17 Eh - PH - Diagrams

HSC - EpH
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Petri Kobylin, Lauri Mäenpää, Antti Roine, Kai Anttila
September 6, 2023
17. E - pH (Pourbaix) Diagrams Module

E - pH diagrams show the thermodynamic stability areas of different species in an
aqueous solution. Stability areas are presented as a function of pH and
electrochemical potential scales. Usually the upper and lower stability limits of water
are also shown in the diagrams by dotted lines. Traditionally, these diagrams have
been taken from different handbooks1. However, in most handbooks, these diagrams
are available only for a limited number of temperatures, concentrations, and element
combinations.
The Eh - pH module (EpH module is used hereafter) in HSC Chemistry allows the
construction of diagrams in a highly flexible and fast way, because the user can draw
the diagrams exactly at the selected temperature and concentration.
The EpH module is based on STABCAL - Stability Calculations for Aqueous Systems -
developed by H.H. Haung, at Montana Tech., USA2,3.
Metso reserves the right to modify these specifications at any time without prior notice. Copyright © 2023, Metso Finland Oy
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17.1. Introduction
E - pH diagrams are also known as Pourbaix Diagrams, after the author of the famous
Pourbaix diagram handbook1. The simplest type of these diagrams is based on a
chemical system consisting of one element and a water solution, for example, the Mn-
H2O system. The system can contain several types of species, such as dissolved ions,
condensed oxides, hydroxides, oxides, etc. The E - pH diagram shows the stability
areas of these species in the redox potential-pH coordinates.
Usually the redox potential axis is based on the Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE)
scale designated Eh, but other scales can also be used. The redox potential of the
system represents its ability to change electrons. The system tends to remove
electrons from the species when the potential is high (E > 0). These conditions may
exist near the anode in an electrochemical cell, but can also be generated with some
oxidizing agents (Cu + H2O2 = CuO + H2O). In reducing conditions, when the potential
is low (E < 0), the system is able to supply electrons to the species, for example, with a
cathode electrode or with some reducing agents.
The pH of the system describes its ability to supply protons (H(+a)) to the species. In
acid conditions (pH < 7), the concentration of protons is high and in caustic conditions
(pH > 7) the concentration of protons is low.
Usually, a large amount of different species exist simultaneously in the aqueous

mixtures in fixed E - pH conditions. Pourbaix diagrams simplify this situation a lot by
showing only the predominant species whose content is highest in each stability area.
The lines in the diagrams represent the E - pH conditions where the content of the
adjacent species is the same in the equilibrium state. However, these species always
exist in small amounts on both sides of these lines and may have an effect on practical
applications.
The lines in the diagrams can also be represented with chemical reaction equations.
These reactions may be divided into three groups according to the reaction types:
1. Horizontal lines. These lines represent reactions that are involved with
electrons, but are independent of pH. Neither H(+a) ions nor OH(-a) ions
participate in these reactions.
2. Diagonal lines with either a positive or negative slope. These lines represent
reactions that are involved with both electrons and H(+a)- and OH(-a) ions.
3. Vertical lines. These lines represent reactions that are involved either with
H(+a)- or OH(-a) ions, but are independent of E. In other words, electrons do not
participate in these reactions.
The chemical stability area of the water is shown in the E-pH diagrams by dotted
lines. The upper stability limit of water is based on the potential when oxygen
generation starts on the anode. It is specified by the reaction:
2 H2O = O2(g) + 4 H(+a) + 4 e-
The lower stability limit is based on hydrogen formation on the cathode. It is specified
by the reaction:
2 H(+a) + 2 e- = H2(g)
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The construction of the diagrams with the HSC Chemistry EpH module is quite a
simple task. However, several aspects must be taken into account when specifying the
chemical system and analyzing the calculation results, for example:
1. A basic knowledge of chemistry, aqueous systems and electrochemistry or

hydrometallurgy is always needed in order to draw the correct conclusions.
2. The EpH module carries out the calculations using pure stoichiometric
substances. In practice, minerals may contain impurity elements and the
composition may deviate slightly from the stoichiometric one.
3. There are always some errors in the basic thermochemical data of the species.
This may have a significant effect on the results, especially if the chemical driving
force of the reaction is small. Usually small differences between Pourbaix
diagrams from different sources can be explained by the slightly different basic
data used.
4. Sometimes data for all existing species is not available from the HSC database
or from other sources. This will distort the results if the missing species are stable
in the given conditions. The missing unstable species will have no effect on the
results.
5. The EpH module does not take into account the non-ideal behavior of aqueous
solutions. However, in many cases these ideal diagrams give a quite good idea
of the possible reactions in aqueous solutions, especially if the driving force of the
reactions is high.
6. Thermochemical calculations do not take into account the speed of the
reactions (kinetics). For example, the formation of the SO4(-2a) ion may be a
slow reaction. In these cases, metastable diagrams created by removing such
species from the system may give more consistent results with experimental
laboratory results.
Due to these limitations and assumptions, the HSC user must be very careful when
drawing conclusions from E - pH diagrams. However, these diagrams can offer
extremely valuable information when combining the results with experimental work and
with a good knowledge of aqueous chemistry. There is no universal kinetic or
thermochemical theory available that could entirely substitute traditional experimental
laboratory work with pure theoretical calculation models.
More information on E - pH diagrams, calculation methods, and applications can be

found in different handbooks, for example, from the Pourbaix Atlas1.
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17.2. Chemical System Specifications
Fig. 1. Selecting elements and species for the E - pH diagram.
The EpH Diagram selection in the HSC main menu will show the EpH form, Fig. 1. The
user must specify the chemical system which will be used to calculate the diagram in
this form. Let us assume that the system contains Cu, S, and H2O. The following steps
should be specified in order to create the diagram:
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1. Select Elements: Select one or more elements from the list. The element chosen
first will be used as the “main” element in the first diagram, i.e. all species, which
are shown in the diagram, will contain this element. The user can easily change
the main element selection later on in the diagram form, see Fig. 3. Cu has been
selected in this example, but S may be selected as the main element by pressing
S in Fig. 3. Up to 7 elements can be selected but it is recommended to use fewer,
because a large amount of elements and species increases calculation time and
could cause some other problems. S has been selected in this example. Note: It
is not necessary to select H and O, because these are always automatically
included.
2. Search Mode: This selection specifies the type of species which will be collected
from the database. It is recommended to use the default selections. Note:
Condensed = solid substances, Aqueous Neutrals = dissolved species without
charge, Aqueous Ions = dissolved ions, Gases = gaseous species without
charge, Gas Ions = gaseous ions, and Liquids = liquid species. Check Organics,
if you want to include organic species to your system (carbon need to be one of
the selected elements).
3. Select Species: Usually you can select all species for the diagram by pressing
All. However, in many cases, it is useful to remove unnecessary species
from the system. This will decrease calculation time and simplify the diagrams.
Note: A) By pressing simultaneously the Ctrl key and clicking with the mouse it is
easy to make any kind of selection. B) By double clicking the species it is
possible to see more information on the species. Load CUS25.eph8 file to see
the selected species of this example.
The selection of species is the most critical step in the EpH calculation
specifications. For kinetic reasons the formation especially of large molecules
may take quite a long time in aqueous solutions. For example, the formation of
large polysulfide, sulfate, etc. molecules (S4O6(-2a), HS2O6(-a), HS7O3(-a), ...)
may take quite a while. If these are included in the chemical system then they
may easily consume all the sulfur and the formation of simple sulfides (AgS,
Cu2S, ...) will decrease due to the lack of sulfur. Therefore in some cases large
molecules should be rejected from the chemical system.
The data on some species may also be unreliable, especially if the reliability
class of the species in the database is not 1. Such species may be rejected from
the chemical system. Note also that it is not recommended to use species with
the (ia) suffix, see Chapter 28 (section 28.4.) for details.
4. Temperature: The user must specify at least one temperature for the diagram.
Up to four temperatures may be specified in order to draw combined diagrams,
which show the effect of temperature. The temperatures 25, 50, 75, and 100 °C
have been selected in this example, Fig. 1 and Fig. 2.
5. Draw: Pressing the Table button will show the Diagram specification form, see
section 17.3. and Fig. 2. By pressing Draw in Fig. 2 you will see the default
diagram.
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17.3. E - pH Diagram Menu
Fig. 2. Default values for the E - pH diagram (Table button).
The EpH diagram menu shows a summary of the chemical system specifications as
well as the selected default values for the diagram. The fastest way to go forward is to
accept all the default values and press Draw for simple E - pH diagram. Usually at the
beginning, there is no need for modifications to the default values. However, it is
important to understand the meaning of these settings because they may have a strong
effect on the diagram. The details of the diagram menu options are explained in the
following paragraphs.
1. File Open
The EpH module can also be used as an independent application; in these cases the
data for the diagram may be read from *.eph8 files by pressing File Open. Normally the
system specifications are automatically transferred from the system specification sheet
to the diagram menu, Fig. 2.
The calculation results may be saved in a *.eph8 file by selecting Save from the file
menu and loaded back by selecting Open from the file menu, which causes the
diagram to be automatically recalculated.
2. Table sheet
The selected species and calculated G-data based on the enthalpy, entropy, and heat
capacity values of the HSC database is shown in the Table sheet, Fig. 2. The species
are arranged according to elements and species type.
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The published Pourbaix diagrams are often based on G-data which is given in the
original papers. Note that these G-values can also be calculated from the standard
potential values using Equation (1):
∆𝐺 = −𝑛 ∙ 𝐹 ∙ 𝐸 (1)
where n is the charge transferred in the cell reaction, F is the Faraday constant (23045
cal/(V·mol)), and E is the standard electrode potential in volts. Note: G-data is
temperature dependent; usually these values are only available at 25 °C in the
literature.
Sometimes all the necessary species are not available in the HSC database. These
missing species can be added to the chemical system specification if the user has the
G-values or chemical potential data for these species. The new species may be
added by using Own Database, see Chapter 28 (section 28.6).
In some cases it is necessary to remove certain species from the system, e.g. if some
kinetic barriers are found to slow down the reaction rate in the experiments.
Table sheet is for the program’s internal use and user should not make any
modifications to this sheet.
3. Temperature
Pourbaix diagrams are drawn at a constant temperature. The user must select one
temperature for the diagram from the list of temperatures, Fig. 2. The actual
temperature values can only be changed from the system specification form, Fig. 1. No
temperature selection is needed here for the Combined diagrams.
The default G-values in the Species sheet are calculated at the given temperatures.
4. Other parameters
The default values for the Dielectric Constant and G of H2O are automatically
calculated on the basis of the selected temperature and pressure. The calculation of
Dielectric Constant is based on experimental values4 and water vapor pressure5, which
are valid from 0 to 373 °C, and from 1 to 5000 bar. Outside this range the Dielectric
Constant will be extrapolated.
The Ion Strength and Correction Factor constants are automatically calculated by the
program and usually they do not need to be modified by the user.
Criss-Cobble option enables HSC to extrapolate the heat capacity function of the
aqueous species if this data is not given in the database6, see Chapter 28 (28.4.)
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5. Potential and pH scale ranges
The user may change the default range (Max Eh and Min Eh) for the potential scale as
well as the range of the pH scale (Max pH and Min pH). The scale settings can also be
changed by clicking the x- or y-axis on the diagram form. The minimum difference
between Min and Max values is 0.2 and there is no upper limit for the difference.
6. Molality and Pressure
The diagrams are calculated using constant molalities (concentrations) for all the
elements. The default values may be changed in the table in the bottom right corner of
the diagram menu, see Fig. 2. Molality values are given in mol/kg H2O units.
The total pressure of the system is also given in the Molality table. The EpH module
uses the maximum value given in the Pressure column as the chemical system total
pressure. It is not possible to select a smaller pressure value than the water vapor
pressure at the selected temperature. In other words, the total pressure must always
be bigger than the water vapor pressure at the selected temperature. The default value
for the pressure is 1 bar.
7. Show Predominance Areas of Ions
Selecting Show Predominance Areas of Ions causes the EpH module to calculate two
diagrams for the same system. The first one is a normal E - pH diagram with all
species, and the second one is the predominance diagram with only aqueous species.
Both diagrams are drawn into the same figure; the first diagram in black and the
second one in blue. This option is recommended for use only with normal E - pH
diagrams (see section 17.4.).
8. Draw and Combiner Buttons
Draw starts the calculations and automatically shows the normal Pourbaix diagram.
Combiner will show one more menu for combined diagram specifications; see section
17.5. for further details.
9. Other options
The Chart may be printed clicking Print. Data table can be printed by clicking Table and
selecting Print from the file menu.
Edit Copy provides normal copy and paste operations, Edit Copy All copies all three
sheets to the clipboard. The worksheet layout may be changed using the Format menu,
which contains dialogs for column width, row height, font, alignment, and number
formats.
Press Exit or select File Exit when you want to return to the system specifications form,
Fig. 1. The Help menu opens the HSC Help dialog.
10. Example of Normal Pourbaix Diagrams (Cu-S-H2O system)
Accept all the default values and press Draw.
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17.4. Normal E - pH Diagrams
The calculated E - pH diagrams are shown in Fig. 3. In the Diagram window it is possible,
for example, to modify the layout and format of the diagram. The solid black lines show
the stability areas of the most stable species on the pH and E scales. The dotted black
lines show the upper and lower stability areas of water, see section 17.1. The stability
areas of ions are shown by a blue dotted line if the “Show Predominance Areas of
Ions” option has been selected, see Fig. 2.
1. Main Elements
The E - pH diagrams show only the species that contain the selected main
element. The default main element (Cu) must be selected in the system specification
form, Fig. 1. However, the active main element can easily be changed in the diagram
form by selecting Element inside Draw button, see Fig. 3. for the Cu-S-H2O diagram
and Fig. 4 for the S-Cu-H2O diagram. Usually it is useful to check all the diagrams with
different main elements to get a better idea of the equilibria.
2. Labels and Lines
The EpH module locates the area labels automatically on the widest point of the
stability areas. You can easily relocate the labels by dragging them with the mouse
cursor if necessary. The text of the labels and headings can be modified by inserting
the cursor into the correct location within the text row and then starting to type. You can
start the Label Format dialog by double clicking the label. This dialog makes it
possible to change text and lines properties, such as font, type, size, line width, color,
etc.
Note that you cannot delete the default labels, but you can hide these labels by
removing all the text from the label.
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Fig. 3. E - pH diagram of Cu-S-H2O system at 25 °C using Cu as the main element. The

molalities of Cu and S are 1 mol/kg H2O.
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Fig. 4. E - pH diagram of the S-Cu-H2O system at 25 °C using S as the main element. The
molalities of Cu and S are 1 mol/kg H2O.
Selecting Format H2O Stability Lines opens the format dialog, which makes it
possible to modify the water stability lines formats and properties. NB! This dialog
cannot be opened by double clicking the water stability lines.
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3. Scales
Fig. 5. Menu for formatting y-axis; note the different potential scale options.
The scale format dialog can be opened by clicking the Parameters and Axis, see Fig.
5. A special feature of the E - pH diagram scale dialog is the scale unit option. You can
select between the Hydrogen, Saturated Calomel, and Ag / AgCl scales. The default
scale is Hydrogen (Eh), which is used in the calculations. The difference between the
Min and Max values must be at least 0.2 units.
4. Printing
Fig. 6. E - pH Diagram Print Dialog.
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You can open the Print dialog by clicking Print, see Fig. 3. This dialog allows the user
to select margins and size of the diagram as well as the orientation, see Fig. 6.
5. Other Options
The default diagram font dialog can be opened by pressing Font or by selecting
Format Default Font from the menu.
Selecting Copy as well as Edit Copy will copy the diagram into the Windows
Clipboard, which makes it possible to paste the diagram into other Windows
applications in Windows Metafile format. Selecting Edit Copy All will also copy the
molality and pressure values into the diagram. Edit Copy Special will copy scaled
diagrams.
Selecting Save or File Save will save the E - pH diagram in Windows Metafile format
(*.WMF). These diagrams cannot be read back to HSC.
Selecting Menu or File Exit will reactivate the Diagram Menu form, see Fig. 3.
Selecting Help will open the HSC Help dialog.
6. Example: Cu-S-H2O System
The Cu-S and S-Cu diagrams are shown in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4. These diagrams provide
a lot of valuable information. For example, the dissolution behavior of copper can easily
be estimated from Fig. 3. It is easy to see that in neutral and caustic solutions metallic
copper is stable near zero potential values. It will form oxides in anode conditions (E >
0) and sulfides in cathode conditions (E < 0). However, it will dissolve as Cu(+2a) in
acid conditions at the anode (E > 0) and precipitate on the cathode (E < 0) in metallic
form.
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17.5. Combined E - pH Diagrams
Combiner will show one more menu for combined diagram specifications see Fig. 7.
First you select your system see section 17.4. Then you click combiner button. Then 1.
add new Dataset and give values to each dataset (here 25, 50 and 75 °C), 2. select
variable (here Temperature) and 3. Draw Combiner.
Fig. 7. EpH combiner showing Cu-S diagram at 25, 50 and 75 °C.
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17.6. E - pH Diagrams in Practice
The HSC EpH module enables fast and easy creation of Pourbaix diagrams for the
required chemical system in user-specified conditions. These diagrams contain the
basic information of the aqueous system in a compact and illustrative form. These
diagrams have found many applications in corrosion engineering, geochemistry, and
hydrometallurgy since the publication of the famous Pourbaix Atlas handbook1.
In hydrometallurgy, E - pH diagrams may be used, for example, to specify the

conditions for selective leaching or precipitation. In corrosion engineering, they may be
used to analyze the dissolution and passivation behavior of different metals in aqueous
environments. These diagrams may also be used to illustrate the chemical behavior of
different ions in aqueous solutions.
Geochemists use Pourbaix diagrams quite frequently to study the weathering process
and chemical sedimentation. The weathering process is used to predict what will
happen to a mineral exposed to acid oxidizing conditions at high temperature and
pressure. Pourbaix diagrams can also be used to estimate the conditions needed to
form certain sediments and other minerals7 in the geological past.
Some application examples of the EpH module and Pourbaix diagrams are given in
Chapter 18.
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17.7. References
1. Pourbaix M: Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions. Oxford

University Press, U.K., 1966.
2. Haung, H.: Construction of Eh - pH and other stability diagrams of uranium in a
multicomponent system with a microcomputer - I. Domains of predominance
diagrams. Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly, 28(1989), July-September, pp. 225-
234.
3. Haung, H.: Construction of Eh - pH and other stability diagrams of uranium in a
multicomponent system with a microcomputer - II. Distribution diagrams.
Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly, 28(1989), July-September, pp. 235-239.
4. Archer, D. G., Wang, P.: The Dielectric Constant of Water and Debye-Hückel
Limiting Law Slopes. Journal of Physical Chemistry Reference Data 2(1990), Vol
19, pp. 371-411.
5. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 75th Ed., CRC Press, 1995. pp. 6-15 -
6-16.
6. Criss C.M. and Cobble J.W.: The Thermodynamic Properties of High
Temperature Aqueous Solutions. V. The Calculation of Ionic Heat Capacities up
to 200 °C. Entropies and Heat Capacities above 200 °C. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 86
(1964), pp. 5385-91, 90-93.
7. Tayer, L. L. Development and Interpretation of Computer-Generated Potential-pH
Diagrams. UMI Dissertation Services, Arizona State University, USA, 1995. pp. 1-
25.
8. Barner H.E. and Scheuerman R.V.: Handbook of Thermochemical Data for
Compounds and Aqueous Species, John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 1978.

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HSC - EpH

17. E - pH (Pourbaix) Diagrams Module

Usually, a large amount of different species exist simultaneously in the aqueous

2 H2O = O2(g) + 4 H(+a) + 4 e-

1. A basic knowledge of chemistry, aqueous systems and electrochemistry or

More information on E - pH diagrams, calculation methods, and applications can be

17.2. Chemical System Specifications

Fig. 1. Selecting elements and species for the E - pH diagram.

17.3. E - pH Diagram Menu

Fig. 2. Default values for the E - pH diagram (Table button).

5. Potential and pH scale ranges

6. Molality and Pressure

7. Show Predominance Areas of Ions

8. Draw and Combiner Buttons

10. Example of Normal Pourbaix Diagrams (Cu-S-H2O system)

Accept all the default values and press Draw.

17.4. Normal E - pH Diagrams

2. Labels and Lines

Fig. 3. E - pH diagram of Cu-S-H2O system at 25 °C using Cu as the main element. The

Fig. 6. E - pH Diagram Print Dialog.

6. Example: Cu-S-H2O System

17.5. Combined E - pH Diagrams

Fig. 7. EpH combiner showing Cu-S diagram at 25, 50 and 75 °C.

17.6. E - pH Diagrams in Practice

In hydrometallurgy, E - pH diagrams may be used, for example, to specify the

1. Pourbaix M: Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions. Oxford

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