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Forest Fires in India: A Review

Article · July 2021

DOI: 10.51201/JUSST/21/07129

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Journal of University of Shanghai for Science and Technology ISSN: 1007-6735

Forest Fires in India: A Review

Reuben Sewak1, Mehak Vashisth1, Lovleen Gupta1*

*
Corresponding Author E-mail: [email protected]
1
Department of Environmental Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Delhi – 110042,
India

Abstract: Forest fire has become extreme and has increased in

frequency worldwide with India being no exception. In view of this,
the present-day knowledge about the forest fire condition in India
has been reviewed. The forest cover in India is divided into four
clusters namely North Himalayan, North-Eastern, Southern, and
Central. Of these clusters, it has been found that though the North-
Eastern cluster encompasses the maximum area (55%) of all the
clusters in India, it accounts for meagre 16% of the burnt forest area.
The central cluster has been found to be the most vulnerable to forest
fires as ~56% of the total burnt area lies in this region, though it
covers only 28% of the forest cover. In North-East fires tend to
concentrate in a smaller area that is subject to repeated burns
whereas in Central and Southern India they are more expansive. The
impacts of forest fires on biodiversity, forest species, climate
change, and soil characteristics in India are presented and various
strategies adopted by the Indian government in order to detect and
control the forest fires are presented. Additionally, the economic
impact of forest fires is estimated to be over INR 1101 crore/year.

Keywords: Forest Fire, Clusters, MODIS, Forest Survey of India, Flora,

Fauna

1. Introduction
Forests are crucial to life; they sustain biodiversity and provide endless
incalculable products and important ecosystem resources such as storage of
carbon, flood & landslide control, clean supply of water, medicines, and
crops (Bonell et al., 2010; Krishnaswamy et al., 2009). The global forest
comprises 4.06 billion hectares of the area which is equivalent to 31% of the
total land area (FAO, 2020). Approximately 1.6 billion people across the
world depend on these forests, including 300 million people living within
them (WWF, 2011). Between the years 2000 to 2010, a decline of the forest
area by about 5.2 million hectares per year (0.1% of the total forest area) has
been discerned (FAO, 2020). Forests face various aggravations that can
cause harmful effects to their health and productivity along with decreasing
their ability to supply products and services. Forest fires being one of them,
is ubiquitous and can take place in nearly any ecosystem (Archibald et al.,
2013). While fire has been used in crop rotation, agricultural plowing, and

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the production of pasture for domesticated animals since ancient times,

socioeconomic changes have caused traditional uses to be abandoned (Vidal-
Macua et al., 2018).

Forest fires are accounted to be a burgeoning phenomenon over the years ravaging
ecosystems, communities, and economies (Jhariya & Raj, 2014). Increasing
human reliance on forests for a number of reasons leads to their fragmentation
which further aggravates fire events (Cochrane, 2003). Various studies
(Cochrane, 2003; Grutzen & Andreae, 1990; Penner et al., 1992) mention that
forest fires have become extreme and have increased in frequency worldwide.
The impact of forest fires have been documented on biodiversity (Granström,
2001), human life (Finlay et al., 2012; Fowler, 2003), climate change (Wotton et
al., 2003, 2010) along with their associated economic impacts (González-Cabán,
2013; Kim et al., 2011; Úbeda & Sarricolea, 2016). India with 21.67% (7,12,249
km2) area under forests is no exception to forest fires. 55% of forests in India are
vulnerable to intermittent fires (Forest Survey of India, 2011a) and fires affect
around 3.73 million hectares of forests annually (Chandra & Kumar Bhardwaj,
2015). In addition, population growth in India has triggered substantial
deforestation, causing further fragmentation of existing forests. “Present biotic
pressures like logging, grazing, and collection of non-timber forest products have
also rendered Indian forests susceptible to fires” (Narendran et al., 2001).
This study reviews the scientific literature available to date that examines the
forest fires in India from an environmental, social, and planning perspective. This
study presents the overall forest and forest fire scenario in India, including the
impacts and fire prevention strategies. This paper presents a new contribution to
the knowledge of forest fire scenario in India.

2. Forest fire in India: general trends

India occupies just only 2.5% of the global geographical area, 1.8% of the overall
forest area and it supports 16% of the total human population (Ashutosh &
Satendra, 2014). The forest cover in India, according to the Forest Survey of India
is 71.22 Mha, constituting 21.67 % of the total area, which represents 3.02% very
dense, 9.39% moderately dense and 9.26% as open forest ( Forest Survey of India,
2011b). Out of the 647 districts in India, nearly 380-445 districts encountered
fires every year from 2003 to 2016 (World Bank, 2018). According to MODIS
(Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) forest fire detections,
approximately 37,059 fires were detected in 2018 (Forest Survey of India, 2011b).
The classification of Indian forests is shown in Table 1, which shows that nearly
4% of the forest area in the country is extremely vulnerable to fire, while more
than 6% is found to be highly vulnerable to fire.
Table 1: Classification of Indian Forests
% of total forest
Forest fire prone classes Forest cover (in km2)
cover
Extremely fire prone 25,617 3.89
Highly fire prone 39,500 6.01
Fire prone 75,952 11.5

Moderately fire prone 96,422 14.7

Less fire prone 4,20,625 63.9

Total 6,58,116 100

Source (World Bank, 2018)

With respect to the forest area and the fire ecology variation therein, India can
be divided into four geographical clusters viz. North Himalayan, North-Eastern,

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Southern, and Central as shown in Figure 1. These clusters encompass ~ 90% of

the total forest cover in India and encountered 98% of the total fire points
detected in India from the year 2003-16. Although fires are spread across the
identified clusters, they happen more frequently in certain areas and affect the
forest more than in others. The North-Eastern cluster accounts for the maximum
forest cover of 36% and the number of fire detections (40%), however, the
maximum forest burnt area (56%) is in the Central cluster (Figure 2), which
suggests that the Central cluster is the most vulnerable region in India.

The Central cluster encompasses states like Madhya Pradesh and some districts
of Chhattisgarh and Rajasthan. With a subtropical climate, this cluster
encounters average rainfall from 800 mm to 1,800 mm with the mean annual
temperature varying between 22°C to 25°C. It mainly consists of forest species
such as Tectona grandis, Shorea robusta, Lagerstroemia parviflora, and fires
therein are caused by slashing and burning agricultural practices that help to
collect non-timber forest products (Saha, 2002).

Forest fires are common and widespread in this cluster's dry and humid
deciduous forest areas in the borderlands of Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, and
Telangana. (World Bank, 2018). States including Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura are primarily part of the
North-Eastern cluster. It experiences rainfall of 2,100 mm to 3,500 mm. During
the winter months (October-January), temperature varies from 11 °C to 24 °C,
while during the summer months (March-June) it encounters temperature
ranging from 18 °C to 29 °C. Important species include Schima
wallichii, Tectona grandis, Callicarpa species, and Pinus kasya, etc.

The maximum number of fires detected (55%) were in the North-Eastern cluster
which also accounts for the maximum forest cover of 36% (Figure 2). In this
cluster, fires tend to concentrate in a smaller area that is subject to repeated
burns. “This repeated pattern of burning on small forest area is consistent with
the practice of shifting cultivation (jhum) seen throughout the northeast. Fires in
North-Eastern cluster, occur mainly from slash and burn agriculture”(World
Bank, 2018). Due to population growth, there has been a reduction in time
between fires, is has reduced from 20-30 years to 2-3 years (Puri et al., 2011),
breaking the ecosystem's resilience.

Coniferous forests in the North Himalayan cluster region comprise species such
as fir, spruce, and pine. Due to the harsh conditions, tree growth in this cluster is
minimal. The annual rainfall ranges between 1200 mm to 1500 mm and the
temperature varies from sub-zero to 35°C. The North Himalayan cluster is
spread over states such as Kashmir, Uttarakhand, and Himachal Pradesh.
Important species include Shorea robusta, Pinus roxburghii, Quercus
leucotrichophora, and Mallotus philippinensis. Fire is used as a tool by
indigenous communities of the area to clear grass that contributes to forest
regeneration (Bahuguna & Upadhay, 2002).

Southern Cluster consists of states like Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Telangana, and some districts of Maharashtra. This cluster encounters
average rainfall from 1000 mm to 1,800 mm, while the mean annual
temperature varies between 20°C to 26°C. Important species include
Dipterocarpus indicus and Vateria indica. Fires in Southern clusters are more
expansive and occur due to human accidents, for management of forest, and due
to slash and burn practices (Kodandapani et al., 2004).

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Figure 1: Map showing forest clusters found in India

Of the total forest fire detections in India from the year 2003-16, 20 districts
accounted to 40% of all forest fire detections (World Bank, 2018), majority of
them lie in the North Eastern cluster. Those 20 districts are listed in Table 2.
Table 2: Total number of fire detections in top 20 districts, 2003-2016
Share of fire
District, State Cluster detections, 2003-
2016 (%)
Lunglei, Mizoram North East 3.82
Karbi Anglong, Assam North East 3.48
Dima Hasao, Assam North East 3.3
Churachandpur, Manipur North East 3.15
Mamit, Mizoram North East 2.56
Lawngtlai, Mizoram North East 2.42
Tamenglong, Manipur North East 2.32
Aizawl, Mizoram North East 1.91
Gadchiroli, Maharashtra Central 1.78
Dhalai, Tripura North East 1.77
Champhai, Mizoram North East 1.69
W. Khasi Hills, Meghalaya North East 1.48
Narayanpur, Chhattisgarh Central 1.45
Ribhoi, Meghalaya North East 1.37
Kandhamal, Odisha Central 1.35
E. Garo Hills, Meghalaya North East 1.33
Ukhrul, Manipur North East 1.32
Chandel, Manipur North East 1.32
Bijapur, Chhattisgarh Central 1.31
North Tripura, Tripura North East 1.16
Top 20 total 40.28

Source (World Bank, 2018)

Conversely, with regard to the total area affected by forest fires, the top 20
districts which represented 48% of the total area affected by fire between 2003
and 2016, majority of them belong in the central cluster, (World Bank, 2018).
These 20 districts in the central cluster are listed in Table 3

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Table 3: Total area affected by fire in top 20 districts, 2003-2016

Share of burnt
District, State Cluster area, 2003-2016
(%)
Gadchiroli, Maharashtra Central 8.24

Bijapur, Chhattisgarh Central 5.29

Khammam, Telangana Southern 3.86

Narayanpur, Chhattisgarh Central 2.7

Warangal, Telangana Southern 2.56
Koriya, Chhattisgarh Central 2.35
Adilabad, Telangana Southern 2

Chandrapur, Maharashtra Central 1.95

Surguja, Chhattisgarh Central 1.9

Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh Southern 1.8

Amravati, Maharashtra Central 1.78

Y.S.R., Andhra Pradesh Southern 1.71

Prakasam, Andhra Pradesh Southern 1.7

Dakshin Bastar, Chhattisgarh Central 1.61

Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh Central 1.6

Raipur, Chhattisgarh Central 1.56

Betul, Madhya Pradesh Central 1.46

Champhai, Mizoram North East 1.42
Lawngtlai, Mizoram North East 1.35
Dima Hasao, Assam North East 1.34

Top 20 total 48.18

Source (World Bank, 2018)

Figure 2: Burnt forest area, Active forest fire detections and Forest Cover from
2003-2016 ( World Bank, 2018)

3.0 Impact of forest fires

3.1 Impact on biodiversity

India is rich with rare and complex floral and faunal resources, accounting
collectively for 60-70% of the world 's biodiversity (Creswell I, 2018; Producer
et al., 2006). Wildfires can have devastating effects on biodiversity by destroying
trees, ecosystems, and food supplies and by increasing the resulting susceptibility
to predation of surviving animals (Green & Sanecki, 2006; Kodandapani et al.,
2008; Letnic & Dickman, 2005; Pelegrin & Bucher, 2010).

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Flora

Spatial factors such as the location of a plant’s dormant bud, the sub-surface
distribution of reproductive structures, and the depths below the surface from
which new shoots emerge depict an individual plant’s growth behavior post-fire
(Flinn & Pringle, 1983; Paula et al., 2009). Depending on the intensity and return
period, fires can be beneficial or harmful (Verma & Jayakumar, 2012). According
to Cochrane et al., 2009, there has been a “drastic alteration” in the species
structure and abundance found in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve in the southern
cluster, with reduced seedling density observed in the forest area. In the Central
cluster Jhariya, M.K. S.S. Bargali, 2014 find similar trends in the Bhoramdeo
wildlife dry deciduous forests of Chhattisgarh. Kittur et al., 2014 observe that the
regeneration and size structure of economically significant species of plants such
as Sal is disrupted by repetitive fires. In the North Himalayan cluster, fire has
been a cause for damage to seedlings in Uttarakhand’s pine, oak, and mixed
deciduous forests (Parashar et al., 2003). Human pressures such as burning,
lopping, grazing, and collection of leaf litters have slowly resulted in the
transformation of Uttarakhand's oak forests into pine forests, as fires promote the
growth of chir-dominated pine forests (Singh et al., 1984).
Fauna

In the North Himalayan cluster, the loss of flora and fauna triggered by wildfires
during the summer in these forests is higher than any other human induced factor
(Hussain et al., 2018). Evaluating the role of fire (Rodgers, 1986) finds that fires
in some areas can be beneficial for wild herbivores. Regulated patchwork burning
can improve habitat for grazing species such as swamp deer and chital for small
areas of moist grassland. However, the advantages of fire decrease as habitats get
drier and fire frequency increases. Also, while fire may be helpful to some degree
in promoting habitat for some wild herbivores, not all species benefit. Nests, dens,
and eggs can be destroyed by even low-intensity surface fires, killing young
animals that cannot escape fast enough. (Rodgers, 1986).

3.2 Impact on soil properties

Forest fires have a significant impact on post-fire forest composition and structure
of soil (Jain et al., 2008). It can affect many physical and chemical soil properties
including “loss of organic soil and structure, reduced porosity, and increased pH”
(Certini, 2005; Debano, 1991). Indirect consequences, include increased water
repellence resulting in reduced penetration and increased runoff, which leads to
increased erosion (DeBano, 2003). Fires of higher intensity can considerably
deplete the soil and alienate it of nutrients and organic matter (Chandra & Kumar
Bhardwaj, 2015). In South Kashmir of the North Himalayan cluster (Khaki, B.A.,
Singh. V.R.R., Wani A.A. & Thakur, 2015) discovered evidence that the overall
soil carbon and nitrogen content in burnt areas were lower than unburnt areas,
while “phosphorus and potassium” were higher in burnt areas. “The shortening
of fire-associated jhum cycles in North-Eastern cluster has had a negative impact
on soil fertility”. Shortened jhum cycles lower the amount of fallow biomass
available for combustion, and offer less time to recuperate soil fertility resulting
in lower economic yields and output (Ramakrishnan, 2007).

3.3 Impact on climate change

Climate change has been observed to be on the rise due to the dominant
anthropogenic activities that have been exceeding the bounds of natural

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variability. One of the numerous consequences associated with climate change is

forest fires (Stephens, 2005). Forest fire and climate change possess a feedback
effect. Human-instigated climate change has attempted to put more prominent
pressure on numerous forest species and has weakened their ability to withstand
fires. Within certain regions of the world, more extreme and recurrent wildfires
are expected to occur in the future due to climate change (Hemp, 2009; McKenzie
et al., 2004; Pitman et al., 2007; Wilson et al., 2010). The appropriate period to
find out the fire sensitivity (frequency and intensity) is during the summer when
the moisture content and wind speed in the atmosphere is low (Murthy et al.,
2019; North et al., 2015; Piñol et al., 1998). This can be regarded as one of the
major reasons for how the drought-prone areas are easily drawn to wildfires. The
effect of fluctuating climatic patterns on the forest fires of India has also been
pointed out by Joseph et al., 2009. They were able to show the shift in the extent
of grasslands and forests in response to climate change through their study.
(Joseph et al., 2009 and references cited therein).

3.4 Economic impact of forest fires

“Forestry is the second-largest land use after agriculture and accounts for about
1.5 % of the nation’s GDP” (World Bank, 2005). With 65 million people
identified as tribal groups, they rely on the collection of non-wood forest products
from forest areas for their livelihoods and are directly affected by forest fire.
(Ashutosh & Satendra, 2014). The economic losses associated with forest fires
can be much greater for smallholders than for large holders, because they rely on
the forest for a wide range of services and uses (Daniel Nepstad Adriana Moreira
& 1999a). The existing estimates of the potential cost of forest fires in India are
likely underestimated at approximately INR 1,101 crore (US$ 164 million, 2016
prices) per year (Bahuguna, 1999; World Bank, 2018). The loss of biodiversity,
timber, increased carbon sequestration, soil moisture, and nutrient loss, etc., are
not taken into account in this estimate. Furthermore, there is a lack of
comprehensive data in India that can indicate forest losses in terms of area burned,
values, and volume and regeneration destroyed by fire. The available forest fire
estimates are not correct because the measured fire numbers and the area burned
are underestimated. The rationale behind this is due to the absence of
accountability (Bahuguna, V.K. & Singh, 2001).Monetary damage from forest
fires is usually only measured in terms of timber value for the loss of standing
(natural or planted) trees, which is usually negligible in the case of low-intensity
surface fires.(World Bank, 2018). Estimates may be enhanced by considering the
direct and indirect effects on other industries like, for example, transport, utilities,
loss of environmental services, etc. Thus, the estimate of INR 1101 crore/year is
underestimated and the actual economic impact of forest fires is likely to be much
higher.

4. Fire management practices in India

4.1 Detection practices

Globally, various wireless sensors, satellite systems, and neural network-based
techniques are being employed in order to detect or manage forest fires. However,
in India, currently, fires are detected using satellites and ground-based
measurements.

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Using Satellites and Remote Sensing

In India, active forest fire detection systems rely on the MODIS (Moderate
Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) instrument and the Visible Infrared
Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) for satellite-based hotspot observation (World
Bank, 2018). Using satellite detection, the forest fire alert system was first
introduced in India in 2007-2008. Madhya Pradesh (Central Cluster) pioneered
its Fire Warning Messaging System to distribute warnings to field workers
through SMS text alerts (FAMS). After undergoing a significant number of
improvements since 2004, the Forest Fire Alert System has shown a 10-fold
upgrade of its version to Forest Fire Alert System Versions 3.0 (Fast 3.0) in the
year 2019. This system is based on collaborative arrangements between NASA-
ISRO (National Aeronautics and Space Administration- Indian Space Research
Organization) and ISRO- FSI (Indian Space Research Organization-Forest
Survey of India) (Forest Survey of India, 2011a).
Ground-based detection of fires by field staff
Even with advancements in remote sensing technology and warning systems,
ground monitoring of forest fires will continue to be important. However, this
mechanism is under-resourced in India. The forest service employs seasonal fire
watchers from the local community to help with fire detection and response.
These locally employed watchers are facing payment delays or shortages. No
proper training instructions or equipment is provided to these fire watchers
(World Bank, 2018). Thus, its important on the Indian government’s part to
strengthen the ground-based fire detection system.

Some of the commonly used fire detection techniques employed in India have
been compared in terms of their cost and practicality in Table 4.
Table 4: Comparison Amongst Different Forest Fire Detection Techniques
Name of the Fire
Cost Practicality References
Detection Technique
(Aslan et al., 2012), (Díaz-Ramírez et al.,
Wireless Sensor 2012),
Medium High
Based Techniques (Bayo et al., 2010), (Bouabdellaha et al.,
2013)
(Oliva & Schroeder, 2015), (Filizzola et al.,
Satellite Based
Very High Very High 2016), (Coppo, 2015), (Koltunov et al.,
Systems
2016)
(Narasimha Rao et al., 2018), (Wong &
Digital Camera
High Medium Fong, 2014), (Çetin et al., 2013), (Q. X.
Sensor
Zhang et al., 2018)
(Krüll et al., 2012), (Cruz et al., 2016),
Air Borne Techniques High High (Allison et al., 2016),(Dennison & Roberts,
2009)
(Soliman et al., 2010), (Chauhan et al.,
Neural Network
Low Low 2013)
Based
(Giriraj et al., 2008), ( Zhang et al., 2009)

4.2 Prevention Strategies

Formulation of National Forest Policy in 1988, The National Master Plan for
Forest Fire Control, and Guidelines in 2018 are some of the key initiatives that
the Government of India has taken to manage the fire. Common methods for
prevention of fire used in India include - fire line clearance and controlled burning
to limit fuel loads, silvicultural practices such as selective thinning and fire-
adapted tree species planting in fire-prone areas, early warning, and fire hazard
rating systems. The implementation of Joint Forest Management (JFM) village
level committees was another significant step in the micro-level management of
forest fires in India.

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The knowledge in systematic forest fire control is limited to the short term. There
are weaknesses in the evaluation, ranging from fire detection to the coordination
of preventive steps. At this time, the need to establish an adaptive management
plan is critical. Sector-wise, with short- and long-term visions, clear points are
suggested for the implementation of a holistic fire prevention plan in the light of
climate change. Some of them include mitigation measures to minimize the
uncertainty in baseline data, strengthen present fire-fighting programs,
developing precautionary measures, integrating institutional efforts, publicity,
extension, and training, legal measures, and funding of more programs aimed to
improve the current status.

5. Conclusion
India with 21.67% (7,12,249 km2,) area under forests is no exception to wildfires.
55% of forests in India are vulnerable to intermittent fires and wildfires affect
around 3.73 million ha of forests per year in India. Wildfires in India impact the
nation on different fronts, creating three major kinds of problems.
Environmental: The four geographic clusters in North-east, North-West
Himalayan Region, Central, and Southern India best describe the fire ecology
variation within India. Northeast accounts for the greatest no. of fire detections
(nearly 55%) while the Central region accounts for the largest area affected by
forest fire (nearly 56%). In the Western Himalayas, the impact of forest fire causes
the loss of flora and fauna during the summer and is greater in these forests than
any other anthropogenic factor. In the case of the North East cluster, in addition
to other stresses, such as intensive grazing and browsing, frequent fires in short
succession reduces species diversity and damages natural regeneration. Lastly,
shorter duration fires occurred in the Central and Southern regions of the country
have a detrimental impact on the composition and structure of forest, and diversity
of species.

Social: In addition to reducing their ability to supply goods and services, forests
face multiple aggravations that can cause adverse effects on their health and
productivity. Being one of them, forest fires are ubiquitous and can take place in
almost every eco-environment. Although fire has been used since ancient times
in crop rotation, agricultural plowing, and pasture production for domesticated
animals, socio-economic changes have caused traditional uses to be abandoned.
Economic: For small holders, the economic losses associated with forest fires
may be much greater than for large holders, since a wide variety of resources and
uses depend on the forest. At an annual rate of approximately INR 1,101 crore,
the current estimates of the economic costs of forest fires in India are almost
certainly underestimated (US$164 million, 2016 prices). However, not much data
has been reviewed regarding the economic losses during the present forest fire
phenomenon due to a lack of accountability. Many aims would be fulfilled by a
more detailed accounting of the economic costs and benefits of forest fires in
India.
Finally, with varying strategies and techniques adopted for forest fire detection
and prevention, the appreciable difference has been discerned in the forest fire
trends of the country.

Nomenclature
WHO: World Health Organization
FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization
MODIS: Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

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Mha: Million hectares

FSI: Forest Survey of India

Acknowledgments
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the
public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

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