endangered species

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Last Updated: Feb 5, 2024 • Article History

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Top Questions
What is an endangered species?
What role does human activity play in causing species to become endangered?
What organizations determine which organisms are endangered species?
Endangered species, any species that is at risk of extinction because of a sudden
rapid decrease in its population or a loss of its critical habitat. Biodiverse regions that
require protection on the grounds that they host a significant number of endangered
species are called hot spots.

(Read E.O. Wilson’s Britannica essay on mass extinction.)

Previously, any species of plant or animal that was threatened with extinction could be
called an endangered species. The need for separate definitions of “endangered” and
“threatened” species resulted in the development of various categorization systems, each
containing definitions and criteria by which a species can be classified according to its
risk of extinction. As a rule, a range of criteria must be analyzed before a species can be
placed in one category or another.

Often such categorization systems are linked directly to national legislation, such as
the United States Endangered Species Act (ESA) or the Canadian Species at Risk Act
(SARA). In addition, regional agreements, such as the European Union’s Habitats
Directive (Council Directive 92/43/EEC), and international conservation agreements,
such as the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals
(CMS) or the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora (CITES), are connected to species-assessment systems. One of the most-
recognized independent international systems of species assessment is the Red List of
Threatened Species, created by the International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN).

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Human beings and endangered species
Roughly 99 percent of threatened species are at risk because of human activities alone.
By the early 21st century it could be said that human beings (Homo sapiens) are the
greatest threat to biodiversity and are the major drivers of biodiversity loss. The
principal threats to species in the wild are:

1. Habitat loss and habitat degradation

2. The spread of introduced species (that is, non-native species that negatively
affect the ecosystems they become part of)
3. The growing influence of global warming and chemical pollution
4. Unsustainable hunting
5. Disease

Edith's checkerspot
Edith's checkerspot (Euphydryas editha), native to North America. Two subspecies are listed as endangered
species.(more)
alula
Alula (Brighamia insignis), a rare and critically endangered plant native to Hawaii.(more)
Although some of these hazards occur naturally, most are caused by human beings and
their economic and cultural activities. The most pervasive of these threats is habitat loss
and degradation—that is, the large-scale conversion of land in previously undisturbed
areas driven by the growing demand for commercial agriculture, logging,
and infrastructure development. Because the rates of loss are highest in some of the
most biologically diverse regions on Earth, a perpetual battle is waged to manage
destructive activities there while limiting the impact that such restrictions may have on
the well-being of local communities. The relative importance of each threat differs
within and among taxa. So far, incidental mortality from ecological disturbance,
temporary or limited human disturbance, and persecution have caused limited
reductions in the total number of species; however, these phenomena can be serious for
some susceptible groups. In addition, global warming has emerged as a widespread
threat, and much research is being conducted to identify its potential effects on specific
species, populations, and ecosystems.

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mountain gorilla (Gorilla gorilla beringei)
Adult male mountain gorilla (Gorilla gorilla beringei) in Virunga National Park, Democratic Republic of the
Congo.(more)
Conflicts between human activities and conservation are at the root of many of these
phenomena. Such controversies are often highly politicized and widely publicized in the
global press and through social media. For example, habitat loss and species loss have
resulted from the unregulated exploitation of coltan (the rare ore for tantalum used
in consumer electronics products such as mobile phones and computers) in Kahuzi-
Beiga National Park, one of the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s premier forest
parks. The park is also home to much of the population of the threatened Eastern
Lowland gorilla (Gorilla beringei graueri). Mining has increased gorilla mortality by
reducing the animal’s food resources and leading many people displaced by the mining
to kill gorillas for their meat. In addition, the mountain gorilla (G. beringei beringei), a
close relative of the Eastern Lowland gorilla, is also at risk of extinction. However,
authorities cite poaching, disease, and crossfire between warring political groups in the
vicinity of Virunga National Park as the primary sources of its population decline.

axolotl
Albino axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum).
Another example of a widely publicized wildlife controversy involves the relatively
recent declines in amphibian populations. Known to be important global indicators
of environmental health, amphibians have experienced some of the most serious
population declines to date of all groups that have been assessed globally through
the IUCN Red List process (see below). Amphibians (a group that
includes salamanders, frogs, toads, and caecilians [wormlike amphibians]), being
particularly sensitive to environmental changes, are severely threatened by habitat
destruction, pollution, the spread of a disease called amphibian chytridiomycosis,
and climate change.

Brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis) in Guam

A wildlife specialist holding a brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis) that was captured on a military base in
Guam as part of a program to prevent the species from spreading to Hawaii. After the species was accidentally
introduced to Guam in the mid-20th century, it colonized the island and preyed relentlessly on native species,
causing the decline, local elimination, or extinction of several species of birds, fruit bats, and lizards.(more)
Beyond these notable examples, many of the world’s birds are also at risk. The
populations of some bird species (such as some albatrosses, petrels, and penguins) are
declining because of longline fishing, whereas those of others (such as
certain cranes, rails, parrots, pheasants, and pigeons) have become victims
of habitat destruction. On many Pacific islands, the accidental introduction of the brown
tree snake (Boiga irregularis) has wreaked havoc on many bird populations.

Many fishes and other forms of aquatic and marine life are also threatened. Among
them are long-lived species that have life history strategies requiring many years to
reach sexual maturity. As a result, they are particularly susceptible to exploitation. The
meat and fins of many sharks, rays, chimaeras, and whales fetch high prices in many
parts of the world, which has resulted in the unsustainable harvest of several of those
species.

Moreover, freshwater habitats worldwide are progressively threatened by pollution from

industry, agriculture, and human settlements. Additional threats to
freshwater ecosystems include introduced invasive species (such as the
sea lamprey [Petromyzon marinus] in the Great Lakes), the canalization of rivers (such
as in the streams that empty into the Everglades in Florida), and the overharvesting of
freshwater species (as in the case of the extinct Yunnan box turtle [Cuora yunnanensis]
in China). While an estimated 45,000 described species rely on freshwater habitats, it is
important to note that humans are also seriously affected by the degradation of
freshwater species and ecosystems.

Against this backdrop of threats related to urban expansion and food production, the
unsustainable harvest of animal and plant products for traditional medicine and the pet
trade is a growing concern in many parts of the world. These activities
have implications for local ecosystems and habitats by exacerbating population declines
through overharvesting. In addition, they have cross-border repercussions in terms of
trade and illegal trafficking.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
IUCN categories
After a species is evaluated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(IUCN), it is placed into one of eight categories based on its current conservation status.(more)

cardboard palm
Cardboard palm (Zamia furfuracea), an endangered cycad listed on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
(more)
One of the most well-known objective assessment systems for declining species is the
approach unveiled by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in
1994. It contains explicit criteria and categories to classify the conservation status of
individual species on the basis of their probability of extinction. This classification is
based on thorough, science-based species assessments and is published as the IUCN
Red List of Threatened Species, more commonly known as the IUCN Red List. It is
important to note that the IUCN cites very specific criteria for each of these categories,
and the descriptions given below have been condensed to highlight two or three of the
category’s most salient points. In addition, three of the categories (CR, EN, and VU) are
contained within the broader notion of “threatened.” The list recognizes several
categories of species status:

1. Extinct (EX), species in which the last individual has died or where
systematic and time-appropriate surveys have been unable to log even a
single individual
2. Extinct in the Wild (EW), species whose members survive only in captivity
or as artificially supported populations far outside their
historical geographic range
3. Critically Endangered (CR), species that possess an extremely high risk
of extinction as a result of rapid population declines of 80 to more than 90
percent over the previous 10 years (or three generations), a current
population size of fewer than 50 individuals, or other factors (such as
severely fragmented populations, long generation times, or isolated
habitats)
4. Endangered (EN), species that possess a very high risk of extinction as a
result of rapid population declines of 50 to more than 70 percent over the
previous 10 years (or three generations), a current population size of fewer
than 250 individuals, or other factors
 5. Vulnerable (VU), species that possess a very high risk of extinction as a
result of rapid population declines of 30 to more than 50 percent over the
previous 10 years (or three generations), a current population size of fewer
than 1,000 individuals, or other factors
6. Near Threatened (NT), species that are close to becoming threatened or
may meet the criteria for threatened status in the near future
7. Least Concern (LC), a category containing species that are pervasive and
abundant after careful assessment
8. Data Deficient (DD), a condition applied to species in which the amount of
available data related to its risk of extinction is lacking in some way.
Consequently, a complete assessment cannot be performed. Thus, unlike
the other categories in this list, this category does not describe the
conservation status of a species.
9. Not Evaluated (NE), a category used to include any of the nearly 1.9 million
species described by science but not yet assessed by the IUCN.
The IUCN system uses five quantitative criteria to assess the extinction risk of a
given species. In general, these criteria consider:

1. The rate of population decline

2. The geographic range
3. Whether the species already possesses a small population size
4. Whether the species has a very small geographic distribution or lives in a
restricted area
5. Whether the results of a quantitative analysis indicates a high probability of
extinction in the wild
Svalbard Global Seed Vault
The Svalbard Global Seed Vault safeguards the biodiversity of the seeds of the world's food plants in the event
of a global crisis.(more)
All else being equal, a species experiencing a 90 percent decline over 10 years (or three
generations), for example, would be classified as critically endangered. Likewise,
another species undergoing a 50 percent decline over the same period would be
classified as endangered, and one experiencing a 30 percent reduction over the same
time frame would be considered vulnerable. It is important to understand, however, that
a species cannot be classified by using one criterion alone; it is essential for the scientist
doing the assessment to consider all five criteria to determine the status. Each year,
thousands of scientists around the world assess or reassess species according to these
criteria, and the IUCN Red List is subsequently updated with these new data once the
assessments have been checked for accuracy to help provide a continual spotlight on the
status of the world’s species.

The IUCN Red List brings into focus the ongoing decline of Earth’s biodiversity and the
influence humans have on life on the planet. It provides a globally accepted standard
with which to measure the conservation status of species over time. By 2019 more than
96,500 species had been assessed by using the IUCN Red List categories and criteria.
Today the list itself is an online database available to the public. Scientists can analyze
the percentage of species in a given category and the way these percentages change over
time. They can also analyze the threats and conservation measures that underpin the
observed trends.
Other conservation agreements
The United States Endangered Species Act

rusty patched bumblebee

Rusty patched bumblebee (Bombus affinis) on wild bergamot. The insect is listed as an endangered species by
the U.S. Endangered Species Act.(more)
In the United States, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) of the Department of
the Interior and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the
Department of Commerce are responsible for the conservation and management
of fish and wildlife, including endangered species, and their habitats. The Endangered
Species Act (ESA) of 1973 obligates federal and state governments to protect all life
threatened with extinction, and this process is aided by the creation and continued
maintenance of an endangered species list, which contains 1,662 domestic and 686
foreign species of endangered or threatened animals and plants as of 2019. According to
the USFWS, the species definition extends to subspecies or any
distinct population segment capable of interbreeding. Consequently, threatened subsets
of species may also be singled out for protection. Furthermore, the ESA includes
provisions for threatened species—that is, any species expected to become endangered
within a substantial portion of its geographic home range. It also promotes the
protection of critical habitats (that is, areas designated as essential to the survival of a
given species).
bald eagle
Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus).
The ESA is credited with the protection and recovery of several prominent species
within the borders of the United States, such as the bald eagle (Haliaeetus
leucocephalus), the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis), and the
gray wolf (Canis lupus).
CITES
To prevent the overexploitation of species as they are traded across national boundaries,
the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and
Fauna (CITES) was created by international agreement in 1973 and put into effect in
1975. The agreement sorts over 5,800 animal and 30,000 plant species into three
categories (denoted by its three appendixes). Appendix I lists the species in danger of
extinction. It also prohibits outright the commercial trade of these species; however,
some can be traded in extraordinary situations for scientific or educational reasons. In
contrast, Appendix II lists particular plants and animals that are less threatened but still
require stringent controls. Appendix III lists species that are protected in at least one
country that has petitioned other countries for help in controlling international trade in
that species. As of 2017, CITES had been signed by 183 countries.
Species assessment and management
Together, the thousands of scientists and conservation organizations that contribute to
the IUCN Red List and other systems of assessment provide the world’s largest
knowledge base on the global status of species. The aim of these systems is to provide
the general public, conservationists, nongovernmental organizations, the media,
decision makers, and policy makers with comprehensive and scientifically rigorous
information on the conservation status of the world’s species and the threats that drive
the observed patterns of population decline. Scientists in conservation and protected
area management agencies use data on species status in the development of
conservation planning and prioritization, the identification of important sites and
species for dedicated conservation action and recovery planning, and educational
programs. Although the IUCN Red List and other similar species-assessment tools do
not prescribe the action to be taken, the data within the list are often used to inform
legislation and policy and to determine conservation priorities at regional, national, and
international levels. In contrast, the listing criteria of other categorization systems (such
as the United States Endangered Species Act, CITES, and CMS) are prescriptive; they
often require that landowners and various governmental agencies take specific
mandatory steps to protect species falling within particular categories of threat.

It is likely that many undescribed or unassessed species of plants, animals, and other
organisms have become or are in the process of becoming extinct. To maintain
healthy populations of both known and unknown species, assessments and
reassessments are valuable tools. Such monitoring work must continue so that the most
current knowledge can be applied to effective environmental monitoring and
management efforts. For many threatened species, large well-protected conservation
areas (biological reserves) often play