/s

As above, dredging volume on flood period is around 20% of the sand basin capacity (=450/2,160)
and the sand depth around 40 cm (=450/(27x40)).
In this case, the sand concentration is presumed as follows:
When the daily sedimentation volume as = 450÷7= 64.3㎥/day and the unit sand weight as 1,900g/
㎥, drainage volume from drain gate as 1.53㎥/s (opening height of drain gate is 30cm), the sand
weight is
64.3㎥/day x 1,900g/㎥ = 122,143g
Here, the sand concentration is presumed as:
122,143g x 1,000g / ((4㎥/s−1.53㎥/s) x 60s x 60min x 24hr x 1000ℓ)= 0.57 g/ℓ

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 4.4.4 | Structural Design of the Sand Basin (Regulating Pond)
(1) Design of the Surrounding Revetment
Revetment is constructed by stone masonry and gabion works in the sand basin (regulating pond). The
design method of revetment shall be based on 4.3.4 Structural Design of the Main Irrigation Canal .

(2) Design of the Concrete Sand Drain Canal

At the bottom of the sand basin (regulating pond), a concrete sand drain canal is provided with a gradient of
1/70 to 1/100 and around 10 m width to flush out the sand-mixed water in the sand basin by conveying the
water to the drain gate at a flow velocity exceeding 3m/s (see Photo 4.15).

Drain Transmission
gate gate

i=1/70～
1/100

Photo 4.17 Concrete Sand Drain Canal at the Bottom of the Sand Basin and Drain Gate ３)

(3) Design of the Drain Gate

The drain gate of the sand basin (regulating pond) is the sliding gate, discharging the bottom water and sand
from the sand basin to reduce dredging frequency. The drain gate base elevation is 80 cm lower than the
basin bottom to convey sand to the drain gate. As shown in Figure 4.41, the sand-mixed water discharged
from the drain gate is conveyed to the river or main drainage canal via the reinforced concrete box culvert.
This box culvert is designed considering earth pressures on the upper and side parts and the vertical load
of vehicles, etc. A direct foundation with a depth of about 1 m will be constructed under the culvert,
and a reinforced concrete bottom slab with a thickness of 40 cm or more will be constructed above the
foundation.
Photo 4.16 and Figure 4.45 show a front view of the drain gate in the sand basin (regulating pond) and a
sand drain image. The opening in the lower part of the drain gate discharges water like an orifice, thereby
flushing sands accumulate at the bottom of the basin. The drain discharge amount from the bottom is
calculated by the following formula used to calculate outflow from a gutter gate/culvert.
The above-mentioned flow velocity in the sand basin described in 4.4.3 is secured by draining a certain
amount of the water flowing into the sand basin from the drain gate. The opening height of the drain gate
shall ensure that the required amount of irrigation water downstream from the sand basin is secured, and
that the minimum flow velocity about 2 cm/s in the sand basin shall be secured when the water in the sand
basin is drained from the drain gate. The calculation result is also applied to consider the dredging frequency
of the sand basin (regulating pond) as shown in 4.4.3.

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 h2

H h1

Submerged outflow: h2≧H C＝0.75 …………………… (4.20) 2), see 14)

Subsurface outflow: h2＜H and h1≧3/2H C＝0.51 ……………(4.21) 2), see 14)
Free outflow: h2＜H and h1＜3/2H C=0.79 ………………(4.22) 2), see 14)

However, when free outflow is h1 / h2≧3/2, it is replaced to h2 =2/3 h1.

Here, H: height of sluice gate/culvert, B: width, h1: deeper water depth among those measured from the
outflow base elevation, h2: shallower water depth

Drain gate
Transmission
gate

Photo 4.18 Drain Gate Outlet of the Sand Basin and Drain Gate Outflow from the Sand Basin 1)

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 Drain gate
Sand basin

h1 ＝２m

h２ Ｈ

Figure 4.45 Image of Water Discharge from the Drain Gate 2)

(4) Design of the Water Transmission/Diversion Gates

The water transmission gate and diversion gate control the outflow of water in the sand basin by flush boards
and convey the top water to the main irrigation canal. The sand-mixed water drawn at the intake gate is
conveyed to the sand basin via a steep gradient main irrigation canal. Accumulating the sand means the top
surface water becomes clean and the design method for the water transmission/diversion gates are the same
as 4.2.6 Design of the Intake Gate .

4.5 Design of the Reservoir, Siphon, and other Facilities

4.5.1 | Basic Policy for the Design of the Reservoir, Siphon, and other Facilities
When designing the reservoir, siphon and other facilities, the priorities are shown as follows. The procedures for
designing the reservoir, siphon and other facilities are shown as the design process in Figure 4.46.
• In the case of the following topographical/ geographical conditions, a siphon, rather than a reservoir, shall
be provided as a general rule, since the water flow entails a high risk of collapse.
- Where the wadi or river basin area is large; or
- Where there is a permeable thick sand layer in the foundation on which the dike is arranged, and the
risk of the dike breaking emerges due to a water channel formed in the foundation; or
- In case there is a sign of landslide on the slope of the abutment for reservoir; or
- Although a wider embankment is required if the water level is abnormally high, the required
embankment width cannot be secured due to land restrictions.
• The reservoir is installed when the wadi or river basin is small, the total flow discharge amount during a
flash flood or debris flow is relatively smaller and the reservoir capacity is sufficient to absorb the flow. In
other words, the reservoir serves as an erosion control dike. When considering the adoption of a reservoir,
the runoff amount will be calculated in consideration of the basin area on the slope on the mountain
side of the reservoir. And it is necessary to confirm whether or not the capacity of flash flood and debris
flow can be absorbed by the freeboard of the reservoir and the freeboard of the main irrigation canal at
downstream section of the reservoir.
• The siphon is provided in the main irrigation canal after the stage flowing through the sand basin to ensure
it is not buried or blocked by sand in the raw intake water. Further, a protective net shall be provided on
the top of vertical shaft of the siphon to prevent from falling inside the shaft.
• When the flood water is small in scale and the flow overpasses the main irrigation canal with certain
limited flow width, a flood crossing bridge is installed.

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 Start

[Plane design of the reservoir, siphon, and other facilities]

・When there is a section at which a wadi or river crossing traverses the
・Topographical conditions irrigation main canal route, the reservoir, siphon and flood crossing
・Existence of a wadi/river bridge are configured, and the plane design is prepared.

[Cross-sectional design of the reservoir, siphon, and other

facilities]
・A cross-section of the dike embankment in the reservoir, the flow
・Irrigation water discharge section and cross-section of the siphon and the width of the flood
crossing bridge are designed.

[Structural design of the reservoir, siphon, and other

facilities]
・Structural design for seepage cut-off measure of the reservoir,
protection works outside the dike body, foundation works of dike
・Geological conditions embankment, siphon shaft/underground pipe and flood crossing bridge
・Load conditions, etc. are prepared.

End

Figure 4.46 Process for Designing the Reservoir, Siphon and other Facilities 2)

4.5.2 | Type and Design Policy for the Reservoir, Siphon, and other Facilities
(1) Type for the Reservoir, Siphon, and other Facilities
The reservoir comprises a dike embankment, blanket works, works to protect the external slope of the dike,
drain works and crown protection works, etc. Although the reservoir may be a concrete structure, the earth
dike is the standard in the PMS method irrigation project. The embankment of the reservoir is constructed
by proper quality sandy soil with local surplus soil. The water cut-off applying cohesive soils is provided on
internal dike slope surface of the reservoir. The external dike slope is protected by vegetation and drainage
treatment of rainwater and seepage water is applied by laying permeable gravel.
The earth dike is affordable and needs no solid foundational ground compared with a concrete structure.
Since the relevant materials are available in Afghanistan, local residents are fully capable of maintaining and
managing the facility. Since the siphon and flood crossing bridge are exposed to earth and water pressures
and vertical loads, they need a rigid structure, usually concrete. Accordingly, a concrete structure shall also
be adopted in the PMS method irrigation project. Table 4.11 shows a comparison of the types of reservoir.

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 Table 4.11 Reservoir Types

Earth structure Concrete structure

(applied as a PMS method irrigation facility) (adopted in many countries)

Source of photo: 3) Source of photo: JICA

(2) Design Policy of the Reservoir, Siphon, and other Facilities.

The design specifications of the reservoir, siphon and other facilities in the existing PMS irrigation project
are shown as follows. To establish a water cut-off, water drain, and slope and crown protection of the
reservoir embankment structure, the following reservoir structure shall constitute the standard design
for the PMS method irrigation project. Meanwhile, other reservoir canal specifications are designed in
accordance with regional conditions, such as the topographical conditions and features including wadi
and river and design irrigation discharge while benchmarking the following actual specifications from past
projects. Figure 4.47 shows an example cross-sectional drawing of the reservoir and Figure 4.48 shows an
example plain and cross-sectional drawings of the siphon.
- Reservoir structure : An earth dike constructed by sandy soil mixed with boulders,
blanket works using cohesive soil, slope protection in the
external dike by vegetation and drainage treatment by laying
permeable gravel, crown protection
- Reservoir length and width : 150 to 350 m length, 100 to 250 m width
- Reservoir depth : 5 to 8 m
- Reservoir width and height : 100 to 150 m width, 15 m length
- Siphon length and cross-section : 20 to 200 m length, cross-section: 1.2 x 1.2m
- Flood crossing bridge length and width : 30 m or more length, bridge width equivalent to irrigation
canal width

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 Blanket works
Seepage line

vegetation Drain ditch

7m

15 m

Reservoir Dike embankment

280m 100∼120m

Figure 4.47 Example Cross-sectional Drawing of the Reservoir 3)

Figure 4.48 Example Plain and Cross-sectional Drawings of the Siphon 1)

4.5.3 | Plain Design of the Reservoir, Siphon, and other Facilities

In many cases, the main irrigation canal extending over several kilometer will pass along the foot of the
mountain, cross the valley, and traverse wadi and rivers prone to flash flood and debris flow. When the main
irrigation canal passes along the foot of a mountain where rocks are exposed, the main irrigation canal is laid
on a large-scale embankment constructed on the valley side to avoid excessive labor and costs for bedrock
excavation. When traversing a small but steep gradient valley, a reservoir is established to take the flow from the

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 valley as a means of countering flash flood/debris flow. This reservoir also serves as irrigation during periods
of drought and adjusts the water distribution. When the valley is small and flash flood/debris flow is expected
to be on a small scale, a flood crossing bridge can also be provided. When the valley is large and the gradient is
gentle, part of the main irrigation canal section will be provided as a siphon to protect the canal against flash
flood and debris flow. The plain design method for the reservoir, siphon, and other facilities is described as
follows:
• A reservoir is installed in a section at the foot of the mountain where a steep slope on the mountain side
is adjacent to the route of the main irrigation canal and where flash flood and debris flow flows down a
steep slope at a gradient of 15°or more as shown in Figure 4.49. Nevertheless, where the valley terrain with
the slope on the side of the main irrigation canal has gentle gradients, a siphon or flood crossing bridge is
installed as shown in Figure 4.50. The photo of a siphon and a flood crossing bridge are shown in Photo
4.19.

Table 4.12 Countermeasure for Flush Flood and Debris Flow from Slope 2)

Facility Type Selection conditions

- In case a steep slope with a relatively small basin area is located close to the main
irrigation canal route, and a small flash flood or debris flow is expected.
Reservoir - In case the site situation corresponds the conditions shown in "4.5.1 Basic Policy
for the Design of the Reservoir, Siphon, and other Facilities", adoption of the
reservoir shall be avoided.

- In case the main irrigation canal crosses a river or wadi with a relatively gentle slope
Siphon of a large basin area. And in case the water level of the flash flood is conspicuously
high and a dike embankment is required along the main irrigation canal.

Flood Crossing - In case the scale of the flash flood and debris flow is small and the width of them is
Bridge limited.

• The slope line of the dike embankment in the reservoir is set as it connects interchanging points between
the revetment crest of the canal and the mountain ridge, and those surrounded by the earth dike and valley
constitute the reservoir area. The area and capacity of the reservoir shall be maximized.
• The section where the siphon or flood crossing bridge is installed is determined by checking the target
area and situation of the valleys and slopes where flash flood and debris flow down via satellite images or
getting feedback from local residents, and further by anticipating the scale of flash flood and debris flow in
future to ensure they will not affect the main irrigation canal. If the flash flood and debris flow directions
are distributed over a wide-ranging area, a training dike wall comprising an embankment and gabion
on the mountain side is installed to gather the flash flood and debris flow. After the examination of the
training dike, the section to install a siphon or flood crossing bridge is determined.

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 Flood
Flood from
from aa
small basin
small basin

Figure 4.49 Reservoir Installation at the Foot of the Mountain (Marwarid WeirⅠ) ２)

Flood
Flood from
from
the
the slope
slope

Siphon
Siphon

Figure 4.50 Siphon Installation in the Flood Area ２)

Photo 4.19 The Siphon (under construction) and Flood Crossing Bridge Crossing the Flood Area １)

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 4.5.4 | Cross-sectional and Structural Design of the Reservoir
The cross-sectional and structural design of the reservoir shall be as follows:
• The dike is constructed basically applying sandy soils which are available on site.
• The dike shall be as wide as possible in order to decrease the seepage line from the reservoir side.
• Where the embankment foundation is soft, the base is replaced with sands and gravel around 1.5 m
thickness (sand mat method).
• A blanket (impermeable silt clay) is covered on the dike slope on the reservoir side.
• A drain is installed on the dike slope opposite the reservoir side by covering it with gravel and boulders to
decrease the seepage line.
• The dike crown is covered in thick gravel to prevent the rainwater from softening the dike body.
• Trees are planted so as to surround the mountain side to which the reservoir is attached and the top of the
reservoir, and the flow velocity of floods flowing into the reservoir is suppressed.
• To reduce the flow velocity and prevent destructive damage caused by unexpected overflow and flood, the
retarding basin and broad vegetation zone are provided in the area where the foot of the embankment is in
touch with the natural ground surface.
Figure 4.51 shows an illustration of the above.

■Q2 Basic structure of the reservoir dike

Dike width
Drain works Approx. 100m
The external side of
dike is covered by
gravels and other
permeable materials
and side ditch is Crown Blanket works
provided to extract 15∼20m Inner slope is filled by silty clay and
spring water the surface is covered by ripraps
The dike is Crown is
constructed basically protected
using sandy soils from the
available on site. rainwater Vegetation

Reservoir
5 to 8 m deep
Dike
Vegetation

Side ditch
Soft layer is replaced to quality soil

Permeable sandy soil Soft soil is replaced

by proper quality soil

Seepage line Seepage flow

Figure 4.51 Basic Structure of the Reservoir by Earth Material 15)

4.5 Design of the Reservoir, Siphon, and other Facilities 207

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 Text Block 4-4: Seepage Water from Reservoir and its Treatment (Report from Dr. Nakamura)

Leakage occurs in reservoirs because the bottom of the reservoir is higher than ground level and the
water depth is deeper than in canals.
・The water in the reservoir permeates and flows through the dike as seepage water.
・When the water level is high, the water presents on the ground surface as leakage by infiltrating
into the dike.
・When the ground is sandy, the water passes under the dike and flows out (boiling).
・In the case of a dike embankment, these water paths create a hollow through which water flows
like a pipe (piping) .
・Accordingly, there is a need to construct a dike in a dessert valley covered by thick layers of sand.
From the above, the following construction methods of the reservoir shall be considered:
1) Cover the area inside the reservoir dike with materials impervious to water, such as silt clay
(blanket works).
2) Lower the seepage line by making the dike body as thick as possible.
3) The external dike wall is reinforced by stone walls and tree planting and seepage water discharging
ports are installed in the lower part of the gravel layer (drain works).
4) The top of the dike (crown) is covered in thick gravel to prevent rainwater from weakening the dike
body.
5) In the case the foundation ground is covered with a thick layer of sand, it shall be replaced with
proper quality soil containing an appropriate amount of clay, based on local surplus soil.
The above measures generally lead the satisfactory results. Since the seepage water volume is actually
difficult to estimate, it is important to consider how to treat seepage water while monitoring the
situation after the construction works.

4.5.5 | Cross-sectional and Structural Design of the Siphon

The cross-sectional and structural design of the siphon shall be as follows:
• A siphon comprises a shaft and underground pipe. The vertical shafts are provided on both sides of
transverse obstacles and connected with the horizontal underground pipe or little inclined underground
pipe toward downstream.
• The siphon structure prevents sedimentation by water in which the flow velocity in the siphon is 20
to 30% higher than the main irrigation canal directly upstream by reducing the cross-sectional area of
underground pipes.
• A gate or stop log is installed on both upstream and downstream sides of the siphon shaft inlet as well as
installing a falling prevention fence.
• An underground pipe is firmly inserted in the siphon shaft ensuring that no shafts slip out. Since the shaft
and underground pipe are discontinuous structures, the pipe connecting area shall be backfilled and
compacted to prevent different behaviours between the shaft and underground pipe and avoid any cracks
in the connection part.
• A sedimentation pool 50 cm depth is provided on both upstream and downstream sides of the siphon
shaft bottom given the purpose of preventing sand from flowing into the pipe and the workability of
sediment removal from the shaft.
• The elevation gap in design water level between the upstream and downstream of siphon at the design

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 irrigation discharge shall secure the head loss (by hydraulic gradient, velocity head loss, freeboard)
calculated by the following formula. The relation between the siphon structure and the head loss is shown
in Figure 4.52.

…………………………………………………………(4.23) 2), see 16)

Here, H: siphon head loss (m), i: hydraulic gradient to the flow velocity in the siphon underground pipe,
L: siphon underground pipe length (m), g : gravitational acceleration (= 9.81m/s2), α: 50 to 80mm, β:
1.5 as the standard.

Siphon head
loss
River or Canal

Underground
pipe Vertical Shaft

Pipe length: L Sedimentation

pool

Figure 4.52 Structure and Water Level of the Siphon 2), see 16)

4.5.6 | Cross-sectional and Structural Design of the Flood Crossing Bridge

Like the siphon, the flood crossing bridge is provided in a place where the flood or debris flow transverses the
main irrigation canal. The design of the flood crossing bridge shall be as follows:
• The flood crossing bridge is provided when a relatively small-scale flood overpasses the main irrigation
canal and the flow width is limited. See Figure 4.53.
• The width of the flood crossing bridge shall secure the flood crossing width. The passage structure shall
withstand its concrete weight, water loads during the flood and vehicle and sidewalk loadings at the
normal time. See Figure 4.54.
• After filling boulders in the connection between the slab of flood crossing bridge and ground surface, milk
cement is poured into the gap of the boulders to further enhance the connection. See Photo 4.20.

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 Small-scale flood from
the slope

Flood crossing bridge

Figure 4.53 Flood Crossing Bridge Installation in the Flood Crossing Point 2)

Flood direction

Main canal flow

Flood flow

canal flow
Cross-sectional drawing Profile drawing

Note: The width of the flood crossing bridge was originally planned to be 30m or more, but due to land acquisition issues, it could only be widened to 18m.

Figure 4.54 Photo and Drawing of the Flood Crossing Bridge 2)

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 Milk cement is
poured into the gap
of the boulders to
further enhance the
connection.

Photo 4.20 Connection Point of the Slab of the Flood Crossing Bridge to the Ground 1)

4.6 Design of the Main Drainage Canal

4.6.1 | Basic Policy for Designing the Main Drainage Canal
When designing the main drainage canal, the priorities are shown as follows: The procedures for designing the
main drainage canal are shown as the design process in Figure 4.55.
• Although the draining method includes gravity (natural) draining and machine draining using a pump,
the former is applied in this drainage canal with the aspect of construction costs, maintenance, and
management in mind.
• To promote drainage without occupying surrounding farmland as far as possible, the main drainage canal
shall be the excavated method with a proper canal width, as a general rule. Adopting a main drainage canal
method involving a dike embankment shall be avoided.

Start

[Plain design of the main drainage canal]

・Based on existing drainage networks, the location of new land
requiring irrigation, topographical conditions and other information,
・Existing drainage network
the drainage route is determined.
・Topographical conditions

[Standard cross-sectional design of the main drainage

canal]
・Design drainage ・To ensure that the main drainage canal does not occupy farmland as
discharge far as possible, a main drainage canal cross section for discharging
design drainage discharge is determined.

{Profile design of the main drainage canal]

・A main drainage canal profile (gradient) is designed in which the
design drainage water discharge (excessive water) can be promptly
distributed.

次頁に続く

4.6 Design of the Main Drainage Canal 211

[Structural design of the main drainage canal]

・Structural design of precast U-shape canal and earth retaining (wet
・Geological conditions stone masonry, gabion works), which constitute the main drainage
・Load conditions, etc. canal.
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 distributed.

次頁に続く

[Structural design of the main drainage canal]

・Structural design of precast U-shape canal and earth retaining (wet
・Geological conditions stone masonry, gabion works), which constitute the main drainage
・Load conditions, etc. canal.

End

Figure 4.55 Process for Designing the Main Drainage Canal 2)

4.6.2 | Type and Design Policy for the Main Drainage Canal
(1) Main Drainage Canal Type
The main drainage canal is planned as a drainage block in the irrigation beneficiary area connecting with
the drainage destination river. The main drainage canal is composed of gabions, wicker works and canal bed
lining like the main irrigation canal, but for the purpose of quicker drainage, a U-shaped canal is applied.
The U-shaped ditch can be installed by crane hanging and precast concrete canal is adopted considering
the efficient workability. The main drainage canal is smaller scale than the main irrigation canal and its
establishment using precast materials offers superior workability and economic efficiency. In addition, since
the U-shaped ditch can be constructed in Afghanistan, local residents are fully capable of maintaining and
managing the facility.

(2) Design Policy of the Main Drainage Canal

The design specifications of the main drainage canal in the existing PMS irrigation project are shown below.
Given the actual result and executability in Afghanistan, the following canal structure shall be designed.
Meanwhile, the cross-section and gradient of the main drainage canal are designed in accordance with
regional conditions, such as the topographical features and design drainage discharge, while referencing
the following actual specifications from past projects. Figure 4.56 shows a cross-sectional drawing of the
U-shaped main drainage canal.

- Canal structure of main drainage canal: Depending on the site condition, appropriate works such as
U-shaped canal, stone masonry, gabion works and wicker
works should be applied.
- Cross-section of main drainage canal: Upper width of main drainage canal: around 2.0 m (in case of
precast U-shaped canal)
Bottom width of main drainage canal: around 1.2 m (in case of
precast U-shaped canal)
Depth of main drainage canal: around 2.0 m (in case of precast
U-shaped canal)
- Profile of main drainage canal: I=0.0015 to 0.0040（1/667 to 1/250）

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 蛇籠
Gabion 60㎝ 蛇籠
Gabion
200㎝

Stone
100㎝ Stone
100㎝
masonry masonry
180㎝
30㎝ 120㎝ 30㎝
Concrete slab Concrete slab
Soil cement 25∼30㎝

100㎝ 110㎝
Sand and
gravel 60∼70㎝

U-shape ditch 10㎝

３)
Figure 4.56 Cross-sectional Drawing of U-shaped Main Drainage Canal

4.6.3 | Specification Design of the Main Drainage Canal

(1) Plain Design of the Main Drainage Canal
The main drainage canal has the role to drain excessive water and rainwater away from the irrigation
beneficiary area promptly. To streamline the main drainage canal, sufficient head shall be secured,
considering the design flood water level of the river into which the excessive water drains out. The plain
design of the main drainage canal shall be as follows:
• In irrigation beneficiary areas, the existing drainage canal system has more or less been formed based on
the existence of the ancient storage area in accordance with the topographical/geographical and social
conditions of the region. Accordingly, the regional drainage canal networks are surveyed to understand
the existing drainage block composition regarded as the basis for the main drainage canal design.
• Drainage/overflow situations and wetland status in irrigation beneficiary areas are surveyed, when the
wetland proportion is outstanding, the main drainage canal outlet to the river is relocated downstream
side to secure the drainage head and consider a prompter drainage arrangement.
• The drainage canal from the new irrigation beneficiary area is connected to the main drainage canal at
the nearest point at the lowest elevation in the drainage block. When connecting, it shall confirm that the
elevation of the drain outlet in the new drainage block is higher than that of the existing drainage canal to
be connected. Moreover, the drain outlet of the new drainage block is located to ensure it is not blocked
by sediment and drift sand. Figure 4.57 shows an image of the connection between the new drainage block
and the existing drainage block.
• An efficient drainage network is formed which allows water to be accumulated and conveyed via the main
drainage canal by collecting the water drained from each drainage block in irrigation beneficiary areas by
the regional drainage canal networks.
• The main drainage canal route is linear or at least gently curved, which allows to drain safely and
efficiently.

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 The lowest location in
the drainage block shall
排水ブロックの一番 be the drain outlet.

2nd Test Farm

Existing drainage
network

1st Test Farm

The new drainage block is connected

to the existing drainage canal at the Legend
shortest distance after checking the ：New drainage block
elevation of the existing canal. ：Existing drainage canal
Reservoir
Legend Marsh Land in 2008 Flood Route
Marwarid Canal

restored by 2015 Main Drainage Sand Erosion Forest

restored by 2016 Bridge or Aqueduct PMS Farm

O
S1 Marwarid Canal Sheiwa Canal 1

Flood Route Q3
Q2 Sheiwa
Sheiwa Canal 2
P
Gamberi Desert

Sheiwa Canal 3

Gamberi Desert
Shigi Canal 1
PM
SF
arm Chokrey

Marwarid Canal 24 km point r

ve
Shigi Canal 2
r Ri
na
Shigi Ku
e
Flood Route th

Shigi Siphon
Kachara
Marwarid Main Irrigation
Canal and Gamberi
Main Drainage Canal N
Shigi Extension Koti
the Kunar Road
1.0 ㎞
1.0 ㎞

Figure 4.57 Example Connection between the New Drainage Block and Existing Drainage Network
(Marwarid Weir)３), ４)

(2) Standard Cross-sectional and Profile Design of the Main Drainage Canal
The vertical gradient and standard cross-section of the main drainage canal are secured, which allow the
design drainage water to be discharged. The profile design and standard cross-sectional design of the main
drainage canal shall be as follows:
• The design drainage discharge is calculated as the value adding the rainwater drainage discharge to
excessive irrigation water required from the intake water amount. However, given extremely low
calculation accuracy, it is determined by the actual drainage measured discharge, as a general rule.

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 • The standard cross-section of the main drainage canal shall allow for design drainage discharge. Since a
wider main drainage canal squeezes precious farmland, the main drainage canal shall not be excessively
wide.
• The cross-section shall have a sufficient capacity for the design drainage discharge.
• The main drainage canal capacity is calculated using the Manning equation. The proper value of roughness
coefficient shall be set depending on the structure of the drainage canal.
• At the crossing point of the main drainage canal with the main irrigation canal and a road, a drainage
culvert is provided as part of the main drainage canal section.

(3) Structural Design of the Main Drainage Canal (in case of precast U-shaped canal)
The standard cross-section of the U-shaped main drainage canal is shown in Figure 4.56. The structural
design of the main drainage canal shall be as follows:
• According to the past record of existing PMS irrigation project, considering the crane hanging and
workability for installation, a precast concrete U-shaped canal, specifying approximately 660 kg weight,
120 cm width and 100 cm height constitutes the standard U-shaped canal. However, according to the
design drainage discharge, proper canal materials corresponding to the site condition shall be applied. The
production is relatively straightforward, as it is manufactured at a PMS workshop on the Gamberi farm.
• The foundation of the U-shaped canal is formed by replacing soft ground with gravel.
• The main drainage canal is formed by multiple cross-sections comprising precast concrete U-shaped
canals, set stone masonry and gabion revetment. Since each structure is separated, the back of the
structure shall be backfilled and compacted carefully without any looseness.
• Since the U-shaped canal in the lowest part receives upper wet stone masonry and gabion revetment
loading and back-earth pressure, it shall secure a reinforced concrete member thickness and bar
arrangement structure capable of withstanding this loading. Photo 4.21 shows the situation of U-shaped
precast concrete construction.
• Given the wet stone masonry piled up at a steep gradient of 1:0.1 and upper gabion loadings, the stone
masonry shall be a wet stone masonry structure using cement to secure revetment stability. The height
of the gabion works at the top part is adjusted according to rear ground elevation. Photo 4.22 shows the
upper part earth retaining wall of the main drainage canal.

Photo 4.21 Laying the Precast Concrete U-shaped Photo 4.22 Upper Earth Retaining Wall of the Main
canal 1) Drainage Canal 1)

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 (4) Stone Masonry Drainage Canal
Stone materials are used for the internal wall of the main irrigation canal to fill inside the gabion but also to
protect the internal wall slope of a small canal in the regional drainage canal networks, in which the lower
steps are covered thickly in boulders over 30 cm, larger than the gabion filling materials, as they withstand
the earth pressure while square stones smaller in diameter are piled up in the upper wall as well as applying
wicker works as shown in Figure 4.58. The example of stone masonry for a small canal wall is shown in
Photo 4.23.

Soil cement lining

Figure 4.58 Stone Masonry for a Small Canal Wall3) Photo 4.23 Example Stone Masonry
for a Small Canal Wall 3)

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 CHAPTER

5
HOW SHOULD FLOOD CONTROL FACILITIES BE
PLANNED AND DESIGNED?
How Should Flood Control Facilities be Planned and Designed?
Irrigation more widely consists of two main components, irrigation facilities and flood control facilities. This
chapter deals with the planning and design methods applied in flood control facilities. The purpose of flood
control facilities in the PMS method irrigation project is to protect irrigation facilities from flooding, rather
than flood control of the river. Combining dikes and stone spur dikes, the PMS method irrigation project is
planned and designed to meet the following conditions.
• The dikes are planned to protect farmlands, residential areas, and irrigation canals along the river
from flooding at or below plan level.
• Assuming flooding and dike breaching due to floods beyond plan level, the sections where dikes are
installed are minimized. As a general rule, the plan provides escape routes for flood water, without
installing dikes on both the left and right banks in order to prevent the flood water level from rising
excessively.
• Areas behind the dikes (inland areas) that have flooded in the past will be used based on the
assumption that they will experience flooding beyond plan level and are therefore not used for
residential purposes.
• Stone spur dikes are planned to prevent scouring of dikes and river banks and to play a role in
stabilizing the main channel of the river.
• The plan adopts semi-overflow nontransparent stone spur dikes based on the need to prevent river
bank erosion and ensure the resistance of the spur dikes themselves against the water flow.
• Stone spur dikes require continuous monitoring of damage and erosion to the surrounding area.
They are planned to facilitate maintenance, including the resupply of gabions and boulders.
• The plan takes into consideration the social environment of the area, such as land acquisition
following the installation of the dikes and the impact on the opposite bank due to changes in the
flow of the river following the installation of the spur dikes.
With a structure that is easy for local residents to maintain and that utilizes boulders, cobble, soil, vegetation,
and gabion wire that can be procured locally, flood control facilities are designed as follows.
• The dikes are arranged in a smooth alignment along the main channel, avoiding existing facilities in
the inland area as much as possible.
• The profile of the crown of the dike is set by adding the freeboard according to the flow rate at the
design flood water level.
• The standard cross section of the dikes shall be the slope gradient and shape required to ensure the
stability of the dikes.
• Revetments of dike are designed by calculating the boulder diameters that will not be washed away
or eroded by the flow of the river.
• Vegetation works and drainage works are also considered as ancillary facilities for the dikes.
• The shape (width, height, and gradient) of the stone spur dikes is designed based on conditions
such as river width, river alignment and design flood water level.
• As with the dike revetments, the foundation and main body of the stone spur dikes are designed by
calculating the diameter of boulders that will not be washed away or eroded by the flow of the river.
• When designing dikes and stone spur dikes, it shall be designed so as not to narrow the width of the
river channel so that it does not obstruct the flow of water in the river.
The following pages give commentary on the above contents:

217

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 5.1 Layout Planning and Design Process of Flood Control Facilities
5.1.1 | Layout Planning of Flood Control Facilities
Based on the basic concept formulated jointly with local residents, river conditions, and the layout plan and
design of irrigation facilities, the flood control facilities in the PMS method irrigation project̶that is, dikes
and stone spur dikes̶are planned with the following in mind.

Flood Risk Area

Intake Mouth
0 1 2.0km Drainage
Canal２
Kachara
Lower Shigi Drainage
Canal 1
Erosion Risk Area

Drainage
Erosion Risk Area Canal 3 Legend
Behsud District Existing
Dike＋Stone Spur Dike
Farmland 凡例
Steep Gradient 堤防＋石出
Drainage Main Irrigation Canal New Restored
Miran Canal 4 Farmland 急勾配主幹
Bela Main Drainage Canal
Flood Plain or 主幹用水路
Sand Basin,
Regulating Pond Linguoid Sand Bar 主幹排水
Existing Flood-damaged 沈砂池、調
Taran
Irrigation Canal Area 既存用水
New Diversion Canal
新設分水

Figure 5.1 Example of the Layout of Irrigation Facilities, Dikes, and Stone Spur Dikes 2)

(1) Layout Planning of Dikes

Field surveys are conducted to better grasp existing structures such as farmlands, houses, roads, and canals
that must be protected from flooding, with satellite imagery and land use maps used to gain more in-depth
insights. Dikes are arranged to protect these inland area assets. Our understanding of the relation between
the elevation of the inland areas and the design flood water level is based on the results of a river cross section
survey. Dikes are placed in sections where the elevation of the inland area is lower than the design flood
water level. This plan strictly avoids dike plans that confine flood water flow by placing dikes on both banks
of the river. If a dike is planned on one bank, existence of retarding basin area must be confirmed on the
opposite bank. If placing dikes on both banks cannot be avoided, instead of applying a continuous dike, an
open levee is applied to provide a retarding basin to which flood water flow can escape.

(2) Layout Planning of Stone Spur Dikes

High-speed currents form in the outer curved parts of river channels. There, water colliding fronts form and
scouring and erosion are likely to occur, increasing the risk of the dike collapsing. Stone spur dikes are placed
in these sections. In addition, a stone spur dike is installed for the purpose of controlling the direction of
flood flows and stabilizing the main channel and sandbars. If the length of a spur dike is excessively long with
respect to the width of the river, the main channel will shift away from the river bank more than necessary,
which may lead to scouring on the opposite bank. A layout is planned with consideration toward the
installation ranges and lengths of the stone spur dikes.

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 5.1.2 | Design Process for Flood Control Facilities
Flood control facilities for the PMS method irrigation project̶ namely dikes and stone spur dikes̶are
designed according to the design process shown in Figure 5.2. The method for designing flood control facilities
is described in detail in Sections 5.2 and 5.3.
In a plane design, specifications design, and profile and cross section design of the dikes and stone spur dikes,
the location of farmlands, residential areas, and irrigation canals along the river as well as the safety of irrigation
facilities in the river against flooding is taken into consideration. The design gives consideration to land
acquisition restrictions, workability, economic feasibility, and maintainability. Depending on whether land
acquisition is possible and requests from residents, the layout design of the dikes and stone spur dikes is flexibly
reviewed as necessary upon consulting with the various parties concerned.

Start
・Information on farmlands,
houses, and existing facilities
・Shape of river channel Plane design of dikes
・Design flood water level
・Information on flood zones (5.2.3)

Profile and cross section design of dikes

(5.2.3)
・Design flood discharge
Consultations
with residents
- Agreement on plan/design
- Possibility of
land acquisition

Profile and cross section design of Explain the plane and

stone spur dikes
・River flow regime during flooding profile and cross section
(5.3.3) designs of the dikes to
residents and reach a
Legend Plane design of stone spur dikes final decision. Review
the design if problems
: Information for the design (5.3.3) remain.
(Information in
Chapters 2 and 3)
: Specifications design Structural design of dikes and
stone spur dikes
: Structural design (5.2.4, 5.3.4)
: Discussions/consultations
End
( ) : Corresponding section number

Figure 5.2 Design Process for Flood Control Facilities 2)

5.2 Dike Design

5.2.1 | Basic Design Policy of Dikes
The dikes are embankments constructed from local surplus soil to protect inland areas from flooding.
Important points to be observed when designing the dikes are as follows. In addition, the process of designing
the dikes is as shown in the Figure 5.3 design process figure.
• The alignment of a dike shall be linear, with a smooth radius of curvature that follows the shape of the
main channel so that a water colliding front resulting in erosion of the dike does not occur.

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 • The dikes use revetment works and foot protection works to prevent the dikes from collapsing due to
scouring at the dike foot. However, stone spur dikes are installed in sections where erosion is significant,
such as curved river channels.

Start

[Plane design of dikes]

• Use of inland area land
・ Design the dike plan so that the alignment follows a smooth curve.
• Survey results ・ Design the dike plan so that the dike does not cover farmland,
• Design flood water level residential areas, roads, etc.

[Longitudinal design of dikes]

・ Calculate the river water level (design flood water level) during the
flow of design flood discharge applying uniform or non-uniform
flow calculation.
・Design flood discharge ・ Set the design dike height to a smooth vertical gradient close to the
current riverbed gradient, considering the freeboard in addition to
the design flood water level.

[Cross-sectional design of dikes]

・ Design the cross section of the dike after determining the width of
the dike crown, the slope gradient of the dike, the width of the berm,
the installation section of the foot protection works, etc.

[Structural design of dikes: Confirmation of structural

• Cross-sectional shape stability against flood flow]
of the dike (examined ・ Confirm whether the stability of the dike can be ensured based on
in Section 5.2.3) the river flow velocity and the force of erosion during the flow of the
design flood discharge, considering the shape of the river channel.
・ Determine the boulder diameter required for the dike revetment.

[Examination of ancillary structures]

・ Examine the reinforcement of the dike foot applying gabion works,
reinforcement of revetment applying vegetation works, dike foot
drainage treatment, etc.

End

Figure 5.3 Design Process for Dikes 2)

5.2.2 | Type and Design Policy of Dike Revetments

(1) Type of Dike Revetments
The dikes are formed by heaping sandy soil and consolidating the load, while mainly applying local surplus
soil, with erosion preventive measures in the form of revetment (slope protection works, foot protection
works, etc.). A concrete (block) lining revetment is preferable because of its good appearance, but with the
PMS method irrigation facilities, a revetment will be provided by boulders, gabion works and vegetation
works, and foundation with a foot protection by boulders is adopted.

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 The characteristics of both types of dike revetments and their applicability in Afghanistan are compared
in Table 5.1. A boulder/gabion works revetment is cheaper than a concrete (block) lining revetment and
can be constructed with materials (boulders, annealing wire for gabion) that can be procured locally in
Afghanistan. This means it is easy for local residents to maintain.

Table 5.1 Comparison of Dike Revetment Types 2)

Boulder/Gabion Works
Concrete (Block) Lining
Item (Adopted by the PMS Method Irrigation
(adopted in many countries)
Facilities)

Image

Source of photo: 1) Source of photo: JICA

- Constructed with stone masonry applying - Constructed with precast concrete
Type primarily boulders
- Maintainability through use of materials that can - High durability due to concrete structure
be procured locally - Low maintenance frequency if the dike
Features - Relatively low construction costs foundation and the dike itself are securely
compacted Disadvantages
- Regular maintenance required such as adding - Time and labor required to repair in the case of
Due diligence additional stones damage; almost impossible for residents to
points handle repairs alone
- High construction costs
- Easy for local residents to maintain - Difficult for local residents to maintain
- Structure utilizes stones that exist in abundance - Government and donor track record
Applicability in in many areas
Afghanistan - Many track records with the existing PMS
irrigation project

(2) Design Policy of Dikes

The design specifications of the dikes in the existing PMS irrigation project are as follows. The following
dike components and the ancillary facilities shall be the standard design for the PMS method irrigation
project. On the other hand, the dike height, dike slope gradient, dike crown width, and dike width are
designed according to the conditions of each area, such as the design flood discharge and design flood water
level, while also referring to the actual specifications below. An example of a standard cross section of a dike
is shown in Figure 5.4.
- Dike components: The dike is composed of revetment and foot protection works with
boulders of 0.5 to 2.0m diameter and/or stone spur dike.
- Ancillary facilities: Front slope of dike: Wicker works
Front slope of dike: Wicker works, shisham
Back slopes of the dike: Shisham or eucalyptus are planted to form a
forest zone to strengthen the dike.
Outer slope foot of dike: Drain installed

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 - Dike height: Design flood water level + 0.5–2.5 m (depending on the design flood
discharge)
- Slope gradient of dike: In the case of stone masonry: 1:1–1:1.5
In the case of an soil embankment slope by applying local surplus soil :
1:2.0
- Dike crown width, dike width: Crown width: 8.0 m or more
Dike width: 12.0–15.0 m
Foot Protection or Stone Spur Dike with Boulders
Shisham, Eucalyptus
Berm Width Slope Dike Crown Width
more than 3.0m more than 8.0m

柳枝工
Wicker Works
Freeboard
Design Flood Water Level Slope Slope Gradient
(Recorded Highest Water) Gradient 1:1.5 ↓Drain Ditch
1:1.5
The embankment material
Flood Water Level is sandy soil based on local
in Average Year
Slope Gradient surplus soil.
Drought Water Level 1:1.5
in Averagce Year

Foot Protection Works

River Bed

Embedded Depth of Foot Protection Works : more than 1.0m

Figure 5.4 Standard Cross Section of the Kunar River Dike / Revetment in the Existing PMS Irrigation Project
(Example of a Dike in the Behsud District) 2), see 3)

5.2.3 | Specification Design of Dikes

(1) Plane Design of Dikes
The process for the plane design of the dikes is as follows. The image of plane alignment design of dikes is
shown in Figure 5.5.
1) The standard cross section of the dike examined in Section 5.2.3 (3) is incorporated to a river cross
section drawing acquired by topographical survey result. And provisional dike cross section drawing is
created.
2) The positions of the center of the dike crown, the dike shoulder, and the dike slope foot incorporated on
each dike cross section figure (provisional) is plotted in the plane drawing.
3) The plane alignment of the dike is determined so that the uneven lines connecting the points plotted on
each cross section of the plane drawing form a smooth curve with a radius of curvature. It is necessary to
make sure that the line connecting the dike slope foot does not overlap with farmlands, private houses,
roads, and so on as much as possible.
4) The dike alignment determined in this way is re-added to the cross section of the river to confirm the
cross-section shape and plane alignment of the dike.

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 Standard cross Design Cross Section Surface

Smooth linear configuration

Application to by adjusting each cross section
each cross section

Figure 5.5 Plane Alignment Design of Dikes 2)

The following points shall be noted in the plane design of dikes.

• In river channel sections where the river is wide and meandering, the river width shall not be narrowed
easily. Rather, the dike alignment is set after securing a width greater than the current width of the river
channel so as to maintain and promote the flood regulation effect of the river channel.
• If the width of the river is narrow, or if it is determined that a certain degree of flooding is unavoidable, an
open levee is installed to make a part of the dike discontinuous. An open levee is installed so that flooding
in the river channel slowly flow back from the discontinuous section of the dike toward the upstream side
of the inland area.
• When planning the open levee, signal with stacked gabions and so on along the boundary of the retarding
basin to prevent people from living there. And while cultivation may be permitted in the retarding basin, it
is necessary to make residents aware of the natural conditions, namely that flooding may occur.
An open levee has the following functions as shown below.

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 ① In the normal condition, river water flows down the low
① water channel.
①

Normal
Normal
time
time
Normal dike
② time break point
dike
② Flood control (retarding basin effect): Duringp en break flooding,
point
dike
o ee
② flood water is temporarily allowed to olpflow
inland area from
eevn break the
point
openings to the inland areas toinland
control vnee
areathelpeeflooding.
o e
inland area leve
At the time
Atof
the time
flood
of flood
At the time
of flood
③
③ 本川
mainstream
③ Returning floodwater to the river channel:本川 Flood water
mainstream
that was retained during the flood or 支 if本 川 dike breaches
mainstream
a
tr川
ibut
upstream is returned to the river
open霞堤 channel.
levee 支 a
ibut ry
tr川
After the Inland water and tributary drainage:
open霞堤levee Drains
支 tr川
athe
ry tributary
flowing into the opening and drains inland ibwater.
u t
After
floodthe open霞堤levee a ry
flood
After the
flood

Figure 5.6 Function of Open Levee 2)

(2) Design of Dike Profile

Design of dike profile follows the process below. See Figure 5.7.

Start

・Cross section survey results Data preparation

・Design flood discharge
Setting the downstream end water level
(starting water level)

Setting the downstream end water level

(starting water level)

Analysis of water surface profile via

non-uniform flow calculation

Setting the planned dike height

End

Figure 5.7 Design Process for Dike Profile 2）

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 Design flood Design dike
water level height
ir
e we Calculated water level
ak
Int
Freeboard

Calculation of the water level

at each station via hydraulic calculation
Setting the downstream
end (start) water level

Figure 5.8 Visualization of Dike Height Determined by Hydraulic Calculation 2)

1) The range of hydraulic calculation is from a few hundred meters downstream of the proposed intake weir
location to the section where the flood control facility will be provided upstream of the weir location.
The date required for hydraulic calculations includes the river cross section survey data and design flood
discharge data obtained in Chapter 3.
2) Next, the downstream end water level, a condition for hydraulic calculations is set. The downstream
end water level is set at a point where the water level is stable several hundred meters downstream of the
intake weir point. After setting the starting point, the starting water level applying the Manning equation
is calculated based on the riverbed gradient at the set starting point and other information. If the design
flood discharge overflows from the intake weir and meets the conditions for a complete overflow shown in
Chapter 4 (4.2.5 (4) c) Calculation Method of Flow Velocity Immediately Downstream of Weir Apron Works),
the overflow formula indicated in Chapter 4 (4.2.4 Design of Basic Specifications of Intake Weir and Intake
Gate) will be applied to find the overflow water level at the top of the intake weir. Hydraulic calculations
may also be performed applying that water level as the starting water level at the weir station.
3) Hydraulic calculations are performed under the above conditions of the starting water level. The water
surface profile is analyzed, and the design flood water level is set for each station (Sta. No) at regular
intervals. While hydraulic calculations generally use non-uniform flow calculation, if the river cross
section is generally constant and the changes in the cross section are limited, uniform flow calculation can
be applied. In addition, if it is necessary to estimate the channel storage effect (flood regulation) during
flooding, unsteady flow calculation is applied.
The design dike height is determined by adding the freeboard to the water surface profile from above 3). For
the freeboard, the values indicated in Table 5.2 according to the design flood discharge is referred.

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 Table 5.2 Design Flood Discharge, Freeboard and Dike Crown Width 4)

Design flood discharge (㎥/s) Freeboard (m) Dike Crown Width (m)
Less than 200 0.6 3
200–499 0.8 3
500–1,999 1.0 4
2,000–4,999 1.2 5
5,000–9,999 1.5 6
10,000 or more 2.0 7

If the inland area elevation is higher than the design flood water level, the freeboard can be reduced to 0.6 m.
4) A longitudinal profile based on the above information is created. In principle, a) design dike height
gradient, b) design dike height, c) ground elevation, d) design flood water level, e) distance, etc. are
indicated on the dike profile. In addition, the locations of major structures in the longitudinal direction
of the river such as intake weirs, intake gates, and the confluence of tributaries are clearly indicated. See
Figure 5.9.

平均年最大流量時水位

ir
We
t a ke
In

Design Dike Gradient

Design Dike
（m）
Elebation
Ground Elavation（m）
（google earth）
Ground Elavation（m）
（Survey Data）

（m）
Design Flood

（m）
Distance

Figure 5.9 Example of Dike Longitudinal Profile 2）

(3) Cross-sectional design of dikes

The procedure for the design of dike cross-section is as follows.
1) Because it is assumed to be utilized as a construction (maintenance) road, the width of the dike crown
should have about 4 m or more ensured for one-way traffic and about 8 m or more for two-way traffic.

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 2) The slope gradient of the dike shall be a gradient that can ensure the stability of the slope. A gradient of
1:1.5 is standard for stone masonry slopes, and 1: 2.0 is standard for embankment slopes.
3) If the height of the dike is high, a small berm with a width of 3 m or more is installed on the slope. The
installation criteria for small berms shall be as follows. The purpose of small berm installation is to prevent
the load of the upper embankment from being applied to the lower embankment, and to set back the load
of the upper embankment to ensure the stability of the slope. In the existing PMS irrigation project, small
berms are set slightly above the normal flood level.
- River side (river side area): Berm is installed 3–5 m down from the crown when the dike height is 6 m or
greater.
- Land side (inland area): Berm is installed 2–3 m down when the dike height is 4 m or greater.
4) The dike itself shall have a depth of at least 1 m from the deepest riverbed elevation at the foot protection
works installation site.
5) The dike cross section clearly indicates the basic specifications such as the external dimensions of the
dike and the applied materials (sandy soil, boulders, vegetation, gabion works). See Figure 5.4.

5.2.4 | Structural Design of Dikes

(1) Structural Characteristics of Dikes in the PMS method irrigation project
The structural characteristics of dikes in the PMS method irrigation project are as follows.
• The dikes are constructed from materials that can be procured locally, and shall provide foot
protection works by installing riprap works on the river side with stone masonry consisting of boulders
of a size of 1 m or more. Stone pitching are provided to small berms and the upper slopes of the small
berms to reinforce the dike. See Photo 5.1 and Figure 5.4.

Photo 5.1 Stone Pitching on a Continuous Dike, Small Berm, and the Upper Slope of the Small Berm 2)

• Foot protection works that employs not just boulders but a combination of boulders and gabion
works is applied on the dikes along the river side as shown in Photo 5.2. There are two types of gabion
works̶1 m wide x 2 m long x 1 m thick, and 1 m wide x 2 m long x 0.6 m thick̶and multiple
gabions are connected and installed.

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 Photo 5.2 Foot Protection Works applying Combined Gabions 3)

• On the river side, willow trees, etc. are densely planted in the gravel on the slope of the dike at a density
of about 4–5 trees/m2 (vegetation works) to reduce the velocity during flooding and reinforce the
revetment to prevent the dike from collapsing. However, in the case of planting trees on the river side,
the installation of vegetations with thick long roots should be avoided because it causes water piping
formulation inside the bank embankment
• On the land side, eucalyptus and shisham trees are planted at a density of about 1 tree/㎡ to slow
down floodwater (dikes with tree belts). However, tree roots growing inside the dike weaken the
embankment. Planting trees on an embankment that is higher than the ground elevation of inland side
should be avoided. An example of strengthening the embankment by planting tree is shown in Figure
5.10.

Dense planting of ユーカリ・シ

wicker works 1本/
: 4-5 trees/m2

flood level in 2010

HWL usual years

Eucalyptus/shisham:
1 tree/㎡

Figure 5.10 Strengthening Dikes by Planting Trees 1)

• Dike crowns shall be utilized as access roads and maintenance roads. Dike crowns shall have a width of
two lanes, or about 8 m or more, so that construction vehicles can pass in both directions as shown in
Photo 5.3

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 Upstream

Photo 5.3 Dike Crown utilized as Access Road 1)

After determining the shape of the dike based on the above considerations, a specific dike structure
is examined. In addition, as water inside the dike leads to it weakening, separate structural studies are
considered and drawings created, such as drainage at the bottom of the dike slope foot to quickly drain
water, and a structure of the part where the floodgate and the embankment are connected to each other.

(2) Examining the Stability of Boulder Revetments on Dikes

As dikes in the PMS method irrigation project are reinforced by boulder stone masonry revetment works,
boulder size must be set by confirming the stability of the boulders on the dike revetment against the flow of
the river.
The stability of the boulders on the dike revetment can be examined by knowing the critical particle size for
sediment movement of the boulder for a certain design flow velocity. The following formula is a calculation
criterion for riprap size at the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. It is a formula derived from the balance
between the tractive force acting on the material (natural stone) and the threshold of sediment movement.
The sizes of stable boulders (cobble) on dike revetments are determined to be a particle size equal to or
greater than the average particle size calculated applying the following formula.

…………………………………………………………(5.1) 2), see 5), 6)

where, Dm: Average particle size of boulder (cobble) (m), V0: Characteristic flow velocity (m/s), ρs :
Stone density (kgf･s2/m4) , : Gravitational acceleration (m / s2) , ρw : Water density (kgf･s2/m4), ρs /ρw:
Generally about 2.65, E1: Experimental coefficient indicating the strength of turbulence (Generally 1.2).
The above formula is obtained for riprap on a horizontal plane. When riprap is installed on a slope with a slope
angle θ, the slope correction factor K obtained from the following formula is calculated for the particle size
Dm , Let the multiplied K•Dm be the size of the boulder (cobble).

………………………………………………………………(5.2) 2), see 5), 6)

where, Φ: Internal friction angle in water stone material (about 38°for natural stone and 41°for
crushed stone), and θ: Slope angle.
In a curved river channel, the flow velocity is increased by the free vortex generated inside and the forced
vortex generated at the outer downstream end as shown in Figure 5.11. The flow velocity is further increased
by erosion in the outer bank of the curved part. Therefore, the design flow velocity used for the stability

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 analysis of the dike revetment in curved parts of the river channel is calculated applying the following
formula, adding the correction factor to the average flow velocity of the river channel.
Vo =α∙Vm ……………………………………………………………………… (5.3) 2), see 5)
Inside of curved river channel:
α=1+B/(2·r) (Considering only curvature correction) ……………………………… (5.4) 2), see 5)
The section from the outside of the curved river channel and the downstream end of the curve to twice the
width of the river:
α=1+∆Z/(2·Hd )+B/(2·r)
(Consider both crosssection correction and curbature correction) ………………………… (5.5) 2), see 5)

where, Vo : Design flow velocity of revetment (m/s), Vm : Average flow velocity of the river channel
(m/s), α: Correction factor due to the plane curvature and cross section of the river channel, B : River
channel width (m), r : Radius of curvature (m), Hd : Design depth (m), ∆Z : Maximum scouring depth
on outer bank of the curved part (m) (Calculated as the difference between the average riverbed elevation
and the deepest riverbed elevation. See Figure 5.12.)

Intermediate Point
(Increased Factor by Deep Scouring)
(Reduced Factor by Free Vortex)

Range of about L=2B

(In
Sc crea
ou sed
rin
(Increased Factor by Free Vortex) g a Fact
nd or
Fo y by
rce D
radius of curvature : r

d V ee
ort p
ex)
ne er
an at
Ch w W
l
Lo

Figure 5.11 Flow Velocity Correction in Curved Waterways (Rivers) 2), see 5)

In case of Average Annual

Maximum Flow Discharge

Average River Bed Elevation

Water Depth at Deepest River Bed Elevation

the Deepest River Bed Point Height of Sand Bar
Figure 5.12 Average Riverbed Elevation and Deepest Riverbed Elevation in an Actual River 2), see 5)

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 5.3 Design of Stone Spur Dikes
5.3.1 | Basic Design Policy for Stone Spur Dikes
One function of a stone spur dike is to change the direction of the flood flow scouring the river bank to
the opposite bank and is intended to stabilize the dike revetment as well as the main channel and sandbars.
Important points to be observed when designing stone spur dikes are as follows. In addition, the process of
designing stone spur dikes is as shown in the Figure 5.13.
• As a general rule, a stone spur dike is an upward spur dike, and the application of a downward spur dike
that causes scouring near the river bank should be avoided.
• The length of a stone spur dike is set appropriately according to the width of the river channel to avoid
scouring on the opposite bank and other impacts.

Start

・ Expected effect of [Type of stone spur dike]

stone spur dike ・ Determine the type of stone spur dike based on the expected effects
・ Materials that and required durability.
compose stone spur dike

[Plane design of stone spur dikes]

・ Design the installation section, the length, the installation interval,
・Information on the and the installation direction based on information such as the width
width of the river of the river channel.
channel

[Shape of stone spur dike (width, height, gradient)]

・ Design the specifications (width, height, and gradient) of the stone
・Design flood water level spur dike based on the design flood water level.

[Structure of stone spur dike (size of boulders)]

・ Determine the size of the stones that composes the stone spur dike
according to the stability study based on the river flow velocity at the
time of the flow of the design flood discharge.

[Assumed scouring depth around the stone spur dike]

・ Hypothesize the scouring depth around the stone spur dike based on
information such as the design flood discharge and the installation
angle of the spur dike.

End

Figure 5.13 Design Process for Stone Spur Dikes 2)

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 5.3.2 | Type of Stone Spur Dikes
(1) Spur Dike Components
Stone spur dikes are formed by stacking boulders from the dike slope foot to the river side, and has the role
of protecting the dike embankment and the sandbar. In terms of dike embankment protection, erosion
of the slope foot is prevented at curved parts of river channels. In terms of protection of sandbars, it has
functions such as controlling the river flow direction, stabilizing the alignment of main channel, and
securing the cross sectional area of the river channel at the narrow section and near the intake weir. Spur
dikes are often applied precast concrete blocks as components in many countries, but the PMS method
irrigation project adopts a type of boulders. Spur dikes applying boulders are relatively cheap when
compared to precast concrete block types and can be constructed with materials that can be procured
locally in Afghanistan. They are therefore easy for local residents to maintain. Table 5.3 shows a comparison
of the types of spur dike.
Table 5.3 Structural Types of Spur Dike
Stacked boulder type Stacked precast concrete block type
(Adopted by the PMS method irrigation facilities) (adopted in many countries)

Straight river
channel Curved river
channel

Source of photo: 1) Source of photo: 8)

(2) Structural type of stone spur dikes (Overflow type, semi-overflow type, non-overflow type)
The structural types of spur dikes include overflow types, semi-overflow types, and non-overflow types.
Their characteristics are as shown in Table 5.4. The standard design of spur dikes in the PMS method
irrigation project shall be a semi-overflow type, which offers intermediate functions of overflow and non-
overflow types. A semi-overflow type stone spur dike has the following characteristics.
• It has a moderate hydraulic jump effect. In addition to the sedimentation effect on the installation part
of the upward spur dike, it exerts an appropriate reduction in the force of water and prevents river bank
erosion.
• As the impact of the force of water on the spur dike structure is slightly smaller than that of a non-
overflow type spur dike, the structural burden on the dike itself is reduced. On the other hand, over
time, partial damage and erosion occur, meaning monitoring and maintenance are necessary.

2)
Table 5.4 Structural Types of Spur Dike

Overflow type spur dike Semi-overflow type spur dike Non-overflow type spur dike
(Standard design in the PMS
method irrigation project)
Structure - Low spur dike height; - Medium spur dike height; - Relatively high spur dike height;
underwater during small and overflows when the flood level is does not go underwater except in
medium-sized floods high and flow rate and/or force of cases of high floods
water is large - Applied in areas with rapid flows

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 Overflow type spur dike Semi-overflow type spur dike Non-overflow type spur dike
(Standard design in the PMS
method irrigation project)
Features - The low spur dike height means - Moderate hydraulic jump effect; -High hydraulic jump effect;
it does not encroach on the provides some resistance and river functions during flooding
cross-sectional area of the river bank erosion prevention even -High effect in preventing river
- Low construction costs during floods bank erosion
- Moderate effect in reducing the
force of water; reduced load on
structure from water flow
Due diligence - Low hydraulic jump effect; - The hydraulic jump effect to - Reduced cross-sectional area of
points there is concern about the prevent river bank erosion is the river; becomes a large obstacle
impact of overflow water on the slightly inferior to that of the for flood water
dike revetment non-overflow type - Large impact from the force of
water on the spur dike structure

The structural type of spur dikes can be further classified into transparent types and nontransparent types. The
characteristics of these are shown in Table 5.5. Composed of boulders, the stone spur dikes in the PMS method
irrigation project are nontransparent. Therefore, the stone spur dikes in the PMS method irrigation project̶
based on their structural characteristics̶are considered semi-overflow, nontransparent types.
2)
Table 5.5 Characteristics of Transparent and Nontransparent Spur Dikes

Transparent spur dike Nontransparent spur dike

(Standard design in the PMS
method irrigation project)
Structure - Structure in which flowing water permeates the spur dike - Structure that does not allow flowing
- Often adopted on gentle slope rivers water to permeate the spur dike
Features - Smaller impact on the spur dike compared to the - Larger hydraulic jump effect when
nontransparent type; spur dike is less likely to be damaged compared to transparent type spur dikes;
- Simple structure means construction is easy and inexpensive large effect in reducing the force of the
- The spur dike is a factor that increases roughness and reduces river flow
flow velocity to prevent scouring
Due diligence - Smaller hydraulic jump effect when compared to transparent - Greater impact on the spur dike and
points type spur dikes; less effect in reducing the force of the river flow greater scouring when compared to
transparent type spur dikes; may result in
damage to the spur dike itself
Example of - Pile dike, rock crib - The structure shall be made of heavy
construction objects such as stone and concrete blocks
method

(3) Installation Direction of Stone Spur Dikes

The stone spur dikes are often placed at the water colliding fronts on the outside of the curved parts of the
river channel. The stone spur dikes make use of the characteristic that erosion and scouring occur due to
flooding as a result of the hydraulic jump effect. The main course of the flood is kept away from the dike
(river bank) to prevent scouring of the dike (river bank). It also works to stabilize the main channel.
There are vertical-angle, upward, and downward spur dikes depending on the direction of their installation.
The characteristics of each are shown in Table 5.6 and Figure 5.14. Upward spur dikes shall be the standard
design to prevent riverbank scouring, stabilize the main channel and the spur dike. Upward spur dikes
protect the dikes (river bank) by causing scouring at the tip of the spur dike and sedimentation near the dike
(river bank) installation.

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 Table 5.6 Classification of Spur Dikes by Direction of Installation 2)

Right-angle spur dike Upward spur dike (Standard Downward spur dike
design in the PMS method
irrigation project)
Characteristics - Oriented at a right angle to the - Angled upstream - Angled downstream
current - Sedimentation occurs near the dike - Sediment deposits occur
- Sedimentation occurs near the (river bank) near the end of the spur
center of the spur dike - Scouring occurs toward the center dike
- Scouring occurs near the end of of the river channel at the end of - Scouring occurs near the
the spur dike the spur dike dike (river bank)
- Does not significantly alter the - The current turns towards the - The current turns towards
direction of the current center of the river the dike (revetment)
Features - The shortest spur dike - Ideal for stabilizing revetments and - The force of water at the
lengthwise; low construction forming new dike (river bank) end of the spur dike is
costs alignment small; the scouring at the
- The force of water at the end of - Sediment is likely to occur end is relatively small
the spur dike is not intense, immediately downstream of the
meaning erosion at the end is root of the spur dike; the dike
limited revetment is less likely to be eroded
Due diligence - As sedimentation occurs away - Long spur dike length; high - Long spur dike length; high
points from the dike (river bank), the construction costs construction costs
effect of preventing erosion of - The force of water at the end of the - Due to the hydraulic jump
the dike (river bank) is low. spur dike is intense, and significant effect and overflow water at
scouring is likely to occur at the end the tip of the stone spur dike,
scouring occurs at
downstream section from the
root of the spur dike.

River Bank
Vertical Upward Downward

Erosion
Deposition
Deposition
Deposition
Flow Direction Erosion
Erosion
Figure 5.14 Installation Direction of Spur Dikes and Their Scouring and Sedimentation Characteristics2),(see 7)

(4) L-shaped Spur Dikes

In sections where the currents are particularly intense and where significant erosion occurs, L-shaped
spur dikes are applied as a means to stop river bank erosion as quickly as possible and prioritize erosion
countermeasures. As shown in Figure 5.15. L- shaped spur dikes are a type of nontransparent, semi-overflow
spur dike. By making the spur dike into an L-shape, it becomes difficult for sediment between the spur dikes
to flow out, making it possible to prevent scouring at the dike slope foot.

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 About 300m

25-50ｍ
L-shaped Kunar River 15-20ｍ
Foot protection spur dike
with boulders
30ｍ
5ｍ
Berm・Traffic Wicker works 5ｍ
Route
3ｍ
Tree planting 8ｍ

Dike crest 12ｍ 25ｍ

Wicker works 5-8ｍ

Bridge 11 Bridge 10 Main irrigation canal 3ｍ
Regulating pond
Berm 50×20ｍ 20ｍ
17ｍ
Drain gate

Figure 5.15 L-Shaped Spur Dikes 1)

5.3.3 | Design Policy and Specifications for Stone Spur Dikes

Spur dike type (material components, structural type, and installation direction) of semi-overflow
nontransparent stone spur dike in the existing PMS irrigation project shall be the standard design in the PMS
method irrigation project. And among the specifications of the stone spur dikes, the material components,
structural type, installation direction, and profile and cross section gradients are also standardized by adopting
the design values of the stone spur dikes in the existing PMS irrigation project, with no changes made. On the
other hand, the spur dike length, installation interval, crown width, crown height, and embedment depth are
set according to the conditions of each region, including the river width and gradient in the survey area, while
referring to the actual specifications of existing PMS irrigation facilities.
Spur dike length and installation interval are determined by river width and water level conditions. The width
and height of the spur dike crown depend on the flow velocity and the design flood water level during the flow
of the design flood discharge. The embedment depth of the spur dike foundation depends on the unit width
discharge of the river calculated based on the design flood discharge and river width.
The type and design policy of specifications of the stone spur dikes in the PMS method irrigation project and

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 the specifications design are summarized in Table 5.7. Figure 5.16–Figure 5.18 show examples of the plane view,
cross section view, and front view of the stone spur dikes.

Table 5.7 Design Policy and Specifications for Stone Spur Dikes 2)

Spur dike specifications in the PMS method irrigation

project
Item Design policy Specifications that can Specifications to be
be applied as standard designed according to site
designs conditions
Components of Use a boulder size that can ensure stability − Stone spur dike: Formed with
material against tractive force during the flow of boulders with a grain size of 0.5
design flood discharge m–1.5 m
Structural type The plan shall adopt semi-overflow, Semi-overflow, −
nontransparent stone spur dikes based on nontransparent stone spur
the need to prevent riverbank erosion and dikes
ensure the resistance of the spur dike itself
against the water flow
Direction of Upward spur dikes shall be adopted in order Upward spur dikes: −
installation to protect the dike (riverbank) through Installed at 5–15°in the
sediment deposition and stabilize the main cross-sectional direction
channel through scouring of the end of the of the river channel
spur dike
Length and The spur dike length shall be about 10% or − The following specifications are
installation less of the river width (Flood flow width applied in the existing PMS
interval during the flood season) after the dike irrigation project in Kunar
design. River.
Adjust the spur dike installation interval, Spur dikes of 15–20 m in length
applying a guideline of two to four times the are installed at 50–100 m
length of the spur dike and ten to thirty intervals
times the height. Spur dikes of 5–10 m in length
are installed at 25–50 m
intervals
Crown width Ensure these figures or greater based on the − In the existing PMS irrigation
depth during the design flood water level. project, 3 m is common
Flood depth within 5 m: 2.0 m
Flood depth within 5–10 m: 4.0 m
Flood depth 10 m or more: 6.0 m
*However, the average flow rate at high
water is 2 m/s or less.
Crown height A height shall be about 20 to 30cm above − In the existing PMS irrigation
the average flood level shall be a guide. project, 3–4 m is common
Cross-sectional The slope of the spur dike cross section in Stone masonry slope: 1:1.5 −
gradient the longitudinal direction of the river shall
be the same gradient as the slope gradient of
the dike
Gradient in In order to reduce the force of water on the Downward gradient −
length direction dike (river bank), the downward gradient toward the center of the
shall be 1/20–1/100 in the river cross river
section direction
Embedment Ensure an embedment depth of at least 1 m − Consider with a basis of
depth of the spur from the average riverbed elevation ensuring an embedment depth
dike foundation of at least 1 m

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 Width 10m

Length
15∼30m
River Flow after
Installation of
Spur Dike
River Flow
before
Installation of 25∼100m
Spur Dike

∼85°
75°

Installation Interval
25∼100m
Bank Length
∼85°
75°
slope 1V:1.5H
Height
Figure 5.16 Example of a Stone Spur Dike Plane View 3)

Bank Length
slope 1V:1.5H
Height

Figure 5.17 Example of a Stone Spur Dike Cross Section 1)

Crown width

slope 1V:1.5H
Height
Crown width

Figure 5.18 Example of a Stone Spur Dike Front View 1)

slope 1V:1.5H
Height
5.3.4 | Structural Design of Stone Spur Dikes
(1) Structural Stability Study of Stone Spur Dikes
The stability of the boulders that consist the stone spur dike against flood water is the same as that of the
revetment design of the dike. See 5.2.4 (2) Examining the Stability of Boulder Revetments on Dikes.

(2) Assumed scouring depth around the stone spur dike

Depending on the stratum and river bed material that form the foundation of the stone spur dike, the
foundation directly under the installed boulders may be significantly scoured. It is necessary to ensure
a depth of at least 1 m from the current deepest riverbed elevation for the stone spur dike embedment.
However, if deeper scouring occurs, it is necessary to build a deeper foundation in anticipation of future
scouring to some extent and reduce the frequency of maintenance in the form of the resupply of boulders.

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 Therefore, referring to the following consideration, it is necessary to ensure that the embedding depth of the
foot protection works with boulders is larger than the expected scouring depth.
The scouring depth around the spur dike can be calculated applying the following graph based on the
relationship between the installation angle θ of the spur dike indicated in Figure 5.19 and the scouring
depth. The scouring depth increases as the upward inclined angle: θ and the unit width discharge: q
increase.

Downward Upward

Installation Angle of Stone Spur

Dikeθ
Figure 5.19 Relation Between Spur Dike Direction, Unit Width Discharge, and Scouring Depth 2), see 7)

The following is an example of the calculation of the assumed scouring depth at the spur dike near the Miran
weir in the existing PMS irrigation project. As the spur dike is installed at an angle of 5–15°in the upstream
direction, according to Figure 5.19, Zs/q2/3=1.57. As a result, it is assumed that a scouring of about 3.5 m
will be applied around the spur dike in the following calculation. It will be necessary to resupply the stones
on a regular basis, so stones are stockpiled in some places.

Unit width discharge: q = Q÷B = 2,050÷600＝3.42㎥/s

Zs = 1.57× q2/3= 1.57 x 3.422/3＝3.53m
where, Q: Flood flow rate (㎥/s), q: Unit width discharge (㎥/s), B: River channel width
As shown in Figure 5.20, maintenance and the resupply of stone are carried out after construction via
continuous observation.

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 It is installed
Shear Force
according to
the shape of
Gabion the scoured
Maximum scouring riverbed and
Degradation depth around spur does not move.
of Riverbed dike：Ｚs
Deepest riverbed
elevation at time
of design phase

Figure 5.20 Resupply of Boulders by Continuous Observation and Application of Gabions 1), 3)

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 CHAPTER

6
HOW SHOULD PMS METHOD IRRIGATION
FACILITIES BE CONSTRUCTED?
What should be considered in construction supervision and construction works of PMS
method irrigation facilities?
The construction of PMS method irrigation facilities requires boulders and cobblestones for construction of
oblique weir, stone spur dike and annealing wires. Meanwhile, other materials for gabion works applies for
the revetment of main irrigation canals, as well as cement, reinforcing bars and other general construction
materials. Dump trucks, backhoes and other heavy machines are also needed and should be prepared
accordingly.

Construction works also require manpower and for PMS method irrigation projects, the cooperation of
beneficiary farmers is particularly crucial. Cooperation on the part of elderly council or local chiefs is also
required to obtain understanding. The PMS method irrigation project involves in constructing irrigation
facilities of a certain quality while ensuring the security and safety of local residents. It is also a project
to develop the capacity of local residents via construction works to enhance their technical capacity and
nurture candidates tasked with maintaining and managing irrigation facilities in the future.

By conducting above, the project needs to ensure the quality of PMS method irrigation facilities, manage the
work progress and revise design drawings as needed to prepare shop drawings. Proper budget management is
also important.

The following pages give commentary on the above contents: The following pages give commentary on the
above contents:

 241

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 6.1 Preparation of Construction Supervision and Construction Works
6.1.1 | Establishing Project Implementation and Execution Systems
(1) Project Implementation System
To implement and disseminate the PMS method irrigation project in Afghanistan, it is expected that the
Afghanistan government will become the project implementation entities/persons funded by donors or
using their official funds. Figure 6.1 shows a PMS method irrigation project implementation system for this
case.
This system assigns an advisory team for the PMS method irrigation project to guide the basic concept/
planning, design, construction supervision and operate and manage the project to government officials,
consulting firms and construction companies, unlike a general implementation system. The advisory team
will initially consist mainly of PMS engineers. However, it is necessary to gradually increase the number of
engineers who can supervise the PMS method irrigation projects through the capacity development to the
government engineers and local engineers who will carry out PMS method irrigation projects.
The project implementation entities/persons, together with the advisory team, formulates the basic
concept of the PMS method irrigation project in collaboration with local residents and formulates the
project plan. Then contract with a consultant to formulate a more detailed basic concept in collaboration
with local residents, and carry out detailed project planning, facility design, contracts with contractors
and construction supervision. In addition, the project implementation entities/persons will contract with
a construction company and hire neighboring residents to carry out the construction work. During the
construction work, it develops the capacity of residents who engage in labor (skilled or otherwise) while
helping a water users association (WUA) or irrigation association (IA) operate, manage and maintain
irrigation facilities for a certain period after the construction works are complete.
While the progress management and technical confirmation are conducted by consultants and contractors
during the construction works, the project implementation entities/persons and advisory team jointly
consult as needed. Upon discussing with the project implementation entities/persons, the advisory team
provides guidance directly to consultants and contractors.
Figure 6.1 shows an example of a project implementation system assuming a bidding method separating
design and construction work. Other bidding/contracting methods between the project implementation
entities/persons and consultants and contractors can also be considered, such as a blanket order of design
and construction work and comprehensive evaluation method. These methods may accelerate construction
and reduce costs, but result in the burden of responsibility between design and construction work becoming
unclear when natural and social conditions change. It is therefore necessary to examine their pros and cons
to decide on an appropriate method.

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 Figure 6.1 Example of Establishing a Future Project Implementation System
(when a government agency is the project implementation entities/persons)２)

(2) Construction Executing System

While a construction executing system is generally decided by contractors and consultants, the PMS
method irrigation project needs to use local surplus materials frequently for the works, develop the capacity
of labors (local farmers) and help them operate, manage and maintain facilities once construction works are
complete. Accordingly, a standard executing system for existing PMS irrigation projects led by the General
Manager (as served by Dr. Tests Nakamura) is referenced in Figure 6.2.
In implementing a project, the general manager addresses issues, manages progress and oversees smooth
project implementation as well as developing capacity and educating those in charge of the project and
workmen on safety. The technical manager and persons overseeing procurement, construction supervision
and accounting are allocated in the headquarters under the general manager while clerical staff are allocated
in the site office. Site chiefs are assigned to manage each site while a headman and foreman are assigned
by construction work to guide and instruct the workers. Mason and gabion workmen etc. are allocated as
skilled labor, plus personnel operating, handling and repairing heavy machines and vehicles. Security guards
are also hired where needed.

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 General Manager

Headquarter

Technical Manager
Construction Supervisor, Accounting
Staff, Procurement Staff

Site Office
Site Chief
Clerical Staff,
Coodinator

Headman Headman Headman Surveyor Driver

Foreman

Skilled Labour Labour

Figure 6.2 Standard Executing System in PMS Method Irrigation Project ２)

The role of each personnel as shown in Figure 6.2 is as follows:

• The General Manager: who oversees the whole project and addresses various project implementation
issues.
• The Technical Manager: who provides procurement instructions, budget processing and technical
supervision to ensure the project progresses smoothly. The technical manager cooperates with each person
concerned and site chief as needed to monitor construction progress as much as possible.
• Site Chief: a person responsible for construction work on site and its progress, control safety and
improving the work environment.
• Clerical Staff: who handle accounting, administrative work, and other office work at the site office.
• Coordinator: who handles procurement, external relations, and other work at the site office.
• Headman: a person responsible for each construction project and its progress, control safety and
improving the work environment under the instruction of the site chief,
• Driver/Mechanic: who operates, drives, and maintains heavy machines and vehicles. Hired regularly
during the construction period.
• Foreman: collaborating with the headman, the foreman instructs those engaged in field labor and directly
manages the construction work.
• Skilled Labor: with specific expertise such as mason, gabion works and reinforcement. Skilled laborers
instruct those engaged in general labor.
Table 6.1 shows the actual number of personnel assigned and construction costs borne in existing irrigation
projects implemented by PMS: the Rehabilitation of Irrigation Systems in Koti, Taran, Kachara and Bela
Villages, Sheiwa District (Marwarid II Project), the Rehabilitation of the Irrigation System in Miran, Behsud
(Miran Project) and Rehabilitation of the Irrigation System in Kashkot, Sheiwa District (Kashkot Project)
to which one to two site chiefs and six to eight headmen were allocated according to the construction scope.
Construction costs are calculated by summing up the cost of 1) construction equipment and materials, 2)
rent fees for heavy machines and other vehicles, 3) wages for staff directly involved in construction work, 4)

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 wages for technical manager, procurement staff, accounting staff, drivers and other staff, 5) office equipment
costs, 6) alliances and supplies and others.

Table 6.1 The Number of Personnel Allocated and Construction Costs in Existing PMS Irrigation Projects 1)

Project Title Marwarid Ⅱ Project Miran Project Kashkot Project

October 2016 October 2014 October 2012
Period
~ September 2018 ~ September 2016 ~ September 2014
Number of Months 24 24 24
Project Cost（USD) 3,343,945 3,371,980 3,110,116
Total Number of Work Days 76,500 63,300 98,000
（Max: Person/day）
Number of Workers 137 140 194
Labours at working site 60 60 120
Skilled labours at working site 40
60 60
Skilled labours at jakago workshop 20
Labours of water control at watergate 9 6 2
Special skilled labours at working site (mason) 8 8 6
Supervisors 6 6 6

6.1.2 | Planning of the Construction Schedule

The construction contents of PMS method irrigation facilities consist of preparation works, oblique weir
works, intake gate works, sand flushing ditch works, steep gradient main irrigation canal works, sand basin
works, main irrigation canal works, revetment works, main drainage canal works, vegetation works and others.
Although the construction period in the PMS method irrigation project varies according to the project scale,
the construction of intake weir in one project is expected to be completed in around two years. Regarding the
construction works that are expected to take longer period, the works shall be divided and allocated to multiple
construction teams, and the work completion shall be aimed at within two years as much as possible. Points to
be noted when planning the construction schedule are as follows and a general construction schedule of PMS
method irrigation project is shown in Figure 6.3:
• For construction work in a river channel and tributary (wadi), where the water level and flow rate between
flood season and drought season vary considerably, the work shall be divided in types which are more or
less affected by water flow respectively. The worst affected types of work shall then have their execution
scheduled for drought season, allowing construction work to be completed before a flood season.
• An intake weir is a structure crossing the river and constructed during a drought season. Over 60% of all the
construction work was executed during the drought season of the first year of construction period, with the
remainder completed during the drought season of the following year.
• Since construction of the intake gate, sand flushing ditch and sedimentation pool involves concrete placing
works, dry construction is applied by establishing a temporary coffer dike. The intake gate, sand flushing
ditch and sedimentation pool are completed during a drought season of the first project year.
• Inland facilities, such as the main irrigation canal, sand basin and drainage canal, can be constructed year-
round.
• In the case of construction of small-scale intake weir and intake gate irrigation projects, the construction
work shall be completed within one year as much as possible in order to start the operation early. For
facilities involving relatively large-scale construction work taking multiple years, temporary drainage
(intake) will be conducted so that the supply of irrigation water will not be interrupted even during the
construction period.

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 • Prior to the construction work, it is important to confirm whether the project can secure all boulders,
cobblestones, gabion wire, reinforcement bar, cement and other construction materials, dump trucks,
backhoes and other heavy machinery, and field labors, workers and other human resources during the
construction period.
• Discussions shall continue with elderly associations, beneficiary farmers and other stakeholders concerning
security measures during the construction period and adequate measures shall be taken.
• Adequate safety measures shall be taken and occupational accidents during the construction period shall be
considered.
• A ground-breaking ceremony shall be held when the works get underway and a completion ceremony on
completion of construction. With the participation of the provincial governor and irrigation department
staffs in these ceremonies, revealing the event schedule will enhance the morale of workers toward the works
as well as boosting expectations for sense of community unity and ownership.
In the Marwarid II Project, 137 labors , 50 staffs and 20 heavy machines were working daily to complete the
intake weir construction during a drought season of the first year. Moreover, the project inputs also include a
total of 3,000 to 4,000 vehicles used to transport stones for constructing the boulder oblique weir with 1.35m
height and covering a boulder area of 10,500 ㎡, and 1,000 to 1,500 dump trucks for constructing 1 km of
revetment and stone spur dike.

First Year Second Year Third Year

Work Items
Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep

Preparation Works
＊1
Oblique Weir Works
Sand bar reinforcement, Opposite
side bank revetment works
Oblique weir works (spillway side)
Oblique weir works (intake mouth
side)
Intake Gate Works＊2
Foundation works
Main body works

Sand Flushing Ditch Works

Foundation works
Main body works
Steep Gradient Main Irrigation
Canal Works＊2
Sand Basin Works＊2
Main Irrigation Canal Works＊3
Revetment works＊3
Main Drainage Canal Works＊3
Vegitation Works

Legend： Drought season Flood season

＊1 The weir must be observed and will be completed after the second year of rehabilitation after the f lood season.
＊2 In the case the water supply for irrigation is urgent, water can be transmitted as soon as the intake gate, steep gradient main irrigation canal, and lower part of the sand
basin are completed.
＊3 The construction period of the main irrigation canal, revetment, and main drainage canal varies greatly depending on the scale of construction work.

Figure 6.3 Example of Work Execution Process for PMS Method Irrigation Project ２)

6.1.3 | Procurement and Preparation of Construction Materials and Equipment

The following construction materials and equipment are mainly needed for PMS method irrigation project.
By calculating required quality, shape, and amount for construction materials as well as the types and number

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 of vehicles for construction equipment, construction materials and equipment are procured and prepared as
follows:
• Large stones (boulders and cobblestones) and sediments and soils for dike embankment: these materials
are basically procured locally. Investigation of the areas around the construction site shall be conducted to
understand the amount of existing stone materials and check their transportation route.
• In the case of procuring boulders, the required transportation volume within the construction period shall
be predicted, the "daily transportation volume" of the dump truck is determined, and the loading capacity
is monitored at the site. Also, it is necessary to keep a stockpile of boulders near the construction site to
prepare for emergencies. Here, in areas where there are no large boulders, some considerations such as using
cobble stones as a filling material for pilings of gabions shall be required.
• Annealing wires applied for gabion: works mainly imported from neighbouring countries so far. In existing
PMS irrigation projects, proper quality annealing wires were purchased from Lahore in Pakistan.
• General construction materials: e.g. cement, mortar, sands, reinforcing bars, crushed stones, frames, and
bags are available from major neighbouring cities. In existing PMS irrigation projects, those materials were
mainly procured from Jalalabad. General construction materials are distributed and available in those cities
where reinforced concrete is used to construct buildings and bridges.
• Construction equipment: heavy machines (backhoes, bulldozers, rollers, dump trucks, etc.) and concrete
mixing vehicles are needed.

6.1.4 | Quality Management, Design Change and As-built Drawings

The following basic policies are applied for quality management during the work execution:
• It is recommended to use good quality construction materials and equipment.
• Compaction involves spreading and levelling embankment materials around 30 cm-thick to construct
embankments.
• If the foundation of the embankment is soft, it should be replaced with proper quality sandy soil mainly
composed of locally surplus materials.
• For the foundation of concrete structures such as intake gate, sand flushing ditch and sedimentation pool
after confirming the boulder layer of the foundation ground, the gravel layer is thickly concreted (0.5 m or
more) up to the boulder layer. A robust reinforced concrete bottom slab with a thickness of 40 cm or more is
constructed on it. If there is soft ground, it should be removed and replaced with proper quality sandy soil.
• The design concrete (bending pressure) strength and the standard slump shall be secured.
• Concrete is placed at a temperature of between 4 and 38℃, avoiding work at high and low temperatures as
much as possible.
• The concrete curing period shall be at least three weeks. When the strength of a one-week aged concrete test
piece exceeds the design strength, the concrete form can be removed.
• It is recommended to use the design standard products for reinforcement works. Reinforcing bars are
visually inspected before use.
• It is necessary to carefully check whether the embedded parts, etc. that disappears after construction is
constructed as designed. These include structural foundations, wings of intake weirs penetrating sandbar
(natural ground) and backfilling portions of revetment.
Before commencing the construction, a shop drawing is prepared based on the design drawing and in line with
actual site conditions. If the number of works changes at the execution stage due to site conditions changing
from the design stage, a shop drawing is prepared by adapting the design to the site condition. An as-built
drawing is also prepared as a drawing reflecting all changes having occurred in the process of construction
works. The as-built drawing shows the completed form of the construction works and will become a key
reference during the future renovation of facilities.

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 Text Block 6-1: Construction of Main Irrigation Canal

- Collapse of the canal bed due to insufficient confirmation of the foundation ground. There was no
foundation. It is a site where there were as many as 60 people. The human eye is easily fooled by its
appearance.

Photo: Collapse of Main Irrigation Canal Bed 1)

6.1.5 | Cost Management

Costs shall be managed as follows to ensure construction works are completed on budget:
• Formulation of a budget plan: the target cost against the project budget shall be planned before
commencing works.
• Monitoring and comparing budget and actual costs: it is important to monitor the costs incurred against
the budget and compare the two sets of figures. If the cost exceeds the budget, it is recommended to
consider improvements at the construction site. This may include reducing standby time by reviewing work
procedures, levelling the works and balancing out workloads, personnel and construction materials that
could reduce the costs of labor and renting construction materials for a certain volume of works.
• Confirming the appropriateness of the procurement cost and rental fees for construction materials: it
is better to understand the proper external purchase cost for construction materials and fees for renting
heavy construction machinery. If their costs exceed the budget, they shall be managed by considering other
suppliers or other measures.

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 6.1.6 | Safety Measures for Construction Works
Major occupational accidents having occurred during the construction work include: 1) personal injury or
death related to construction machine operation, 2) personal injury during material processing, 3) injury due
to materials and equipment having fallen or caused crushing injuries, 4) fall accident from scaffolding, slopes or
elsewhere. Careful attention shall be paid to such occupational accidents to ensure safety measures. Major safety
control/measures are shown as follows:
• A safety manager is assigned who monitors, supervises and raises awareness of accident prevention and safety
control.
• The safety manager shall closely communicate with the site chief and headmen to promote accident
prevention while improving the emergency response system for accident occurrences.
• Daily safety shall be managed and confirmed during the construction period.
• Safety management education shall be provided regularly to staff and laborers.
• Accidents are more likely during rainfall or at low temperatures. Very close attention shall be paid to works
in the river, particularly during flood season, given that the river water level rises and on-site scaffolding
conditions worsen. Workmen also have to be careful of heatstroke.
Although a staff member died due to a heart attack during construction work on existing PMS irrigation
projects, no casualties have been observed during this work since safety control was thoroughly conducted.
Conversely, however, many injuries were observed for the canal works. Accordingly, safety management
education and other measures must be taken. Since accidents involving falls and e.g. leakage have occurred in
siphons and elsewhere after completing construction, there is also a need to install a protection net and take
other measures.

6.1.7 | Ensuring Security

Considering the current security situation in Afghanistan, security measures during the construction period
are important. Since the PMS method irrigation project involves cooperation with the community and local
residents, military, police and private security troops are not introduced as security measures in the project, as
a general rule. Alternatively, security during the construction work is secured by obtaining the understanding
of the community as a whole and via cooperation with the community and local residents. To this end, the
following collaboration with local society and local government is underway:
• As well as explaining the purpose and contents of the irrigation project to elderly associations, chieftains
and residents in irrigation beneficiary areas and surrounding regions and obtaining their understanding,
it is recommended to reaffirm that to be viable, the PMS method irrigation project must be implemented
collaborating with local society.
• It is better to obtain their understanding and approval that local residents be paid to participate in
construction work as workmen or laborers, acquire civil engineering skills from technical education and
take over maintenance and management of irrigation facilities once the project is complete.
• Accordingly, their approval for irrigation beneficiary areas and surrounding communities to cooperate in
maintaining security during the project period is obtained.
• At the same time, it is recommended to request the cooperation of local government in ensuring security
during the construction work as well as obtaining their understanding regarding the purpose and contents
of the PMS method irrigation project.
• A ground-breaking ceremony shall be held when the works get underway and a completion ceremony on
completion of construction. With the participation of the provincial governor and irrigation department
staffs in these ceremonies, revealing the event schedule will enhance the morale of workers toward the works
as well as boosting expectations for sense of community unity and ownership
• Moreover, for those who may suffer disadvantages by the construction works, the purpose and contents
of the project shall be carefully explained in advance, consensus building shall be made, and sufficient
compensation shall be provided.

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 6.1.8 | Capacity Development of Local Farmers and Those Involved in Construction Works
The participation of local residents in the construction work involves key implications in the PMS method
irrigation project. These local residents are expected to earn a living from the works during the construction
period, acquire relevant skills and become core members maintaining and managing irrigation facilities once
the project is complete.
There are two types of capacity development during the construction period as follows:
• On-The-Job Training by getting directly involved in works: targeting field laborers, workmen/skilled
laborers and engineers, training participants learn field work practically on site. Transferring skills from one
person to another is also promoted.
• Regular education/training at a training facility: targeting workmen/skilled laborers and engineers in
principle, further training on field engineering and functions and education on planning and design
engineering for engineers are provided.
It is also expected that a PMS method irrigation project will help spawn a sense of solidarity among people with
various backgrounds by working together for a common purpose. Borrowing the Dr. Tetsu Nakamura s phrase,
Text Block 6-2 shows how building a community sense of solidarity is one of the key outcomes of the PMS
method irrigation project.

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 Text Block 6-2: Working People (Words of Dr. Tetsu Nakamura)

- One of the factors underpinning work is the morale and patience of hundreds of laborers and
drivers.
- Workers shall be technically regarded as workmen so that they are not seen as amateur groups as
was previously the case.
- The collective group under the work has become a unit of ability, playing a key role in the region
that transcends blood and regional bonds.
- While division of labor is necessary, the
same workman handles everything:
reinforcing bar processing, form
preparation, assembly works, gabion
production and concrete placement.
- When a machine fails, use a shovel.
When a shovel is broken, use hands.
When a vehicle stops, you can walk. This
is the PMS style.

Photos: Dr. Nakamura Put Importance on the Field Workers 1)

6.1.9 | Planning and Executing Temporary Works

In executing the construction work, it is necessary to secure construction vehicle roads and drying construction
yards in the river. Major temporary works are described as follows. Photos 6.1 to 6.4 show the above local
scenery.
• Temporary road: a road for construction vehicles, which shall be minimum 4.0 m width or width of 8.0 m or
more for oncoming roads. The dike crown is usually used as a temporary road.
• Temporary bridge: a temporary bridge is installed if traversing over the rivers and canals to approach the
construction yard. Often when crossing canals, concrete pipes are set up and sand bags and an embankment
are installed so that vehicles can traverse over the area. The sand flushing ditch installed next to the intake
gate will play a role of a temporary bridge by passing woods during weir construction and rehabilitation.
• Temporary coffer dike: the construction yard shall be surrounded by a temporary coffer dike (cutoff wall)
and a dry environment ensured by pumping up the water to construct an intake weir, sand flushing ditch,
sedimentation pool and other concrete structures.
• Temporary waterway: when coffering canals, a temporary waterway is installed so that the supply of water
will not be interrupted. It shall be ensured that the flow section of the temporary waterway is basically
equivalent to the cross-sectional area of existing canals.

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 Photo 6.1 Example of a dike using as temporary road Photo 6.2 Example of a temporary bridge
(Miran project) 1) (Kama weir Ⅱ) 1)

Photo 6.3 Coffer Dike(Cutoff Wall, KamaⅠ) 1) Photo 6.4 Temporary Irrigation waterway (Miran) 1)

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 6.2 Construction Supervision of Intake Weirs and Gates
6.2.1 | Construction Procedures of Intake Weir/Gate
The construction of intake weirs and intake gates involves preparation works, temporary works, main body civil
works, earthworks, foundation works, revetment works and equipment works.
Figure 6.4 shows the whole location image of intake weirs and intake gates while photos of existing PMS
irrigation projects and Figure 6.5 shows their construction procedures.

Sandbar
（3）
（9）
Oblique Weir
（8）
（10）
, 105m
（2）
（6） Sand-flushing Ditch

Intake Gate
110m

（4）
（5）
, （1）
（7）
（11）
,

Note: Numbers in parentheses correspond to those of each construction process as shown in the photos in Figure 6.5.

Figure 6.4 The Whole Site Image of Intake Weir and Intake Gate (Kama Weir Ⅱ Project) 1)

(1) Preparation works: determine the longitudinal location (2) Preparation works: determine the horizontal location of
of the intake weir/gate. (Kama Weir I) the intake weir/gate. (Kama Weir I)

(3) Opposite bank reinforcement/revetment works: the (4) Temporary works: construct a round temporary coffer
intake weir wing on the opposite bank (attachment part to dike surrounding the proposed intake weir, sand flushing
sandbar) is reinforced in advance. (Kama Weir I) ditch and sedimentation pool. (Marwarid Weir II)

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 (5) Construction of intake gate, sand flushing ditch and (6) Install temporary bridge on sand flushing ditch: for
sedimentation pool: carry out foundation works, main civil works, traffic of heavy machines used to construct the main body of
equipment works, revetment works and apron works. (Marwarid Weir II) intake weir. (Marwarid Weir II)

(7) Removing temporary works: after constructing intake (8) Main civil works of intake weir: establish the intake weir body
gate and sand flushing ditch, remove temporary coffer dike by piling up boulders from both side banks. (Kama Weir I)
and conduct water into the coffered area. (Kama Weir I)

(9) Install a spillway when the water level is low during (10) Completion of boulder oblique weir: water can be
drought season.(Kama Weir Ⅱ) stably drawn by increasing the water level at the intake
weir. (Kama Weir I)

(11) Checking the performance of equipment works: check the (12) Construction is completed. (Kama WeirⅡ)
performance of the double flush boards and lift-up equipment
of intake gate and sand flushing ditch. (Kashkot Weir)
Figure 6.5 Construction Procedures of Intake Weir and Intake Gate 1)

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 6.2.2 | Construction Supervision of Intake Weir
In supervising the boulder oblique weir construction, the following shall be noted. Here, the construction
location for each process is shown in Figure 6.6 and the explanation used by image photos showing the intake
weir construction in an existing PMS irrigation project.

⑺,⑻
⑹ ⑴,⑶,⑷,⑸
⑵
⑼

Note: Numbers in parentheses correspond to those of each construction process below.

Figure 6.6 Construction Process Location for Boulder Oblique Weir 2)

(1) Locating the Oblique Weir with Boulders

- The weir body length is shorter on the
Legend intake gate side and the longitudinal
：Construction direction gradient is steep due to a sand flushing ditch
：River flow direction installation.
- A gentle gradient of the weir body on the
opposite bank side of the intake gate and
spillway is installed to avoid significant
inflow of water to the intake gate during
flooding.
- The weir attachment part to the sandbar /
river bank on the opposite bank of the intake
gate should have a gentle slope as much as
possible, and boulders should be spread to
prevent scouring.
- Since constructing an intake weir involves
transporting boulders in bulk, stone
Photo 6.5 Locating the Oblique Weir with Boulders
transporting routes are secured on the top of
the weir.
(Marwarid WeirⅡ) 1) ：October 16, 2018

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 (2) Construction of the Oblique Weir with Boulders
- Following the drawings, the elevation of
each section is measured precisely.
- The foreman marks the design height and
driver loads and piles up boulders following
the marks.
- Stone materials used for apron works of the
weir are piled up stepwise with intervals of
around 15 cm between levels.
- To withstand the flow pressure, stone
materials are piled up ensuring that the long
side of boulders are placed in the flow
direction.

Photo 6.6 Stones with Height Mark for Piling up Boulders

(Kama WeirⅠ) 1) ：October 29, 2018

(3) Laying Stones for Filling Spaces

- Cobblestones and gravels (filling stones) are
filled by hand between boulders to establish
a weir.

Photo 6.7 Laying out Filling Stones (Kama WeirⅠ) 1)

：October 31, 2018

(4) Installation of a Temporary Road on the Top of the Intake Weir

- Relatively fine gravel is laid on the top of
boulders filled by filling stones to facilitate
the transport of heavy machineries.
- While constructing temporary roads, a weir
is constructed to the next section in order.

Legend
：Construction direction
：River flow direction

Photo 6.8 Construction of Temporary Road on the Top of Weir

(Kama WeirⅠ) 1) ：October 31, 2018

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 (5) Main Civil Works of the Oblique Weir with Boulders
- Boulder pile-up works for weirs are gradually
extended from both side banks to the center
of the river.
- Detailed pile-up works are carried out
manually.

Legend
：Construction direction
：River flow direction

Photo 6.9 Pile-up Works of Boulders toward the River Center

(Kama WeirⅠ) 1)：October 31, 2018

(6) pillway Construction

- Both side spillway walls are built robustly by

setting up extra-large boulders to prevent
them from collapsing due to river water
flow.
- To adjust the intake water level of the intake
weir by narrowing the cross section of the
spillway, a cross-section of spillway is
arranged by filling cobblestones between
boulders. Refer to“4.2.5.(1) Cross-sectional
Design of the Boulder Oblique Weir” .
- In the event of a flood, running water is
released from spillway to reduce the pressure
on the weir body.

Photo 6.10 The State of Water Flow in Spillway (Kama WeirⅠ) 1)

：December 24, 2018

(7) Arrangement of Wicker Works for Protecting the Sand Bar

- An image of gabion works and fascine
revetment (wicker) works constructed to
protect the sand bar. U-shaped lines are
prepared around the gabion works
planting line of
fascine work constructed at right angles to the river and
wickers are installed.

Photo 6.11 Gabion Works and Fascine Revetment (Wicker) Works

for Sand Bar Protection (Miran) 1) ：October 22, 2015

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 (8) Wicker Works for the Protection of Sandbars
- Thick-stem wickers are tied firmly and fixed
to gabion works and twigs are laid over them
like weaving. 0.6 to 1.0 m of the wicker root
is buried in the gravel layer.
- The height of the wicker branches shall be
kept higher than the expected flood depth.

Photo 6.12 Fixing of Wickers (Miran) 1)

：October 22, 2015

(9) Completion of the Intake Weir for the Protection of Sandbars

- By overflowing water after the completion
of the intake weir, fine gravels for the
temporary road on the surface of the weir
will be washed away, and the stone
pavements of boulders will appear.
- A longer moderate slope weir body
embedded to the riverbank or sandbank on
the opposite side of the intake gate will
prevent scouring of joints.
- The boulder oblique weir forms a wide and
shallow flow. By constructing a spillway with
a moderate gradient towards the center of
the river flow, the river flow becomes stable.

Photo 6.13 Completed Intake Weir (Kama WeirⅠ) 1)

：December 1, 2018

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 6.2.3 | Construction Supervision of Intake Gate
In supervising intake gate construction, the following shall be noted. Here, the construction location for each
process is shown in Figure 6.7 and the explanation used by photos image showing the construction of double
flush board method intake gate in the existing PMS irrigation project.

（5）
（6）

（1）
（- 4）（5）
Note: Numbers in parentheses correspond to those of each construction process below.
Figure 6.7 Construction Process Location for Intake Gate 2)

(1) Spread Foundation

- The foundation of the lower bottom slab of
the intake gate will be a spread foundation in
which cement is poured into the cobblestone
and gravel layer (usually 0.5 m or more) by
digging up to the boulder layer.
- The cement is agitated with a backhoe so
that it is evenly mixed with the cobblestone
and gravel layer, and the layer is flattened.
- A coffer dike is implemented before
concrete structure constuction. Due to
seepage water from the river, a dry
construction method is applied using a
drainage pump.

Photo 6.14 Construction of Spread Foundation 0.5m or more

Thickness (Miran Intake Gate) 1) ：November 24, 2014

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 (2) Bottom Slab of the Foundation Concrete
- It should be bordered with bricks as a
concrete form works on a spread foundation
with cement poured into the cobblestone
and gravel layer.
- A reinforced concrete slab with a thickness
of 40 cm or more is casted.
- The reinforced concrete bottom slab shall
have a continuous structure to the intake
gate superstructure.

Photo 6.15 Form Works by Bricks (Marwarid Ⅱ Intake Gate) 1)

：November 8, 2016

(3) Gate Pier Reinforcement

- Reinforced bars and gate ditch for piling up
flush boards used for the gate pier are
vertically installed.

Photo 6.16 Gate Pier Reinforcement and Dry Construction Method

by Temporary Coffer Dike Applied to Intake Gate Construction
(Kashkot Intake Gate) 1) ：November 4, 2012

(4) Gate Ditch Structure in which Flush Boards are Inserted

- The gate ditch in which flush boards are
inserted is strengthened using a welding
processed steel plate 6 mm thickness
connected to the reinforcing bar of the
bottom slab foundation.

Photo 6.17 Structural Reinforcement of Gate Piers and Installation

of Gate Ditch (Kashkot Intake Gate) 1） ：November 15, 2012

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 (5) Concrete Revetment at the Upstream Attaching Part of the Intake Gate
- The immediately upstream side of intake
gate where rapid flow pressure is applied
shall be a large round concrete revetment
and reinforced concrete is used for the wall.
- Since intense erosion occurs, particularly in
the lower part, a robust revetment structure
should be applied.
- The connecting part of the intake gate and
upstream revetment shall be firmly
constructed.

Photo 6.18 Reinforcement of Concrete Revetment

(Kashkot Intake Gate) 1)：November 7, 2012

(6) Sedimentation Pool Part Between the Intake Gate and Sand Flushing Ditch
- The intake gate and sand flushing ditch are
connected via the reinforced concrete
revetment as an integrated structure.
- The revetment shape between the intake
gate and sand flushing ditch shall be smooth
and curved against the water flow.
- A sedimentation pool is installed upstream
of the sand flushing ditch with a reinforced
concrete lining to prevent the foundations of
the gate pier and sand flushing ditch from
being eroded.
- Sedimentation pool are encouraged to drain
by making a gradient on the sand flushing
ditch side.

Photo 6.19 Construction of Intake Gate, Sand Flushing Ditch and

Sedimentation Pool (Kama Weir Ⅰ Intake Gate) 1)：January 22, 2019

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 6.2.4 | Construction Supervision of the Sand Flushing Ditch
In supervising the sand flushing ditch construction, the following shall be noted. Here, the construction
location for each process is shown in Figure 6.8 and the explanation used by photos image showing the
construction of sand flushing ditch in the existing PMS irrigation project.

（1）
（- 5）

Note: Numbers in parentheses correspond to those of each construction process below.

Figure 6.8 Construction Process Location for Sand Flushing Ditch 2)

(1) Spread Foundation

- The foundation of the lower bottom slab of
the intake gate will be a spread foundation in
which cement is poured into the
cobblestone and gravel layer (usually 0.5 m
or more) by digging up to the boulder layer.
- The cement is agitated with a backhoe so
that it is evenly mixed with the cobblestone
and gravel layer, and the layer is flattened.

Photo 6.20 Construction of Spread Foundation 0.5 m or more

Thickness (MarwaridⅡ Sand Flushing Ditch) 1)
：October 17, 2016

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 (2) Reinforcement of the Bottom Slab and Gate Piers
- In placing concrete, multiple concrete
mixing machines shall be arranged and fully
operated by a labor-intensive method.

Photo 6.21 Reinforcement of the Bottom Slab and Gate Piers

(Kama Weir Ⅰ Sand Flushing Ditch) 1)：December 25, 2018

(3) Reinforcement Works in Detail

- Reinforcing bars are arranged with the bar
diameter and space in accordance with the
design drawing.
- Reinforcement bars are arranged by
removing deposits such as mud on the
surface of the reinforcement bars.
- Sufficient additional and anchored lengths
of bars shall be secured.

Photo 6.22 Reinforcement of Bottom Slab and Gate Piers in Detail

(Kama WeirⅠ Sand Flushing Ditch)1）：December 24, 2018

(4) Flush Board Inserting and Removing Test

- For the sand flushing ditch, detachable flush
boards 2.2 m width and 20 cm height are
applied.

Flush board reinforced by steel plate

March 9, 2017
Photo 6.23 Flush Board Removing Test
(Marwarid WeirⅡ Sand Flushing Ditch) 1) ：January 22, 2019

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 (5) Apron Works and Downstream Bed Protection Works of the Sand Flushing Ditch
- In order to prevent river bed from scouring
by flow velocity, bed protection works with
boulders shall be provided at downstream of
the sand flushing ditch. See Figure 4.30 on
page 177.
- The joint of concrete apron and bed
protection works will be connected without
gaps.

Photo 6.24 Apron and Downstream Bed Protection of the Sand

Flushing Ditch (Kama WeirⅡ Sand Flushing Ditch)1）：January 17, 2018

(6) Formulation of Apron Works and Downstream Bed Protection Works of the Sand Flushing Ditch
- Bed protection in the downstream of apron
is installed until the same place as the
downstream end line of the apron of the
intake weir.

Photo 6.25 Formulation of Apron and Downstream Bed Protection

of the Sand Flushing Ditch (Kama Weir Ⅱ Sand Flushing Ditch)1）
：February 12, 2019

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 6.3 Construction Supervision of the Reservoir

When supervising reservoir construction, the following shall be noted. Here, the construction location for each
process is shown in Figure 6.9 and the explanation used by photos image showing the construction of reservoir
in the existing PMS irrigation project.

Blanket Works
Seepage Line

Vegetation Works Drain Ditch

（1）
（3） 7m

（4） 15 m

（2）
Reservoir Dike

280m 100∼120m

Note: Numbers in parentheses correspond to those of each construction process below.

Figure 6.9 Construction Process Location for Reservoir 2), see 3)

(1) Dike Embankment

- Construction of the dike embankment shall
proceed with the following process: loading
and transporting embankment materials
and rolling compaction using pavement
rollers.
- Each step constructed in the embankment
at 30cm-intervals is finally finished as a
single slope.
- Since the overall dike embankment section
of reservoirs forms a wide valley which is
necessary to embank considerable soil
volume, construction works shall be divided
into multiple sections (around three) as
well as dividing excavator, roader and dump
trucks into around three teams to proceed
with the works.

Photo 6.26 Heavy Machines, Dump Trucks and Workers in the Dike
Embankment (Marwarid Main Irrigation Canal Q2 Reservoir) 1)
：May 6, 2009

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 (2) Leakage Control -1
- The lowest step of the dike embankment is
formed by gravels to retain the
embankment soil at the foot of the slope
and a lower the seepage line in the
embankment.

Photo 6.27 A Wetland is Formed below the Dike Embankment

Slope by Seepage Water (Lower Left)
(Marwarid Main Irrigation Canal Q2 Reservoir) 1) ：June 28, 2009
(3) Leakage Control -2
- Local surplus materials are applied for the
dike embankment as a rule. To ensure the
embankment remains waterproof, the
surface slope of the reservoir embankment
(slope on the reservoir side) is blanketed
with silty clay.

Photo 6.28 Blanket Works

(Marwarid Main Irrigation Canal Q2 Reservoir) 1)：July 15, 2009

(4) Leakage Control -3

- In the part where the back slope of the
reservoir embankment is in touch with the
natural ground, the embankment is
strengthened by planting eucalyptus that
does not rot.

Photo 6.29 Strengthening back slope of the Reservoir Embankment by

Eucalyptus (Marwarid Main Irrigation Canal Q2 Reservoir) 1)：September 19, 2011

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 6.4 Construction Supervision of the Main Irrigation Canal and Wicker Works

When supervising main irrigation canal construction and wicker works, the following shall be noted. Here,
the construction location for each process is shown in Figure 6.10 and the explanation used by photos image
showing the construction of main irrigation canal in the existing PMS irrigation project.

5 Wrickers/m

7.5

1.0

（7）
（8） （10） 0.25
（8）
（9）
（9） 0.25 1.0
unit (m)
Gabion 5.5 （5）
（6） 0.6
1.0×0.6 1.0×0.6
5.0 （3） 1.6
1.0×1.0 1.0×1.0 1.0
（4）
（7）
（1）
（2）Soil Cement Layer 0.3

Sand and Cobble Layer 1.0ｍ or more

（11）（12）
Soil Cement Layer Seepage Line

Layer of Sand Mat

Note: Numbers in parentheses correspond to those of each construction process below.

Figure 6.10 Construction Process Location for Main Irrigation Canal 2), see 3)

6.4 Construction Supervision of the Main Irrigation Canal and Wicker Works 267

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 (1) Under Construction of Soil Cement Lining and Other Canal Bed Works
- The original silt and fine sandy ground of
the bed of the main irrigation canal is
replaced with gravel and a soil cement lining
around 30 cm thick is conducted on the
surface layer.
- Immediately after that, it is sufficiently
compacted

Photo 6.30 Under Construction of Soil Cement Lining and Other

Canal Bed Works (MarwaridⅡMain Irrigation Canal) 1) ：April 27, 2017

(2) Soil Cement Lining and Other Canal Bed Works

- Since the flow velocity increases at partial
steep gradient sections, for protecting the
canal bed lining, the consistent gradient of
canal bed is kept by drop works, or the flow
velocity is loosened by increasing roughness
on the surface by making it uneven with
stones and bricks.
- The canal bed gradient elevation is
controlled using a survey instrument to
ensure a difference in altitude of 15 cm per
100 m.

Photo 6.31 Soil Cement Lining Works on the Canal Bed

(Miran Main Irrigation Canal) 1) ： December 11, 2014

(3) Gabion Works-1

- Gabions are laid on the lower bank of the
main irrigation canal.
- Gabions are laid by checking the condition
of the foundation (bed) surface where the
gabions are installed.
Intake Mouth - If the irrigation water supply is urgent,
water supply will be started after installing
the lower part of the gabions and filling soil
cement in the corner of the canal bed.

Photo 6.32 Creating and Laying Gabions (Lower Layer)

(MarwaridⅡMain Irrigation Canal) 1) ：December 18, 2016

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 (4) Filling Soil Cement in the Corner of Main Irrigation Canal Bed
- The corners of the main irrigation canal are
filled with smoother soil cement to increase
flow velocity by reducing roughness and
preventing sedimentation at the canal. In
addition, the permeation loss of irrigation
water is suppressed.

Photo 6.33 Filling Soil Cement in the Canal Bed Corner of Main Irrigation
Canal (MarwaridⅡMain Irrigation Canal) 1) ：December 24, 2016

(5) Gabion Works-2

- Gabions are laid on the upper bank of the
main irrigation canal.
- This is done while confirming that backfill
soils on the back of the gabion works are not
loosened.

Photo 6.34 Creating and Laying Gabions (Upper Layer)

(MarwaridⅡMain Irrigation Canal) 1) ：April 8, 2019

(6) Piling up the Canal Embankment by Gabion Works

- The longitudinal gradient of main
irrigation canal maintains consistency as a
general rule. Where part of the gradient
needs to be loosened due to bedrocks and
other factors, the design water depth of
such section needs to increase. In this case,
gabions are piled up to form the higher
canal embankment.

Photo 6.35 Piling up the Canal Revetment by Gabion Works

(MarwaridⅡMain Irrigation Canal) 1）：July 18, 2018

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 (7) Occurrence of Piping on the Main Irrigation Canal Bed
- Piping may occur on the canal bed due to
seepage water from the canal, leakage from
the surrounding regulating pond, water
seeping when the water level of the riverside
canal rises, rainwater flowing into the canal
from the bank slope on the side of the canal
if any, and other factors.

Photo 6.36 Occurrence of Piping on the Main Irrigation Canal Bed

(Marwarid Main Irrigation Canal, FG Section) 1）：April 6, 2020

(8) Preparation for Wicker Works along the Main Irrigation Canal
- Compartments are formed every 1 meter in
the mixed soil of silt and sand backfilled in
the back of the gabion revetment in the
canal by the same way as the ridges on the
farmland.
- By forming a compartment, the poured
water remains in the compartment.

Photo 6.37 Making Ridges prior to Wicker Works

(Shigi Main Irrigation Canal) 1) ：January 29, 2015

(9) Planting wickers

- Wickers are planted at a certain density (10
to 12 wickers per 1㎡) in the section of
ridges.
- After planting, watering is repeated
earnestly to increase the percentage of
rootage.
- For watering, a bucket rather than a pump
is used, to increase the percentage of
rootage because a pump is costly to
maintain and often washes out the soil for
planting.

Photo 6.38 Planting along the Canal

(MarwaridⅡMain Irrigation Canal) 1) ：June 12, 2017

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 (10) Checking the Growing Condition of the Wickers
- By patiently watering in the summer, the
willow will take root in about half a year.

Photo 6.39 Wicker Works in Three to Four Months after Planting

(Miran Main Irrigation Canal) 1) ：September 21, 2015

(11) Planting on the Back Slope of the Canal Embankment

- On the back slope of the canal, wickers are
used for planting while those more resistant
to dryness are also planted in the
embankment.
- The mulberry is the main tree planted, as
well as olive and viyella.

Photo 6.40 Planting on the Back Slope of Canal Embankment

(Marwarid Main Irrigation Canal, FG Section) 1) ：March 28, 2010

(12) Leakage Control of the Main Irrigation Canal on the Embankment

- When constructing a main irrigation canal
at the top of a high embankment in
Stone spur dike
wetland, the soft foundation ground 1.0 m
to 1.5 m thickness is first replaced with
gravel and proper quality soils (sand mat
method), whereupon an embankment is
constructed.
- Drain works are installed at the bottom
foot of the embankment slope as leakage
control.
- If there is a river near the irrigation canal
and there is a risk that a diversion channel
will approach, a stone spur dike will be
provided to keep the river channel away.

Photo 6.41 Irrigation Canal and Stone Spur Dike on the revetment
(Marwarid Main Irrigation Canal, FG Section) 1) ：March 24, 2008

6.4 Construction Supervision of the Main Irrigation Canal and Wicker Works 271

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 Text Block 6-3: An Example of Changes Over the Years After Construction1)

a) An example of the main irrigation canal: from one and a half to three years after the construction

One and a half years after construction, wickers along the Three and half years after construction, the mulberry trees
main irrigation canal (upper step) grow to 1.0 to 1.5 m in grow to 2 to 2.5 m in height and are rooted. Wickers grow to
height. Mulberry trees on the second and third steps have just around 4m. As of April 9, 2009.
been transplanted with young trees. As of April 28, 2007.

b) An example of the embankment canal section: during constuction and four years later

The canal on the embankment is under construction. The same location four years after construction.
Bedrock and wetlands are shown on the left and right sides, As of May 10, 2009.
respectively. As of February 27, 2005.

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 6.5 Construction Supervision of Siphon

When supervising siphon construction, the following shall be noted. Here, the design example is shown in
Figure 6.11 and the explanation used by photos image showing the construction of siphon in the existing PMS
irrigation project.

Plain View
23000
5000 18000 5000

600
400 600

400
upstream downstream
4000
6000

4000
6000
siphon tube （1）

400
600 400

600
upstream（4） downstream
1300

1500
2300

200
natural riverbed
700

2250
2750

2550
2050

siphon tube （2）

（3）

2100 400 1700 18000 1700 400 2100

400 400 400 400

Note: Numbers in parentheses correspond to those of each construction process below.

: Ideally, a sedimentation pool shall be provided at the bottom of the siphon shaft.

Figure 6.11 Design Example of Siphon 1)

(1) Setting the Location of the Siphon

- Traces of debris flow and flash flood are
surveyed to confirm the location and
section of the siphon to be installed.
- Landmarking by putting stones or piles is
carried out at the shaft point and on the
liner of the underground pipe to label and
confirm the location of structures prior to
their construction.

Photo 6.42 The Status before Constructing the Siphon

(Marwarid Main irrigation Canal, Gamberi Floodway) 1) ：April 10, 2012

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 (2) Constructing the Siphon
Inlet of siphon - In readiness for flood flows during
construction, surrounding areas are
hardened by banks.
- In addition, the buried box length of the
siphon is divided into construction sections
and backfilled after the construction of each
section.

Photo 6.43 Construction of a Siphon

(Marwarid Canal, Gamberi Floodway)1) ：October 24, 2012

(3) Siphon Shaft Construction -1

- Foundation works are important when
constructing shafts of a siphon to prevent
subsidence.
- Prospecting is conducted to check the
gravel layers and other bearing layers.
- Cement is poured into the gravel layer to
form a firm spread foundation. Further,
reinforced concrete slab 40 cm thickness is
installed as the shaft foundation.

Photo 6.44 Construction of the Siphon Shaft Foundation

(Marwarid Canal, Gamberi Floodway)1) ：April 10, 2012

(4) Siphon Shaft Construction-2

- To prevent accidents involving children
falling into the siphon shaft, a protective net
is installed on the top of shaft.

Photo 6.45 Safety Measures for the Siphon(MarwaridⅡ Canal) 1)

：June 30, 2018

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 6.6 Construction Supervision of the Sand Basin

When supervising sand basin construction, the following shall be noted. Here, the construction location for
each process is shown in Figure 6.12 and the explanation used by photos image showing the construction of
sand basin in the existing PMS irrigation project.

Main drainage
canal
（1）
Drain gate

Regulating pond Gap from

basin bottom -0.8m
27m
（3）
-0.7m
Lining area
Main Slope :0.015(15cm/10m)
10m -0.6m
irrigation
canal （4）
Transmission
（2） gate

Transmission
gate

40m

Note: Numbers in parentheses correspond to those of each construction process below. 0.25m
2), see 3)
2.0m Figure 6.12 Construction Process Location for Sand Basin
EL+0.0m
EL-0.4m
0.4m
EL-1.2m

(1) Drain Gate Construction

- The bottom level of the drain gate shall be
set to 50 cm to 1 m lower than the sand
basin floor and water transmission gate to
enhance the sand drain function.
- The drain gate will be a slide gate, and the
bottom water in the sand basin will be
drained together with the earth and sand.
- The joint of the floor between sand drain
80cm lower channel and bottom of the drain gate are
filled by plain concrete to equalize the level
difference.

Photo 6.46 Height Difference at the Drain Gate (Miran) 1)

：February 7, 2015

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 (2) Construction of the Sand Basin Floor
- A transmission gate with flush board will be
80cm lower
provided at the same level as the floor level
Drain gate Transmission gate of sand basin.
- A sand drain channel connecting to the
drain gate is installed on the floor of the
sand basin.
- To enhance the sand drain function, the
Transmission floor of the sand drain channel slopes
gate
toward the drain gate bottom level.
- When installing the slope, the level is
managed to ensure the gradient is set as
designed.

Photo 6.47 Construction of the Sand Basin Floor (Miran)1)

：January 29, 2015

(3) Lining Works of the Sand Drain Channel

- The sand drain channel in the sand basin is
lined with concrete toward the drain gate.
The roughness is reduced to enhance the
sand drain function.
- When lining the concrete, it shall be laid
with even thickness.

Photo 6.48 Concrete Lining Works in the Sand Drain Channel

(Miran)1) ：February 7, 2015

(4) Completion of the Sand Basin

- If the length of the sand basin is taken too
long in the flow direction, the gradient of
the sand drainage channel will become
gentle and it will be difficult to discharge
sediment. Therefore, the shape of the sand
Transmission Transmission basin shall be 40 to 50 m on the long side
gate gate
Drain gate and 30 to 40 m on the short side

Towards the sand drain gate, the sand drain

channel is as low as 60 cm, 70 cm, and 80 cm
from the floor level of the sand basin.

Photo 6.49 The Sand Basin Configuration (Miran)1)

：February 12, 2015

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 6.7 Construction Supervision of the Drainage Canal

In supervising drainage canal construction, the following shall be noted. Though the structure of the main
drainage canal is veried by the site condition, here, a design example of U-shaped canal is shown in Figure 6.13
and the explanation used by photo images showing the construction of main drainage canal in the existing
PMS irrigation project.

（2）
Gabion 60㎝ 蛇籠
Gabion

200㎝

Stone
100㎝ Stone
100㎝
masonry masonry
180㎝
30㎝ 120㎝ 30㎝
Concrete slab Concrete slab
Soil cement 25∼30㎝

（1） 100㎝ 110㎝

Sand and
gravel 60∼70㎝

U-shape canal 10㎝

Note: Numbers in parentheses correspond to those of each construction process below.

Figure 6.13 Design Example of U-shaped Main Drainage Canal 2), see 3)

(1) Installation of a U-shaped Canal in the Main Drainage Canal

- If soft ground is observed when digging 2.0
to 2.5 m down from the current ground
surface, around 0.5 m is replaced with gravel
to form the foundation of a U-shaped canal.
- A U-shaped canal is lifted by a crane and
installed.

Photo 6.50 Installation of a U-shaped Canal in the Drainage Canal

(Gamberi Main Drainage Canal) 1) ：July 23, 2016

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 (2) Earth Retaining on the Upper Part of the Main Drainage Canal
- A gabion is installed on the upper part of
the U-shaped canal to retain earth. The
backfill soil on the back of the gabion is
firmly compacted to ensure the soil does
not loosen.

Photo 6.51 Earth Retaining on the Upper Part of the Main Drainage
Canal (Gamberi Main Drainage Canal)1) ：September 28, 2017

6.8 Construction Supervision of Dike/Stone Spur Dike

In supervising dike/stone spur dike construction, the following shall be noted. Here, the construction location
for each process is shown in Figure 6.14 and the explanation used by photos image showing the construction of
dike/spur dike in the existing PMS irrigation project.

Foot Protection or Stone Spur Dike with Boulders

Shisham, Eucalyptus
Berm Width Slope Dike Crown Width
more than 3.0m more than 8.0m

柳枝工
Wicker Works
Freeboard
（3）
Slope
（1）
Design Flood Water Level Slope Gradient
(Recorded Highest Water) Gradient 1:1.5 ↓Drain Ditch
Flood Water Level 1:1.5
in Average Year
（2）
Drought Water Level
in Averagce Year Slope Gradient
1:1.5

River Bed （4）

（5）
,

Note: Numbers in parentheses correspond to those of each construction Width 10m

process below. River Flow after
Length
15∼30m Installation of
Spur Dike

River Flow before

Installation of
Spur Dike
25∼100m

∼85°
（6）
（7）
75°
,

Installation Interval
∼85°
75° 25∼100m

Figure 6.14 Construction Example of Dike/Stone Spur Dike 2), see 3)

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 (1) Dike Body Construction
- The crown is used for a construction road
and a maintenance road after the
construction.
- Less permeable silt is mixed with gravel for
use in construction.
- Embankment materials unwound at 30
cm-thickness intervals are rolled and
compacted.
- The slope on the river side is covered by
boulders to withstand severe flow pressure.

Photo 6.52 Unwinding and Rolling Compaction of the

Embankment Materials (Behsud Bank Protection)1) ：October 13, 2010

(2) Riprap Works of Dike

- Riprap works with two small stages installed
at the top and bottom and both covered in
a thick layer of boulders.
- The riprap works of the bottom stage
protect the foot of dike from erosion. It is
connected to a stone spur dike installed at
certain intervals.

Photo 6.53 Riprap Works on the Riverside Dike Slope

(Behsud Bank Protection)1) ：June 18, 2011

(3) Dike Protection by Vegetation Works

- Wickers and shisham are planted on the
riverside slope to protect the dike from the
flow of water.
- Dense planting of wickers on the bottom
stage protects the dike combining with foot
protection works.

Photo 6.54 Dike Protection by Vegetation Works

(Behsud Bank Protection)1) ：October 24, 2012

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 (4) Construction of the Stone Spur Dike Foundation
- To construct the food protection of the
dike, which comprises the foundation of
the stone spur dike, boulders are deposited
by dump trucks.

Photo 6.55 Construction of the Stone Spur Dike Foundation

(Miran)1) ：October 22, 2014

(5) Inputting Stone Materials to Construct the Stone Spur Dike

- Sufficient amount of stones shall be input
to construct a thick and deep foundation in
the section with the most severe water flow,
such as the external side of curved river.
- To construct a single stone spur dike,
boulders for dozens of trucks are required.

Photo 6.56 Inputting Stone Materials to Construct the Stone Spur

Dike (Hundreds of Meters from the Miran Revetment Starting
Point)1) ：February 12, 2015

(6) Construction of a Group of the Stone Spur Dikes

- Stone spur dikes constructed along with a
dike at certain intervals can effectively
prevent the foot of the dike slope from
being eroded.
- Compaction by construction machinery is
performed from the top of the stone spur
dike after pilling up the boulders to secure
the embedded depth under the riverbed
surface.
- Dump trucks come and go to the top of the
spur dike multiple times during the
construction, which promotes the
compaction of the spur dike.

Photo 6.57 Construction of a Group of the Stone Spur Dikes

(Miran)1) ：January 24, 2015

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 (7) Effects of the Stone Spur Dike
- A semi-overflow and non-transparent type
Kama bridge of the stone spur dike is effective for
keeping severe river flow away from the
riverbank.

Photo 6.58 River Flow at Installation Section of Stone Spur Dikes at the
Curved Part Where Erosion is Most Intense (Miran)1) ：April 20, 2015

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 CHAPTER

7
HOW SHOULD OPERATION AND
MAINTENANCE OF PMS METHOD IRRIGATION
FACILITIES BE IMPLEMENTED?
How are Proper Operation and Maintenance of PMS Irrigation Facilities achieved?
The existing PMS irrigation facilities constructed under the leadership of Dr. Tetsu Nakamura materialized
through trial and error, based on 20 years of experience in irrigation projects, and they demonstrated to be
suitable for Afghanistan as completed irrigation facilities.
However, in situations where information and data related to river floods and droughts are limited and
where projects are carried out based on short-term on-site observations and measurements, continuous
inspection after construction is extremely important. For example, after floods, irrigation facilities should
be carefully inspected and all possible damages repaired. Water distribution should be reviewed in the event
of unexpected drought, and distribution facilities should be restored accordingly. In other words, after
the construction of irrigation facilities, the residents themselves must operate and maintain the irrigation
facilities. It is important to maintain and improve irrigation facilities by the local community. It is important
to contribute and cooperate to improve and continue sustainable and beneficial irrigated agriculture
according to the local situation, after the PMS irrigation facilities are constructed. By maintaining fair and
proper water distribution and through continuous inspection and improving of the irrigation facilities, if any
damage or malfunction is detected, the systems can fully and sustainably perform their designed functions.
This chapter describes the operation and maintenance of the PMS irrigation facilities, organization and
institutions for operation and maintenance, operation of irrigation facilities (intake gate operation, water
distribution) and maintenance of irrigation facilities.
In the organization and institutions, firstly the current situation of water management in the area is
comprehended. The types of operation and maintenance works for irrigation facilities are sorted out, and
the roles of beneficiary farmers and project implementation entities/persons (related government agencies)
are clarified, all aiming to reach an agreement. The Chapter also describes ensuring availability of funds for
operation and maintenance. A clear allocation of roles is set. In particular, the residents (beneficiaries) play
an active role in the daily operation and maintenance of irrigation facilities. Maintenance and management
also require large amounts of funds for situations such as large-scale disaster recovery. In such a case, project
implementation entities/persons are responsible for its implementation.
Regarding the operation of irrigation water distribution facilities, the response to normal requirements
and extreme situations, such as floods and droughts, are considered separately, and a fair and proper
method of water distribution is formulated. Water distribution and disaster response are considered in
advance, implemented when the situation requires and continuously improved. It is necessary for the
beneficiary farmers to take the initiative, and for the project implementation entities/persons to respect the
elected consensus building by the beneficiary farmers, and to support their activities for three years after
construction.
Regarding maintenance of irrigation facilities, it is necessary to understand that the existing PMS irrigation
facilities experienced improvements made through repeated trial and error experiments. The kinds of
irrigation facility demolition, changes in river channels, repair/restoration details, etc., are recorded for
future maintenance activities with an aim of improved reconstruction (build back better). In addition to
displaying contents of daily maintenance of irrigation facilities and regular simple repairs, this Chapter also
shows the main types of damages of PMS irrigation facilities experienced so far, and how to deal with them
for large-scale disaster recovery.
The activities are explained further in the following sections.

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 7.1 Establishment of Organizations and Institutions Related to Operation and
Maintenance of Irrigation Facilities
7.1.1 | Basic Concept of Operation and Maintenance of PMS Irrigation Facilities
Irrigation facilities are to be maintained and improved by the local community. The operation and maintenance
of irrigation facilities done by the PMS method irrigation project is basically carried out and sustained by
the beneficiary farmers proactively and in a sustainable manner. This is a very important principle and one
of the keys to the success of the PMS method irrigation project. To this end, the local communities and
beneficiary farmers should be willing to operate and maintain the facilities independently and sustainably,
through awareness that the irrigation facilities are their properties (ownership), and by setting the rules for
gate operation and water distribution by themselves. On the other hand, project implementation entities/
persons are required to respect the will of local communities and the beneficiary farmers. This model is called
Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM), which is a concept which reflects the opinion of farmers - who
are water users - in all aspects of irrigation management, and that the farmers themselves participate in its
implementation. Many countries are implementing this practice. It is highly pliable water management method
for Afghan communities, which have a high awareness of independence.
The PMS method irrigation project is not just the construction of irrigation facilities, but also the
establishment of facility for operation and maintenance and as such, constitutes a regional restoration project.
Therefore, as the complete project period, a minimum of three years of support should be ensured, to build
and strengthen structures which carry out operation and maintenance (such as water users associations and
irrigation associations), to develop the institutions, and to actually operate and maintain the irrigation facilities.
During that time, the project implementation entities/persons should establish an operation and maintenance
organization (such as a water users association and an irrigation association) to develop their capacity while
jointly (with farmers) operating and maintaining them. This means that three years of On the Job Training
should be ensured. After the system is fully operational and maintainable, the irrigation facilities are handed
over to the organization, completing the PMS method irrigation project.
However, it should be noted that not all operation and maintenance can be done by beneficiary farmers and
local communities alone. In a case of a flood, landslide, or drought, resulting damages require large-scale repair
or restoration which cannot be done by the operation/maintenance organization or the local communities.
In this situation, it is essential for the project implementation entities/persons or the Afghan government to
support the local communities, from the perspective of sustainability of the irrigation project. Appropriate
measures such as preparation of contingency budgets need to be taken, in preparation for emergencies like that.

7.1.2 | Understanding of the Current Situation of Organizations that Carry Out Operation and
Maintenance (Community Water Governance)
The organization which will operate and maintain the irrigation facilities is generally the water users
association (WUA) or the irrigation association (IA). If these have not been established, the traditional
organization Shura of villages and districts, or the community development council (CDC) established under
the National Solidarity Program (NSP), should operate and maintain the irrigation facilities together with the
Mirabs (water manager) in some cases. The roles of these organizations and Mirabs are summarized in Table 7.1.

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 Table 7.1 Community Organizations and Roles to Operate and Maintain PMS Irrigation Facilities ２)

Organizations Classifications Roles

Water Users • Consists of various water users who manage water use based on water rights.
Association Legal • Operates and maintains the irrigation canal.
（WUA） • Monitors water distribution based on water rights to prevent water conflicts.
• Consists of persons responsible for managing irrigation water in specific areas. Its
members are landowners (farmers) and manage irrigation water based on the water
Irrigation
rights granted.
Association Legal
• Inspects the irrigation canals and performs maintenance.
（IA）
• Shares information on the use of irrigation canals, and suggests and encourages farmers
on better ways to use irrigation canals.
• Is a village-level council consisting of villagers trusted by the village head (Marek).
Village Shura Traditional
• Resolves internal village issues such as land conflicts and other conflicts.
• Is a district-level council consisting of village heads representing the district.
District Shura Traditional • There is no fixed process for solving the problem, and Shura consults, identifies the
problem and finds a solution.
• Established under the National Solidarity Program (NSP) to support rural development
projects. It implements civil charter projects funded by Ministry of Rural Reconstruction
Community
and Development (MRRD) and the World Bank.
Development Legal
• Members of the council are elected by community voting.
Council (CDC)
• In order to implement projects related to community development, it consults with
governments such as MRRD and obtains funds to implement priority projects.
• Mirab is an individual in charge of operating the gates and responsible for distributing
water. It is an indispensable and venerable profession in traditional Afghan rural areas. In
the eastern part of Afghanistan, it is usually inherited within families. In the north, it is
freely elected among the farmers. The situation differs depending on the area. There ar
the following three.
- Mirabbashi (or Senior Mirab) is responsible for managing the main gates and managing
Mirab the distribution of irrigation water based on water rights. He overseas maintenance of
Traditional
(water manager) major irrigation canals with the help of farmers and settles disputes resulting from illegal
water intakes.
- Mirab operate gates which divert water from major canals to irrigation beneficiary areas,
to control irrigation and settles disputes resulted from illegal water use. Mirab is an
experienced water manager who has often been promoted from Chakbashi to Mirab.
- Chakbashi is the assistant of Mirab in managing water. Usually, Mirab's sons and relatives
serve in this capacity.

In the target area of the PMS method irrigation project, it is necessary to investigate the kinds of organization
shown in Table 7.1, which is responsible for operation and maintenance of the existing irrigation
facilities. Following that, the current situation of operation and maintenance done by the organizations is
comprehended. For example, it should be confirmed whether the organizations responsible for operation
and maintenance of the facilities are based on tradition and customs (such as Shura), whether Hashars
(voluntarily cooperation in agriculture and social services) is carried out in the community, and whether the
farmers work together in harvesting and canal cleaning work. In addition, there may be a possibility that
a legal organization (WUA or IA) is introduced based on the Water Law4) enacted in February 2009 for
operation and maintenance, or a new organization has been formed based on the Water Law revised in Early
2020. Furthermore, it should be investigated whether both of these organizations exist. Therefore, the first step
in forming a sustainable organization is to investigate and clarify the form of organization already in place,
responsible for the operation and maintenance of the irrigation facilities and the actual situation in the project
area.

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 7.1.3 | Understanding of Current Situations of Water Governance in Basins or Regions
In Subsection 7.1.2, the water governance of communities related to the operation and maintenance of
irrigation facilities has been explained. In this Subsection 7.1.3, the water governance of the basins or regions is
explained. The public institutions involved in water governance in Afghanistan are shown in Table 7.2. Those
are NWARA, MAIL and MRRD in central and regional offices and the River Basin authorities. They together
with the PMS method irrigation project must be closely associated and in cooperation for the organization of
the irrigation facility operation and maintenance.
Relationship between various organizations involved in the operation and maintenance of irrigation facilities
and organizations related to water governance in basins or regions is shown in Figure 7.1. In the PMS method
irrigation project, the involvement of such water governance in the irrigation beneficiary area is first clarified,
and the water governance mechanism shown in Figure 7.1 is established. In Afghanistan today, official
organizations by the government and customary organizations of the local communities are often intricately
related, and other stakeholders are often not negligible. Careful understanding of the situation is essential.

Table 7.2 Official Agencies Involved in Watershed or Local Water Governance ２)

Organizations Roles
NWARA plays a leading role in water resources management. Water resources facilities such as
dams, intake facilities, weirs and large irrigation canals have been developed by NWARA in the
past. Based on the new water law, in addition to the management of water resources facilities
developed by NWARA, the management of facilities developed by other agencies such as small
waterways and riverbank protection works will be gradually taken over by NWARA.
National Water Affairs At the basin level, the River Basin Agency (RBA) and at the sub basin level (corresponding to the
Regulation Authority provincial level), the sub-river basin agency (Sub-RBA) play the role of a subordinate organization
(NWARA) of NWARA.
• Estimates the availability of water resources.
• Allocates water to various sectors.
• Plans, designs, constructs and maintains water resources development facilities, including
irrigation and other water uses.
MAIL is responsible for crops and irrigation water. Irrigation water management is essential for
selecting optimu crops and reducing the impact of droughts and floods on farmers' livelihoods.
Therefore, MAIL was involved in irrigation projects that included the design, operation and
maintenance of a number of irrigation canals.
Ministry of Agriculture, At the provincial level, the District Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock office (DAIL) plays the
Irrigation and Livestock role of a subordinate organization of MAIL.
(MAIL）
• Calculates crop water requirement and advises farmers, based on the availability of water
resources.
• Improves farmers' capacities from the perspective of efficient water use.
• Cooperates with NWARA on the distribution of irrigation water in each river basin.
MRRD was in charge of designing and implementing of development projects such as irrigation
facilities in rural areas based on NSP. However, the new water law requires all ministries to hand
over water resource development projects to NWARA.
Ministry of Rural The Provincial Regional Rehabilitation and Development (PRRDD) at the provincial level, the
Rehabilitation and District Development Council (DDA) at the district level, and the Community Development
Development (MRRD) Council (CDC) at the village level are subordinate organizations of the MRRD.
• Monitors the project through the CDC.
• Ensures funds and budgets for rural development and coordinates with NWARA on irrigation
development and riverbank protection for small projects.
River Basin Council Composed of various water users, including government and non-governmental stakeholders, and
(RBC) advises on water allocation implementation, national water strategy, and conflict resolution.
Established under the RBC to advise on water allocation, national water strategy and conflict
Sub River Basin Council resolution.
(SRBC) Its responsibilities are similar to RBC, but limited to matters related to each sub-basin.

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 User association Government Council/Shura

Official
MRRD
DDA/CDC
PRRDD/DDA
Small scale
community
MAIL level irrigation
license /
WUA or IA Dispute resolution DAIL Water rights projects
(Farmers) (Official) monitoring /
advice
NWARA
RBA/subRBA RBC/subRBC
register
manage (Under
water, etc. payroll NWARA establishment)
RBA/subRBA

Mirab (bashi)/
Traditional Chakbashi
Shura for
Dispute resolution district/village
(Traditional)

Figure 7.1 Water Governance in Basin or Region ２)

7.1.4 | Formation and Strengthening of Organizations that Implement Operation and

Maintenance
The organization responsible for the operation and maintenance of PMS irrigation facilities is formed, by
taking into account the current situation of the communities, the basin and the regional water governance. In
principle, the responsible organization is the water users association (WUA) or the irrigation association (IA).
Depending on the situation of water governance in the community, Shura and CDC may be responsible for
operation and maintenance in consultation with the local communities. In practice, they will refer to WUA or
IA for convenience.
The general organizational structure of a WUA or IA is shown in Figure 7.2. In principle, the WUA or IA is
established on an irrigation canal basis, not on a village basis. In the case of irrigation canals which pass through
multiple villages, it is anticipated that it is difficult to form a union of villages, so strong leadership of the local
communities and persistent discussions are required. In the discussions, the project implementation entities/
persons must respect the independence and project ownership by the communities. In small scale irrigation
projects, one WUA or IA is formed, but in large-scale irrigation projects, one IA is formed for each branch
irrigation canal, and a WUA for the main irrigation canal which integrates these associations are formed. WUA
or IA is, in principle, composed of leaders, sub-leaders, accounting and members. In areas where there is a Mirab
system, Mirabs operate the gates and manage water on a daily basis, but in areas where there is no Mirab system,
it is necessary to hire a water manager and to implement capacity development.
In establishing the organization, legal procedures are carried out, such as setting of water rights for irrigation
water and registering to WUA or IA in NWARA. The policy on the WUA or IA is discussed, and the
responsibility and role of the organization, dispute resolution, consensus building, etc., need to be codified.
In addition, in order to strengthen the organization which implements operation and maintenance, it is an
effective approach to utilize local festivals such as harvest festivals, to strengthen unity and encourage active

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 participation in operation and maintenance activities by incorporating regular dredging as an event.

WUA Leader ＩＡ General Assembly

(Farmers)

Subleader Accounting Leader Accounting

Other
Mirab Farmers members Mirab Chakbashi

Figure 7.2 Formation of WUA or IA 2）

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 Text Block 7-1: What to Do When There Is No Mirab System or WUA or IA

If there is no mirab or if a vulnerable mirab system exists, PMS operates the gate using PMS funds
for five years after the completion of the project, and conducts training on gate operation to the
"gatekeeper" who continues to operate the gates.
In the case of the Marwarid II irrigation canal constructed under the existing PMS irrigation
project, a WUA or IA did not exist, a new WUA has be being established. In terms of the Marwarid
I irrigation canal, although WUA has established, it is not fully functional yet in 2021 because the
irrigation canal passes through multiple villages and the situation is complicated.

Photo: Meeting of Local Residents for Regular Dredging (Marwarid Ⅰ Irrigation Canal) 1)

7.1.5 | Establishment of Institutions, Roles and Responsibilities of Organizations that Carry

Out Operation and Maintenance
The roles and responsibilities of each organization involved in operation and maintenance are shown in Table
7.3. As shown, the allocation of roles and responsibilities of each of the organizations is clearly defined by
documents, and discussions are held among the parties concerned to reach a consensus. The operation and
maintenance of irrigation facilities are roughly categorized into the following three types:
• Operation of irrigation facilities- intake gate operation and water distribution (water users expense): A
fair and appropriate distribution of irrigation water is performed in the operation of intake gates and in
adjusting the water volume of the main irrigation canals with measuring intake water level and intake water
volume. The daily operations are carried out by the Mirab or the water manager, and compensation is paid
by the association. The dues are collected by the WUA or IA from the beneficiary farmers.
• Maintenance of irrigation facilities (water users expense): Simple maintenance which can be handled
by beneficiary farmers, using basic civil engineering techniques is performed daily, such as inspection of
irrigation facilities, and cleaning/dredging / repair of canals. These tasks are carried out by the WUA or IA
and its member beneficiary farmers. The materials and equipment required for inspection, cleaning, and
repair are covered by the WUA or IA dues collected from the beneficiary farmers, and on site unpaid work is
done by the beneficiary farmers, in principle.

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 • Large-scale repair/restoration of irrigation facilities (project implementation entities/persons or
government s expense): Large-scale repair and restoration of irrigation facilities damaged by floods are
performed. This corresponds to dealing with partial damage of an oblique weir and change in sandbars,
caused by floods, with boulders. Large-scale repairs and restoration usually require a large amount of
money, and it is difficult for water users to cover the full cost. Therefore, in principle, this cost is borne
by the project implementation entities/persons or the government. The WUA or IA and the beneficiary
farmers participate with labor input in large-scale repair and restoration work, using basic civil engineering
techniques.

Table 7.3 Roles and Responsibilities of Organizations in the Operation and Maintenance of Irrigation Facilities 2）

Project implementation
Operation and WUA or IA by Mirab
entities/persons or
Maintenance Work Beneficiary Farmers (water manager)
Government
Operation of Irrigation Facilities - Intake Gate Operation and Water Distribution (Water Users’ Expense)
Water Allocation Plan • Formulation - • Support
Intake gate operation and • Pay mirabs • Intake gate operation and • Uunderstanding the
equitable water distribution • Proper on-farm water proper water distribution operational situation
management (Chapter 8)
Measuring and monitoring • Measuring the water level
water level and intake amount and intake amount
• Monitoring proper water
distribution
Response to extreme situations • Consensus building on • Implementing water • Joint discussion on
water distribution rules distribution rules during water distribution rules
during drought drought during drought
• Proper on-farm water • Response to floods • Response to floods
management (Chapter 8)
Maintenance of Irrigation Facilities (Water Users’ Expense)
Maintenance Plan • Formulation - • Support
(Irrigation facilities) • Implementation of repair • Inspection/ Observation • Understanding the
• Daily maintenance and work • Daily cleaning situation of
regular simple repairs • Regular cleaning • Regular cleaning maintenance activities
(participation in Hashar) (participation in Hashar) • Observation
(River channels)
• Regular survey
• Understanding rivers and
sandbars situation
Large-Scale Repair of Irrigation Facilities (Project implementation entities/persons’ or Government’s Expense)
(Irrigation facilities) • Ensuring of budget
• Repair of gabion at joint of • Inspection/
the weir Observation
• Repair of the weir and • Understanding of field
downstream erosion situation
• Repair of dike and • Implementing large-
revetment works • Labor Participation in repair work scale repairs,
restorations, and river
(River channels)
construction
• Sandbar protection
• Implementing as a new
• River bank protection
PMS method irrigation
• Excavation and dredging
project if restoration is
for ensuring division of
required
river channel
Note: Shura and RBC arbitrate mainly to resolve water disputes. Shura is customary arbitration, while RBC is arbitration based on the
water law. Shura convenes Hashar.

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 7.1.6 | Ensuring Funds for Operation and Maintenance
(1) Ensuring Funds for Operation and Maintenance by Water Users
Funds are required to establish the WUA or IA and to carry out operation and maintenance as shown in
Table 7.3. In principle, water users bear such operation and maintenance expenses. In other words, the WUA
or IA collects and stores association dues from beneficiary farmers, uses them to purchase materials and
equipment, and pays the compensation to Mirabs.
The cost burden related to operation and maintenance to beneficiary farmers are discussed. The decision
making process is clear and transparent, and the cost collection is fair and appropriate. If there are farmers
who are dissatisfied with the water distribution, it is possible that they will refuse to bear the costs or will not
get involved in operation and maintenance activities. Therefore, it is important to manage water distribution
fairly and appropriately.

Text Block 7-2: Example of Cost Burden of Farmers in the Operation and Maintenance of
Irrigation Facilities of the Existing PMS Irrigation Project

In accordance with the irrigated area, the farmers themselves can pay the cost in cash or in kind
directly to the Mirab as compensation. In the case of the existing PMS irrigated areas at the Kunar
River Basin, farmers give 35 kg/ha of wheat and 17.5 kg/ha of rice, or 35 kg/ha of wheat and 17.5 kg/
ha of maize (corn) to the Mirab per year. According to a survey carried out by JICA in the northern
and north-eastern regions5), the compensation to Mirab is about 1/80 of the beneficiary farmer's
harvest, and the compensation to the Chakbashi, which is responsible for water distribution in a
village, is from 3,000 to 4,000 Afg per month or 400 kg of wheat per year, depending on the region.

(2) Ensuring Funds for Large-Scale Repairs, Restorations and River Construction Work by Project
implementation entities/persons or the Government
The cost for large-scale repair/renovation work on irrigation facilities and the necessary river works are
extremely difficult for beneficiary farmers to bear, so that the project implementation entities/persons or the
government take the responsibility from the viewpoint of enabling sustainability of the irrigation project.
For example, restoration work for large-scale damage to weirs and dikes caused by floods, etc., has to be
dealt with, promptly and necessary to complete the work before next planting season. Therefore, the project
implementation entities/persons or the government must prepare a mechanism to ensure a budget, such as a
contingency budget, that can handle emergency restoration works.

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 7.2 Operation of Irrigation/Water Distribution Facilities (Intake Gates, Sand
Flushing Ditches, Drainage Gates, Transmission Gates and Distribution
Gates)
7.2.1 | Formulation of Water Allocation Plan for Irrigation Beneficiary Areas
The water allocation plan for main irrigation canals is formulated based on the cropping pattern, examined in
Chapter 2, in order to soundly distribute the amount of irrigation water required for each irrigation block and
field in the target irrigation area, with the maximum irrigation water amount as the upper limit. In principle,
the water allocation plan is formulated by the WUA or IA, which is responsible for the operation, maintenance
and consensus building, in consultation with the beneficiary farmers. In addition, the project implementation
entities/persons give suggestions and advice to the WUA or IA, taking into consideration gender issues and fair
water distribution while respecting the customs of the local communities and the intentions of the WUA or IA
and the beneficiary farmers.

7.2.2 | Formulation of Operating Rules of Intake Gates

The amount of water taken from intake gates is estimated by the river water level which overflows the intake
weir and the flush boards. The intake gate may be a double flush board type with two rows of flush boards
installed. The principle of flush board operation in the first row is for the river water to completely overflow the
first row of flush boards, while the flush boards in the second row have the effect of reducing the water pressure
applied to the first row.
Therefore, it is necessary to have the flush boards in the second row at a high position but not too high to avoid
submersion of the first row. There is, however, a risk that the amount of water intake is reduced by hindering the
complete overflow of water. It is necessary to pay attention to this occurrence when operating the flush boards
of the double flush board type intake gate. (See Figure 7.5.)

(1) Relationship between Operation of the First Row Flush Boards and Water Intake Amount
The amount of intake water which will completely overflow the first row flush boards can be calculated by
the following overflow formula:
……………………………………………………………… (7.1) 2), see 6)
Here; Q: overflow (water intake amount); C: overflow coefficient (= 0.35 in case of complete overflow);
B: overflow width; H1 : overflow depth; g: gravitational acceleration (= 9.81m/s2)
By using this overflow formula, the amount of water intake at various overflow depths can be calculated,
and the relationship between the overflow depth and the amount of water intake is as illustrated in
Figure 7.4. From this figure, the overflow depth of the first row of weir plates required to obtain a certain
amount of water intake can be obtained. On the other hand, the height of the first row of flush boards
can be determined by subtracting this overflow water depth of the first row of weir plates from the river
water level that overflows the intake weir when the flush boards is operated.

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 ▽river water level
▽river water level
Intake amount
Intake amount
Q
Q
𝐻1：overflow depth
𝐻1：overflow depth

Figure 7.3 Image of Water Surface during Water Intake at the Double Flush Board Type of
Intake Gate (Complete Overflow) 2)
Relation between Overflow Depth and Intake Amount at Intake
Relation between Overflow Depth and Intake Amount at Intake
Gate (1.5m width x 4 spans)
1.2 Gate (1.5m width x 4 spans)
1.2
: 𝐻1（m）
Depth: 𝐻1（m）

1
1

0.8
0.8
OverflowDepth

0.6
0.6
Overflow

0.4
0.4

0.2
0.2

0
0 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00
0.00 2.00
Intake 4.00 6.00
Amount :Q（㎥/s） 8.00 10.00
Intake Amount :Q（㎥/s）
Figure 7.4 Relationship between Overflow Depth at the First Row of Flush Board and the Water Intake Amount
in the Double Flush Board Type of Intake Gate 2)

Photo 7.1 Double Flush Board Type of Intake Gate. Overflow Water Falls Stepwise. 1)

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 (2) Operation of Second Row Flush Boards
The second row of flush boards is operated to reduce the water pressure applied to the first row and to avoid
submergence, but not to impair the complete overflow at the first row. To determine whether submerged
overflow occurs, the following equation, based on the height of the first row and the height of the second
row is applied. If the water depth from the height of the flush board in the first row at the main irrigation
canal side, H2, is greater than 2/3 of the river side overflow depth, H1, it is judged to be a submerged
overflow.
（H2／H1 ＞2/3）……………………………………… (7.2)６)
Here, Q: overflow (water intake amount); C: overflow coefficient (= 0.91in case of submerged overflow);
B: overflow width; H1: overflow depth at river side; H2: overflow depth from the height of the flush
board in the first row at main irrigation canal side; g: gravitational acceleration (= 9.81m/s2)
With the above equation, the height of the second row of flush boards is determined so that the overflow
in the first row does not become a submerged overflow.

▽River water level

𝐻2：overflow depth from the height
Intake amount of the flush board in the first row
𝐻1：overflow depth Q at main irrigation canal side
at river side

Figure 7.5 Image of Water Surface Shape at the Time of Water Intake at Double Flush Board Type of Intake
Gate (Submerged Overflow) 2)

(3) Understanding the Relationship between Overflow Depth and Water Intake Amount by Water
Supply Test
After the construction of irrigation facilities, a water supply test is conducted to test for possible defects in
the facilities. At that time, the relationship between the overflow depth and the amount of water intake is
measured, and the amount of water intake at various overflow depths throughout the year is also measured.
An example of a water supply test at the Marwarid II Intake Gate (width 1.5m x 4 gates) is shown below (See
page 116 of the Afghan Green Ground Project in detail). The water depth from the base elevation of the
intake gate, D, is measured at a certain river water level. Then, the number of flush boards of the intake gate is
changed one by one, and the changes in the overflow depth and the amount of water intake is measured. The
overflow depth at the top of the flush board decreases by 20 cm each time the flush board is increased one by
one.
In the downstream main irrigation canal, the water depth (irrigation canal cross-sectional area), dn, and
the flow velocity, v, is measured to calculate the water intake amount (dn × w × vn), and the relationship
between the overflow depth and the water intake amount obtained is organized as shown in the following
table. This results in a graph as in Figure 7.4.

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 Table 7.4 Organizing the Results of Overflow Depth and Water Intake Amount 2)

Water Water Canal Flow Intake

Surveying Flush Overflow Surveying Velocity
Depth Depth Width Area Amount
Point Board Depth (m) Point (m/s)
(m) (m) (m) (㎡) (㎥/s)

3 boards
D D -0.6 d1 w v₁ d₁×w d₁×w×v₁
(60㎝)

2 boards Main
D D -0.4 d₂ w v₂ d₂×w d₂×w×v₂
(40㎝) Irrigation
Intake
Canal
Gate
1 board 20∼40m
D D -0.2 d₃ w v₃ d₃×w d₃×w×v₃
(20㎝) point

No board D D d₄ w v₄ d₄×w d₄×w×v₄

Water depth from the base

elevation of the intake gate Overflow depth
D -60cm
20cm
3 stage D 20cm
flush Flush Board
20cm

D -40cm
2 stage D 20cm
flush
Flush Board 20cm

D -20cm
3 stage D
flush

Flush Board 20cm

no flush D D
board

Figure 7.6 Example of Water Supply Test in MarwaridⅡ２), ３)

In principle, the operation of the double flush board type of intake gate is performed using the relationship
between the overflow depth and the measured value of the intake amount. From the graph of overflow depth
and intake amount, the amount of overflow depth that is required for the amount of water to be taken is
confirmed, and the top height of the flush board is determined from the river water level. Then, the required
number of flush boards are installed, so as to have the required top height of the flush board. The height of the
second row of flush board should be carefully checked, so that submerged overflow at the first row does not
occur.

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 7.2.3 | Operation Method of Sand Flushing Ditches, Drainage Gates, Transmission Gates and
Distribution Gates
(1) Operation Method of Sand Flushing Ditches
The flush board of sand flushing ditches is basically always fully open and closed only in the event of extreme
drought.

(2) Operation Method of Drainage Gates

In principle, the gate operation of the drainage gate at the sand basin is as follows:
• The drainage gate is fully closed from December to March (in winter) when the amount of water intake is
low, and is open at all other times. Therefore, the drainage gate is opened and closed twice a year, opened
at the end of the dry season and closed at the end of the flood season. During flood season, when the
sediment concentration in the river water is high, a large amount of sediment is expected to accumulate in
the sand basin, compared to the drought season. Therefore, the drainage gate is always open. The water in
the sand basin is discharged from the bottom of the basin to ensure the flow velocity in the basin of about
2 to 7 cm / s, so that the sediment is evenly deposited in the sand basin.
• The height of the gate opening of the drainage gate is about 30 cm, and drainage is performed from the
bottom of the drainage.
• The water depth in the sand basin is always kept at about 2 m during operation for drainage and sediment
removal.

(3) Operation Method of Transmission Gates and Distribution Gates

The transmission gates and distribution gates are installed in the sand basin. Since there is almost no change
in the water level of the sand basin, in principle the gate flush board is operated about once every few months
according to the amount of irrigation water required for each season. The operation method of this flush
board is the same as that of the intake gate. The relationship between the overflow depth and the water
supply amount is graphed, the overflow depth is determined from the required water supply amount, and the
number of flush boards is determined based on the relationship with the sand basin water level.

7.2.4 | Operation of Intake Gates, Sand Flushing Ditches, Drainage Gates, Transmission Gates
and Distribution Gates
Intake gates, sand flushing ditches, drainage gates, transmission gates and distribution gates are operated in
accordance with the established operating rules and operating method principles. When in operation, the
operational situation such as the number of flush boards installed at each gate, the gate opening, the water
level on the upstream and the downstream sides, and the overflow depth are recorded together with the date
and time. Furthermore, for the intake gate, the river water level (intake level) and the water level in the main
irrigation canal are measured and recorded daily, and the amount of water intake is calculated, in order to
check whether the appropriate amount of water is taken. Changes in the river water level are summarized and
compared to the same period in the past, and used as basic information for proper water intake gate operation
in the future.
In addition, by monitoring results obtained from daily operations, the validity of the operation rules of the
intake gates and the operation principles of the sand flushing ditches, drainage gates, transmission gates and
distribution gates is verified, and the operation rules and operation principles are continuously improved.

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 Intake Gate Sand Flushing Ditch

Transmission
Drainage gate
gate
Rreinforced
dike

Transmission Gate/Drainage Gate Drainage Gate (outflow)

Photo 7.2 Operation of Intake Gate, Sand Flushing Ditch, Drainage Gate,
Transmission Gate and Distribution Gate 1)

7.2.5 | Patrols Related to Water Use

Irrigation facilities are operated to ensure that beneficiary farmers receive the benefits of irrigation water fairly,
but some unruly irrigation and illegal water intake may adversely affect the entire irrigation area. Therefore, the
WUA or IA needs to patrol the irrigation facilities and suppress such inappropriate or illegal activities.
For example, in the existing PMS irrigation project, there are cases where many water wheels are built in
the main irrigation canal without permission, or houses are built protruding into the main irrigation canal.
Regular patrols are necessary to prevent such instances. The frequency of patrols is determined by the scale of
the irrigation facilities, the size of the beneficiary area, and the access to the main irrigation canal. Sometimes
patrols are done every day, and sometimes once every two weeks. In addition, in order to prevent such
inappropriate or illegal activities and achieve proper and fair water distribution and use, the cooperation of
community leaders and organizations in charge of watershed/community water governance is essential.

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 7.2.6 | Response to Extreme Situations such as Droughts and Floods
In order to reduce damage as much as possible in extreme situations such as droughts and floods, it is important
to make preparations in advance, and decide on how to deal with such extreme situations when they occur.
In other words, with the aim of preventing the spread of damage to irrigation facilities and irrigated areas in
extreme situations and recovering quickly, a drought response manual and a flood response manual are both
prepared in advance, and consensus among the parties concerned is built in a participatory manner.
If a drought or flood is expected or occurs, the parties concerned discuss with each other in accordance with
relevant manual and take proactive and post-action measures. In particular, by preparing a drought response
manual in advance, prompt response in the event of drought, and fair and appropriate water distribution can be
performed even under drought conditions.
It is expected that droughts and floods occur frequently in the future as the effects of climate change
become significant. Damage can be significantly reduced by forecasting droughts and floods and taking
countermeasures in advance, by referring to Chapter 3.

(1) Response During Drought

In the event of drought, it is important to distribute the limited available irrigation water fairly to the
beneficiary farmers. The WUA or IA discusses, obtains the consent of members, and prepares a drought
response manual in advance. In addition, it is essential to raise awareness of the necessity of consultations
between stakeholders rather than taking water selfishly, all required to maintain order in the community
during droughts.
In accordance with the drought response manual, the parties concerned work together to ensure fair water
use in all irrigated areas from upstream to downstream. The manual encourages farmers to save water and
strengthens patrols to prevent unauthorized water intake. During droughts, other irrigated farmlands and
water supply facilities that use the same river as the water source are also affected by the drought, so that it is
necessary for the WUA or IA and the water supply companies upstream and downstream of these rivers to
discuss and coordinate matters related to all water intakes.
In the PMS, orderly water supply to villages is made during drought to make sure that water distribution is
fair and to avoid missing planting opportunities while the users are waiting for their turn. In addition, water
saving measures are taken by incorporating irrigation on ridges method.
Since a large amount of water is required for paddy fields, it is also important to distribute water fairly
between the upstream and downstream users of the irrigation canal by rotation, so that abandonment of
paddy fields does not occur during droughts and conflicts do not take place.

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 (2) Response in the Event of Floods
In Afghanistan, it is necessary to pay attention to heavy floods caused by heavy rains during the snowmelt
flood season/monsoon season when the river flow is high. For example, the Kunar River experienced heavy
floods in 2010 and 2013 due to heavy rainfall around July, which is the peak of snowmelt season/monsoon
season. Response to floods at irrigation facilities and irrigation beneficiary areas include proactive measures
to reduce the risk of flood damage, measures during floods, and measures after floods. The WUA or IA
should prepare a flood response manual, which would include the following contents:
• Preparation measures to reduce the risk of flood damage: Since flooding is likely to occur in locations
where floods have occurred in the past (in low-lying areas) land use in those areas is restricted by using
those lands only as cultivated land while strictly prohibiting its residential use. In addition, boulders,
cobblestones, gabions, etc., are stocked up. Measures such as emergency reinforcement and restoration
of irrigation facilities during and after floods are planned, and budget for the restoration of irrigation
facilities damaged by floods is ensured. The condition of rivers, sandbars, and irrigation facilities is
observed since they may show a sign of deterioration, such as the movement of sandbars after small and
medium-sized floods. It is also a good idea to prepare in advance a contact route (telephone contact list)
that promptly informs the local community, Shura and Jirga, and the government of what is happening
locally from Mirabs and local farmers and reports of extreme situations. In addition, when the main
irrigation canal passes through a small basin in a mountainous area, damage caused by flash floods (which
is a sudden flood and debris flows) is also expected. In addition to grasping the risk areas based on damage
records (by interviews to residents), measures against flash floods and debris flows are also taken, such as
extension of the siphon or flood crossing bridge length. The PMS method irrigation facilities also serve as
a disaster prevention measure against unexpected flash floods and debris flows.
• Flood Response: In the event of a floods, Mirab closes the intake gates to prevent flood flow from entering
the main irrigation canal, then, conducts patrols as much as possible paying attention to safety, and
inspects and records the condition of irrigation facilities and rivers/sandbars (erosion status of facilities,
flood levels, river flow conditions, movement of sandbars, etc.). If erosion has occurred, flood control
activities are taken to reduce flood damage, such as placing of boulders and gabions of stored cobblestones
to prevent erosion damage.
• Post-flood response: After flood, the condition of flood damage to irrigation facilities and beneficiary areas
and the situation of river channel changes are checked and recorded. In particular, in the case of a large
flood, it should be ensured that a check of the flood marks and the range of erosion and sedimentation of
river channels has been done. Information gathered is used for repairs and future design of intake weirs/
intake gates and dikes/spur dikes. If large-scale flood damage occurs, the restoration work is carried
out promptly by project implementation entities/persons /government. If the irrigation facilities are
damaged, they should be urgently repaired. If the condition of the river channel or sandbar has changed,
it is verified whether the functions of the irrigation facilities can be fully performed. If not, measures are
taken such as excavating the river channel to restore the function of facilities. If damage occurs to irrigated
farmlands, floodwaters are drained from the fields, and land preparation/restoration of the fields is carried
out.

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 7.3 Maintenance of Irrigation Facilities
7.3.1 | Formulation of Maintenance Plan
In the PMS method irrigation project, concrete structures are avoided as much as possible and natural materials
such as stones and vegetation are heavily used. Therefore, the maintenance of irrigation facilities by local
residents is possible and sufficient. On the other hand, because the irrigation facilities consist of structures
which make the best use of natural materials, it is expected that they will be slightly damaged, so that the PMS
method irrigation project is very focused on maintenance activities. In other words, as with any irrigation
facility, irrigation facilities in river channels and along rivers may be eroded by floods, etc., and the stones and
gabions may move or be damaged; therefore, functional maintenance of irrigation facilities is essential through
continuous maintenance work. In addition, it is necessary to regularly carry out the management of the removal
of sediment inflow and undertake the dredging works on canals.
In the PMS method irrigation project, a maintenance plan for irrigation facilities is formulated at early
stages of project conception. As described in Subsection 7.1.1, the PMS method irrigation project considers
integration of the construction and maintenance of irrigation facilities. For at least three years after the
completion of construction, operation and maintenance of irrigation facility projects are carried out by project
implementation entities /persons or the goverment with the WUA or IA and the beneficiary farmers, and
capacity development is organized to manage water distribution, sediment management and facility repairs by
on-the-job training. In addition to implementing such activities, the WUA or IA and the beneficiary farmers
are encouraged to formulate specific operation and maintenance plans, and the project implementation
entities/persons support them.
The points to keep in mind when formulating a maintenance plan for irrigation facilities are as follows:
• Irrigation facilities are inspected as often as possible, for detecting defects and meteorological conditions
such as temperature and rainfall, river water level and water intake are measured regularly, daily as possible.
As a result, it is possible to take immediate action when a defect occurs.
• Regular cross-section river surveys and surveys after major flood damages to understand changes in the
irrigation facilities and changes of the river channels are carried out. Notably, in the PMS method irrigation
project, the stability of river channels and sandbars are very important, and changes in them need to be fully
comprehended.
• Detection of defects in irrigation facilities at an early stage are followed through the above-described daily
inspections and regular surveys, and small-scale repairs are repeated throughout lifespan of the irrigation
facilities.
• The design drawings and as-built drawings of the irrigation facilities are kept by the project implementation
entity and the WUA or IA. The changed situation of the structures are followed by comparing these
drawings with the current situation.
• It is compulsory to record and store maintenance activities with photos which show the situation before and
after repairs.
• Knowledge and experience gained through maintenance activities such as continuous inspections and
facility repairs are stored, analyzed and evaluated to gather lessons learned. The maintenance plan and
activities are continuously improved by running the PDCA cycle (Plan, Do, Check, Action).

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 7.3.2 | Examples of Daily Maintenance Activities and Regular Simple Repairs
Daily maintenance activities include the following activities:
• Routine inspection and cleaning of irrigation facilities such as intake gates and irrigation and drainage
canals.
• Management of vegetation and vegetation works in and around irrigation and drainage canals.

Inspection of Intake Gate Mowing of Grass on the Waterside

Photo 7.3 Examples of Daily Maintenance Activities 1)

Simple repairs include the following works:

• Repair of gabion, vegetation, masonry and soil cement in irrigation and drainage canals.
• Repair and rust proofing of flush boards and charha (Afghan winder) at intake gates and transmission gates.
• Dredging and lining repairs for irrigation and drainage canals and sand basins. (See Chapter 4 for dredging
frequency)
If failure or small-scale destruction, which requires urgent repair, is found in the irrigation facilities through
daily inspections and regular surveys, immediate action is taken. If it does not require urgency, repair works are
taken at the time of regular simple maintenance repairs. For repairs, the PMS basic civil engineering techniques
learned by the WUA or IA and the beneficiary farmers are utilized.
It is also important to call Hashar (volunteer activities) to carry out daily maintenance activities and regular
simple repairs involving local people and leaders. By doing so, it is expected that the local people understand
that the PMS method irrigation facilities are important in their area and can be maintained soundly by
implementing regular maintenance. It is, therefore, expected that the ownership of the project area is
augmented.
Once the irrigation facility is constructed, that's not the end. Irrigation facilities are to be maintained and
improved by the local community throughout their lifespan. Therefore, maintenance by the local people is
required based on detailed observations when the water level rises, and when it rains heavily, as well as when
there is a drought. It is important for people to have an awareness that "we are the ones who maintain and
improve our irrigation facilities". To leave it to the government and project implementation entities/persons,
should be avoided.

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 Lining Situation in an Irrigation Canal Dredging Situation
Photo 7.4 Examples of Regular Simple Repair 1)

7.4 Large-Scale Repair and Restoration of Irrigation Facilities - Typical

Destruction Patterns and Countermeasures

Large-scale repairs and structures restorations are technically and financially difficult for the WUA or IA.
Examples of such works are repairs of scouring weir abutment, foot protection works of dikes, dike bodies
and revetment works, as well as protecting and stabilizing sandbars and securing river channel streamway
(See Table 7.3). In principle, large-scale repairs and restorations are carried out at the expense of the project
implementation entities/persons or the government, and beneficiary farmers utilize their PMS basic civil
engineering techniques to devote their labor to the repairs and restoration works.
Post-flood facility inspections are extremely important since damages to irrigation facilities that require large-
scale repair and restoration are mainly caused by floods, larger than expected. By referring to the report of Dr.
Tetsu Nakamura1), examples of typical destruction types which require large-scale repairs and restorations in
PMS method irrigation facilities and countermeasures are as shown in the photos below.
The existing PMS irrigation facilities have been repeatedly damaged and improved, through trial and error.
Finally, they have reached the present shape. While understanding these past experiences, the destruction form
of irrigation facilities, the changed situations of river channels, and the contents of repairs and restorations have
been organized and recorded. Based on the concept of better reconstruction (build back better), the records
are utilized for maintenance activities. In addition, it has become standard practice to stockpile construction
materials such as stones and gabions in the vicinity of the facilities for future emergency response.

Photo 7.5 Stockpile of Stone 1)

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 (1) Washout of Sandbar at Intake Weir Abutment
When protection of the intake weir abutment was insufficient and the sandbar of abutment was washed out,
the wing part was reinforced with boulders and cobblestones. The changes in the sandbar before and after
the flood and the scouring destruction around the structure have been observed, and the scouring damage
has been repaired.

intake gate
KamaⅠweir (joint of old sandbar)

scoured
sandbar
torrential flow
generated by scouring

Photo 7.6 Scouring of Sandbar due to Floods1) Photo 7.7 Restoration of Sandbar by Gabion Works 1)

(2) Scouring at the Downstream Part of Intake Weir and at the End of Sand Flushing Ditch
Due to the movement and scouring of boulders by flood flow, additional boulders were put into the
scouring section. In the boulders /oblique weir, steps are made from the top of the weir to the apron where
measures are taken to reduce the water force (raise the front edge of the weir). If the boulders are washed out
due to occurrence of strong current and riverbed scour at the downstream part of the weir and the end of the
sand flushing ditch, it is necessary to reinforce them by replenishing the boulders.

Projected flow

Photo 7.8 Ingenuity to Reduce the Warter Force Photo 7.9 Repair Work of Riverbed Scouring due
1)
from the Top of the Weir to Torrents at the Ends of Apron and Sand Flushing
Ditch 1)

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 (3) Erosion of Riverbank around the Weir
Insufficient foot protection works caused riverbank erosion due to flood flow. Therefore, spur dikes were
installed to direct the flood flow toward the center of the river channel. The erosion of the riverbank due to
flood flow is observed. If necessary, spur dikes are constructed or stones are added to the existing spur dikes
to reinforce them.

Photo 7.10 Riverbank Erosion Due to Flood Flow 1) Photo 7.11 Reinforcement of Riverbanks and
Correction of Streamway by Installing Spur Dikes 1)

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 Text Block 7-3: Case of Emergency Response Actually Performed by PMS
(From a Report of Dr. Nakamura) 1)

Due to the flood in June 2013, the bank protection collapsed over 140m in the Behsud area on the
opposite bank of the Kama I weir. Since the material of the lower part of the dike on the back of the
root consolidation was weak, it collapsed due to the flow generated on the back side of the stone of
the root consolidation. The depth of scouring was 3-5 m. For the repair, the amount of boulder was
carried by 560 dump trucks.

Kama Bridge Behsud area Kama Bridge

scouring and
collapsed line

In the floods of July 2015, in the Miran area, PMS worked all night to stop erosion and raise it.
Where the "buried spur dikes" were effective, no erosion was observed. The residents were panicking
due to anxiety of overflowing. The dike raising work of about 60 to 80 cm was carried out, and the
atmosphere calmed down.
When responding to a disaster, it is highly appreciated that the situation where staffs take the
initiative in patrols and ideas, and work despite holidays. With this, the technology will be obtained
later, even if it is a little wrong.

Immediately before the emergency work, a part of the Prevention work of erosion by boulders was carried
top of the dike was Flooded. The work was carried out throughout the night. Currently, the entire top of
out desperately. July 17, 2015 7:30 pm the dike is being raised. July 20, 2015

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 (4) Damages to Water Intake Due to Changes in Mainstream of Rivers and Changes in River Channels
such as Sediment Deposition
The mainstream of the river and the sandbar have been observed, and excavation and dredging have been
carried out to direct the mainstream of the river to the intake gate even during drought, for guiding the
mainstream and for maintaining the sandbar. If it becomes impossible to convey water to the intake due
to sediment deposition, the river flow should be guided to the intake by excavating or dredging the river
channel or sandbar.
In the case of the existing PMS irrigation project, as shown in the figure below, the boulders oblique weir
is installed at the curved part of the river channel to reduce sediment deposition. By frequent floods due to
torrential rains, sandbars or mainstreams changed and moved the sediment deposition in front of the Miran
Weir Intake. Thereafter, river channel excavation and dredging were carried out to convey the river water to
the intake.

sandbar
Weir with boulders
Outline of Construction of Miran Weir Embedded area of gabion
(October 20 I5- March 20 I6) or boulders
River excavauon area
Sediment dredging
sandbar Sand flushing ditch
spill way
Front of sandbar line
river
excavation
sandbar

sandbar

Miran intake
sediment dredging

Figure 7.7 Sedimentation at Miran Weir 1)

River
channel(2)

River
channel(1)

1)
Photo 7.12 River Channel Excavation and Sediment Dredging at Miran Weir

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 (5) Destruction and Sediment Deposition at Main Irrigation Canal Due to Flash Floods and Debris
Flows
Flash floods and debris flows in rivers and wadi (dried-up river) which cross the main irrigation canal cause
destruction of the revetment and also cause excess inflow of sediment. Thereafter, emergency response,
regular revetment repairs, and dredging of inflowing sediment are required. For sections where flash floods
and debris flows frequently occur, measures such as siphoning a part of the main irrigation canal are taken.
Depending on the widths of flash floods and debris flows, revisions of the width of the siphon section or
the flood passage bridges are made. Revisions are implemented at the section where the training dikes are
installed in order to prevent the inflow of sediment into the main irrigation canal. In the case of the existing
PMS irrigation project, as shown in the figure below, a flash flood and a debris flow destroyed a part of the
main irrigation canal, and sediment was deposited. Thereafter, the sediment was dredged, and the flood
crossing bridge was extended.

Photo 7.13 Destruction of Main Irrigation Canal Due Photo 7.14 Damage Caused by a Flush Flood and a
1)
to a Flush Flood and a Debris Flow Debris Flow 1)

1)
Photo 7.15 Extention Work of the Above Flood Passing Bridge (Left) and After Completion (Right)

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 Text Block 7-4: Damage Caused by Flush Floods and Debris Flows and
Examples of Countermeasures 1)

In the night from July 31st to August 1st, 2020, there was a local heavy rainfall in the mountainous
area of the Laghman Province, which is adjacent to the Nangarhar Province, and flash floods and
debris flows flowed into the valley of the Marwarid irrigation canal. Resident properties and fields in
the valley were damaged. The irrigation canal with a total length of about 1.8 km and two siphons
of 30 m and 40 m length were completely filled with boulders and debris. The PMS started the
survey on August 2. Since it is the time when water is needed for rice and maize, restoration work
was carried out immediately, with the aim of resuming water supply as soon as possible. Water supply
was resumed on the 10th. The restoration work even during holidays encouraged the villagers who
were disappointed by the loss of their houses and fields. One of the reasons why PMS was able to
start water supply at an early stage is that the roles of gabion and willow branch on both walls of the
irrigation canal were firm. When the sediment was scraped out from the buried irrigation canal, both
walls of the irrigation canal were not damaged much and firmly formed the body of the irrigation
canal. In addition, no one had lived at the time of construction in the area which became the flood
way. However, as the fields had expanded, people gradually had begun to live. As a result, they were
damaged during the flood. Therefore, it is necessary to promise with a region that they will not live on
the flood way.

Photo Extended Flood Crossing Bridge 1)

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 CHAPTER

8
HOW SHOULD AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION
TECHNOLOGY BE IMPROVED?

To achieve more productive agriculture,

how to improve irrigated agricultural technology?
PMS has faced many issues on crop cultivation since the project started. In this chapter, the main issues
related to irrigated agriculture occurred in the PMS irrigation project area and useful technologies to
improve them are summarized. Similar issues may occur in future projects. At that time, it is hoped that
these technologies will be applied to achieve the target at an early stage.

In this Chapter, the establishment of demonstration farm for technical extension, water management
technology, cultivation technology, and soil improvement technology are described.

A demonstration farm for technical extension is established for the purpose of efficient disseminating of
cultivation technologies in irrigated agriculture, and the outputs of the PMS method irrigation project are
ensured for agricultural workers who have little experience in crop cultivation.

In terms of the water management technology, proper water use in irrigated fields is an important issue
to prevent waterlogged damages and improve crop productivity. If proper water use is known, fair water
distribution based on it is possible, and it contributes to water saving. The useful technologies for that are
explained for agricultural workers who have little experience in crop cultivation.

In terms of the cultivation technology, the effective technologies which solve the problems of cultivation
and enable sustainable crop farming are compiled. In particular, crop rotation, shading culture, alley
cropping, sowing technology, nursery production, etc. are effective cultivation technologies which have been
demonstrated in the PMS demonstration farms and can be carried out using local materials.
In terms of the soil improvement technology, the countermeasures for maintaining crop productivity of
farmland are soil improvement technology, soil analysis for appropriate soil management, and improving soil
fertility with leguminous crops cultivation, etc.

The above is explained further in the following sections.

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 8.1 Establishment of Demonstration Farm for Technical Extension

The migrants and repatriated refugees in the existing PMS irrigation project areas are farmers with little
cultivation experience, and their productivity is relatively low. To improve the existing situation, it is essential
to extend cultivation techniques. Although there are currently agricultural extension workers, there is a lack of
facilities that can effectively disseminate the technology. Therefore, the purpose is to establish a demonstration
farm and efficiently extend cultivation technology.

(1) Issue
A rural social survey conducted in 2018 to evaluate PMS irrigation projects showed low crop productivity
on irrigated farmland. The main cause is improper irrigation methods. MAIL has several extension workers
in each county, but at present there is insufficient technical extension services to the villages, and farmers
have very few opportunities to learn crop cultivation techniques. Therefore, a major problem to be solved
in irrigation projects is low yield of crops due to lack of experience of farmers, and it is a problem to extend
irrigation farming technology suitable for the area and extend it to farmers.

(2) Countermeasure
In order to improve the lack of experience of farmers, it is recommend to establish demonstration farm
by irrigation project area for technical extension. The demonstration farm will be established mainly by
the DAIL, WUA and IA during the project period and after the project period, WUA or IA will play a
central role in operating the farm independently, and DAIL will play a main role in technical extension.
Coordinate with related organizations to contribute to the agricultural research center for extension. It will
be established in a place where the target farmers can easily visit and will be the center of technical extension.
The main contents of the exhibition technology are as follows:
• Water-saving technology by appropriate irrigation methods.
• Prevention of soil degradation and pest control by crop rotation.
• Pest control by mixed cropping.
• Vegetable cultivation in summer by shading.
• Maintaining soil fertility by mixed cropping with legumes.

8.2 On-Farm Water Management

Proper water use in irrigated fields is an important issue to prevent waterlogged damage and improve crop
productivity. In addition, if proper water use is clarified, fair water distribution based on it is possible. This
section describes methods of water distribution based on the amount of water required for each crop and the
appropriate water management of irrigated fields to ensure fair and proper water use.

8.2.1 | Irrigation Water Distribution Method

The allocation method of irrigation water is decided by the WUA or IA in consultation with the beneficiary
farmers. As shown in Figure 8.1, there are basically two methods of irrigation water distribution in Afghanistan:
(1) water distribution by flow rate, and (2) water distribution by time. In either method, it is ideal that the
required amount of water is distributed monthly for each growth stage and the water is supplied within the
irrigation interval of crops so that unfairness does not occur. Basically, water is distributed equally according
to the irrigated area, but in villages and communities with common culture and social customs, water may be
distributed to them together as one block.

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 Q diversion work canal Q diversion work canal

Q
Q/3 Q/3 Q/3
Day1
Block 1 Block 2 Block 3
Block 1 Block 2 Block 3

Day2

Q
Day3

Adjust the opening of the diversion work and distribute the Fully open and close the diversion work, and allocate the required
required amount to each block in the field amount to each block in the field at a fixed time.
1) Water distribution by flow rate 2) Water distribution by time
Figure 8.1 Irrigation Water Distribution Method 2)

If a large amount of water is taken in the upstream block of the irrigation canal, water may become insufficient
in the downstream block. This tendency becomes stronger especially during droughts. To prevent such
unfair distribution of water, a fixed amount of water intake or water intake time is ensured with mutual the
understanding and respect of farmers concerned. In addition, it is necessary to promote the effective use
of water (reduction of invalid water intake, effective use of rainfall, etc.) and the rationalization of water
distribution (appropriate response to fluctuations in water demand, stable water distribution throughout the
irrigation period, etc.).
A major issue in the irrigation water distribution is the use of large amounts of water by paddy rice cultivation as
explained in Subsection 8.3.5.

8.2.2 | Types of Irrigation Method in the Field

Irrigation methods are generally classified into three types: surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, and drip
irrigation. Surface irrigation is further subdivided into four methods: flood irrigation, furrow irrigation, border
irrigation, and basin irrigation. In Afghanistan, the three irrigation methods other than the basin irrigation are
common. Since each irrigation method has advantages and disadvantages, the appropriate irrigation method is
selected by referring to the cases in the target area. The characteristics of the irrigation method in the plot are as
shown in Table 8.1.

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 Table 8.1 Characteristics of Irrigation Method in a Plot 2)

Irrigation Methods Outline Topographic Conditions

A type of storage irrigation that

Flood Irrigation Flat farmland that enables even
creates ridges around the rice fields
(paddy rice) water distribution
and floods them with water.

Furrow Irrigation Surface irrigation method that

(maize, onions, replenishes crops by running water Farmland on gentle slopes
watermelons, tomatoes) between ridges in the field
Surface Irrigation

Surface irrigation method in which

Border Irrigation a laminar flow overflows the entire
Farmland on gentle slopes
(wheat） surface into a strip-shaped section
separated by low ridges

Basin Irrigation Small-scale flood irrigation in flat

Relatively flat farmland
(paddy rice, wheat) subdivisions surrounded by ridges
Spray Irrigation

An irrigation method in which

high
Sprinkler Irrigation It is not easily affected by the
pressure is applied to water to
(onion, watermelon, maize) topography of farmland.
make it into droplets and sprayed
from a nozzle.
Micro-Irrigation

An irrigation method that guides

Drip Irrigation water to a perforated tube and It is not easily affected by the
(onion, maize, tomato） supplies water directly to the soil topography of farmland.
surface and root zone.

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 Advantages Disadvantages Photos

･ Facilities that can supply

sufficient water are
･ Low installation and indispensable
maintenance costs ･ Salt accumulation is likely to
･ Soil temperature control, pests, occur near the soil surface
weeds, and lodging can be ･ Large evaporation from the field
protected. surface
･ Percolation loss is likely to occur

･ Difficult to supply uniform

･ Low installation and
water to the root zone
maintenance costs
･ Large amount of loss since
･ A wide range of crop irrigation
percolation water is likely to
is possible
occur

･ It is difficult to control
percolation loss and runoff loss,
･ High labor saving
so it is important to set the
section length.

･ High irrigation efficiency when ･ Large evaporation from the

properly managed field surface
･ Applicable to citrus fruits ･ Percolation loss is likely to
grown in parallel occur

･ High labor saving ･ Installation and maintenance

･ Land preparation costs can be costs are both expensive
reduced ･ Pumping is required

･ Minimize water and fertilizer

consumption ･ Installation and maintenance
･ It is also possible to mix liquid costs are both expensive
fertilizer to enhance the ･ Clogs are likely to occur
fertilizing effect.

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 8.2.3 | Flood Irrigation, Furrow Irrigation and Border Irrigation Technology
(1) Flood Irrigation
The shape and area of the flood irrigated land is determined by the slope of the land, soil texture, amount of
water conducted from the water source, irrigation depth and agricultural practices. The outline procedure
for constructions in a flood irrigated land is as shown in Figure 8.2.
The most important thing in the maintenance of flood irrigation is to keep the soil surface horizontal. If
the soil surface is not horizontal, there is insufficient flooding and weeds grow. If there are local depressions,
the seedlings are submerged and die. Therefore, leveling is carried out during the off season. In addition, the
ridge is gradually eroded by precipitation and the passage of people. Small animals such as mice may also dig
holes on the ridge. Therefore, the condition of the ridge is checked regularly. If erosion is found, it is repaired
promptly.

１ ) Irrigation Site Setting ２）Formation of Ridges ３）Leveling the Soil Surface of Each
Figure 8.2 Flood Irrigation Construction Procedure (Outline) 2), see 3)

(2) Furrow Irrigation

Field conditions of furrow irrigation are as shown in Figure 8.3. Furrows are small canals for watering crops
and are constructed in parallel with each other. Crops are usually cultivated on ridges. Furrow irrigation is
applied to fields on flat or gentle slopes. The slope of ridges is kept below 0.5% to prevent soil erosion due to
running water. Also, taking into account the net irrigation depth (d net), the slope of ridges, the maximum
flow rate between ridges, and the maximum length of ridges are determined with reference to Figure 8.3.
Here, the net irrigation depth is the irrigation depth determined by the growth pattern of crop roots and soil
texture in order to supply irrigation water to the crops, and is outlined in Figure 8.4.
Regular maintenance is required to keep the ridges in proper condition to make sure that the irrigation
water reaches the downstream ends of all ridges and that there are no dry or stagnant areas. In addition, it is
important to remove weeds in the plot as much as possible so that they will not obstruct the running water
or drainage.

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 Maximum flow rate, maximum length of ridges and
Clay soil Loam soil Sand soil
slope elevation difference corresponding to net irrigation depth
Soil texture: Example of loam soil (m) (㎝) (m) (㎝) (m) (㎝)

Net irrigation depth: 5.0cm

ridge a:100 b:- a:60 b:- a:30 b:-
furrow
0.0% Maximum length of ridge to be createda : 60m

Net irrigation depth: 7.5cm Maximum Flow Rate：3.0ℓ

ridge
furrow a:150 b:- a:90 b:- a:60 b:-
Maximum length of ridge to be createda : 90m

純灌漑深度 : 5.0cm
Net irrigation depth: 5.0cm
a:120 b:1.2 a:90 b:0.9 a:45 b:0.45
Elevation
differen: : 0.9cm Maximum length of ridge to be createda : : 90m

0.1% Net irrigation depth: 7.5cm Maximum Flow Rate：3.0ℓ

Elevation
difference：1.25ｍ
Maximum length of ridge to be createda : 125m
a:170 b:1.7 a:125 b:1.25 a:60 b:0.6

純灌漑深度 : 5.0cm
Net irrigation depth: 5.0cm
a:130 b:2.6 a:110 b:2.2 a:60 b:1.2
Elevation
differen: : 2.2cm Maximum length of ridge to be createda : 110m
0.2% Net irrigation depth: 7.5cm Maximum Flow Rate：2.5ℓ

Elevation
difference : 3.0cm a:180 b:3.6 a:150 b:3.0 a:95 b:1.9
Maximum length of ridge to be createda : 150m

純灌漑深度 : 5.0cm
Net irrigation depth: 5.0cm
a:150 b:4.5 a:130 b:3.9 a:75 b:2.25
Elevation
differen: : 3.9cm Maximum length of ridge to be created : 130m
0.3% Net irrigation depth: 7.5cm Maximum Flow Rate：2.0ℓ

Elevation a:200 b:6.0 a:170 b:5.1 a:110 b:3.3

difference : 5.1cm Maximum length of ridge to be createda: 170m

純灌漑深度 : 5.0cm
Net irrigation depth: 5.0cm
a:150 b:7.5 a:130 b:6.5 a:75 b:3.75
Elevation
differen: 6.5cm
Maximum length of ridge to be created : 130m
0.5% Net irrigation depth: 7.5cm Maximum Flow Rate：1.2ℓ

Elevation a:200 b:10.0 a:170 b:8.5 a:110 b:5.5

difference : 8.5cm Maximum length of ridge to be createda: 170m

Note: The soil texture of Afghanistan is generally loam or sandy loam.

Figure 8.3 Ridge Slope, Maximum Flow Rate and Maximum Length Corresponding to Field Texture
and Net Irrigation Depth 2), see 3)

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 shallow-rooted crop moderate-rooted crop deep-rooted crop
Soil texture (Clay content) (onion) (tomato, watermelon) (gramineous crop)

Sandy soils : Less than 12.5%

Net irrigation
depth 4.0cm
Net irrigation Net irrigation
depth 1.5cm depth 3.0cm

Loamy soils: 25~37.596

Net irrigation
depth 6.0cm
Net irrigation Net irrigation
depth 2.0cm depth 4.0cm

Clayey soils：50% or more

Net irrigation
depth 7.0cm
Net irrigation Net irrigation
depth 3.0cm depth 5.0cm

Figure 8.4 Net Irrigation Depth 2), see 3)

(3) Border Irrigation

Border irrigation is generally designed as a long, continuous field for easy operation of agricultural
machinery and is therefore unsuitable for small farms that are primarily manpowered or livestock cultivated.
It is desirable that the slope of the border is uniform, the minimum slope for proper water distribution is
0.05%, and the maximum slope for controlling soil erosion is 2%3). For border irrigation, homogeneous
loam or clay with moderate percolation rate is suitable.
In the maintenance of border irrigation, it is essential to maintain a uniform slope, and not only weeding at
the ridges and drains, but also physical damage on the ridges is repaired promptly.

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 Figure 8.5 Border Irrigation 2), see 3)

8.2.4 | New Irrigation Method Suitable for Afghanistan (Irrigation on Ridges)

In addition to the general irrigation methods shown in Subsections 8.2.2 and 8.2.3, irrigation methods that
make wide ridges and supply water to the center of ridges have been successful in the existing PMS irrigation
project areas recently. It is expected that the technology will be extended. This irrigation method has a high
water saving effect because it irrigates only near the crop roots. In addition, since only the top of the ridge is
irrigated, the roots can grow healthily due to the improved drainage conditions.

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 Iriigated Place
(10-20㎝）

Width of ridge: Height of ridge:

Based on cultivated crops 20-30㎝
(80-100㎝）
a) Schematic Figure

b) Situation of Ridge Cultivation

Figure 8.6 New Effective Irrigation on Ridges Method in the existing PMS Irrigation Project ２)

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 8.2.5 | Points to Note in On-Farm Water Management
(1) How to Reduce the Damage Caused by Water Pressure at the Water Inlet
Poor water management may have a negative impact if the yields of paddy rice and vegetables are below
average. In particular, when the water pressure at the water imlet is high, it has a great effect on the crop
growth due to seed runoff, poor crop growth, and root rot, etc.around the water inlet. As a countermeasure,
there is a method of placing stones/boulders at the water outlet to reduce the water pressure.

Photo 8.1 Damage Caused by Water Pressure at the Water Outlet ２)

Before Dealing After Dealing

Photo 8.2 Measures to Prevent Damage from Water Pressure at the Water Outlet
(Placing of Stones or Bolder at Water Outlet) ２)

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 (2) Field-Level Response to Droughts and Floods
Effective use of limited irrigation water and water conservation are important as a response to drought,
such as controlling the amount of water used by performing detailed water management, saving water in the
field, and rotational irrigation. In order to reduce the impact on crops, it is highly effective to save water by
adjusting the planting season of rice and other crops that consume a lot of water. In addition, if the drought
situation is severe, farmland that will not be planted is selected and agreed upon, and measures are taken
such as taking water from the drainage channel and using the water repeatedly.
A response to flood inundation is to drain the inundation water at an early stage. In addition, remove the
sediment deposited in the field, and the field is re-sown or replanted. If fertilizer is washed away, fertilizer is
added to restore roots and foliage.

8.3 Cultivation Technology

At present, various problems regarding crop cultivation are occurring in the existing PMS project area. This
section summarizes effective technologies for sustainable crop cultivation to solve these problems. In particular,
techniques proven in PMS fields or techniques that are feasible and effective with local materials.

8.3.1 | Sustainable Production by Organic Farming

(1) Issue
If production can be increased by reducing the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, It will be possible
for the rural Afghan villages to achieve food self-sufficiency. Increasing agricultural production by applying
sustainable methods such as organic farming is a major goal for the future.

(2) Countermeasure
Crop rotation and companion crop are ways to stabilize crop production while reducing the amount of
pesticides and fertilizers applied. Crop rotation is a method of growing different types of crops in a cycle, the
purpose is to prevent diseases, insects control, nutritional balance and improve soil structure. Basic rotation
is leaf vegetables, fruit vegetables, root vegetables and legumes as shown in following Table.
Companion crop is the planting of different vegetables in proximity for pest control, providing habitat for
beneficial creatures and balancing nutrients in the soil.

Table 8.2 Crop rotation and Characteristics of Each Group ２)

1st year 2nd year 3rd year 4th year

legumes leaf vegetables fruit vegetables root vegetables
Green beans, Soybeans, Spinach, Cabbage, Onion, Tomato, Melon, Eggplant Radish, Carrot, Turnip
Peanuts Napa cabbage
Nitrogen fixing crop Nitrogen hungry crop Phosphorous hungry crop Potassium hungry crop

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 Following table shows examples of companion crop.

Table 8.3 Example of companion crop 2)

Good companion Effect

Carrots Onion Onion repel carrot fly.
Maize Beans maize provides bean with a trellis for climbing and beans supply nitrogen to maize.
Tomatoes Basil Basil repels insects and disease, improves growth
Spinach Peas, Beans Peas and Beans provide natural shade and nitrogen to spinach.
Cabbage Rosemary Rosemary repels cabbage flies.
Eggplant Marigolds Marigolds deter insects

8.3.2 | How to Evenly Sow Seed in Small-Scale Farm

(1) Issue
Sowing density is a major management factor that affects growth and development of crops by modifying
the light environment and interplant competition for water and nutrients. Therefore, planting density or
sowing density play an important role to achieve higher productivity. In some fields, the seeds are sown
unevenly or too much as shown in following photos in existing PMS field. Especially, tiny seeds are often
difficult to handle.

Photo 8.3 Uneven Planting Density in PMS Project Area ２)

(2) Countermeasure
It is effective to use a sowing machine or a sowing tool to uniformly spread small seeds. Photo 8.2 shows the
sowing machine used to sow large seeds such as peanuts, corn and beans, and the hand seeder used to sow
small seeds such as sesame seeds. As a simple method, there is also a method of using a PET bottle.

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 Seeder for bigger seed

Seeder for bigger size seed

Hand seeder using PET bottles (hole size is adjusted according to seed size)

Photo 8.4 Seeder and Hand Seeder ２)

According to IRRI in Myanmar, rice yields are 25% higher in mechanical sowing than in manual sowing.
Following photos show the field seeding by tools shown in Photo 8.4. Seed is evenly sown in the field.

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 Photo 8.5 Field Sown by Seeder ２)

8.3.3 | Effect of Shade for Improving Productivity

(1) Issue
Crops such as rice and wheat tend to be stunted in strong sunlight. Summers in Afghanistan are very
hot with very strong sunshine, and the excessive sunlight and heat cause physiological damage to crops.
Therefore, it is necessary to soften the sunlight by creating shade by planting trees.

(2) Countermeasure
As a method of mitigating the influence of sunlight, there are shade culture such as alley cropping and use of
shading net.
1) Alley Cropping
As shown in Photo 8.5, alley cropping is a method of planting perennial crops such as fruit trees in rows
and cultivating the crops between them. The planted fruit trees create a shade to improve microclimate
such as suppress evapotranspiration, maintain soil moisture for a long time, and create a suitable
environment for crop growth. As a result, it is possible to minimize damage of crop growth due to high
temperature and improve crop production especially in summer. It also has the effect of decreasing soil
erosion.
By introducing alley cropping to irrigated farmland, it is possible to diversify the crops cultivated in the
summer and stabilize the income of small-scale farmers (1 ha or less). The existing PMS irrigation project
is currently planting wheat, vegetables and alfalfa between fruits trees.

Photo 8.6 Alley Cropping in PMS Field 1)

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 Mango and beans Pigeon pea and groundnuts

Photo 8.7 Case of Alley Cropping ２)

2) Shading Net
Shading culture is a method of using shade nets to create shade and grow crops. Shading net is expected
to reduce the light intensity and temperature as well as maintaining soil moisture, so with the shading
net that can provide suitable conditions for crop growth. Accordingly, the use of shading net in high
temperature area is expected to increase the yield.

Cultivation using a horticultural shading net (Case in Iran) Cultivation using ordinary net (Case in Mauritania)

Photo 8.8 Case of Shading Culture ２)

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 8.3.4 | Raised Bed Cultivation in Wetland to Prevent Waterlogged Damage
(1) Issue
In the irrigated farmland of the existing PMS project area, swamps have been scattered in the lowlands, and
they tended to increase. When the higher-altitude farmland is irrigated, the water that has nowhere to go
accumulates in the lower field, and the field become wetlands. Most crops in the lowland die from root rot.
In these swamps, reed and pampas grass grow all over, and when viewed from a distance, they look like green
spaces, and it is sometimes misunderstood that the results of irrigation have improved.

Waterlogged area along Shigi canal Vast swamp

1)
Photo 8.9 Case of Swamp

(2) Countermeasure
In the PMS method irrigation project, measures used to be taken to prevent becoming wetlands by
improving drainage channels considering that the irrigation canal and the drainage canal were integrated.
Here, measure by practical and economical methods such as raised bed cultivation is shown.
Raised beds allow excess water to drain out of the surface soil. In general, when growing upland crops in
fields with poor drainage and high moisture, raised bed cultivation is effective to prevent waterlogging. For
this reason, it has been widely applied to crop cultivation in wetlands around the world. It seems that raised
bed cultivation is effective as one temporary solution even in wetland fields of PMS project area. (See photo
8.8).
Proper water use at the upstream is important to prevent moisture damage, and the method is shown in
Section 8.2.

Raised Bed
Cultivation

Swamp(or a place
where water is
pooled such as a lake)

Figure 8.7 Raised Bed Cultivation ２)

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 8.3.5 | Increase in Rice Cultivation and Countermeasures (Introduction of Appropriate
Upland Rice Varieties)
(1) Issue
In the irrigated farmland of the existing PMS irrigation project, paddy rice is cultivated everywhere along
the irrigation canal due to the technical cooperation of rice cultivation by JICA and the soaring price of
imported rice. Paddy rice requires about five times as much water as wheat.
In Afghanistan, where water resource is not abundant, the large amount of water used for rice cultivation
is not always optimal from the viewpoint of effective use of water. Although the farmers' intentions should
be respected for crop selection, it is necessary to establish rules for paddy cultivation from the viewpoint of
water efficiency in the future.

(2) Countermeasure
Rice cultivation in existing PMS project areas is said to be relatively profitable. In irrigated fields in arid
areas, paddy rice is cultivated as part of the crop rotation system to avoid salt accumulation in soil. The rice
cultivation has the advantage that accumulated salts can be leached out on a regular bases. On the other
hand, rice cultivation in sandy soil also has disadvantages such as reducing soil fertility by leaching, and
water logging and salt accumulation in the surrounding area.
As measures to mitigate this negative function, avoiding continuous cropping of paddy, cultivating
leguminous crops after paddy cultivation to enrich nitrogen in soil and applying organic fertilizer, etc. can be
considered.
The water amount obtained by the irrigation project is a limited and valuable resource. In order to distribute
the irrigation water fairly in the beneficiary area, the rice cultivation area should set rule to manage paddy
cultivated area etc. If farmers want to grow rice, it is necessary to consider the introduction of upland rice
variety that require relatively little water.
For example, there is NERICA rice (abbreviation for New Rice for Africa), which JICA is promoting in
Africa. NERICA rice is a upland rice variety developed in 1994 by crossing high-yielding Asian rice with
African rice that is resistant to diseases and weeds.

8.3.6 | Improving Nursery Production（Kneaded Nursery Bed）

(1) Issue
The issue is how to grow vegetable seedlings that grow easily and uniformly in areas where there is no nursery
pot.

(2) Countermeasure
Neri doko(Kneading bed) is the traditional method to prepare nursery in Japan. This technique is very
effective in areas where plastic pots are difficult to obtain. Kneading bed is a technique that mixes soil and
fertilizer well with water, removes excess water once, cuts it into block-shaped lumps (size varies depending
on the crop), and puts seeds in it to make a nursery.
Figure 8.8 shows how to prepare the kneading bed. In Japan, plastic pots are currently used for nursery
production, but in the days when there were no plastic pots, this technique called kneading bed was
commonly used. Even in Afghanistan, if it is difficult to obtain the pots, it is possible to produce nursery by
utilizing the technology shown in Figure 8.8.

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 made by wood
made by wood
Loam seems
Loam seemsto be to be
① ①
appropriate
Mix well in soil and
withappropriate
sieved in ②
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Afghanistan.
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compost
with
at aAfghanistan.
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1 it
2 to 1 water gets evenly wetlevel
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in the level
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then level
Prepare frame with compost or the water gets evenly wetsurface
in the soil, then level
organic fertilizer.
organic fertilizer. the surface.
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made by wood frame the surface.
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soil and
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Afghanistan. Mix it to level thesoil, then level
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with Afghanistan.
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③ ③
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③ ③ Make an 8 cm
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knifethe soil bed
④ ④
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with a knife.
with a knife.
can be cut with a knife

③ Make an 8 cm
③
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Wait 4-5 hours until the soil bed
can be cut with a knife
④ square with a knife.
square with a knife.
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can be cut with a knife
④
③ ③ Make an 8 cm
square withan
a knife.
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can be cutcan
with
the soil bed
until the soil bed ④ ④
Make 8 cm
square with a knife.
bea cut
knife
with a knife

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cm an 8 cm
square with a knife.
square with a knife.

⑤ ⑤ ⑥ ⑥
Make aMake
hole in the middle
a hole of the square
in the middle and putand put
of the square After sowing the seeds,
two seeds
two in eachinhole.
seeds each hole. After sowing the seeds, a net a net
cover the soilthe
cover firmly
soil firmly
and cover
andwith
⑤
cover with
⑤ ⑥
a net etc.
a net etc.
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Maketwo
a hole in the
seeds middle
in each of the square and put
hole. After sowing the seeds, a net
two seeds in each hole. After
cover the soilsowing
firmly the seeds, a net
cover
and cover with the soil firmly
⑤ Make aMakehole a hole and cover with Afghanistan is dry,
Afghanistan is dry,
⑥ aSowing
a net etc. so when
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the surface
⑤a hole in theput
and putand2 seeds 2 seeds
completed is dry, spinkle enoughenough
Make middle of the square and put
two seeds in each hole. After ⑥completed
sowing the seeds, water to
is dry, spinkle
moisten a net
cover the soil firmly water to moisten
Make a hole in the middle of the square and put sowing the seeds, the surface.
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two seeds in each hole. and cover
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etc. the soil firmly Afghanistan is dry,
⑤ ⑤ and putand
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the surfaceis dry,
⑥ completed
2 seeds
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so when
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is moisten
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dry, spinkle enough
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in the square
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seedshole.
in each hole. After sowing water
the surface. to moisten
a net a net
cover the cover
soil firmly
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and put 2 seeds a net Sowing
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Make a hole completed is dry,Afghanistan
spinkle enough is dry,
and put 2 seeds Sowing waterso to when
moistenthe surface
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the surface.
⑦ ⑦ the
Once seedlings
Once have grown
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when the surface
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is dry, spinkle enough
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water to moisten
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to ⑦
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the surface. the crop and
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span span
⑦ At the time
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haveof transplonting,
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together
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with the
seedlings
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for soil for ⑧ Dig hole at intervals suitable for each crop 50∼60cm
50∼60cm and
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⑦
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in each
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solidified,
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no need worrytransplanted
damagingtothe the field.
Since transplantation.
roots during the soil is moderately solidified, 50cm 8.3 Cultivation
spanTechnology
span 327
At the time oftherethe istime
Attransplonting,no of
need thetoseedlings
worry damaging
transplonting, the
the seedlings 50cm 50∼60cm 50∼60cm
are taken out roots duringout
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with the soilwith
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block, and transplanted
Since the soil Since is themoderately solidified, solidified,
soil is moderately
there is no need
there to is worry
no need damaging
to worrythe damaging the
roots during roots
transplantation.
during transplantation. 50cm 50cm
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 8.4 Soil Improvement Technology

The soils in the study area are characterize by sandy and high pH. Such soils are fragile and very difficult to
manage. In addition, there are few data on local soil. Soil analysis needs to be carried out in the future to
improve the situation. This section presents techniques such as improving surface texture, the need for soil
analysis for proper soil management, and improving fertility.

8.4.1 | Topsoil Improvement by Soil Profile Survey

(1) Issue
The issue is how to find the soil texture of irrigated farmland and how to improve the soil texture of topsoil.
Soil texture, defined by the proportions of sand, silt and clay, affects the physical and chemical properties of
the soil and is an important soil property for crop production and field management. The soil characteristics
by texture are shown in Table 8.3. Since different soil textures have different nutrient and water holding
capacities, soil management methods differ depending on the texture. For instance, finer soil textures, such
as clay and silt, have a higher ability to hold nutrients and water in soils, and adding silt to the sandy topsoil
makes them well-drained which is suited for upland crop.
If it is found that soil texture other than sand exists in a relatively shallow layer, the surface soil is improved by
deep plowing. The deep plowing can improve the water and nutrient holding capacity of the surface layer by
moving the lower silt and clay.
In irrigated farmland in existing PMS irrigation project area, there is a thick silty soil layer directly under
the thin sandy layer (1 to 2 m). By transferring this silty and clayey soils to the surface, the surface soil is
improved.
In addition, the silt soil is gradually transported by dump trucks, and soil dressing of silt clay is carried out to
sandy farmlands which is not originally suitable for irrigation, to clear cultivated land, by mixing clay and sand.
Soil suitable for irrigated crop cultivation is medium texture between sand and clay, and medium texture
between loam " and "clay " is also suitable. Clayey soil is difficult to handle when dry, but it is always
applicable in flood irrigation and basin irrigation. In addition, clayey soil moves to the upper layer by deep
plowing and mixes with sandy topsoil to improve the water and nutrients holding capacity.

Table 8.4 Soil and Physical Property by Texture ２)

Soil Texture Tillage Air Drainage Water holding Nutrient holding

permeability capacity capacity
Sandy Soils S,LS Easy Rapidly Well Low Low
Loamy Soils SL,L,SiL Easy Moderately Medium Medium Medium
Clayey Soils SCL,CL,SiCL Slightly Difficult Slow Poor High Slightly High
Heavy Soils SC,SiC,LiC,HC Difficult Very Slow Very Poor Low High

(2) Countermeasure
In order to easily find texture of the lower soil layer in farmland, the soil is sampled using a soil auger and
exam texture by layer. The method can easily estimate the presence of silty and clayey layers. Figure 8.9 shows
a soil profile survey using a soil auger.
The soil texture of the collected soil samples can be estimated texture by feeling of fingers at the site. If done
correctly, the soil texture can be estimate very accurately.
Soil texture can be estimated by how the soil feels when operated by, and is estimated by the shape of the soil
when the soil is moistened and kneaded between the thumb and index finger, as shown in Table 8.4.
The sandy topsoil can be improved by checking the soil texture of the soil collected by the soil auger and, if
silt or clay soil is confirmed in the lower layer, applying it to the sandy surface layer by top dressing.

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 Soil auger Soil profile survey Soil sampling

Figure 8.9 Soil Profile Survey by Soil Auger ２)

Table 8.5 How to Estimate Texture by Feel ２)

Texture grade Sand Sandy loam Loam Clay loam Clay

Clay content(%) ＜12.5 12.5∼25.0 25.0∼37.5 37.5∼50.0 50.0＜
Smooth plastic
Coherence nil to Bolus just coherent Coherent plastic
bolus, can be
Behavior very slight, cannot but very sandy to Bolus coherent bolus, smooth to
molded into rods
be molded touch manipulate
without fracture

Measuring
Method in Field

8.4.2 | Soil Analysis for Appropriate Soil Management

(1) Issue
Calcareous soils relatively widespread in the dry areas such as Afghanistan. The soils are generally
characterized by high pH and low EC.
The results of soil analysis of existing PMS project area were also pointed out that the soils are characterized
by high pH and low EC. From these data, the institute reported that the land was a wasteland with poor
productivity.
This soil contains large amounts of calcium salts, which can have a significant impact on crop productivity.
There are some wetlands and swamps that are adversely affected by the calcium.
pH (index of acidity) and EC (electrical conductivity = index of salinity) are the most popular soil index to
know soil characteristics and can be easily measured. The appropriate pH differs depending on the crop, and
some crops are resistant to EC, but if both of them exceed the appropriate range, crop growth is inhibited. In
calcareous soils, lowering pH or suppressing salt accumulation is a very important issue for maintaining and
improving crop productivity. Therefore, it is necessary to measure pH and EC regularly to obtain reliable
information, and take appropriate measures based on it.

(2) Countermeasure
Calcareous soils are widely distributed in Afghanistan. These two parameters are especially important
factors for soil management. Table 8.5 shows cause and countermeasures for fluctuation in pH and EC
values. It is very important for soil management to measure these indicators regularly and apply the results
for soil management such as fertilizer application.
The measured pH and EC should record in a table such as Table 8.6. Base on the data, what kind of soil
management is desirable for each farmland is examined. Regarding cultivation techniques that have been

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 practiced among local farmers, the pH and EC data of the soil in the fields to which the techniques are
applied will be measured and the effects will be verified. Technologies that are effective will be actively
extend.
The cause of high pH and low EC is that the soil contains a large amount of calcium carbonate. Measures to
improve such soil is to apply acidic fertilizer containing sulfate sulfuric acid radicals (Do not use fertilizers
containing sulfate radical in paddy fields). To adjust the pH of alkaline soil, planting alfalfa (forage crop)
is said to effective. In fact, in the irrigated farmland of the existing PMS irrigation project, when alfalfa was
planted between fruit trees, the soil pH decreased to 5 from 7 or higher. However, it is necessary to confirm
the effect by measurement of pH.
Table 8.6 Primary Cause and Countermeasure of High and Low of pH and EC in Soil ２)

pH
Low EC Optimum range High EC
EC
Cause：High calcium Cause：Large amount of Cause：Excessive fertilizer, salt
concentration Countermeasure: ammonium nitrogen accumulation Countermeasure:
Appling potentially acidic Countermeasure：Avoid fertilizer Desalting (flooding, cleaning crops, etc.),
High pH fertilizer such as ammonium contain calcium, Applying deep plowing, fertilizer-free cultivation,
sulphate. (Avoid fertilizers physiologically acid fertilizer. fertilizer application of slow-release
containing sulfate in paddy (Avoid fertilizers containing sulfate in fertilizer, etc.
field) paddy field)
Cause：Lack of fertilizer Optimum range Cause：Excessive nitrate nitrogen
Optimum
Countermeasure：Proper pH: 5.5 – 7.0 Countermeasure: Reduced fertilizer, deep
range
fertilization EC: 0.4 – 1.0 plowing, desalting, organic fertilizer
Cause：Lack of fertilizer Cause：High proportion of nitrate Cause：Excessive nitrogen
Countermeasures: Application nitrogen Countermeasure：Nitrogen leaching,
Low pH of liming material and organic Countermeasure：Application of desalting
fertilizer liming material and proper
fertilization

Table 8.7 Record Form of pH and EC ２)

Year Month Date Place pH EC Records of fertilizer and crop etc. Remarks

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 (3) Reference
In most Asian and Latin American countries, land capability classification map is prepared to select land for
agriculture development. In order to select the target site for the irrigation project, it is desirable to create
selection criteria that take into account the land conditions in Afghanistan. Here, the land classification
system implemented in other countries is introduced as a reference for preparing Afghanistan's own
selection criteria.
First, prepare a topographic map and soil map on an appropriate scale. At that time, the chemical and
physical properties of each soil must be clarified. Based on this, evaluation criteria are prepared according
to the conditions of each country. The evaluation items are topography (-), erosion (e), drainage (h),
inundation (h), soil texture (s), effective soil layer (s), salt concentration (s), and fertility (s). I-VIII grade
criteria are set and evaluated, and the evaluation of the lowest item is the grade of the land. The following
shows criteria in El Salvador as an example of evaluation criteria. The land classification system classify land
into eight classes based on broad interpretations of soil and topographic factors that affect agricultural yields
and soil erosion.

Capability Class -I : Class 1 soils have few limitations that restrict their use.
Capability Class - II : Class 2 soils have moderate limitations that reduce the choice of plants or that
require moderate conservation practices.
Capability Class - III : Class 3 soils have severe limitations that reduce the choice of plants or that require
special conservation practices, or both.
Capability Class - IV : Class 4 soils have very severe limitations that reduce the choice of plants or that
require very careful management, or both.
Capability Class - V : Class 5 soils are subject to little or no erosion but have other limitations,
impractical to remove, that restrict their use mainly to pasture, rangeland, forestland, or wildlife habitat.
Capability Class -VI : Class 6 soils have severe limitations that make them generally unsuitable for
cultivation and that restrict their use mainly to pasture, rangeland, forestland, or wildlife habitat.
Capability Class - VII : Class 7 soils have very severe limitations that make them unsuitable for cultivation
and that restrict their use mainly to grazing, forestland, or wildlife habitat.
Capability Class - VIII : Class 8 soils and miscellaneous areas have limitations that preclude commercial
plant production and that restrict their use to recreational purposes, wildlife habitat, watershed, or esthetic
purposes.

In case of irrigation project, class I-III are selected as economically feasible areas because the project should
select land where high profitability can be expected in order for the settlers to repay the construction costs.

8.4.3 | Maintaining Soil Fertility with Leguminous Crops Cultivation

(1) Issue
Among the leguminous crops such as alfalfa, haruhar, soybean and shakhtur, peanut was extremely effective
to maintain soil fertility. After harvesting peanuts, watermelon and onion are grown very well.
It is a big issue in the future to continuously increase the crop production while maintaining the soil fertility
by introducing organic cultivation methods such as crop rotation.

(2) Countermeasure
Legume is called a natural mini-nitrogen manufacturing factory and growing these crops play a vital
role in increasing nitrogen in soil. The carryover of N derived from legume grown is also important.
Therefore, introducing leguminous crops in crop rotation is essential for reducing the nitrogen (N)
fertilizer requirement for crop production. Crop rotation including legumes fixes nitrogen, diversifies crop
production systems and improves soil fertility. It is desirable to include legumes in planting systems such as

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 intercropping and mixed cropping.
Mixed cropping means that two or more types of crops are cultivated in the same field at the same time or
for a certain period of time, and the crops have no distinction between main and sub crops. Intercropping is
distinguished from main and sub crops. Therefore, sub crop is cultivated in the furrows and hill space within
row of the main crop.
Legumes are cultivated with various crops in the cultivation system such as intercropping and mixed
cropping. The typical one is mixed cropping of maize and beans. See photo 8.9. In addition, the following
advantage is expected by mixing annual crops and perennial crops:
- Products and profits generate at different times,
- Land resources can be used more effectively by using three-dimensionally.

Maize and beans Pigeon pea and sesame

Photo 8.10 Example of Intercropping and Mixed Cropping with Leguminous Crop ２)

It has been recognized that nitrogen fixative amount by root nodule bacteria is significant amount, soybean
is 57-94Kg / ha and clover is 104-220Kg / ha. However, there is a possibility that there are no effective root
nodule bacteria depending on the land. Therefore, it is necessary to confirm the presence or absence of nodules
on the roots of the legumes being grown. If the legumes have no root nodules, the root nodule bacteria must be
inoculated into the field.

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 Appendix
(1) TECHNICAL TERMINOLOGY
(2) REFERENCES
(3) SPECIFICATION OF INTAKE FACILITIES
(4) CALCULATION SAMPLES

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 Appendix (1) TECHNICAL TERMINOLOGY
Terminology Meaning
abutment Connecting parts of a weir to both sides of the river.
allowable stress
intensity The limit point of resisting force exerted on a structure.

alluvial fan The area where a river flows from the mountains to the plains.
apron The floor made of boulders or concrete to protect it from scouring by a torrent.
apron works A concrete or boulders floor installed on the downstream side of the structure.
It is one of the riverbed material survey methods in which the thread is put in a grid at intervals of the
area grid method maximum gravel diameter on the riverbed at the representative point, and the gravel below the intersection of
the thread is sampled.
backhoe A kind of construction machine suitable for excavation at a place lower than the ground surface.
bank An embankment made from a small amount of soil. Dike.
base elevation The height of the lowest surface that serves as a standard when setting the height of a structure.

basin irrigation It is a type of irrigation system in which water slowly flows along the surface of cultivated land, wets the
ground, and penetrates into the ground.
bearing capacity The amount of force that the ground can support.

bed protection works Groundsill. A method to protect the riverbed with boulders and/or concrete, reducing the gradient of the
original riverbed and preventing from scouring.
bedload Relatively heavy gravel that moves near the riverbed due to the running water of the river.
bending stress
intensity The stress that occurs in the cross section when a bending moment is applied.

beneficiary irrigation
area A farm land that benefits from the irrigation water.

berm As the dike becomes taller, the length of the slope becomes longer. In order to maintain the stability of the
slope, a horizontal small stage called "berm" is provided.

blanket works A method using impermeable materials to coat the slope of the embankment on the reservoir side to reduce
the seepage water to the inside of the embankment.
boiling A phenomenon in which the bottom of the excavation trench is destroyed by water entrainment.

border irrigation An irrigation method in which the field is divided into strips that allow water to flow in from the top of the
section.
boulder Gravel with the particle size of 300mm or more.

boulder oblique weir A structure in which stones are piled up diagonally against the flow of water to guide the flow into the
irrigation channel.
butyl rubber A type of synthetic rubber.
cadastral map A drawing that shows the rough position and shape of land.

cadastral survey map An official drawing that describes the exact area, shape, positional relationship with the adjacent land, the
position of the boundary and so on.
canal along foot of A waterway constructed near the foot of an embankment to drain rainwater in a place where the ground is
dike low.
charkha A tool used traditionally in Afghanistan to wind and pull up and down ropes.
clayey soil Soil with a clay content of 50% or more that is not suitable for cultivation.
clear water Clear water that flows out from the ground and between rocks.
compaction The method of applying compressive force to soil to increase its density.

concrete pitching The method of placing concrete with an average thickness of 5cm to 10cm for the purpose of preventing
scouring, weed prevention, and fire prevention on slopes.
control unit A type of electronic control unit.
critical flow Flow velocity at the inflection point between the normal flow and the torrential flow.

334

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 critical particle
diameter for The particle size calculated with the formula of the dimensionless critical tractive force.
sediment movement
critical water depth Water depth at the inflection point between the normal flow and the torrential flow.
cross section The shape that can be seen when the riverbed is cut from the left to the right side.
crown / crest The highest part of a dike or weir.
current meter A device that measures the flow velocity.
curved part The meandering part of a river.

debris flow A phenomenon in which stones and sand on the hillside are swept to the downstream at once due to heavy
rainfall.
design draught water
discharge The lowest discharge amount at the river during the dry season (winter) in the year.

design draught water

level Water level when the design drought water discharge flows down.

design flood water

discharge The highest discharge amount at the river during the flood season in the year.

design flood water

level Water level when the design flood water discharge flows down.

A structure that is built to stop water flooding onto a low area, such as farmland and residential area.
dike In Afghanistan, the word "levee" is often applied instead of the word "dike". On the other hand, this guideline
applies "dike" as the word to describe this structure.
dike revetment A wall that protects the entire surface of the embankment from the streamway.
dike shoulder The part above the intersection of the slope and the flat ground at the crown of a dike.
dike slope of land
side The slope on the landside of a dike.

dike width The entire width of the embankment of a dike.

distributed load Load per unit length.
double flush board A structure in which the floodgates are arranged in two rows and flush boards are used according to the water
method level of the river and the required discharge amount.

drain gate A structure where sediment in the reservoir or sand basin is allowed to be discharged with the water, e.g., sand
drain gate.

drain works Ditches that collect water that have infiltrated the embankment to the foot of slope in land side, in order to
allow the collected water drain out naturally from the embankment.
drainage canal A waterway for returning excess irrigation water to the river.
drainage network The network of all the streams and water bodies that are feeding water to the river.
dredging A civil work in which sediment is removed from the bottom of a harbor, river or canal.

drip irrigation An irrigation system that uses facilities such as distribution pipes and tubes to supply irrigation water to the
soil surface and root area slowly and directly.
drop works Bed sill with a drop or slump.
dry season The period of the year when the river discharge amount is low.
earth pressure The soil pressure applied to the structure.
earth works Construction works such as digging, hauling, filling, and compacting soil.
effective rainfall The amount of rainfall that directly flows out except the rainfall which penetrates into the ground.

equipment works Construction related to the facilities in buildings, such as machinery, electricity, water supply and drainage, air
conditioning, gas, communication and so on.
excavation Digging the ground, sediment and rocks.
existing ground
elevation Elevation of existing ground.

existing riverbed
elevation Elevation of the existing riverbed.

exposed rock Rock exposed from the surface of the earth.

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 farmland A place to grow agricultural products. It is classified into rice fields, other crop fields, orchards, pastures, etc.,
depending on the agricultural product grown.

fascine revetment A method for retaining soil to prevent the collapse of a slope by planting a wall of twigs. Used for the
protection of sandbars in the PMS method.
fascine works A kind of foot protection works using natural materials.
flash flood A sudden flood of water caused by heavy rain or landslide.
flexibility Bending so that it responds to stress.
float Floating rod or device for measuring flow velocity.
flood control Facilities consisting mainly of dikes and spur dikes to protect irrigation beneficiary areas, irrigation facilities,
facilities residential houses, etc., from floods.
flood irrigation A method of irrigation in which the entire cultivated land like a paddy field is flooded with irrigation water.
flood prone area Area of land susceptible to flooding during floods.
flood season The period of the year when the river discharge amount is high.
floor slab A concrete floor that supports the weight of people and things.
Flow regime is the flow condition in a river or the characteristics of river flow throughout the year, such as
flow regime water level, flow velocity, etc.. The indicators are high water flow, average water flow, low waterflow and
drought water flow.
flush board A plate installed on a gate pillar to adjust the amount of water at an intake gate or sand flushing ditch.

focus irrigation It is a system that supplies water at low pressure through a network of pipes which supply water to individual
crops.
foot of slope in land
side The point where the slope of an embankment changes to the ground on the side of inland area.

foot protection
works A method that prevents scouring of riverbed in-front of revetment.

forced vortex In fluid mechanics, this is a kind of vortex which receives external force in order to rotate.
foreman The head of the workers or work force for each type of work.
foundation works Structures that transfer and support the load acting from the superstructure to the ground.
free vortex Defined in fluid mechanics as a kind of vortex which does not receive external force.

freeboard The height that allows for a suitable margin above the highwater level by considering abnormal floods and
waves for determining the height of the embankment.
friction velocity The magnitude of friction that a flow receives from the surface of an object and expressed in terms of velocity.
Froude number A dimensionless number that represents the ratio of fluid inertial force and gravity.
furrow irrigation It is a type of irrigation system in which water flows in furrows provided or excavated in a field.
gabion mattress One of the methods of gabion works.

gabion works A type of works in which boulders are packed in a basket made of iron wire or bamboo. Mainly used for
revetments of irrigation canals.
gate pier Pier of the intake gate.
gentle slope river A river that flows slowly.
groin A dike built out into the river from the river bank.
guard of flood gate The role of guarding the flood gates.
Hashar A community collaboration project for cleaning and repairing roads and canals.
head The mechanical energy per unit weight of water expressed as the height of the water column.
head loss The water head lost due to frictional resistance and bending of the running water.
heading-up A phenomenon in which water level is raised when a weir is installed in a river.
high embankment An embankment with a height of 15m or more.
highest recorded
flood level The highest water level observed in the past.

hydraulic gradient Head loss per unit length.

hydraulic jump effect A phenomenon in which the running water is pushed to the center of the river flow to prevent bank erosion.

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 hydraulic radius It is a numerical value of dividing the cross section area by weighted perimeter.
hydrology The circulation of water on the earth.
inland area The side of a river with houses and farmlands protected from floods by dikes.
intake gate A gate for adjusting the water intake amount and the water level of the irrigation canal.
intake weir A low wall or barrier built across a river to raise the river water.
internal friction
angle in water The angle that ensures water stability or the angle at which the ground begins to slide.

inverted siphon A duct, as part of a canal, installed under the crossing point with a flood path or a drainage channel. Canal
water can easly flow through it due to the water level difference between upstream and downstream.

irrigation The method of watering or supplying irrigation water to crops and plants in an area of land through pipes or
channels.
irrigation facilities Facilities for supplying irrigation water to farmlands.
irrigation water The sum of the net amount of water consumed in farmlands and the amount of loss in the irrigation canal.

Karez (Qanat) Water-use facilities found in arid regions such as Western Asia and Northern Africa. An underground tunnel
for irrigation used in dry zones.
land acquisition Expropriation or use of land when needed for public utilization.
land classification
map A map or figure that grades the appropriateness of utilization of the land unit for various land uses.

land reclamation Work to retrieve or recover submerged land and change its purpose.
A structure that is built to stop water flooding onto a low area, such as farmland and residential area.
levee
The explanation in the word "dike" shall also be referred to.
It is one of the riverbed material survey methods adopted when investigation by the area grid method is
line grid method unsuitable, such as riverbed with a large rock which exceeds 1m. A straight line is marked with a tape measure
on the riverbed at intervals of more than the maximum particle size, and gravel below the line is sampled.
lining works A method covering the canal bed or corner by soil cement, etc.
loam Kind of soil which contains suitable amounts of sand and clay, easy to cultivate and suitable for all crops.
main irrigation canal A waterway that leads water to the farmland.
Manning equation A formula for calculating the flow velocity and flow rate in a waterway.
manual sliding
method A structure of the manual sliding method is a kind of structure that is opened and closed by sliding it manually.

mason A person who builds or works using stone.

masonry One of the construction methods using stone to form a steep slope of less than 1: 0.1.
maximum scouring
depth The maximum depth that will be scoured by running water.

meandering A river with bending curves rather than straight lines.

Mirab Afghan traditional water caretaker.
moment The force that rotates an object.
moment of inertia Resistance to bending force.
narrow segment The segment of river having s narrow width.
natural ground The undisturbed ground without artificial filling.
non-overflow type A kind of weir or stone spur dike structure where water does not overflow during floods.
nontransparent type
of dam A type of spur dike that does not allow water to flow through its body.

non-uniform flow
calculation A method of calculating water level and velocity in rivers where the shape of the channel changes.

oblique weir A type of intake weir of which body is partly or entirely in a diagonal shape. Its intake mouth is located at the
most downstream side.
A discontinuous embankment with an opening in a section of the embankment so that the upstream and
open levee downstream embankments are doubled. In case of flood, the levee has the effect of reducing the amount of
discharge flowing to the downstream.

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 orifice A small hole on the wall where fluids flow.
overflow Flowing over of water that exceeds the flow capacity of a river or a water way.
overflow type A kind of weir or spur dike that allows water to overflow during floods.
particle size Size of grain of stone.
particle-diameter
accumulation curve A graph of the relationship between grain size and number percentage.

permanent works The main structural works.

pile foundation A foundation that supports a building by letting a cylindrical column reach the bearing earth stratum.

piping A phenomenon in which fine particles in the soil are washed out by the seepage flow of groundwater, forming
pipe-shaped water channels in the soil and discharging coarse particles.
plane alignment Linear that represents a combination of flat lines and curves.
PMS Method
irrigation facilities Irrigation facilities planned and designed applying the PMS method.

precast concrete A premolded construction part with concrete brought to the site where they are assembled and installed.

preparation works As preparation before carrying out the main construction works, it refers to the construction, installation and
processing of necessary equipment, and removal of obstacles.
profile The shape which can be seen when the riverbed is cut vertically from downstream to upstream.
profile and cross
section Meaning "along" and "across" a river flow.

profile survey A survey that measures the ground height along a river to create a vertical section.
radius of curvature Radius of a circle in which the curve is approximated.
reference crop
evaporation ratio Evapotranspiration when sufficient water is supplied to the reference crop.

regulating pond A pond having the role of temporarily storing and dividing the water in the main irrigation canal and then
adjusting the flow discharge rate.
reinforcement works Reinforcing bars arranged according to the blueprint in the reinforced concrete construction work.
representative
particle diameter Average particle size that represents the particle group, i.e., 60% value of particle size distribution curve.

required irrigation
water Water requirement for irrigation.

reservoir Artificial lake where water is stored.

retarding basin Area inundated temporarily. It reduces peak flood discharge.

revetment works Facilities installed on slopes, steps and bank slopes of dikes to prevent and protect dikes and riverbanks from
being scoured by running water and collapsing.

riffles and pools Riffle is the place where the flow is fast and the depth is shallow in a river while Pool is the place where the flow
is gentle and the depth is deep around the riffle.
riprap Stones thrown to form a foundation or to weaken the flow velocity during civil engineering work.
riprap works A method using ripraps for foot protection of dikes or construction of weirs without filling their gaps.
riverbank The slope between the water surface and ground surface.
river bank erosion Phenomenon where the riverbank is eroded by running water.

river basin The area where rainfall or snowfall flows into the river. Summits of mountains are the boundaries of river
basins.
river bed material Sediments at the bottom of a river.

river channel The river channel is the place where water flows in a river or the part where water flows safely. Also refers to
the topography of rivers, etc.
riverside area River side area of a dike.
rock crib A kind of traditional river construction method used for water flow control.
rolling compaction The method of compacting the soil using a roller or rammer.

rotative irrigation Method of irrigation during drought. The irrigation area is divided into areas, and each area is irrigated in turn
or rotationally for a limited time.

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 A coefficient that represents how strong the riverbed and river banks resist when the river flows. In general, if
roughness coefficient there are irregularities on the riverbed, the roughness coefficient is high, the flow rate is slow and the discharge
rate is small.
rubber sponge A material that can be used as a cushioning material for the case.
sand bar The place that is formed with gravel in a river or near the mouth of a river.
sand basin A pond for sedimentation and it removes sediment from running water.
sand drain gate A gate installed on the sand basin, and it allows the sediment in the sand basin to flow down.
sand flushing ditch A facility for discharging sediment accumulated upstream of the intake weir to the downstream.

sand mat method An about 1.5m layer of sand and clay is laid to replace soft ground before constructing an embankment above
it.
sandbank Topography where sediments from the upstream are deposited in the river.

scouring Phenomenon of soil or sediment being washed out of the riverbank, the shore or the riverbed due to waves and
running water.
section modulus A value that represents the cross-sectional performance.
sediment Sand, stones or mud carried by water flow.
sediment discharge The amount of sediment that moves due to the water flow.
sedimentation
analysis It is one of the riverbed material survey methods. Grain size is measured with the sinking speed by gravity.

sedimentation pool Space for collecting mud at the bottom of a vertical shaft.
seepage line The line indicating the range where river water penetrates the bank.
seepage water River water and rainwater that infiltrate levees and soil.
Semi-overflow type
spur dike A spur dike structure where river water flows over it when water level rises.

shearing stress
intensity The force generated inside an object that shifts the object.

shrubification The height of trees is remained not more than 2-3 meters by not growing the trunk due to densely planted.
silt Silt is a kind of clastic which is smaller than sand and rougher than clay.
simple groin A simple straight embankment or dike protruding from one side bank of a river.

single sand bar A sandbar where the water flows in a straight line, with the ripple and pool appearing alternately in a vertical
direction without forming multiple rows.
siphon A water pipe installed under an obstacle when a waterway crosses the obstacle such as a river or a road.
slope gradient The gradient of the slope. It is expressed by the ratio of the length of bottom and height.
soil cement A mixture of local soil and cement for the purpose of soil improvement such as soil stabilization.
soil draw-out A phenomenon in which soil leaks out at the back.
soil for dike
embankment Soil used to build an embankment.

span width The width between fulcrums such as piers.

spillway A passage for water to reduce the hydraulic pressure on the weir especially at flooding time.

spray irrigation A method of irrigation in which pressurized water is sprayed from a nozzle to make it rainy or atomized.

spread and leveled Refers to soil that is spread and leveled.

spread foundation The concrete base that supports the weight of a building.

sprinkler irrigation A method in which pressurized water is ejected in the form of raindrops from sprinklers attached at regular
intervals, and water is sprayed on the soil surface.
steep gradient main
irrigation canal A waterway that leads to the sedimentation basin without depositing the sediment on the waterway.

stone masonry A method of stacking only stones without using concrete or mortar.

stone pitching In civil works, stones and cement are put on the surface of the embankment and riverbed in order to protect
them from erosion.

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 stone spur dike A type of flood control structure made of stones. A stone spur dike makes the river flow away from riverbanks.
stop log Timber stacked on a floodgate to close it.
streamway The line which ties the deepest point of each cross section where water usually flows.
subcritical flow Flow with a Froude number smaller than 1.

surface irrigation By surface irrigation, water slowly flows along the surface of cultivated land according to gravity, wets the
ground and penetrates into the ground, e.g., furrow irrigation, border irrigation and basin irrigation.
surface loading An index showing the capability of the settling tank.

suspended load Sediment particles which settle slowly enough to be carried in flowing water. These particles are generally fine
sand smaller than 0.2mm.
Coffer dike (Cutoff Temporary structure made for the purpose of temporarily blocking a part of the flow path to ensure
wall) protection of the foundation works of structures constructed in water.
temporary works Works related to temporary facilities/equipment that are provided to facilitate the construction work.
the PMS Method A series of projects for planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance of irrigation system
Irrigation Project consisting of PMS method irrigation facilities.
the PMS Method
Irrigation Project Guidelines for disseminating PMS method irrigation projects.
Guidelines
torrential flow Flow with a Froude number greater than 1.
tractive force Power to move sand and gravel on the riverbed.
training dike wall An embankment for the purpose of directing an unstable water flow to a particular direction.
transparent type A type of spur dike with slits to let water flow through.

unit width discharge Discharge per unit width.

unsteady flow
calculation A method of calculating chronic changes in longitudinal river discharge, water level and flow velocity.

unsupported When digging the ground, this method does not carry out any construction work to prevent the collapse of
excavation surrounding soil and to allow continuous digging works.
unwinding Laying out sand, gravels and boulders as layers from a dump truck on site.

uplift pressure The component of the force acting on an object in a fluid, the direction of which is perpendicular to the flow
(from bottom to top).
vegetation works The method to prevent erosion by surface water and preserve the natural environment by planting.
It is a standard method of riverbed material survey or the method of sampling gravel of 0.5m to 1.0m in depth
volumetric method of the riverbed and 0.5m in width and length after removing the surface sand and pebbles with thickness of 0.1
to 0.2 m.

wash load It is the portion of sediment that is carried by fluid flow and does not settle. It consists of the finest particles,
about 0.1 to 0.2mm or less.
water colliding front The part where a strong river flow hits the river bank, mostly where the river is curved.
water distribution The act of distributing water to water users.
water diversion gate Gate for water diversion to distribute irrigation water and domestic water.
water transmission
gate Water supply gate provided in the sand basin.

water users'
association A public union established to carry out irrigation, drainage and civil engineering projects in the community.

water wheel A water wheel provided with buckets that extracts water from running water.
waterlogging Damage caused by excessive soil moisture in crops.
weir crest The highest part of a weir.
weir height Height of the weir from the riverbed to the weir crest.
weir length Length of the weir from upstream to downstream.
weir width Width of the weir from left side to right side.
wet stone masonry A method of stacking stones using concrete and mortar.

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 wicker works Vegetation works using willows. Used with gabion works for the protection of canal walls.
wing Part of a weir attached to the left and right banks.

Yamada Weir A stone-pitched weir on the Chikugo River in Japan. It is implemented diagonally against the flow of water in
order to guide the water to the irrigation canal. It is a model of PMS method weirs.
Young's modulus A kind of index that represents the hardness of a material.

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 Appendix (2) REFERENCES

Chapter 1
1) PMS, Peshawar-kai, Nihon Denpa News Co., Ltd.
2) JICA Survey Team.
3) Dr. Tetsu Nakamura (2018). The Afghan Green Ground Project. Peace (Japan) Medical Services & Peshawar-kai.
4) Mohammad Musa Alami, Ehsanullah Hayat, Gokmen Tayfur (2017). Proposing a Popular Method for Meteorological
Drought Monitoring in the Kabul River Basin Afghanistan, International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and
Science, Vol -4, Issue-6, June 2017.
5) JICA (2018). Data Collection Survey on Agriculture and Rural Development in Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.
6) Kenji Nagata (2016). Water Resources and Irrigation Policy in Afghanistan:Ownership of Local Societies as a Key to
Reconstruction, International Journal of Social Science Studies Vol. 4, No. 4; April 2016.

Chapter 2
1) PMS, Peshawar-kai, Nihon Denpa News Co., Ltd.
2) JICA Survey Team.
3) Dr. Tetsu Nakamura (2018). The Afghan Green Ground Project. Peace (Japan) Medical Services & Peshawar-kai.
4) Toayama Prefecture in Japan. <https://www4.tkc.pref.toyama.jp/toyama/topics_detail.phtml?Record_ID=34891ac1abfbdbf8
1995f3000695efb1>
5) The Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism / Water and Disaster Management Bureau (2014).
Technical Criteria for River Works: Practical Guide for Survey.
6) FAO (1989). IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT Training manual No. 4.
7) FAO (1998). Crop evapotranspiration - Guidelines for computing crop water requirements.
8) It is probable that Dr. Tetsu Nakamura used the construction cost obtained by multiplying the facility construction cost per
unit irrigated area of USD 1,000 per hectare by the irrigated area as a guideline for the facility construction cost when special
construction is not included.
9) Government of Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (2007). The Environment Law Official Gazette No. 912, January 2007.
10) Government of Islamic Republic of Afghanistan Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock (2016). National
Comprehensive Agriculture Development Priority Program 2016-2020, August 2016.

Chapter 3
1) PMS, Peshawar-kai, Nihon Denpa News Co., Ltd.
2) JICA Survey Team.
3) Dr. Tetsu Nakamura (2018). The Afghan Green Ground Project. Peace (Japan) Medical Services & Peshawar-kai.
4) USGS. <https://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/data-viewer?dataset=soviet_afghan_200k_drg_utm_silo>
5) USGS. <https://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/afghan_geol>
6) The Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism / Water and Disaster Management Bureau (2014).
Technical Criteria for River Works: Practical Guide for Survey Chapter 4 River channel characteristic survey.
7) JICA (2019). Project for Capacity Enhancement on Hydro-Meteorological Information Management in the Ministry of
Energy and Water in the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.
8) World Bank. <https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project-detail/P122235?lang=en >
9) USGS. <https://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/water>
10) NWARA.
11) According to the experience of the 2010 flood in the existing PMS irrigation project, there was great flood damage in the
Behsud side which is the opposite bank of the bedrock of the Kama weir, the Kashkot side which is the opposite bank of the
bedrock of the Marwarid-Kashkot weir, and the Koti/Taran village which is the opposite bank of the bedrock of the Marwarid
II weir.
12) The Japan Institute of Country-ology and Engineering (2002). Guide for the river channel planning study. Sankaido.
13) Japan River Association (1997). Ministry of Construction Draft Technical Criteria for River Works: Practical Guide for
Survey. Sankaido.
14) Hydraulic Engineering Committee / The Collection of Hydraulic Formulas Editorial Subcommittee (2018). The Collection
of Hydraulic Formulas. The Japan Society of Civil Engineers.
15) JICA (2018). Data Collection Survey on Agriculture and Rural Development in Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.
16) IRDP.
17) Google Earth
18) The Japan Institute of Country-ology and Engineering (2007). Mechanics Design Method of Revetment. Sankaido.

Chapter 4
1) PMS, Peshawar-kai, Nihon Denpa News Co., Ltd.

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 2) JICA Survey Team.
3) Dr. Tetsu Nakamura (2018). The Afghan Green Ground Project. Peace (Japan) Medical Services & Peshawar-kai.
4) Report from Dr. Tetsu Nakamura. Peshawar-kai. < http://www.peshawar-pms.com/site/dr_works_index1.html>
5) The Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism / Water and Disaster Management Bureau (2012).
Technical Criteria for River Works: Practical Guide for Survey.
6) The Japan Institute of Country-ology and Engineering (1998). Instruction Manual of Ground Sill Structure Design. Sankaido.
7) The Japan Institute of Country-ology and Engineering (2007). Mechanics Design Method of Revetment. Sankaido.
8) U.S. Army Corps of Engineer (1970). Hydraulic design Criteria, Chart 712-4.
9) Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries / Rural Development Bureau (2008). Design Standards for Land Improvement
Project and Their Operation, Commentary and Design (Headworks). The Japanese Society of Irrigation, Drainage and Rural
Engineering.
10) Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries/Rural Development Bureau (2014). Design Standards for Land Improvement
Project and Their Operation, Commentary and Design (Canal Works). The Japanese Society of Irrigation, Drainage and Rural
Engineering.
11) Hydraulic Engineering Committee / The Collection of Hydraulic Formulas Editorial Subcommittee (2018). The Collection
of Hydraulic Formulas. The Japan Society of Civil Engineers.
12) Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (2012). Design Criteria for Water Supply Facilities. Japan Water Works Association
(JWWA).
13) The Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry / Mine Coal Bureau (2003). Standards for Crush Stone Technical
Supervision. Japan Crushed Stone Association.
14) The Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism / Water and Disaster Management Bureau (2020).
Flood Control Economic Survey Manual.
15) Dr. Tetsu Nakamura (2013). Ten Tomoni Ari. NHK Publishing.
16) Tokyo Metropolitan Government Bureau of Sewerage (2001). Reconstruction Design Manual. Tokyo Metropolitan
Sewerage Service Corporation.

Chapter 5
1) PMS, Peshawar-kai, Nihon Denpa News Co., Ltd.
2) JICA Survey Team.
3) Dr. Tetsu Nakamura (2018). The Afghan Green Ground Project. Peace (Japan) Medical Services & Peshawar-kai.
4) The Japan Institute of Country-ology and Engineering (2000). Cabinet Order concerning Structural Standards for River
Management Facilities, etc. Japan River Association.
5) The Japan Institute of Country-ology and Engineering (2007). Mechanics Design Method of Revetment. Sankaido.
6) U.S. Army Corps of Engineer (1970). Hydraulic design Criteria, Chart 712-4.
7) Koichi Yamamoto (1996). Nihon no Suisei (Spur Dikes in Japan). Sankaido.
8) The Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism

Chapter 6
1) PMS, Peshawar-kai, Nihon Denpa News Co., Ltd.
2) JICA Survey Team.
3) Dr. Tetsu Nakamura (2018). The Afghan Green Ground Project. Peace (Japan) Medical Services & Peshawar-kai.

Chapter 7
1) PMS, Peshawar-kai, Nihon Denpa News Co., Ltd.
2) JICA Survey Team.
3) Dr. Tetsu Nakamura (2018). The Afghan Green Ground Project. Peace (Japan) Medical Services & Peshawar-kai.
4) Government of Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (2020). Water Management Affairs Law.
5) JICA (2009). Data collection survey on agriculture sector in northern and northeastern provinces of Afghanistan.
6) The Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism / Water and Disaster Management Bureau (2014).
Technical Criteria for River Works: Practical Guide for Survey.

Chapter 8
1) PMS, Peshawar-kai, Nihon Denpa News Co., Ltd.
2) JICA Survey Team.
3) FAO (1989). IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT Training manual No. 4.

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 Appendix (3) SPECIFICATION OF INTAKE FACILITIES
Detail MarwaridⅠWeir KamaⅠWeir Kama Ⅱ Weir
Items
Construction Year 2003-2010 2008-2010 2010-2012
Type Bend oblique weir Bend oblique weir Bend oblique weir cum Partial movable weir

Weir Width Fixed weir: 280m (total width of Kashkot side: 505m) Fixed weir: 200m Total 200m (Fixed weir part: 180m, sand flush: 20m)

Marwarid side: 20∼60m

Weir Length Fixed weir: 20∼40m Fixed weir; 45∼135m
Kashkot side: 65∼100m

Water head difference on Low water level Water head difference on Low water level Water head difference on Low water level
Height
season: 2.2m season: 1.2m season: 2.2m
Height from Intake Gate
0.6m 0.5m 0.75m
Floor
Intake Weir

Weir slope (Water

Average slop: Marwarid side 0.044 Calculated with water head/weir length Calculated with water head/weir length
surface difference/Weir
Kashkot side: 0.088 0.03∼0.06 0.0044∼0.0133
length)

Weir Area 25,000㎡ 4,000㎡ 11,000㎡

Average water level in the weir (= Intake gate floor
Average water level in the weir Average water level in the weir
Water Level Condition depth) Winter (January-March 2018): 0.67m,
Winter: 0.49m, Summer: 1.45m Winter: 0.69m, Summer: 1.82m
Summer (June-August 2017): 1.47m
Stone Diameter 0.5∼2.0m 0.5∼2.0m 0.5∼2.0m
Installation Angle of the about 30∼45 degrees against river flow
− about 45 degrees against river flow direction
Weir direction

Crest of weir slope : EL+551.080m ∼551.310m Crest of weir slope : EL+549.740m ∼550.070m
Elevation of the facility −
Foot of weir slope : EL+549.780m ∼550.030m Foot of weir slope : EL+547.540m ∼548.210m

Type Construction by boulder Construction by boulder Partial movable weir of manual flush boards

Width, Span Width 2.0m x 5 span Width 2.5m, Single span Width 2.0m x 4 span
Sand Flushing Ditch

Not retaining the original form

Height 0.8m 1.6m
As of March, 2018"

Bed Gradient 0.5/40＝0.0125=1.25% Unknown 0.15/25＝0.006=6‰

Unknown (Impossible to survey due to

Flow Discharge Scheduled to be rebuilt in October 2018 35m3/s at a depth of 1.5 m
worsening security)
Crest of slope：EL+549.960m
Elevation of the facility − Unknown
Foot of slope：EL+548.360m
Spillway Construction by large boulder, width 30m None Construction by large boulder, width 15m
Type Double flush boards Double flush boards Double flush boards

Gate Width, Span Width 1.3m x 3 span Width 1.45m x 3 span Width 1.5m x 4 span
Height 4.0m (include upper slab thickness 0.3 m) 3.5m (include upper slab thickness 0.3 m) 4.0m (include upper slab thickness 0.3 m)
Intake Volume Winter 2.0 2.2 4.0
(m3/s) Summer 4.0 4.4 7.0
Intake Gate

At the time of flood in 2010,the water level

No overflow damage.At the time of the large
jumped up to 3.5m and overflowed the top of old
Water Level Condition Up to now, there is no overflow damage. flood in 2010, the water level rose up to about
intake gate, but the breakage of intake gate was
3m from the intake gate floor level.
avoided.
Intake Mouth Bed
− EL+551.000m EL+549.090m
Elevation
Top of Intake Gate: EL+554.500m Top of Intake Gate: EL+553.890m
Elevation of the facility −
Bottom of Intake Gate: EL+551.030m Bottom of Intake Gate: EL+549.090m

Others − − −

Note: This table shows the information as of March 2018. shows the typical specification. shows constant condition regardless of the site condition.

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 Consideration in case the typical
Miran Weir Marwarid Ⅱ Weir Typical Specification
values are applied to other rivers
2014-2016 2016
Constant condition regardless of the
Bend oblique weir cum Partialy movable weir Bend oblique weir cum partialy movable weir Bend oblique weir cum partialy movable weir
site condition
Total 444m (Fixed weir part: 401m, sand flush 1 Total 270m (fixed weir part: 250m, sand f lush Depend on the river width at the
2 to 3 times of natural river channel width
(movable weir): 19m, sand flush 2 (movable weir): 24m）(movable weir part): 20m) site
Depend on the unit width water
Fixed weir: 25∼55m Fixed weir: 35∼40m (root of sand bar 70m) 25∼50m discharge amount, height of the weir
and river profile
Water head difference on Low water level
Water head difference on Low water level Constant condition regardless of
season, sand f lush 1 (fixed weir 1) : 0.9m, sand Less than 1.5m
season: 1.35m the site condition
f lush 2 (fixed weir 2) : 0.8m
Depend on the intake volume
0.6m 0.7m 0.6∼0.7m
(water demand)
Depend on the unit width water
0.011∼0.024
0.0338∼0.0386 around 0.02 (1/50) discharge amount, height of the weir
(Varies depending on the part)
and river profile
Depend on the weir width and
11,500㎡ 10,500㎡ −
length
Average water level in the weir Average water level in the weir Winter: approx. 0.5m Depend on the river discharge
Winter: 0.47m, Summer: 1.09m Winter: 0.50m, Summer: 1.49m Summer: approx. 1.5m amount
Depend on the river discharge in
0.5∼2.0m 0.5∼2.0m 0.5∼2.0m
case of f lood
about less than 30 degrees against river f low about 30∼45 degrees against river f low Constant condition regardless of the
about 30 degrees against river f low direction
direction direction site condition
Crest of weir slope : EL+560.350m∼
560.440m / EL+560.110m∼560.210m Crest of weir slope : EL+587.030m∼587.260m
− Depend on the elevation at the site
Foot of weir slope : EL+559.140m∼559.190m Foot of weir slope : EL+585.990m∼586.780m
/ EL+559.610m∼559.670m
Constant condition regardless of the
Partialy movable weir of manual flush boards Partialy movable weir of manual flush boards Partialy movable weir of manual flush boards
site condition
Depend on the target particle
Sand f lush 1: width 1.5m×4 span
Width 2.0m×4 span Width 1.5∼2.0m×4 span size of the river bed material to be
Sand f lush 2: width 1.5m×6 span
discharged.
Constant condition regardless of the
Sand gate1: 1.0m, Sand gate2: 0.9m 1.55m 1.5m
site condition
Depend on the target particle
(1) 0.1/28＝0.00357=3.57‰
0.15/25＝0.006=6‰ 3∼6‰ size of the river bed material to be
(2) 0.07/24＝0.00292=2.92‰
discharged.
Depend on the target particle
No survey result as of March, 2018 35m3/s at a depth of 1.5 m 35m3/s at a depth of 1.5 m size of the river bed material to be
discharged.
Crest of slope：EL+560.230m / EL+560.300m Crest of slope：EL+587.130m
− Depend on the elevation at the site
Foot of slope：EL+559.030m / EL+559.100m Foot of slope：EL+585.580m
Construction by large boulder, width 10m Construction by large boulder, width 15m Construction by large boulder, width 15m Depend on the river discharge amount
Constant condition regardless of
Double f lush boards Double f lush boards Double f lush boards
the site condition
Constant condition regardless of
Width 1.5m×4 span Width 1.5m×4 span Width 1.5m×4 span
the site condition
3.0m (include upper slab thickness 0.3 m) 3.2m (include upper slab thickness 0.3 m) 3.5∼4.0m (include upper slab thickness 0.3 m) Depend on HWL
2.0 1.5 Depend on the intake volume Depend on the intake volume (water
4.0 3.5 Depend on the intake volume demand)
Erosion occurred at the time of construction
Flood season water level: 1.5 to 2.0m from the
in 2015, the bank line of proposed location
intake gate floor level;Large Flood in 2010: 2.5m − Depend on HWL
for intake gate was moved about 50m toward
from the intake gate floor level
landside.No spill or erosion damage after construction.
Depend on the existing river bed
EL+559.600m EL+586.580m −
elevation
Top of Intake Gate: EL+562.600m Top of Intake Gate: EL+589.780m
− Depend on HWL and LWL
Bottom of Intake Gate: EL+559.600m Bottom of Intake Gate: EL+586.580m
Diversion gate, KacharaⅠ, was installed
− adjacent to the intake gate, − −
height× width: 3m×1.8m

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 Items Detail MarwaridⅠWeir KamaⅠWeir Kama Ⅱ Weir

Canal Width 4.5∼10m Existing canal width 4.0m 5.0m

Revetment Height Gabion mattress 1.8m Excavation without timbering (about 2m) Gabion mattress 1.6m
Main Irrigation Canal

Canal Length 25km 1,390m 1,040m

0.00125 to sedimentation basin (1.6km post),
Gradient of Canal More than 0.0015 More than 0.0015
toward downstream 0.0005∼0.0010
Water Level / LWL+0.6m (Q=5.73㎥ /s)
− −
Flow Discharge Condition HWL+0.9m (Q=10.70㎥ /s)
Water depth D<0.5m ; n=0.012,
Roughness Coefficient 0.012∼0.016 (depend on the section) Unknown
Water depth D>0.5m ; n=0.013
Canal bed: soil cement lining, Canal bed: soil cement lining,
Others Canal wall: gabion mattress, wicker works on − Canal wall: gabion mattress, wicker works on
landside landside
Area − −
and Regulating Pond

Depth 2m 2m
Sand Basin

Gradient of Sand Drain

− −
Canal No sedimentation basin
Water Transmission
− −
Gate
Drain Gate − −

Number of Places − 1 place

Flood Plain EL+551.567m ∼552.694m Flood Plain EL+552.179m ∼552.551m
River Bed Height −
Deepest Riverbed EL+546.425m Deepest Riverbed EL+548.149m
Revetment etc.

EL+555.003m EL+554.180m
Dike Height −
Dike and

1.049m height from landside ground elevation 1.445m height from landside ground elevation
Crest Width − 8.439m 8.116m
Dike Width − 15.033m 18.759m
River side: 1:3.01 River side: 1:2.92
Slope Gradient −
Land side: 1:2.68 Land side: 1:2.47
176.010m (main channel part) 289.308m (main channel part)
River Width −
1711.155m (include flood plain) 2264.856m (include flood plain)
Natural Condition

River Bed Gradient 1/357 1/357 1/357

(Additional)

Farmland Ground Height

(Cross section survey − EL+553.954m ∼555.065m EL+551.561m ∼552.735m
point)
Farmland Ground Height
(Beneficially farmland − EL+548.220 EL+547.010
point)

Note: This table shows the information as of March 2018. shows the typical specification. shows constant condition regardless of the site condition.

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 Consideration in case the typical
Miran Weir Marwarid Ⅱ Weir Typical Specification
values are applied to other rivers
Depend on the intake volume
5.0m 5m width up to 1.5km post. 5.0m
(water demand)
Gabion mattress Depend on the intake volume
Gabion mattress 1.6m Gabion mattress 1.6m
Height=1.5∼1.6m (water demand)
Depend on the distance to irrigation beneficiary Depend on the distance to
450m 4,920m
area irrigation beneficiary area
Constant condition regardless of
More than 0.0015 More than 0.0015 More than 0.0015
the site condition
LWL+0.4m (Q=3.17㎥/s) LWL+0.4m (Q=2.38㎥/s) LWL around +0.5m Depend on the intake volume
HWL+0.6m (Q=5.97㎥/s) HWL+0.7m (Q=5.67㎥/s) HWL around +0.8m (water demand)
Water depth D<0.5m ; n=0.012, Water depth D<0.5m ; n=0.012, Water depth D<0.5m ; n=0.012, Constant condition regardless of
Water depth D>0.5m ; n=0.013 Water depth D>0.5m ; n=0.013 Water depth D>0.5m ; n=0.013 the site condition
Canal bed: soil cement lining, Canal bed: soil cement lining, Canal bed: soil cement lining,
Constant condition regardless of
Canal wall: gabion mattress, wicker works on Canal wall: gabion mattress, wicker works on Canal wall: gabion mattress, wicker works on
the site condition
landside landside landside
Depend on the intake volume (water
Width× Length = 27m×40m Width× Length = 20m ×82m About 1100∼1600㎥
demand) and target particle size
Constant condition regardless of
2m 2m 2m
the site condition
Constant condition regardless of
1/67 (15cm/10m) 1/100 1/100
the site condition
2 places, width 1.5m ×1 span, Depend on the number of irrigation
2 places 2 places
width 1.5m×3 span beneficially area for water transmission
1 place, gate: 1.7m×1.7m, box culvert: 1.6m×1.5m 2 places, gate: 1.7m×1.8m, box culvert: 1.6m×1.6m 2 places, gate: 1.7m×1.8m, box culvert: 1.6m×1.6m Depend on the number of drainage point
Depend on the distance of main
1 place 4 places 1 site per 1km
irrigation canal
Flood Plain EL+560.369m ∼561.512m Flood Plain EL+588.175m ∼590.093m
− Depend on the elevation at the site
Deepest Riverbed EL+557.241m Deepest Riverbed EL+585.154m
EL+563.968m EL+596.475m Depend on the flood discharge
more than 1.2m freeboard
2.234m height from landside ground elevation 7.868m height from flood plain amount
Constant condition regardless of
10.292m No dike due to digging shape of channel more than 8.0m (min. 5.0m)
the site condition
20.856m − approx. 20m Depend on the dike height
River side: 1:1.65 River side: 1:2.0 Constant condition regardless of
−
Land side: 1:2.0 Land side: 1:2.0 the site condition
244.104m (main channel part) 133.340m (main channel part) Depend on the river width at the
−
936.426m (include flood plain) 1325.381m (include flood plain) site
1/357 1/357 − Depend on the river gradient at the site
Depend on the ground elevation at
EL+562.010m ∼564.032m EL+595.927m ∼597.302m −
the site

Depend on the ground elevation at

EL+558.700 EL+576.740 −
the site

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 Appendix (4) CALCULATION SAMPLES
ANALYSIS METHOD FOR SANDBAR AND
SCOURING USING HYDRAULIC PARAMETERS
1.1 Classifications of Sandbar
Sandbars are classified into alternate sandbars and double row sandbars as shown in Figure 1. Both of these sandbars have their own
characteristics such as the location of erosion, and tend to move during floods. These sandbars can be classified by grasping their
situation from satellite images as shown in Figure 2. In addition, as shown in Figure 3, sandbars can be classified by plotting the
hydraulic parameters obtained by non uniform flow calculation. There are also sandbars that form inside bending or meandering
curves (convex parts), and they are often suitable sites for intake weir since such sandbars tend to be fixed.

r
5B 15B

2B 6B

Riverbank erosion
Riverbank
Legend
Streamway
B B River width
r Curve radius
a) Alternate Bars b) Double Row Bars c) Bars at Curve
Figure 1 Classifications of Sandbar 2) ,see 12)

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 Alternate Bars Double Row Bars
Alternate Bars Double Row Bars

Sandbars formed inside bending or meandering

Figure 2 Understanding Sandbars from Satellite Images 17)
Sandbars formed inside bending or meandering
1000 Sample Case：

500 B HL d B/HL H L /d
1000 Sample Case：
186.4 1.94 0.091 96 21
500 B HL d B/HL H L /d
→Classified as a double-row sandbar
double-row bars 186.4 1.94 0.091 96 21
→Classified as a double-row sandbar
50 double-row bars
B/H L

alternate bars
50
B/H L

10
alternate bars
5
10 small-scale riverbed configuration - semi-alternate sandbars

5
1 small-scale riverbed configuration
50 100 - semi-alternate
500 1000 sandbars
5000 10000
HL/d

1
50 100 500 1000 5000 10000
HL/d
B: river width (m), HL: water depth during the f lood of average annual maximum discharge (The average annual maximum
discharge is the average discharge of each year's maximum discharge.) (m), d: representative particle size of riverbed material (m)
Figure 3 Classifications of Occurrence of Sandbar 2), see 12

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 1.2 Analysis of Scouring
It is difficult to comprehend riverbed fluctuation patterns such as scouring and hence the evaluation is made based on the research
results in Japan, although it is necessary to collect more data to improve the accuracy. Riverbed fluctuation patterns such as scouring
are related to sandbars, and the scouring depth (ΔZ in the figure below) is evaluated using hydraulic parameters such as sandbar
wave height and water depth, which are also shown in the figure below. The scouring depth ΔZ is the difference between the average
riverbed height and the deepest riverbed height, and is a value indicating how much scouring has occurred from the average riverbed
height.

river cross section river width B

water depth during the flood of average
annual maximum discharge HL (m)

average riverbed height

△Z deepest riverbed height
maximum water sandbar wave height
depth at the scouring Hs
Hmax-s (m)
Figure 4 Hydraulic Parameters of Scouring 2) ,see 18)

The scour depth has a value obtained from the actual cross section and a value estimated from hydraulic parameters by non uniform
flow calculation as shown below. The value obtained from the cross section is the state at the time of survey. The values of hydraulic
parameters are based on research results. For example, if the scouring depth obtained from the cross section is smaller than the
scouring depth obtained from hydraulic parameters, the scouring depth can be deepened; that is, the sandbar can be raised or the
deepest riverbed can be lowered (scouring). In this way, the riverbed fluctuation situation can be analyzed.
The planar shape of the river channel is unique to each segment, and scouring can be evaluated by the method shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Evaluation Method of Scouring for Segments and River Channel Shape 2) , see 18)

River Channel Shape Segment 1 Segment 2 Segment 3

Evaluation by sandbar wave height using Formula 1.
Straight River Channel no sandbar

(Single) Curved River Evaluation by ratio of curve radius and river width (γ/B) using Figure 6.
Channel

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 （1）Straight River Channel
In the straight river channel, each segment has its sandbar fluctuation characteristics, and the sandbars formed by the river channels
of Segments 1 and 2 which are commonly found in Afghanistan, move during floods(such as the alternate bars or double row bars in
Figure 1). The scouring depth is governed by the sandbar wave height, and the sandbar wave height is governed by the water depth
and river width at the average annual maximum discharge. The scouring depth can be estimated by the following formula:

ΔZ=0.8Hs ……………………………………………………………………………………… （Formula1）

ΔZ: scouring depth (m) (difference between the average riverbed height and the deepest riverbed height), Hs: sandbar wave height
(m) (estimated from the figure below)

Sample Case ：→Δ =0.8x6.99=5.59

B HL d B/HL HL/d H s /H L H s
186.4 1.94 0.091 96 21 3.6 6.99

〇
HL /d−5~20
HL/d
〇 5~10
〇

Hs /HL 〇 HL /d≒25 ● 10~20

△ 20~30
〇〇 〇 △

3.0 〇
△
〇 HL /d≒50 ▲ 30~40
●
〇 〇〇 〇 □ 40~60
〇 〇
●〇〇 〇〇
● ■ 60~100
〇 △〇 〇
〇 〇 〇 〇
〇 〇〇 △ □ HL : water depth during the flood of average annual
〇 △ △
〇〇 〇 〇 〇 maximum discharge (m)
〇 〇 ●
2.0 ■ 〇
■ Hs: sandbar wave height (m)
〇
△ △ B: river width
〇 △
〇
□ ▲
■ HL /d＜100
〇● ●△ d: representative particle size of riverbed material
〇 ●〇〇 〇△ □ (m)
〇△ 〇 〇 〇
〇〇 〇● 〇 □

〇
〇 〇〇
■
τ* : dimensionless tractive force （=u*/(s ・g・d)）
〇〇
〇 ●△〇〇 u* : friction velocity (=g ・H L・I) 0.5
1.0 〇 〇 〇〇●▲
s: underwater specific gravity of riverbed material
〇 ▲
△
〇 〇 〇
HL/d＞500
〇 〇〇 （≒1.65 ）
●
〇 □ g: acceleration of gravity
〇 △
●〇
HL/d=100 I: energy gradient (Riverbed gradient can be
△●
〇 △ ●
△● ●
HL/d=200 substituted for segment 1 and 2 (partial) .)
0 〇〇〇
●●〇〇
HL/ d=300
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 B/HL
Relationship between H/HL and B/HL
(However , τ* is in the range of 0.03 to 0.4)
Figure 5 Chart for Estimating Hs from Hydraulic Parameter 2) , see 18)

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 （2）(Single) Curved River Channel
The curved river channel of Segment 1 generally does not have a remarkable curve, but it is necessary to confirm scouring on site
when it is forcibly curved due to bedrock. In addition, the curved river channel of Segment 2 is scoured by the secondary current or
sandbar.
The scouring depth is governed by the water depth at the target discharge. The scouring at the average annual maximum discharge
is estimated from the water depth of the maximum scouring part estimated from the figure below. The curve radius, river width, and
water depth estimated in (1) are required. Although there are currently insufficient research results on the method of estimating the
scouring depth at the target discharge, it is considered to evaluate the scouring depth at the average annual maximum discharge by
adding extra value.

3.0 Only for sandbar formation rivers

2.0

1.0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 88
r/B
r: curve radius, B: river width, Hmax: maximum water depth at the scouring during the f lood of average annual maximum discharge at curve,
Hmaxs: maximum water depth at the scouring during the f lood of average annual maximum discharge at straight river channel estimated from
Formula 1
Figure 6 Evaluation of Scouring in Curved and Meandering River Channel 2) , see 18)
pathway of entry of flood

助走区間≧

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 EXAMPLE OF DESIGN CALCULATION FOR IRRIGATION FACILITIES
1.1 Example Calculation for Stable Boulders
（1）Calculation Method for Stable Stone Size
The highest flow velocity among the critical flow velocities around the weir crest, in the weir apron part and at the overflow water
depth (the area immediately downstream of the weir apron) is applied as the design flow velocity to calculate the required stone size
corresponding to the design flow velocity using the stability examination model for stone masonry with low integrity . When the
weir apron gradient is low and the Froude number is F_r<1, no torrential flow, the critical water depth or critical flow velocity is
applied. In this case, the required stone size is calculated using the flow velocity of normal flow in the weir apron part.

（2）Stability Examination Model for Stone Masonry with Low Integrity

Earth and water pressure will be the major causes of destruction when the slope gradient exceeds 1:1.5, while the fluid force will be
a major cause of destruction when the gradient is lower than 1:1.5. Since the oblique boulder weir comprising stone masonry using
natural boulders has a low gradient, the stone masonry is destroyed by the tractive force rather than the yield strength exerted from
the rear by earth pressure. Accordingly, the stability of the oblique boulder weir shall be considered using the following stability
examination model for stone masonry with low integrity .
For stone masonry having low integrity with adjacent members, the key is whether the critical tractive force of all stone materials
exceeds the tractive force of the river and remains stable.

Treat as a single unit

Figure 1.1.1 The Stability Examination Model for Stone Masonry with Low Integrity in which the Tractive
Force of the River Causes Destruction

(3)Calculation Condition
Overflow Discharge Volume: Q=1200m3/s
Weir Width: W=105m
Weir Height: h=0.91m
Weir Length: l=30.7m

(4)Calculation of Design Flow Velocity

a) Critical flow velocity at the weir crest
Gradient of weir apron : I = h/l = 0.91/30.7 = 0.03
Unit width discharge : q = Q/W = 1200÷105 = 11.43㎥/s
Critical water depth : hc = q/vc=(q/√g)2/3 = (11.43/9.811/2)2/3 = 2.37m
Critical flow velocity : vc = √(ghc) = (9.81*2.37) 1/2 = 4.82m/s
b) Calculation of flow velocity at the weir apron portion
Flow depth at the weir apron portion:
h2 = q/v2 = (q/((1/n)*I1/2))3/5 = (11.43/((1/0.035)×0.031/2))3/5) = 1.66m
Flow velocity at the weir apron portion:
v2 = q/h2 = 11.43/1.66 = 6.89m/s
Froude number of this case is Fr = U / √( gh ) = 6.89 / √( 9.81 x 1.66 )=1.7 > 1.0 and since the flow velocity is faster than critical
flow velocity, the flow condition is super critical flow.

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 c) Calculation of flow velocity at the area immediately downstream of the weir apron
Critical flow depth:hc = 2.37m
Weir height:D = 0.91m
Flow depth immediately downstream of apron:h2=1.66m
From the above, the relationship of hc + D> h2 is established, and since it is in a complete overflow state, the flow velocity at the
immediate downstream part of the weir apron is calculated using the unit width flow rate q = 11.43m3/s at the time of design flood
water discharge.

…………………………………………………………………………… (1)

…………………………………………………………………………… (2)

To achieve φ=ψ in the above two formulas, the water depth at the edge of the downstream portion of the apron (h1a) is calculated
from the critical water depth at the weir crest and the flow velocity (v1a) can be calculated using the following formula (3):

……………………………………………………………………………………………………… (3)

Here, weir height: Z1＝0.91m, critical water depth: h1＝2.37m, unit width water discharge: q=11.43m3/s, flow section area: A1
＝2.37m2 (area in unit width), hydraulic radius: R1≒h1＝2.37m (Approximate by water depth), roughness coefficient: n1＝0.035,
n1a=0.035
Therefore, when φ = ψ, the water level at the immediately downstream end of the weir apron (h1a) is h1a = 1.5m.
Flow velocity at the area immediately downstream of the weir apron : v1a = q/h1a = 11.43/1.5 = 7.62m/s
Among the above a), b), and c), the flow velocity v1a = 7.62 m/s at the immediate downstream part of the weir apron where the flow
velocity is highest is applied as the representative flow velocity.
Correction coefficient by curve of the river alignment:α = 1+B/2r = 1.05
Here, river width: B＝105m, radius of curvature of the river channel : r = 1km
Design flow velocity : Vo = α*v1a = 1.05*7.62 = 8.00m/s

(5) Setting of Stone Diameter

Design flow velocity : Vo = 8.00m/s
Stone density:ρs = 2650kg/㎥
Water density:ρw = 1000kg/㎥
Experimental coefficient showing the turbulence intensity : E1 = 1.2
Average particle diameter of stones : Dm=Vo2/(E12*2*9.81*(ρs/ρw−1))=8.002/(1.22*2*9.81*(2650/1000−1)) = 1.37m
1))=8.002/(1.22*2*9.81*(2650/1000 -1))=1.37m
Correction coefficient by slope angle : K = 1.001
Stone diameter: D = K・Dm = 1.001*1.37 = 1.38m or more.

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 1.2 Example Design Calculation of Flush Board for Intake Gate
(1) Calculation Method of Flush Board
The flush board applied in PMS method irrigation project has a structure in which one side of Himalayan cedar with a length of 1.7
m, a height of 20 cm, and a thickness of 5 cm is reinforced with 4 mm thick steel plates.
Flush boards at the intake gate are checked from the viewpoints of a) bending, b) shearing, and c) deflection. The formulas for each
calculation are shown below.

Reinforce the surface

of Himalayan cedar with
steel plates

Figure 1.2.1 Flush Board with Reinforced Himalayan Cedar

a) Bending
Bending stress intensity :σ= M／Z ≦ fb × Cf
σ : Bending stress intensity (N / mm2) = M／Z
M : Maximum bending moment (N・mm) = w × L2／8
Z : Section modulus (mm3) = b × h2／6
fb: Allowable bending stress intensity (N / mm2)
(Wood : 28.2N/mm2, Steel plate : 140N/mm2, Synthetic stress intensity : 36.5N/mm2）
Cf : Dimensional effect factor = (300／h)1/9
W: Water pressure per unit length of flush board (N / mm)
L : Length of flush board=1700mm
B : Thickness of flush board=50mm
H : Height of flush board=200mm
b) Shearing
Shearing stress intensity:τ= 1.5 ×Q／A ≦ fs
τ : Shearing stress intensity (N / mm2) = 1.5×Q／A
Q : Maximum shear force (N) = w×L／2
A : Cross-sectional area (mm2) = b×h
Fs : Allowable shear stress intensity (N / mm2)
c) Deflection
Deflection: δ×2 ≦ L/250 (Allowable deflection)
δ: Deflection (mm) = 5・w・L4／384・E・I
I : Moment of inertia (mm4) = b×h3／12
E：Young's modulus (N / mm2)

(2) Example of Flush Board Design Calculation

A calculation example is shown under the conditions of Marwarid II case.
a) Design Condition
HWL：EL+589.05m
Base elevation of intake gate: EL+586.58m

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 Design water level: Base elevation of intake gate + 2.47m
Flush board height per sheet : h=0.2m=200mm
Water pressure per unit length of flush board : w = 2.47×9.81× 0.2 = 4.8 N/mm
b) Stable verification of the flush board for bending
Bending stress intensity :σ(N/mm2) = M/Z = 1,361,588÷360,000 = 3.8 < fb×Cf = 36.5×1.05=38.2 ----OK
Maximum bending moment:M (N・mm) = w×L2/8 = (4.8×15002)/8 = 1,361,588 N・mm
Distributed load : w (N/mm) = 4.8 N/mm
Beam length : L (mm) = 1500mm
Section module : Z (mm3) = b×h2/6 = ((50+4×1)× 2002)/6 = 360,000mm3
Allowable bending stress intensity : ffb (N/mm2) = 36.5N/mm2
∵Allowable bending stress intensity (Wood : 28.2N/mm2, Steel plate : 140N/mm2, Synthetic stress intensity : 36.5N/mm2 /
Board thickness 50mm + steel plate 4mm×1)
Dimensional effect factor : Cf = (300/h)1/9= (300/200)1/9= 1.05
c) Stable verification of the flush board for shearing
Shearing stress intensity :τ(N/mm2) = 1.5×Q/A = 1.5×3,631÷10,800 = 0.50 < fs = 8.9 ----OK
Maximum shear force : Q (N) = w×L/2 = (4.8×1500)/2=3,631 N
Distributed load : w (N/mm) = 4.8 N/mm
Beam length: L (mm) = 1500mm
Cross-sectional area : A (mm2) = b×h = (50+4×1)×200 = 10,800
Allowable shear stress intensity:fs (N/mm2) =8.9N/mm2
∵Allowable shear stress intensity (Wood : 2.4N/mm2, Steel plate : 90N/mm2, Synthetic stress intensity : 8.9N/mm2 / Board
thickness 50mm + steel plate 4mm×1)
d) Stable verification of the flush board for deflection
Deflection :δ(mm) = 5wL4/384EI=(5×4.8×15004)÷(384×24,266×36,000,000) = 0.37
δx 2 = 0.37×2 = 0.73< L/250 =6 ----OK
Allowable deflection：L/250 (mm) = 1500÷250 = 6
Distributed load : w (N/mm) = 4.8 N/mm
Beam length : L (mm) = 1500mm
Moment of inertia : I (mm4) = b×h3/12 = ((50+4×1)×2003)/12=36,000,000mm4
Young's modulus : E (N/mm2) = 24,266N/mm2
∵Young's modulus (Wood : 9,807N/mm2, Steel plate : 205,000N/mm2, Synthetic stress intensity : 24,266N/mm2 / Board
thickness 50mm + steel plate 4mm×1)

1.3 Calculation Example of Sand Flushing Capacity of Sand Flushing Ditch

(1) Calculation of Objective Particle Size for Sand Flushing
The flow velocity V and hydraulic radius R at the designed flood discharge in the target river are calculated using the Manning
equation (1) to determine the critical friction velocity U*c using formula (2). Using this value allows the particle size of sands to be
flushed at the ditch to be calculated as the critical particle size for sediment movement from Iwagaki s formula as shown in Chapter
3. It is expected that gravel of size smaller than the critical particle size flows from upstream during flooding and is accumulated in
the sedimentation pool immediately upstream of the intake weir.

Manning equation : ……………………………………………………………………………… (1)

Formula for the critical particle size for sediment movement: ………………………………………………… (2)

Iwagaki s formula (see Chapter 3): the critical particle size for sediment movement is determined by an empirical formula
concerning the relation between the critical friction velocity and critical particle size for sediment movement.
Here: V: flow velocity (m/s), R: hydraulic radius (m), g: gravitational acceleration (m/s2), I: riverbed gradient, n: roughness
coefficient, U*c: critical friction velocity
The following is an example calculation of the critical particle size of sediment movement at the time of flood discharge Q =

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 2,050m3/s near the Marwarid II Weir. According to the calculation using Manning formula, the flow velocity and hydraulic radius
when the flood discharge is applied to the river cross section at the Marwarid II Weir are V = 1.53 m/s and R=1.01. The riverbed
gradient is I = 1/357. Therefore, the friction velocity is as follows.

Friction velocity , U* = √9.81×1.01×(1/357)=0.17

From the results of the riverbed material survey, it is known that the representative particle size is about 3cm or more. Therefore, the
critical particle for sediment movement is calculated as follows applying the formula of U*2=80.9d.

d= U*2/80.9 = (0.17×100) 2/80.9×10=34.1mm

From the above, gravel smaller than this particle size may be washed away during floods and deposited behind the intake weir.

（2）Confirmation of Sand Flushing Capacity of Sand Flushing Ditch

The longitudinal gradient of the bottom of the sand flushing ditch is set so that the tractive force for discharging the accumulated
gravel in the sedimentation pool immediately upstream of the intake weir can be secured. If the critical particle size for sediment
movement calculated from the tractive force at sand flushing ditch is larger than the objective particle size in the preceding
paragraph, the gravel below the objective particle size can be flushed out. The following is an example calculation of the critical
particle size for sediment movement at the Marwarid II weir. The calculation conditions are as follows.
a) Calculation condition
Width・number of gates : 2.0 m×４Span
Height of sand flushing ditch : 1.5 m
Longitudinal gradient of sand flushing ditch : 1/166
b) Confirmation of sand flushing capacity
Based on the above calculation condition,
Hydraulic radius is R = A/S = (1.5×2×4)/(1.55×8 + 2×4) = 0.6
Friction velocity is , U* = √9.81×0.6×(1/166) = 0.19
From the results of the riverbed material survey, it is known that the representative particle size is about 3cm or more. Therefore, the
critical particle size for sediment movement is calculated as follows applying the formula of U*2=80.9d.
d= U*2/80.9 = (0.19 ×100) 2/80.9×10=43.6mm > 34.1mm
The flow velocity in this case is V=1/0.035 x 0.62/3× (1/166)1/2=1.57m/s from the Manning formula.
In this result, since the diameter of the particle size flushed out by the sand flushing ditch is larger than the objective particle size of
34.1mm obtained in the previous section, it is possible to flush out the deposited sand and gravel.

1.4 Examination of Cross-Sectional Area of Underground Pipe of Siphon

（1）Calculation Formula of Head Loss by Underground Pipe of Siphon
The head loss at siphon is calculated as follows.

………………………………………………………………………………………………… (1)

Here, H: siphon head loss (m), i: hydraulic gradient to the flow velocity in the siphon underground pipe, L: siphon underground
pipe length (m), g: gravitational acceleration (＝9.81m/s2), α: 50 to 80mm, β: 1.5 as the standard.

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 Siphon head
loss
River or Canal etc.

Vertical Shaft
Underground
pipe Underground pipe Sedimentation
pool

Underground pipe length: L

Figure 1.4.1 Structure and Water Level of the Siphon

（2）Calculation Example of Underground Pipe Design of Siphon

Under the following conditions, the canal bottom elevation of the downstream canal is determined.
The water level in the upstream canal is calculated from the following:
・Upstream canal bottom elevation EL+0.00m
・Underground pipe length of siphon ℓ=18.00m
・ Section of upstream canal bottom width 5.0m, wall height 2.0m
・Upstream canal gradient i=0.0008
・Roughness coefficient n=0.012
・Discharge amount q=2.0㎥/s
From the above conditions, the following can be derived using the Manning formula:
・Velocity v=1.095m/s
・Water depth h=0.36m
The water level in the upstream canal is as follows:
・The water level in the upstream canal＝EL+0.00 + 0.36＝EL＋0.36m
Next, the head loss (H) due to the inverted siphon is calculated.
The flow velocity in the inverted siphon shall be set to about 20% higher than the flow velocity in the upstream canal.
・Flow velocity for inverted siphon v = 1.095×1.2 =1.314m/s

From the above, the actual flow velocity is calculated in some cases of cross sectional area of inverted siphon. Based on the formula of
Q＝AV, it is calculated as follows:
□1.1×1.1 : V= q/A = 2.0 / (1.1×1.1) = 1.653m/s
□1.2×1.2 : V= q/A = 2.0 / (1.2×1.2) = 1.389m/s
□1.25×1.25 : V= q/A = 2.0 / (1.25×1.25) = 1.280m/s
□1.3×1.3 : V= q/A = 2.0 / (1.3×1.3) = 1.183m/s
Therefore, it is appropriate to set the cross sectional area of the inverted siphon to about □ 1.25 x 1.25.
From the following Manning formula,

The hydrodynamic gradient I of the inverted siphon is calculated.

V : Velocity 1.28 m/s
I : Gradient
R : Hydraulic radius WA/WP = 0.313m
WA : Flow sectional area 1.25×1.25 = 1.56 m2
WP : Wetted perimeter 1.25×4 =5m
n : Roughness coefficient 0.013

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 From the above, the hydrodynamic gradient is I = 0.0013.
From the following siphon head loss formula,

H : Head loss (m)

i : Hydrodynamic gradient with respect to the flow velocity in the inverted siphon
ℓ : Underground pipe length of siphon (m)
v : Flow velocity in underground pipe of siphon (m/s)
g : Gravitational acceleration (9.81m/s2)
α : Usually set to 5∼8cm
Based on the above, the head loss is calculated as follows:

H= 0.0013 18.0 + 1.5 + 0.05=0.198m≒0.2m

The water level in the downstream canal is as follows:
EL+0.36 (water level in the upstream canal)–0.2 = EL+0.16m
Since the cross-sectional shape of the downstream canal is the same as that of upstream canal, the water depth is the same and is 0.36
m.
Therefore, the bottom elevation of the downstream canal shall be set to the elevation equal to or less than the following value:
EL+0.16–0.36 = EL–0.2m

1.5 Example Calculation for Sand Flushing Capacity of Drain Gate

（1）Operation Method of Drain Gate
The PMS operation method of the drain gate of the sand basin is as follows:
▶The drain gate is fully closed from December to March (in winter) when the amount of water intake is low, and is open at all other
times. Therefore, the drain gate is opened and closed twice a year, opened at the end of the dry season and closed at the end of the
flood season.
▶The height of the gate opening of the drain gate is about 30 cm, and drainage is performed from the bottom of the drain gate.
▶The water depth in the sand basin is always kept at about 2 m during operation for drainage and sediment removal.
Figure 1.5.1 shows an image of sand flushing from the drain gate in the sand basin. The sand deposited in the sand basin
is discharged together with water from the opening at the bottom of the drain gate acting like an orifice, which flushes the
sediment deposited on the bottom of the sand basin.

Sand basin
Drain gate

h 1 ＝２ｍ

Ｈ
h２

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 (2) Calculation of Sand Flushing Capacity of Drain Gate
The drainage discharge amount at the bottom of the drain gate is calculated by the following formula which is applied to calculate
the drainage discharge amount from the sluiceway and culvert. An example calculation on sand basin at Miran is shown as follows:

h2

H h1

Submerged outflow : h2≧H C＝0.75 …………………………………………………… (1)

Subsurface outflow: h2＜H and h1≧3/2H C＝0.51…………………………………………………… (2)
Free outflow : h2＜H and h1＜3/2H C=0.79 …………………………………………………… (3)

However, when free outflow is h1 / h2≧3/2, it is replaced into h2 =2/3 h1.

Here, H: height of sluice gate/culvert, B: width, h1: deeper water among those measured from the outflow base elevation, h2:
shallower water depth
Since the water depth of the sand basin is about 2 m and the opening height of the drain gate is about 30 cm, the intermediate
outflow formula is applied among the above formulas.
Drainage discharge amount: Q=CBH√2gh1=0.51 1.6 0.3 √2 9.81 2.0=1.53m3/s
Drainage flow velocity: V=Q/A=1.53 / (1.6 0.3) =3.2m/s
Drainage gradient: I=1/67
Hydraulic radius: R=A/S= (1.6 0.3) / ((1.6+0.3) 2) =0.126
Friction velocity: U*＝√(gRI), U*＝√9.81 0.126 (1/67) =0.136
From the results of the riverbed material survey, it is known that the representative particle size is generally less than 1 mm. Therefore,
the critical particle size for sediment movement is d = U*2/55 = (0.136 x 100)2 / 55 10 = 33.6mm from the formula of U*2 = 55.0d,
and sand with a particle size of less than 1 mm can be discharged.

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