Research Paper Future of Food: Journal on Food, Agriculture and Society

11 (5) December 2023

The potential of mangrove as a food source in Riau

PRIMA WAHYU TITISARI1,*, ELFIS1, IRINA SAFITRI ZEN2, JUSWARDI3, INDRY CHAHYANA4, TIKA
PERMATASARI5 AND UMMUL MUTHMAINNNAH ULYA1

1Department of Agrotechnology, Universitas Islam Riau, Pekanbaru, Indonesia

2
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
3Department of Biology, Sriwijaya University, Indralaya, Indonesia.
4
Department of Biomanagement, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Bandung, Indonesia.
5
Department of Biology Education, Universitas Islam Riau, Pekanbaru, Riau, Indonesia.

* Corresponding author: [email protected]

Data of the article

First received : 19 August 2023 | Last revision received : 07 November 2023

Accepted : 06 December 2023| Published online : 28 December 2023
DOI : 10.17170/kobra-202307218420

Keywords
Mangrove fruit has been utilized as a food by people in several regions of Indonesia, espe-
Mangroves; cially as traditional food. Information about the potential and benefits of mangrove fruit
Foodstuff; is still limited. There is not much information regarding the physico chemical properties
Riau of mangrove fruit as a potential food source. This study aims to gather and review various
scientific information related to the potential of mangrove fruit and its use as foodstuff. This
information can be used as a basis to conduct further research related to the development of
mangrove-based food and functional food products. Previous research revealed that in Ro-
kan Hilir and Bengkalis Regencies, the Mangroves were dominated by three species; Rhyz-
ophora mucronata, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, and Sonneratia caseolaris. These three types of
mangroves have the potential for food development in the future. Advanced processing of
mangrove fruit that has gone through various stages of processing such as soaking, boiling,
and drying, then processed into flour into various types of food, can be declared safe for
consumption because proper processing can reduce the content of anti-nutritional sub-
stances to a safe limit for consumption. When combined with other ingredients, products
made from mangrove flour are safe to use as substitutes. Unlike substitute materials, further
research on the use of mangroves as a main food ingredient still requires a more in-depth
study, especially minimizing the risk of toxic substances contained in the mangroves, pro-
cessing techniques, and the final product to determine whether its use is safe or not.

1. Introduction
Mangroves have ecological and economic functions mangrove ecosystem. From an economic perspective,
for living things. As a renewable resource, mangroves mangrove forests hold significant value since they
can provide various types of direct and indirect prod- contribute to several sectors such as tourism, timber
ucts as well as environmental protection services such production, and the provision of non-wood resourc-
as protection against abrasion, controlling seawa- es including fuel wood, honey, medicinal plants, and
ter intrusion, reducing strong winds, reducing wave other raw materials that can be utilized as food prod-
height and speed, recreation and water purification ucts (Budiyanto et al. 2022; Kusmana and Sukristi-
from pollutants (Zhang, Lin, and Chen 2022). jiono 2016; Salem and Mercer 2012). Mangroves can
provide various types of products that are useful for
All these benefits are provided free of charge by the supporting the needs of coastal residents and various
1
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economic activities, at local, regional, and national is a naturally growing community. These ecosystems
scales. All of these mangrove functions will contin- are susceptible to overexploitation because they are
ue if the existence of the mangrove ecosystem can be typically found close to populated areas. Tide move-
maintained and the utilization of its resources is based ments have a direct impact on mangrove ecosystems.
on the principles of sustainability (Arifanti et al. 2022;
Fishermen, farmers, and traders are some of the lo-
Titisari et al. 2022), this means that mangroves act as acals whose livelihoods are directly impacted by the
renewable resource if all the ecological processes that presence of mangrove forests in this region. The local
occur in the mangrove ecosystem can take place with- community makes use of the mangrove forests that
out disturbance. are present in coastal regions close to residential areas
for new settlement sites, wood, or firewood use, and
Mangrove fruit can be used as a food source because building materials (Ilman et al. 2016; Miswadi, Fir-
it contains relatively high energy and carbohydrates daus, and Jhonnerie 2017; Rahim and Baderan 2017).
(Handayani 2018). Making flour from the mangrove
fruit as a base ingredient for food products is one of Furthermore, it is anticipated that the rate of popula-
the efforts made to make use of the fruit. However, be- tion expansion and the demands of the economy will
cause data on the physico chemical properties of man- be influential factors in shaping alterations in land
grove flour are still limited, the potential use of this use patterns and the extent of mangrove land cover.
flour is also limited. Mangrove fruit contains anti-nu- The incomplete development of sustainable exploita-
tritional components such as cyanogenic glucosides tion practices for mangrove ecosystems is expected to
(Ayu, Tamrin, and Hermanto 2019; Chrissanty 2012; lead to a decrease in the extent of mangrove forests,
Hardoko et al. 2015; Koeslulat and Prabawa 2019; hence affecting biodiversity, changing overall ecosys-
Muryati and Nelfiyanti 2015; Sulistyawati, Wignyan- tem functioning, and contributing to global warming
to, and Kumalaningsih 2013), saponins, phytic acid, (Arifanti et al. 2022; Mulyadi, Hendriyanto, and Fitri-
and oxalic acid (Rout et al. 2015) , tannins and alka- ani 2010; Rahmadi et al. 2023; Widiastuti, Ruata, and
loid compounds (Ayu et al. 2019; Hardoko et al. 2015; Arifin 2016).
Koeslulat and Prabawa 2019).
The mangrove ecosystem in Riau Province is a very
The existing area of mangroves in Riau Province in productive ecosystem and provides many benefits.
2021 was recorded at 224,895 hectares, mangroves Mangrove ecosystem resources in Riau Province will
with dense density, a potential is 219,070 ha, medium be increasingly exploited in line with increasing popu-
density mangroves, with a potential is 2,537 ha, sparse lation and economic pressure. Disruption of the man-
density mangroves have the potential to reach 3,288 grove ecosystem caused by the extraction process of
ha. Existing mangroves in Indragiri Hilir Regency the mangrove ecosystem causes the rate of damage to
cover an area of 127,144 hectares, Meranti Islands mangroves to be much faster than the ability of man-
Regency 30,113 hectares, Bengkalis Regency 26,757 groves to recover themselves (Irma, Atmaja, and Mar-
hectares, Rohil Regency 23,335 hectares, Pelalawan fa’i 2020; Rizaldi, Lestari, and Susiana 2020; Umayah,
Regency 11,394 hectares, Dumai City 3,477, and Siak Gunawan, and Isda 2016). The challenges found for
Regency 2,675 hectares (PPID RIAU 2022). the sustainability of mangrove forests are weak law en-
forcement, conflict policies, a lack of community in-
According to the findings of Rahadian et al., (2019) volvement, natural disturbances and constraints, and
the province of Riau is positioned as the third most a lack of in-depth research and innovations (Arifanti
extensive province in Indonesia in relation to the et al. 2022; Hanifah et al. 2023). Therefore, in order
spread of mangroves. Nevertheless, the findings of to support the objectives of sustainable development,
Oktorini et al., (2022) reveal a drop in the size and efforts must be made to strike a balance between con-
spatial arrangement of mangroves in Riau Province servation and addressing the economic needs of the
over the period spanning from the year 2000 to 2019. community.
This decline is characterized by an annual reduction
of roughly 2,493.9 hectares. 2. Materials and Methods

The mangrove forest ecosystem in the research site 2.1 Study Area

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The research was carried out in Rokan Hilir and Beng- have been recognized as having economic, physical,
kalis regencies, from July to December 2022. In par- and biological functions as well as economic value in
ticular, the three districts were chosen based on the the form of direct benefits such as mangrove wood,
amount of mangrove forest present in each district fruit, leaves, and bark. Analysis of mangrove benefits
and the extent to which locals used the mangroves as is obtained from the value of direct benefits, namely
a source of food. income derived from the productivity of direct ben-
efits after multiplying market prices and deducting
2.2 Procedures extraction costs.

Data were obtained through observation, interviews, 2.3 Data Analysis

and document study. Observation (collection of data
carried out by direct observation in the field, so that it The methodology employed in this study involves
can describe in a factual, accurate, and detailed man- the utilization of descriptive analysis for data analysis
ner the conditions in the field, human activities, and purposes. The data collected from observations, ques-
the context in which these activities take place). In- tionnaires, and document studies were subsequently
terview (collecting data by asking written questions analysed and reported based on the gathered infor-
to respondents using a previously prepared question- mation. The data collected from observations were
naire). meticulously documented and subsequently present-
ed in a manner that accurately and comprehensively
Documentation study (data collection to obtain writ- depicted the on-site conditions, human activities, and
ten data through books, pictures, photographs, or the the broader context of mangrove usage activities. In
like to support the data obtained through observation a similar manner, the data obtained from question-
and questionnaires). naires underwent quantitative descriptive data analy-
sis methods in order to elucidate perspectives. These
Observation of the benefits of mangroves by the perceptions encompassed information regarding the
community is carried out through a survey method respondents and their utilization of mangroves.
of several respondents who have been appointed or
determined purposively according to the research 3. Results
objectives. Direct interviews were conducted using a
questionnaire to 150 selected respondents to obtain 3.1 Basic Characteristics of Sample Households and
information about the types of utilization of man- Annual Household Income
grove forests and their productivity. The sampling
technique used to study community perceptions is A simple random sampling survey was conducted in
purposive sampling where samples are determined or the study sites with prepared questionnaires during
selected according to predetermined criteria, namely the six-month period from July to December 2022.
local communities who interact in managing man- A total of 185 sample households were interviewed
grove forests and are actively involved in mangrove from two regencies of Rokan Hilir and Bengkalis,
forest rehabilitation activities. Purposive sampling Riau Province. According to the results of the study,
is employed in order to ensure that the respondents the gender distribution of the household head shows
selected for the study align with the established ob- that 91.89% are male and the remaining 8.11% are fe-
jectives and criteria, yielding results that are both rep- male. Regarding the age distribution of respondents,
resentative and pertinent to the conditions within the only 1% of the respondents are 19 or less than 19 years
field. Respondents consisted of village government old, 19% of the respondents are aged between 20 and
officials, fishermen, housewives, youth/students/stu- 29 years, 27% of the respondents are aged between
dents, mangrove monitoring community groups, in- 30 and 39 years, 25% of the respondents are aged be-
formal leaders in villages, non-governmental organ- tween 40 and 49 years and the remaining 28% of the
izations (NGOs), environmental services, forestry, respondents are above 49 years old.
district plantations, district tourism, youth and sports
office. Types of forest function benefits are benefits Family size varied from 1 to 10 members with a mean
derived from the existence of mangrove forests that value of 4.14 (standard deviation, sd = 1.65). In terms
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of education levels, 2% of respondents were gradu- out in Rokan Hilir Regency and Bengkalis Regency,
ates, 38% had attended high school, 42% studied at from these results the area documented in Rokan
secondary school, and 18% studied up to primary Hilir Regency is 21.708.00 Ha and in Bengkalis Re-
school. Crop farming (mainly agriculture, rubber, gency is 26.757.48 Ha (Ministry of Maritime Affairs
and palm cultivation) is a major source of livelihood and Fisheries 2020).
in Rokan Hilir and Bengkalis. Among the respond-
ents, however, 68% of households owned agricultural Based on the land use map of Rokan Hilir Regency
land and the remaining households were agricultural- (figure 1), the distribution of mangroves is general-
ly landless. The minimum and maximum agricultural ly mostly spread over coastal areas and small islands
land holding sizes of respondents were 0.5 and 10 ha, such as Halang Island, Sinaboi Island, Serosa Island,
respectively, with a mean value of 2.50 ha. In the re- Padamaran Island, Berkley Island, and Jemur Island as
search area, 81% of households derived their income well as along the banks of the Rokan River, although
from various sources such as causal and seasonal la- their area is relatively large. smaller than the coastal
bour in agriculture, wage labour in mangrove forest area. Meanwhile, mangroves in Bangko District, Pasir
plantations, small- scale trade, shopkeeping, collec- Limau Kapas District, and Sinaboi.
tion of firewood, fish proceeding, and crafts.
The district can be said to be relatively large compared
The sources of income in the study sites are farm to other districts in the coastal area of Rokan Hilir Re-
activities, non-farm activities, and the collection of gency. With the area based on the digitized Landsat 7
mangrove forest products. Among the respondents, ETM+ image map with the RGB 453 colour combina-
52% of the respondents generated their income from tion of 2008 and the results of field verification using
the collection of mangrove forest products, 24% from the transect method, it is known that the total area of
agricultural activities and the remaining 26% from mangrove forests in the three study location districts
non-farm activities. According to the results, man- is 16.276.80 ha with details, Bangko 10.340.40 ha, Si-
grove income makes up 44% of the total household naboi 3.269.40 ha, and Pasir Limau Kapas 2.667.00 ha.
income.
Based on the results of the analysis with an impor-
It included both subsistence and cash income. Agri- tance value index (IVI) (figure 2), the dominant types
cultural income shares 27% of the total household in- of mangrove vegetation in Rokan Hilir Regency at
come and non-farm income accounts for 35% of the the tree level were Avicennia alba 94.26%, Sonneratia
total household income. alba 52.66%, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza 49.66%, Rhizo-
phora stylosa 44.79%, Sonneratia caseolaris 43.55%,
3.2 Mangrove Ecosystem in Rokan Hilir and Beng- Rhizophora mucronata 39.61%, Excoecaria agallocha
kalis Regency 13.62%, Xylocarpus granatum 7.28%, and Ceriops ta-
gal 6.31%. The results of vegetation analysis at the sap-
Area of Mangrove Ecosystem Based on measurements ling level of the dominant mangrove species were Av-
of the potential area of mangrove forest using Landsat icennia alba 77.62%, Rhizophora mucronata 36.93%,
7 ETM+ imagery with RGB 453 colour combination Bruguiera gymnorrhiza 31.49%, Rhizophora stylosa
in 2008 and based on the 2008 TGHK (Forest Utili- 23.69%, Excoecaria agallocha 21.33%, Sonneratia ca-
zation Concession) map, the area of mangrove forest seolaris 19.71%, Sonneratia alba 16.77%, Ceriops ta-
in Rokan Hilir Regency is 23.740.00 Ha. The results gal 13.81%, and Xylocarpus granatum 12.66%. While
of digitization and results of field verification in 2012 at the growth rate of seedlings, the dominant man-
showed that the mangrove area was 18.934.90 Ha. grove vegetation types were Avicennia alba 73.22%,
This shows that there has been a decrease in the area Rhizophora mucronata 36.27%, Bruguiera gymnor-
of mangroves in downstream Rokan Regency from rhiza 33.17%, Rhizophora stylosa 27.66%, Sonneratia
2008 to 2012 of 4.805.10 Ha. Furthermore, the area of caseolaris 19.33%, Sonneratia alba 16.17%, Excoecar-
mangrove forests in Bengkalis Regency in 1997 was ia agallocha 15.66%, Ceriops tagal 13.17%, and Xylo-
estimated at 69.000 ha, decreasing to 50.765.04 ha in carpus granatum 12.86%. Based on these values, the
2002. In 2020, digitalization of mangroves was carried dominant mangrove species at the tree growth rate

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Figure 1. Mangrove distribution in Rokan Hilir Regency

Figure 2. Importance value index tree, sapling, and growth rate of seedling mangrove in Rokan
Hilir Regency

was Avicennia alba 94.26% and the lowest was Ce- while the lowest mangrove vegetation was Xylocarpus
riops tagal 5.17%. At the growth rate of saplings and granatum for the sapling at 12.55%. and for seedlings
seedlings the most dominant mangrove vegetation 12.69%.
was Avicennia alba at 74.79% and seedlings at 73.12%,

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Based on the 2013 Bengkalis Regency land use maps dominant mangrove species were Avicennia alba
(figure 3), the area of mangroves in Bengkalis Regen- 79.88%, Rhizophora mucronata 38.77%, Bruguiera
cy is 41.718,43 ha, from 11 sub-districts the distribu- gymnorrhiza 37.17%, Rhizophora stylosa 26.19%,
tion of mangroves is in 7 sub-districts, Rupat Utara Excoecaria agallocha 23.55%, Sonneratia caseola-
12.784,32 ha, Rupat 5.806,87 ha, Bantan 5.584,65 ha, ris 21.42%, Sonneratia alba 17, 82%, Ceriops tagal
Bengkalis 4.258,88 ha, Mandau 6.721,52 ha, Pinggir 15.33%, and Xylocarpus granatum 13.82%. Whereas
2.215,58 ha Siak Kecil 3.452,55 ha, Bukit Batu 898,77 in the growth rate of seedlings, the dominant man-
ha. Based on the digitization of the Landsat 7 ETM+ grove vegetation types were Avicennia alba 76.88%,
image map with the RGB 453 colour combination for Bruguiera gymnorrhiza 42.88%, Rhizophora mucro-
2020 and the results of verification of the mangrove nata 36.27%, Rhizophora stylosa 27.84%, Sonneratia
area in Bengkalis Regency, there are only 26,757.48 ha caseolaris 20.22%, Sonneratia alba 17.23%, Excoecar-
left, meaning that from 2012 to 2020, Bengkalis Re- ia agallocha 16 .41%, Ceriops tagal 14.23%, and Xylo-
gency has lost 14,960.95 ha of mangrove area (Minis- carpus granatum 12.77%.
try of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries 2020).
Based on these values, the dominant mangrove spe-
Based on the results of the Important Value Index cies for tree growth was Avicennia alba 92.47%, and
(IVI) analysis (figure 4), the dominant types of man- the lowest was Ceriops tagal 7.88%. In the growth rate
grove vegetation in Bengkalis Regency at the tree level of saplings and seedlings the most dominant man-
were Avicennia alba 91.78%, Sonneratia alba 55.17%, grove vegetation was Avicennia alba 77.23% for sap-
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza 52.88%, Rhizophora stylosa lings and 75.88% for seedlings, while the lowest was
46.34%, Sonneratia caseolaris 44.17%, Rhizophora for Xylocarpus granatum for saplings of 11.69% and
mucronata 40.42%, Excoecaria agallocha 19.58%, Xy- for seedlings of 11.88%.
locarpus granatum 9.73%, and Ceriops tagal 6.31%.
Vegetation analysis results at the sapling level of the

Figure 3. Mangrove distribution in Bengkalis Regency

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Figure 4. Importance value index tree, sapling, and growth rate of seedling mangrove in Bengkalis Regency

4. Discussion and other snacks (Asia and Wijayanti 2022; Sumar-

tini, Harahap, and Mujiyanti 2021). As presented in
4.1 The Potential of Mangroves as Foodstuffs in Ro- Table 1, Sonneratia ovata and Rhizopora mucronate
kan Hilir and Bengkalis Regency contain various nutrients, including flavonoids.

According to findings from earlier research (table 1), Flavonoids are bioactive compounds that can act as
the Rokan Hilir and Bengkalis Regencies have eight an antioxidant. Apart from being a source of antioxi-
mangrove species that predominate, Avicennia ma- dants, flavonoids also have biological activities such as
rina (Forssk.) Vierh, Avicennia alba Blume (Brey anti-bacterial, anti-cholesterol, anti-hyperlipidemia,
mangrove), Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engl, Sonner- anti-virus, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory and anti-
atia ovata Backer (Mangrove apple), Bruguiera gym- cancer (Neldawati, Ratnawulan, and Gusnedi 2013)
norrhiza (L.) Lamk (Orange mangrove) Rhyzophora As for Rhizopora mucronata and Rhizopora apicula-
mucronata Lam (Black mangrove), Nypa fruticans ta, they are generally made as a variety of syrups, jams,
(Thunb.) Wurmb and Acanthus ilicifolius Linn. These and cake flour (Sofia, Kumalasari, and Osman 2022).
eight mangrove species have the potential for food de- Sonneratia caseolaris which is commonly called pe-
velopment in the future. dada whose fruit is like pomegranate and pineapple,
is more suitable for candy because it has a sour taste
Apart from these eight types of mangroves, sever- (Resende and Franca 2019). Mangrove Bruguiera sp
al other types of mangroves can be processed into is an alternative commodity rice and sweet potato to
food, including Avicennia alba and Avicennia mari- be used if occasional crop failures. Bruguiera gym-
na which are processed into flour and made for vari- norhiza fruit composition if compared to cassava,
ous kinds of food, especially pastries (Budiyanto et al. sweet potato, rice, and sago, then the fruit composi-
2022; Mamuaja, Lumuindong, and Yapanto 2023; Ro- tion aibon is more like cassava, with almost the same
sulva et al. 2022). Sonneratia caseolaris and Sonnera- carbohydrate content i.e., 92%. The mangrove fruit
tia ovata can be made into flour and can be processed exhibits a carbohydrate content of 85.1 grams per 100
into various kinds of cakes, pastries, lunkhead, syrup, grams. In contrast to rice, the carbohydrate content

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Table 1. Diversity of Mangrove Species Utilization in Rokan Hilir and Bengkalis Regencies
Species Local name and Nutrient content Various food products
vernacular name
Avicennia ma- Api-api putih Api-api fruit (Avicennia marina) has a high spongecake, jelly cake, cookies,
rina (Forssk.) nutritional content and can be used as a food round fried cakes, ketimus cake,
Vierh Grey mangrove source. The nutritional content in 100 grams bundt cake, porridge, bubble
of fruit is 10.8% protein, 21.4% carbohydrates. tea, springroll, sweet crisps, salt
Vitamin B 3.74 mg vitamin C 22.24 mg (Ramli crisps, sheet cake, sweet sheet
et al. 2020; Triastuti, Nashir, and Nirmala cake, bubble cake, pudding,
Avicennia alba Api-api hitam
2022). The fruit is boiled, peeled, soaked, and avicennia balls, candy
Blume
Grey mangrove destroyed so it can be used as a basic ingredient
for making cakes (Baderan et al. 2015;
Bandaranayake 2002).
Sonneratia Perepat/pedada merah Pedada/Berembang fruit (Sonneratia caseolaris) Sweet sticky rice, cookies, dodol,
caseolaris (L.) has a high nutritional content and can be used sticky rice wrapped in banana
Engl Mangrove apple as a food source. The nutritional content in 100 leaves, compote, jalabia, diamond
grams of fruit is vitamin A 221.97 IU, vitamin cake, candied fruit, bowl cake,
B 5.04 mg, vitamin B2 7.65 mg, and vitamin C bowl cake, dragon essence cake,
56.74 mg. The results of the analysis in other bombing ball, green bulge jelly
Kedabu/Berembang
studies show proximate levels in broiler fruit, ice, candy, various syrups.
Mangrove apple namely: water content 84.76%, ash content 8.4%,
Sonneratia
fat content 4.82%, protein content 9.21%, and
ovata Backer
carbohydrate content 77.57%. The pedada fruit
also contains phytochemicals such as steroids,
tripenoids, and flavonoids (Manalu et al. 2013;
Ramadani, Dari, and Aisah 2020). The fruit is
peeled and crushed before being consumed for
later use in the manufacture of juice, lunkhead,
and shrimp crisp (Jariyah et al. 2014; Sahil and
Soamole 2013).
Bruguiera Lindur/Tancang Lindur/Tancang fruit (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza) cookies, dodol, bubble tea,
gymnorrhiza has a higher carbohydrate, and starch content springroll, sweet crisps, salt
(L.) Lamk Orange mangrove than other types of mangrove fruit. The calories crisps, sheet cake, sweet sheet
contained in lindur fruit are 73.756% water cake, bubble cake, pudding,
content, 1.246% fat, 1.128% protein, 23.528% bombing ball, green bulge jelly
carbohydrates and 0.342% ash content. ice, candy, compote, jalabia,
Meanwhile, the anti-nutritional content of diamond cake.
HCN is 6.8559 mg and tannin is 34.105 mg.
It contains high carbohydrates so it has the
opportunity to be explored as an alternative
food ingredient that can be processed into
flour (Mulyatun 2019). The fruit is consumed
regularly during the harvest season by boiling,
peeling, soaking, and grating before being
consumed or cooked fruit with salt, dried, and
consumed. The fruit is used as raw materials for
cake and other traditional snacks (Baderan et al.
2015; Hidayat, Suptijah, and Nurjanah 2013; Jin
et al. 2012; Priyono 2010; Sarungallo, Santoso,
and Tethool 2010; Singh et al. 2005; Sudirman,
Nurjanah, and Jacoeb 2014).

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Continue table 1. Diversity of Mangrove Species Utilization in Rokan Hilir and Bengkalis Regencies
Species Local name and Nutrient content Various food products
vernacular name
Rhizophora Bakau hitam Black mangrove fruit (Rhizophora mucronata) Sweet crisps, salt crisps, sweet
mucronata Lam based on the results of the chemical content sticky rice, cookies, dodol, sticky
Red mangrove test were: 52.38% water content; Ash content rice wrapped in banana leaves,
of 0.22%; Total fat content of 2.33%; protein compote, jalabia, diamond
content of 6.85% and carbohydrates 30.30% cake, candied fruit, bowl cake,
and identified bioactive compounds, namely bowl cake, dragon essence cake,
flavonoids, saponins, tannins, tripertenoids bombing ball, green bulge jelly
and steroids as well as hydroquinone phenolic ice, candy, various syrups.
compounds (Hardoko et al. 2015; Mile et al.
2021; Wang’ondu et al. 2013). Fruits are boiled,
peeled, soaked in ash or salt solution, dried and
floured, making dry cakes or wet cakes (Priyono
2010; Sahil and Soamole 2013).
Nypa fruticans Nipah The nutritional content of nipa palm sugar is Nipa flour, nipa sugar, sweets, a
(Thunb.) quite good, carbohydrates (89.61%), protein generous amount of sweet syrup
Wurmb Nipa palm (5.95%), Ca levels (44.58 mg/kg), and calories can be made from the stems, if
of 3,172 cal/gr. Nipah flour contains high fibre the flowers are picked at the right
with low fat and calorie content which has time. Used to produce alcohol
the potential to be used as food for people on and sugar. If managed properly,
a diet. Nipa fruit flour contains nine of the the resulting sugar production
twelve essential amino acids, histidine, arginine, is better than cane sugar and
threonine, valine, methionine, iso-leucine, has a higher sucrose content.
leucine, phenylalanine, and lysine which are The leaves are used to make
needed by the human body. The nutritional umbrellas, hats, mats, baskets,
content of nipa palm sugar is also quite good. and cigarette paper. The seeds are
This is indicated by the levels of carbohydrates edible. After being processed, the
(89.61%), protein (5.95%), Ca levels (44.58 mg/ leaf stalk fibre can also be made
kg), and calories of 3,172 cal/gr (Heriyanto, into ropes and bristles.
Subiandono, and Karlina 2011).
Acanthus Jeruju Nutritional content of Acanthus ilicifolius leaf chips, spicy chips, salty chips, tea,
ilicifolius Linn (moisture content 72.32%, ash content 5.03%, meatball flour
Puzzle fruit 0.58% fat content, 43.83% protein, 44.72%
fibre content, 76.63 μg / ml antioxidant) (Hakim
et al. 2021).

of mangrove fruit is comparatively greater, surpass- complicated and takes a long time. As a result, society
ing that the rice 78.9 grams per 100 grams, and corn rarely uses it for food. (Helmy, Jacoeb, and Suptijah
(63.6 grams per 100 grams) (Kardiman, Ridhwan, and 2012; Pentury 2016; Sudirman et al. 2014).
Armi 2017).
Bruguiera gymnorhiza contains significant energy
Bruguiera gymnorhiza fruit has prospects very good and carbohydrates, far exceeding the various types
to be developed into an alternative food ingredient to of carbohydrate sources commonly consumed by the
replace rice, especially for people living near the coast general public, such as rice, corn, cassava, and sago.
beach, as well as a provider of carbohydrates as well as
industrial raw materials. One of the problems faced is The carbohydrate and calorie content of this man-
if compared to other commodities for example rice or grove fruit is higher than other staple foods. Below is
sweet potatoes, fruit processing of mangroves is quite a comparison of carbohydrates and calories in man-

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grove nuts, corn, and rice. Chemical analysis of Bru- vored by the panelists. The reason for using mangrove
guiera gymnorhiza fruit showed a content of 73.756%, meal as a supplement material and not as a whole is
a content of 1.246%, protein of 1.128%, carbohydrate the fact that the physical and chemical properties of
of 23.528%, and ash of 0.342%. On the other hand, mangrove meal are not precisely known, and some
HCN has 6.8559 mg of anti-nutritional content and researchers are still unsure about the food. Because
34.105 mg of tannin (Mamuaja et al. 2023). Mangrove it's not a safety issue when using whole (Polnaya et al.
fruits of Bruquiera gymnorrhiza, traditionally caked, 2021 ). The availability of data on the physicochemical
mixed with rice, or eaten directly with coconut spice, and functional properties of mangrove meal will facil-
contain significant amounts of energy and carbohy- itate research into a wider range of applications.
drates and are commonly consumed. Exceeds dietary
sources of various types of carbohydrates rice, corn, Mangrove fruits contain multiple tannins and alka-
cassava, or sago. The energy content of this mangrove loid compounds (Ayu et al. 2019; Hardoko et al. 2015;
fruit is 371 calories per 100 grams, higher than rice Koeslulat and Prabawa 2019), anti-tropical agents
(360 calories per 100 grams) and corn (307 calories (Rout et al. 2015) and hydrogen cyanide glucoside
per 100 grams). (Ayu et al. 2019; Polnaya et al. 2021 ; Rosulva et al.
2022). These nutrient-inhibiting compounds are phy-
Mangroves have a carbohydrate content of 85.1 grams tochemicals that act as defense mechanisms against
per 100 grams, higher than rice (78.9 grams per 100 pests and insects. There are non-toxic and toxic nu-
grams) and maize (63.6 grams per 100 grams) (Hi- trient- blocking compounds. Plants containing toxic
dayah and Rosyadi 2019; Ilman et al. 2016; Polnaya et compounds should be properly managed so that these
al. 2021 ). Based on the description of many mangrove non-nutritional components can be reduced to safe
fruits that tend to be explored as new local food sourc- levels and eliminated (Emire, Jha, and Mekam 2013).
es, they belong to the Bruguiera gymnorrhiza. Be- Toxic anti-nutritive components are alkaloids, cya-
cause this type of fruit contains a lot of carbohydrates. nide glucosides, and saponins, and nontoxic anti-nu-
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza bears fruit all year round on tritive components include tannins, protease inhibi-
hardy trees up to 35 meters high. It bears fruit when tors, lignin, silica, and cutin (Jayanegara et al. 2019).
it is 2 years old. It grows in the middle layers of the
genus Avicennia on the beach. Using mangrove fruit Nutritional issues (i.e., the presence of anti-nutrient
as a food ingredient is just a small part of the benefits compounds) in nutrients contained in mangrove
that mangroves bring to the community. fruits used for consumption for public consumption
can be eliminated through post-harvest treatment
Some researchers have reported that processed man- and pre-treatment (i.e., soaking and boiling) before
grove flour is a complementary ingredient to other drying and grinding into flour.
flours. (Hidayat et al. 2013) reported on the produc-
tion of similar rice from Bruguiera gymnorrhiza flour Processing mangrove fruits into raw materials for
supplemented with sago flour and chitosan. With a fi- flour and processed foods is the ultimate goal of pro-
bre content of 8.16% and starch digestibility of 55.22%, viding mangroves as an alternative food source. The
7 parts of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza flour and 3 parts of availability of mangroves in flour form should be op-
sago flour offer a suitable rice substitute for diabetics. timized to remove anti-nutritional components and
other food toxins. Tanin, an anti-nutritional com-
The results of Sumartini et al., (2020) study represent pound present in mangrove fruit, is responsible for
that the fat content of mangrove flour brownies is imparting a bitter flavor. In addition, the excessive and
lower at 11.94% compared to wheat flour brownies at continuous consumption of tannin has been found to
30.42%. Ikasari & Hastarini (2016) Study shows that have carcinogenic effects on the human body. Hence,
the optimal treatment was determined to be a com- it is imperative to ascertain the tannin concentration
bination of 40% Lindur fruit flour, 60% potato flour, in mangrove fruit, a task that can be accomplished
and 3% shrimp shell powder. This formulation yielded by the process of extraction. In a study conducted by
chips with reduced hardness, elevated protein content, Subandriyo and Setianingsih (2016), it was found that
and a superior crispy, flavorful quality that was fa- the most effective method for extracting mangrove

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fruit to minimize tannin content involves employ- another advantage is that the flour can later be used as
ing an air solvent in an extractor. The recommended flour composites as well as in various industrial raw
volume ratio of solvent to mangrove fruit is 5:1 w/w, materials.
with a temperature of 80℃ and a soaking duration
of 60 minutes. Brugiella gymnorrhiza flour process Mangrove flour has a low water content and is more
yielded 0.94–1.79% w/c (Chrissanty 2012), 287.43 flexible when applied to various types of food pro-
ppm (Muryati and Nelfiyanti 2015), 0.19% w/c (Su- cessing. The best outcome of the flouring procedure
listyawati et al. 2013), 47.45 ppm (Ayu et al. 2019) and is to create food-grade mangrove flour that is suita-
0.61% w/c (Rout et al. 2015). For Avicennia marina ble for consumption or incorporation into other food
flour, tannins can be removed from 0.86 to 4.86% w/c products. Mangrove flour derivatives are safe when
(Chrissanty 2012) and 0.0995% w/c (Perdana, Soe- combined with other ingredients as supplementary
nardjo, and Supriyantini 2012). Sonneratia caseolaris materials. In contrast to substitute materials, further
flour contains 0.26% w/k tannins (Koeslulat and Pra- investigation is needed to ascertain whether its use
bawa 2019). The safe limit for tannin content in food goes beyond the maximum threshold. There is a dis-
is 560 mg/kg body weight/day (Permadi, Sedjati, and covery of new food sources in the form of mangrove
Supriyantini 2012). In mangrove flour, Rhizophora fruit products. The community gets new information
apiculata is 0.57% w/k (Rout et al. 2015), Rhizopho- and knowledge related to food sources other than
ra stylosa is 3.76–5.33% w/k (Chrissanty 2012), and tubers, sago, and corn in the form of fruit pulp, and
Rhizophora mucronata is 0.28% w/k/k (Koeslulat and siege. The function of mangrove fruit as edible prop-
Prabawa 2019), 819 ppm, 845.68–1710.65 mg gaz/100 erties of processed food can be diversified through
g (Hardoko et al. 2015). proper food processing so as that produce a variety of
products that have high added value.
Efforts to improve the fruit function of mangroves in
food (extend shelf life, easy to apply, easy to fortify, The purpose of making mangrove flour is to extend
easy to compose, easy to diversify, easy to store, and its shelf life without reducing its nutritional value.
easy to pack) further processing of mangrove fruit is The drying process is one of the stages very decisive
required into mangrove flour. Flour is a solid particle because it determines the quality and sustainabil-
in the form of fine or very fine grains depending on ity of the processed product later wheat flour (Erni,
the grinding and sieving process with a certain mesh Kadirman, and Fadilah 2018). The important differ-
size. Flour has a low water content so it can extend ence in the estimated composition of mangrove fruit
shelf life. Flour consists of various kinds according into mangrove flour is due to the heat absorbed by the
to the origin of the ingredients and characteristics. material while drying in the drying oven. This affects
In the world, there are about 30 types of flour used the dryness level of flour. The general composition of
in processed food, while in Indonesia there are about flour varies with drying time and temperature.
16 types of refined flour that have different character-
istics. Of these types of flour, mangrove flour is not The drying process is carried out at ± 65-75 °C for ±
included because it is not yet familiar to be used in 5-7 hours. The drying process at this temperature was
processed food. chosen except for the possibility of reducing the mois-
ture content of the material can also reduce the cya-
Flour has various benefits, namely to diversify and nide content significantly and tannin content of man-
increase the power of flexibility as a processed raw grove flour (Muryati and Nelfiyanti 2015; Sulistyawati
material so that it is easier applied to various types of et al. 2013). In addition, low- temperature drying was
food processing, and is more flexible for composing, chosen to minimize the degradation of phytochemi-
fortifying, shaping, and cooking accordingly needs so cals and amino acids (Mardiah et al. 2015; Park et al.
that it is easier to be introduced to the community. 2021) as well as create the best conditions for plant
physiological properties of dry product (Perdana et
Profit another flouring is to simplify the packaging, al. 2012). Based on the physicochemical analysis of
can expand the area marketing, and increase the add- flour results, the moisture content value of Sonnera-
ed value (value added) of mangrove fruit. In addition, tia caseolaris and Sonneratia ovata flours. of 9.82 ±

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0.063 g/100 g (dw). This value is higher when com- ± 0.62 g/100 g (dw), Rhizophora mucronata flour of
pared to Avicennia marina and Avicennia alba flour 1.74 ± 0.12 g/100 g (dw), and Avicennia marina and
(8.59 ± 0.071 g/100 g (dw), Rhizophora mucronata Avicennia alba flour of 1.52 ± 0.87 g/100 g (dw).
flour (8.29 ± 0.09 g/100 g (dw), and Bruguiera gymn-
orrhiza flour (4.97 ± 0.069 g/100 g (dw). Overall, the The crude fibre content in Sonneratia caseolaris and
dry-base mangrove flour produced is in accordance Sonneratia ovata flour was 16.12 ± 0.19 g/100 g (dw).
with the flour standards, namely the Indonesian flour This value is higher when compared to the crude fibre
standard, namely the water content of less than 12% content of flour in Bruguiera gymnorrhiza of 11.27 ±
-15%, the moisture content of the mangrove flour pro- 0.19 g/100 g (dw), Rhizophora mucronata of 9.27 ±
duced in this study is within acceptable limits/ranges, 0.31 g/100 g (dw), and Avicennia marina and Avicen-
namely those containing the moisture content is not nia alba 7.11 ± 0.14 g/100 g (dw). The carbohydrate
more than 10% for long-term flour storage. The low content of Rhizophora mucronata flour was 93.47 ±
moisture content of flour increases its shelf life by in-0.84 g/100 g (dw). This value is higher than Avicennia
hibiting the growth of moulds and other biochemical marina and Avicennia alba flour 84.77 ± 0.11 g/100
reactions (Singh et al. 2005). g (dw), Bruguiera gymnorrhiza 87.16 ± 0.08 g/100 g
(dw), and Sonneratia caseolaris and Sonneratia ovata
The ash content of Sonneratia caseolaris and Son- (82.16 ± 0.16 g/100 g (dw).
neratia ovata flour is higher when compared to other
flours which are equal to 7.38 ± 0.06 g/100 g (dw). The drying and flouring processes increased the ash
content, protein content, fat content, carbohydrate
The ash content of Avicennia marina and Avicennia content significantly, and significantly reduced the
alba flour of 4.23 ± 0.07 g/100 g (dw), the ash con- moisture content and fibre content. Temperature and
tent of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza flour was only 3.41 ± drying time influence the resulting water content. The
0.06 g/100 g (dw), and the ash content of Rhizophora higher the temperature, the more water molecules
mucronata flour was 2.46 ± 0. .06 g/100 g (dw). The evaporate from the dried mangrove fruit, resulting in
ash content of the research results of the mangrove a lower water content. The higher the drying temper-
flour produced is still quite high when compared to ature, the faster evaporation occurs, so the water con-
the ash content of standard Indonesian flours such as tent in the material is lower. The longer a material is in
corn flour, which is less than 1.50%, rice flour is less direct contact with heat, the lower the water content
than 1%, wheat flour is less than 0.70%, tapioca flour (Winarno 1997). All tests of flour moisture content on
is less than 0.60%, and sago flour less than 0.50%. The a dry basis, show that the species Sonneratia caseo-
reported ash values indicate that mangrove flour is a laris and Sonneratia ovata have the highest moisture
good source of minerals. The ash content indicates content compared to other species. This shows that
that flour samples can be a significant source of min- the water content of Sonneratia caseolaris and Son-
erals (Eshun 2012). neratia ovata flour is greater than that of other species
so Sonneratia caseolaris and Sonneratia ovata flour is
Avicennia marina and Avicennia alba flour contains a the flour that is the fastest to spoil and deteriorate in
relatively large amount of crude protein, 9.84 ± 0.015 quality compared to flour of other species.
g/100 g (dw), this value shows a higher yield when
compared to Sonneratia caseolaris and Sonneratia The specific composition of the different types of flour
ovata flour of 7.69 ± 0.028 g /100 g (dw), Bruguiera is important to determine the cooking properties and
gymnorrhiza flour of 4.27 ± 0.071 g/100 g (dw), and textural characteristics of a food (Fu 2008). Flour
Rhizophora mucronata flour of 3.12 ± 0.059 g/100 g Mangrove is expected to be an intermediate product
(dw). Avicennia marina and Avicennia alba, Sonnera- in the form of mixed flour (flour composite), which is
tia caseolaris and Sonneratia ovata flours comply with a form of mixture between flour and several types of
Indonesian mokaf flour standards at least 7%. Son- flour from another material. The purpose of making
neratia caseolaris and Sonneratia ovata flour contains composite flour is to get material characteristics suita-
3.77 ± 0.91 g/100 g (dw) of fat. This value indicates a ble for the desired processed product or to obtain cer-
higher yield than Bruguiera gymnorrhiza flour of 2.87 tain functional properties (Mamat et al. 2020). Flour

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Composite has advantages such as having a higher et al., 2022).

nutritional value compared to only one type of flour,
as well as the physical quality and more organoleptic In addition to the vitamin and mineral content of
(Masri et al. 2014). Knowing the characteristics of the processed mangrove products, the mangrove eco-
flour mangrove is expected to be easier to apply and system acts as a preferred producer for small fish,
compose on other flour products to produce new food shellfish, and crabs which are a source of protein for
products. It is expected that thorough information re- humans. Nevertheless, the broad implementation of
lated to mangrove flour can increase the value-added mangroves-based food has different problems and
flour so that it can compete with other popular food constraints, such as the necessity to enhance techni-
sources. cal expertise and technology proficiency in the pro-
cessing and invention of mangrove fruit into diverse
Mangroves have the potential to be used as industrial food products. In addition to the aforementioned
raw materials form of flour and its derivative prod- point, it is imperative to enhance the vegetation cover
ucts (starch-based products). High -content amy- in order to sustain the availability of mangrove fruit.
lopectin compared to amylose is responsible for the It is imperative to take into account the regulations
texture sticky to the starch produced, in this case, it pertaining to the suitable harvesting system and the
can function as an agent thickening agent. This shows utilization of mangrove fruit as seeds. So in the uti-
that mangrove flour has characteristics like glutinous lization of mangroves, it is necessary to pay attention
rice flour. Mangrove flour application is suitable as a to the sustainability aspect, namely by implementing
thickening agent in food (thickening agent) such as sustainable mangrove forest management (SMFM).
roux, beurre manie, slurry, or jayzee. The application
of mangrove flour can also form a rich food that re- In the agenda for implementing mangrove fruit as a
quires a sticky and chewy texture like dodol, and oth- food source, it is necessary to involve all stakehold-
ers. Based on differences in the characteristics of man- ers, such as local communities, government, aca-
grove flour, produce various benefits and usefulness, demics and researchers, NGOs, and business actors
namely as raw materials, and auxiliary materials in a or investors. This means that this utilization must be
variety of industry. Therefore, mangrove fruit and its seen from all functions of mangroves both ecologi-
derivative products in the form of Flour is a superior cally, economically, and socially to meet the needs of
raw material for both food and non-food products. the present generation without reducing the choice of
uses and the needs of future generations. Therefore,
The diverse nutritional content of mangroves with the author recommends conducting research related
high carbohydrate levels can be developed as a renew- to appropriate harvest times and innovations in devel-
able food source in a food diversification program to oping mangrove technology as a food source, as well
strengthen national food security because basically as stakeholder perceptions and participation in the
the implementation of this program is carried out by development of mangrove-based food.
utilizing local food sources. In this case, local commu-
nities in Indonesia have long been using mangroves 5. Conclusion
as a food ingredient. In Padang and Pariaman, coastal
communities directly consume mangrove fruit from Traditional communities in Rokan Hilir and Beng-
the species Ardisia littoralis, Melastoma candidum, kalis Regencies generally use mangroves as a food
and Sonneratia caseolaris (Leilani et al., 2017). Sever- source, especially in the manufacture of pastries,
al types of mangrove fruit are used as food ingredients lunkheads, refreshing drinks, and some even make
in the form of flour and are made into snacks such as them their main source of food. Advanced processing
dodol (Rosyada et al., 2018). Traditional communities of mangrove fruit that has gone through various stag-
in North Maluku use mangrove fruit as food for com- es of processing such as soaking, boiling, and drying,
pote (Sahil and Soamole 2013; Talib et al., 2018). Even then processed into flour into various types of food,
for the people of Lahanglau Village, mangrove fruit is can be declared safe for consumption because proper
part of the local wisdom which is used as their special processing can reduce the content of anti-nutritional
food, which is called Teneh Fui and Jepa jepa (Tubay substances to a safe limit for consumption. Products

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derived from mangrove flour are safe when used as Baderan, D. W. K., Hamidun, M. S., Lamangandjo, C.,
substitutes mixed with other ingredients. Unlike sub- & Retnowati, Y. (2015). Diversifikasi Produk Olahan
stitute materials, further research on the use of man- Buah Mangrove Sebagai Sumber Pangan Alternatif
groves as a main food ingredient still requires a more Masyarakat Pesisir Toroseaje, Kabupaten Pohuwato,
in-depth study, especially minimizing the risk of toxic Provinsi Gorontalo. Pros Sem Nas Masy Biodiv In-
substances contained in the mangroves, processing don, 1(2), 347–351 . doi: 10.13057/psnmbi/m010230
techniques, and the final product to determine wheth-
er its use is safe or not. Mangroves have the potential Bandaranayake, W. (2002). Bioactivities, Bioactive
to be used as an industrial raw material form of flour Compounds and Chemical Constituents of Mangrove
and its derivative products (starch-based products). Plants. Wetlands Ecology and Management, 10, 421–
452. doi: 10.1023/A:1021397624349
Based on differences in the characteristics of man-
grove flour, it produces various benefits and useful- Budiyanto, F. , Alhomaidi, E. A., Mohammed, A. E.,
ness, namely as raw materials, and auxiliary materials Ghandourah, M. A., Alorfi, H. S., Bawakid, N. O., &
in a variety of industries. Therefore, mangrove fruit Alarif, W. M. (2022). Exploring the Mangrove Fruit:
and its derivative products in the form of Flour is a From the Phytochemicals to Functional Food Devel-
superior raw material for both food and non-food opment and the Current Progress in the Middle East.
products Marine Drugs, 20(5) , 303. doi: 10.3390/md20050303.

Conflict of Interest Chrissanty, P. A . (2012). Penurunan Kadar Tanin

Pada Buah Mangrove Jenis Brugueira Gymnorrhiza,
The authors agree that this research was conducted in Rhyzophora Stylosa Dan Avicennia Marina Untuk
the absence of any self-benefits, commercial, or finan- Diolah Menjadi Tepung Mangrove. Industria: Jurnal
cial conflicts and declare the absence of conflicting in- Teknologi Dan Manajemen Agroindustri, 1(1) , 31–
terests with the funders. 39.

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