MICP 211: MICROBIOLOGY AND 2ND

PARASITOLOGY
SCOPES OF MICROBIOLOGY
SEMESTER
FEB 18
AY 2021-2022
01
PRELIMS LECTURER: MA’AM LEILANI O. ESTACIO 1ST YEAR NURSING

resulting from the presence of pathogenic microbes or

WEEK 1 MICP LECTURE their products in blood or tissues.)
SCOPE OF MICROBIOLOGY ● Devised methods to prevent microbes from entering
ORGANISMS THAT MAKE-UP THE MICROBIAL WORLD the wounds of his patients. His procedures came to
● Germ is derived from the Latin word germen, which be known as antiseptic (against sepsis) surgery, and
means to sprout or germinate. First applied to included hand washing, sterilizing instruments, and
bacteria in the nineteenth century to explain dressing wounds with carbolic acid (phenol).
disease-causing cells that grew quickly.
● Microbes, often known as microorganisms, are IGNAZ PHILIP SEMMELWEIS
microscopic living organisms that are visible only with ● (1840s), a physician by the name of Ignaz Philip
a microscope. Semmelweis began using antiseptic procedures to
● Microbiology is the study of all living organisms that prevent "childbirth" or puerperal fever (a serious
are too small to be visible with the naked eye. This and often fatal disease associated with infection
includes bacteria, archaea, viruses, fungi, prions, contracted during delivery.)
protozoa and algae, collectively known as 'microbes'.
ROBERT KOCH
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MICROBIOLOGY ● Direct evidence demonstrating that bacteria were
PIONEERS IN THE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY disease-causing agents (etiological agents) was
ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK (1632-1723) provided by Robert Koch, a German physician, in
● Referred to as the “Father of Microbiology,” the 1867.
“Father of Bacteriology,” and the “Father of ● Koch was working with a disease of sheep and cattle
Protozoology”. called anthrax, and determined the causative agent to
● As a hobby, he ground tiny glass lenses, which he be a type of bacteria he called Bacillus anthracis.
mounted in small metal frames, thus creating what Koch established a sequence of experimental steps
today are known as single-lens microscopes or that could be used to demonstrate beyond a doubt
simple microscopes. that a specific type of microorganism was responsible
● In many of these specimens, he observed various tiny for a specific disease. These came to be known as
living creatures, which he called “animalcules.” Koch's postulates.
● Made many significant contributions to the germ
LOUIS PASTEUR (1822-1985) theory of disease. For example, he proved that the
● Discovered forms of life that could exist in the anthrax bacillus (B. anthracis), which had been
absence of oxygen. He introduced the terms discovered earlier by other scientists, was truly the
“aerobes” (organisms that require oxygen) and cause of anthrax. He accomplished this using a series
“anaerobes” (organisms that do not require oxygen). of scientific steps that he and his colleagues had
● Developed a process (today known as pasteurization) developed; these steps later became known as
to kill microbes that were causing wine to spoilage Koch’s Postulates.
● Developed a vaccine to prevent rabies in dogs and ● Koch discovered that B. anthracis produces spores,
successfully used the vaccine to treat human rabies. capable of resisting adverse conditions.
● Discovered what occurs during alcoholic fermentation. ● Koch developed methods of fixing, staining, and
He also demonstrated that different types of microbes photographing bacteria.
produce different fermentation products. For example, ● Koch’s work on tuberculin (a protein derived from M.
yeasts convert the glucose in grapes to ethyl alcohol tuberculosis) ultimately led to the development of a
(ethanol) by fermentation, but certain contaminating skin test valuable in diagnosing tuberculosis.
bacteria, such as Acetobacter, convert glucose to ● Koch discovered the bacterium (M. tuberculosis) that
acetic acid (vinegar) by fermentation, thus ruining the causes tuberculosis and the bacterium (Vibrio
taste of the wine. cholerae) that causes cholera.

JOSEPH LISTER RICHARD J. PETRI

● During the 1860s Joseph Lister, an English surgeon, ● Developed the Petri dish in which microbial cultures
reasoned that surgical infection (sepsis) might be could be grown and manipulated.
caused by microorganisms. (Sepsis = the condition

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FANNY HESSE EUKARYOTES
● Developed the use of agar as a solidifying agent for ● Cells where genomes are not contained within a
microbiological media. nucleus. Include such microorganisms as fungi,
protozoa, and simple algae. Eukaryotic cells are
HANS CHRISTIAN GRAM larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells. They
● Developed the Gram stain, a stain technique that contain a variety of cellular bodies called organelles.
could be used to separate two major groups of
disease causing the bacteria. WHAT IS A MICROBE?

EDWARD JENNER
● In 1796, Edward Jenner (a British Physician) reported
the use of material scraped from the skin of an
individual infected with cowpox to immunize a child
against smallpox.

ALEXANDER FLEMING
● A short time later (1928), Alexander Fleming, a
Scottish physician, discovered penicillin.
● Noticed that mold growing on one of his culture plates
inhibited the growth of bacteria there, and eventually
isolated the substance responsible. BACTERIA
● are prokaryotic organisms with no nucleus or nuclear
MICROORGANISMS membrane in their cells. It takes the form of rods
● Are very diverse; they include bacteria, fungi, algae, (bacilli), spheres (cocci), or spirals (spirals) (spirilla or
and protozoa; microscopic plants (green algae); also spirochetes). It reproduces through binary fission, has
include viruses. unique ingredients in its cell walls, and can be found
● An organism that can be seen only through a in nearly all of the world's ecosystems. It can survive
microscope. in temperatures ranging from 0° to 100°C and in
oxygen-rich or oxygen- depleted environments.
TWO MAJOR CATEGORIES OF MICROBES
1. ACELLULAR MICROBES FUNGUS
● Also called infectious particles. ● Eukaryotic microorganisms such as multicellular
● Lacking cellular organization; not delimited molds and unicellular (single-celled) yeasts are
by cytoplasmic membrane classified as fungi. Yeasts are slightly larger than
● (viruses, viroids, virusoids, prions). bacteria and are employed in the production of
● CANNOT BE SEEN IN A LIGHT alcoholic beverages and bread. Candida albicans, for
MICROSCOPE. example, is a pathogenic yeast (disease causing).
● Include viruses and prions. Molds are filamentous, branching fungi that reproduce
through spores. The fungi prefer acidic surroundings,
2. CELLULAR MICROBES and the majority of them can survive at ambient
● Also called microorganisms. temperature in an oxygen-rich environment.
● Cytoplasmic membrane present. ● A fungus is what the common mushroom is.
● Broken into prokaryotes and eukaryotes
include all bacteria, all archaea, some algae, PROTOZOA
all protozoa, and some fungi. ● Are unicellular eukaryotic creatures. Many species
have a feature of movement, and protozoa can be
PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES classed according on how they move: Some protozoa
● Are distinguished on the basis of their cellular have flagella, whereas others have cilia or
characteristics. pseudopodia. Some animals are not mobile. Because
they lack cell walls, protozoa can take on an unlimited
PROKARYOTES number of shapes. Malaria, sleeping sickness,
● Genome contained in a nucleus; are probably the dysentery, and toxoplasmosis are all caused by
smallest living organisms. They can range in size different species.
from 0.15 μm (mycoplasmas) to 2.0 microscopic
(many of the bacteria). Some bacteria have a comma ALGAE
shape (vibrio) or a flexible, wavy ● refers to a wide range of plant-like creatures. Several
● shape (spirochete). species of single celled algae are essential in
microbiology. Their cells are surrounded by cell walls
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 made of cellulose, a type of carbohydrate. Diatoms h. Generation microbiology - Study of those
and dinoflagellates, which live in the oceans and are microorganisms that have the same
found at the bottom of marine food chains, are characters as their parents.
examples. In the process of photosynthesis, most i. Phylogeny - Study of the genetic
algae catch sunlight and convert it to chemical energy relationships between different organisms.
in the form of carbohydrates. j. Systems microbiology - Bridge systems
biology and microbiology.
VIRUSES k. Astro microbiology - Study of
● Are tiny amounts of genetic material (DNA or RNA) microorganisms in outer space
encased in a protein shell and, l. Biological agent - Study of those
● occasionally, a membranous envelope. Because microorganisms which are being used in
viruses lack a metabolism, interfering with their weapon industries.
structures or activities with medications is challenging. m. Nano microbiology - Study of those
Viruses reproduce in living cells & utilize cells' microscopic organisms on nano level.
chemical machinery for their own purposes. In the n. Predictive microbiology - Quantification of
process of duplicating, they frequently damage the relations between controlling factors in foods
cells. and responses of pathogenic and spoilage
microorganisms using mathematical
BACTERIOPHAGES modeling.
● A special type of virus that infects primarily bacteria.
APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY
DIVISION OF MICROBIOLOGY ● Organisms themselves are not examined in applied
● Branches of microbiology can be classified into pure microbiology; rather, they are applied to a specific
and applied sciences. process. They are as follows:
a. Medical microbiology - Study of the
PURE MICROBIOLOGY pathogenic microbes and the role of
● Organisms are thoroughly investigated. It can be microbes in human illness. Includes the
subdivided further to the following: study of microbial pathogenesis and
a. Microbial cytology - Study of epidemiology and is related to the study of
microorganisms' microscopic and disease pathology and immunology. This
submicroscopic features. area of microbiology also covers the study of
b. Microbial physiology - Study of how the human microbiota, cancer, and the tumor
biochemistry of a microbial cell works. microenvironment.
Includes the study of microbial growth, b. Pharmaceutical microbiology - Study of
microbial metabolism and microbial cell microorganisms that are involved in the
structure. manufacturing of antibiotics, enzymes,
c. Microbial pathogenesis - Study of the vitamins, vaccines, and other pharmaceutical
process by which a microorganism causes a goods that cause pharmaceutical
disease. contamination and spoil.
d. Microbial ecology - Relationship between c. Industrial microbiology - Explore microbes
microorganisms and their environment. for use in industrial processes. Examples
e. Cellular microbiology - Reveals how include industrial fermentation and
pathogenic microorganism interacts with wastewater treatment. Closely linked to the
host cells in what is turning out to be a biotechnology industry. This field also
complex evolutionary battle of competing includes brewing, an important application of
gene products. microbiology.
f. Microbial genetics - Study of how genes d. Microbial biotechnology - Manipulation of
are structured and regulated in microbes in microorganisms at the genetic and molecular
relation to their cellular functions Closely level to generate useful products.
related to the field of molecular biology. e. Food microbiology - Study of
g. Evolutionary microbiology - Study of microorganisms causing food spoilage and
microbial evolution. This field can be foodborne illness. Using microorganisms to
classified into the following categories: produce foods, for example by fermentation.
1. Microbial systematics - Study of f. Agricultural microbiology - Study of
microbial diversity and genetic agriculturally relevant microorganisms. This
relationships. field can be further classified into the
2. Microbial taxonomy - Science of following:
naming and classifying microbes.
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 1. Plant microbiology and Plant GENETIC ENGINEERING
pathology - Study of the ● Engineered microorganisms are used to make
interactions between hormones, antibiotics, vaccines and other products.
microorganisms and plants and New genes can be inserted into plants and animals.
plant pathogens.
2. Soil microbiology - Study of those BIOTECHNOLOGY
microorganisms that are found in ● Commercial applications include the synthesis of
soil. acetone, organic acids, enzymes, alcohols and many
g. Veterinary microbiology - Study of the role drugs.
of microbes in veterinary medicine or animal ●
taxonomy. BIOLOGICAL WARFARE
h. Environmental microbiology - Study of the ● Also known as germ warfare, is the use of biological
function and diversity of microbes in their toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses,
natural environments. This involves the insects, and fungi with the intent to kill, harm or
characterization of key bacterial habitats incapacitate humans.
such as the rhizosphere and phyllosphere,
soil and groundwater ecosystems, open MICROBIAL ECOLOGY
oceans or extreme environments ● Recycling Vital Elements. Martinus Beijerinck and
(extremophiles). This field includes other Sergei Winogradsky were the first to show how
branches of microbiology such as: bacteria help recycle vital elements between the soil
1. Microbial ecology and the atmosphere.
2. Microbially mediated nutrient ● Microbial ecology, the study of the relationship
cycling between microorganisms and their environment.
3. Geomicrobiology ● Microbes are essential for life. Some produce oxygen
4. Microbial diversity by the process of photosynthesis. Ex. algae &
5. Bioremediation - Use of cyanobacteria (group of photosynthetic bacteria that
microorganisms to clean air, water produce oxygen).
and soils. ● Plenty of microbes are involved in the decomposition
i. Water microbiology (or aquatic of dead organisms and the waste products of living
microbiology) - Study of those organisms. Collectively, they are referred to as
microorganisms that are found in water. decomposers or saprophytes.
j. Aeromicrobiology (or air microbiology) - ● A saprophyte is an organism that lives on dead or
Study of airborne microorganisms. decaying organic matter.
k. Biotechnology - Related to recombinant
DNA technology or genetic engineering. MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY
● Is important because it aids in detection, isolation,
MICROBIOLOGY diagnosis, and treatment of pathogenic bacteria, as
● Can be also classified based on taxonomy. well as the production of helpful organisms such as
● Refers to the study of all living organisms that are too yeasts and antibiotics. There are 500 to 1,000
small to be visible with the naked eye. This includes different species of bacteria on and in humans,
bacteria, archaea, viruses, fungi, prions, protozoa and according to estimates. They are known as our
algae, collectively known as microbes. indigenous microflora (also known as our indigenous
microbiota). Mostly beneficial to us.
BRANCHES OF MICROBIOLOGY BY TAXONOMY ● Opportunistic pathogens are microbes that colonize
● Bacteriology - Study of bacteria. (inhabit) the human body. Although these microbes
● Immunology - Study of the immune system. It looks usually do not cause problems, if they gain access to
at the relationships between pathogens such as a part of the body where they are not supposed to be.
bacteria and viruses and their hosts. they might cause diseases.
● Mycology - Study of fungi, such as yeasts and molds. ● Microbes that cause disease are known as
● Nematology - Study of nematodes (roundworms). pathogens. Those that do not cause disease are
● Parasitology - Study of parasites. Not all parasites called nonpathogens.
are microorganisms. Protozoa and bacteria can be ● Disease-causing microorganisms are technically
parasitic; the study of bacterial parasites is usually known as pathogens (also referred to as infectious
categorized as part of bacteriology. agents). Only around 3% of known microorganisms
● Phycology - Study of algae. have the ability to cause disease. Thus,
● Protozoology - Study of protozoa, single-celled nonpathogens— microorganisms that do not cause
organisms like amoeba. disease—make up the vast majority of known
● Virology - Study of viruses. microbes.
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GROWTH CURVE
● Refers to the phases of growth of the bacterial
population.

WEEK 2 MICP LECTURE

MORPHOLOGY AND GROWTH REQUIREMENT

BACTERIA
● Are metabolically active single-celled prokaryotic
bacteria that divide by binary fission. Some of these
organisms have an important role in disease
pathogenesis. Some species can survive in severe
temperatures and pressures.

BACTERIAL MORPHOLOGY
● The size, shape, and morphologic arrangement of
various bacteria can be easily viewed with a
compound light microscope.

BACTERIA SIZE
● Spheres measurement usually ranges from about 0.2
um in diameter to 10.0 um–long spiral- shaped
bacteria, to even longer filamentous bacteria.
● The average coccus is about 1 um in diameter.
● The average bacillus is about 1 um wide x3 um long.
● Bacteria range in size from 0.2 to 5 micrometers.
● The tiniest bacteria (mycoplasma) are about the
same size as the largest viruses (poxviruses) and
are the tiniest organisms capable of surviving outside
of a host. The longest bacteria rods are the size of
some yeasts and human red blood cells (7

BACTERIA REPRODUCTION
● By binary fission - bacteria divide; one cell splits in
half to become two daughter cells.
● The time it takes for one bacterial cell to split into two
cells is referred to as that organism’s generation
time.

BACTERIA BASIC SHAPES

● Bacteria come in three basic shapes: spherical
(cocci), rod-shaped (bacilli), and spiral-shaped
(spirilla).

VARIETY OF MORPHOLOGIC ARRANGEMENTS

● Following binary fission, the daughter cells can either
completely separate or remain connected, resulting in
a variety of morphologic arrangements. The specifics
are as follows:

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 lakes and streams ); Star-shaped Bacteria. Ex. Stella
humosa ( found in freshwater, soil, and sewage).

TAKE NOTE:
● Classification of Bacteria As To Gram- Staining are
gram-positive or gram–negative.
● Some structures play specific roles, for example: in
bacterial virulence (capsule), in bacterial identification
(cell wall or flagella), and in targets of antimicrobial
agents (cell wall). Let’s elaborate these structures
below:

OTHER SHAPES AND ARRANGEMENTS

APPENDAGED BACTERIA
● Bacteria that produce a distinct structure such as
pillus or fimbriae.
● Those that produce these appendages are more
virulent.
● Example: Neisseria gonorrhoeae, the agent of
Gonorrhea.

PLEOMORPHIC BACTERIA
● This category includes bacteria that do not have a
defined form.
● They can alter shape,, but in pure culture, they
appear to have a definite form.
● Examples: Mycoplasma pneumoniae, M. genitalium.

FILAMENTOUS BACTERIA
● These are filament-shaped bacteria that are long,
thin.
● Sometimes, divide to form branches resembling
strands of hair or spaghetti called mycelium.
● Example: Actinomycetes.

CLUB-SHAPED ROD BACTERIA

● These bacteria are thinner on one side than the other.
● Ex. Corynebacterium.

BOX-SHAPED OR RECTANGULAR BACTERIA

● Ex. Haloarcula marismortui ( not pathogenic);
Triangular- shaped Bacteria. Ex. Haloarcula ( saline
environments such as salt lakes, marine salterns, and
saline soils); Stalked Bacteria. Possess a stalk on one
end of the cell. Ex. Caulobacter crescentus ( found in

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 TOXINS
ENDOTOXINS
● Generated during the breakdown of bacterial cell wall
when bacteria die
● Activate host complement and coagulation cascades
● Causes septic shock
● Non-disease-specific symptoms: Fever, Pain, Shock,
Fatigue, Discomfort,

EXOTOXINS
● Produced and secreted
● Can result in severe, disease-specific symptoms
● 3 main categories: Enterotoxins, Neurotoxins,
Cytotoxins
● Examples:Cholera, Botulinum, Diphtheria, Tetanus

BACTERIAL GROWTH REQUIREMENT

NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENT BACTERIA

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 WEEK 3 MICP LECTURE
MEDICAL AND SURGICAL ASEPSIS
SEPSIS
● Is a clinical condition where infectious agents are
spread throughout the individual's body from a
localized site of infection and manifest with symptoms
of organ damage.

ASEPSIS
● Refers to a condition in which the individual and his
surrounding environment are free of any
microorganisms.
● The goals of asepsis are to protect the patient from
PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS
nosocomial (hospital-acquired) infections and to keep
pathogenic microorganisms from spreading.

TWO FORMS OF ASEPSIS

INFECTION
● Is the growth of microorganisms in the body.
● Is a disease in which pathogens invade a susceptible
host and carry out at least part of their life cycle in that
host.

INFECTION DISEASE PROCESS

● The cycle of infection is a chain with six links. To
produce disease, each link in the infectious process
must be present in a logical sequence.
● Removing one link in the chain will stop the infection
cycle. The six links are as follows:

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1. Agent (microorganism) capable of ASEPTIC TECHNIQUES
parasitizing man. ● are techniques used to minimize contamination. In the
2. Reservoir of infection hospital facility, a break in infection’s chain of
3. Portal of exit transmission is possible by encouraging the nurse to
4. Mechanism of transmission use aseptic technique.
5. Portal of entry
6. Susceptible host GENERAL ASEPTIC PROCEDURE
● Frequent hand washing by hospital personnel. Hand
washing is known as the most basic and universally
accepted measure used to prevent the spread of
infection.
● Use of Personal Protective Equipment. PPE are
specialized equipment and attire used in healthcare
facilities to protect the health worker and the patient
and his visitors against infection. These include
masks, gowns, goggles and others. Gloves – offer
protection when handling body secretions or open
wounds while Gowns & Face Mask serve as barriers
to spread of potentially pathogenic microorganisms.
● Fingernails should be kept clean and short
● Health education – is the best way to prevent the
spread of communicable diseases.

CONTROL OF HEALTHCARE-ASSOCIATED INFECTIONS

● A healthcare-associated infection (HAI) is an illness
that develops during a patient's stay in a health-care
facility but was not present when they were admitted
(Tortora, 2019).

SURGICAL ASEPSIS
● Is the absence of all microorganisms within any type
of invasive procedure.

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PRINCIPLES OF SURGICAL ASEPSIS that is evacuated from such rooms passes through
● All objects used in a sterile field must be sterile. high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters .
● A sterile object becomes non-sterile when touched by ● Also, Standard and Airborne Precautions are strictly
a non-sterile object. enforced.
● Items below the waist level, or items held below waist
level, are considered to be non-sterile. PREVENTING INFECTION IN THE COMMUNITY
● Sterile fields must always be kept in sight. ● To prevent the spread of infection at the community
● When opening sterile equipment and adding supplies level, proper health education on the sources of
to a sterile field, take care to avoid contamination. infection as well as transmission of infection is
● Any puncture, moisture, or tear that passes through a important.
sterile barrier must be considered contaminated. ● Sanitation techniques such as-water purification,
● Once a sterile field is set up, the border of one inch at proper garbage disposal, proper sewage disposal and
the edge of the sterile drape is considered non-sterile. other measures to a clean environment improve
● If there is any doubt about the sterility of an object, it health practices : educating people on proper
is considered non-sterile. handling, storage & preparation of food.
● Sterile persons or sterile objects may only contact ● Vaccination
sterile areas; non-sterile persons or items contact only
non-sterile areas.
● Movement around & in the sterile field must not WEEK 4 MICP LECTURE
compromise or contaminate the sterile field. (ORNAC, HOST RESPONSE TO INFECTION
● 2011)
IMMUNOLOGY
STERILE TECHNIQUE ● Is the study of the immune system & the immune
● Is a set of specific practices and procedures response.
performed to make equipment and areas free from all
microorganisms and to maintain that sterility. IMMUNOGEN
● Is most commonly practiced in operating rooms, labor ● Is any substance that is capable of inducing immune
and delivery rooms, and special procedures or response, whether humoral, cellular or both.
diagnostic areas.
● Likewise, it is used when performing sterile ANTIGEN
procedures at the bedside, such as integrating ● Is a substance that is recognized by a particular
devices into sterile areas of the body or cavities (e.g., antibody (Ab) or T cells & serves as the target of the
insertion of chest tube, central venous line, or immune response.
indwelling urinary catheter).
● In health care, sterile technique is used when skin IMMUNITY
integrity is accessed, impaired, or broken such as in ● Is also known as resistance; is the ability to guard
patients with burns or during surgical incisions. against disease caused by microbes, their products
● A Sterile technique includes use of sterile equipment, including pollution, toxins, and animal dander. Lack of
a sterile gown and gloves as cited in Perry et al., immunity is referred to as susceptibility.
● 2014.
TWO TYPES OF IMMUNITY IN GENERAL
ISOLATION INNATE IMMUNITY
● Is the process of separating an individual with an ● Refers to all body defenses that protect the body
infectious disease from the rest of the healthy against any kind of pathogen.
population to prevent spread of infection to other ● Basic resistance to disease that an individual is born
individuals. with (innate).
● For patients on Airborne Precautions, single rooms ● Rapid protection against microbes.
are always indicated and preferred for patients ● Response is in place before foreign challenge
requiring Contact or Droplet Precautions. Patients (antigen) presents.
who may contaminate the hospital environment . ● Same response regardless of antigen or previous
Essential to keep proper environmental control. exposure (no memory).
● Airborne Infection Isolation Rooms (AIIR) is a ● Natural or native immunity.
single-patient room that is equipped with special air ● Instant
handling and ventilation systems under negative ● Immediate
pressure. ● Integrates with the adaptive immune system.
● Prevent room air from entering the hospital corridor ● Exist from the time we are born, prior to exposure to
when the door is opened; to remove pathogens, air antigen.

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INNATE IMMUNITY FIRST-LINE DEFENSES TWO ARMS OF THE ADAPTIVE DEFENSE SYSTEM
● Include skin and mucous membranes. HUMORAL IMMUNITY
● Includes the INTACT SKIN, enzymes in tears in body ● Antibody-mediated immunity. Provided by antibodies
secretions, normal flora. present in body fluids.
● Humoral immunity primarily involves B cells and
INNATE IMMUNITY SECOND-LINE DEFENSES neutralizes threats outside human cells.
● These are non- specific host barriers;
● Include natural killer cells, phagocytes, inflammation, CELLULAR IMMUNITY
fever, and antimicrobial substances. ● Cell-mediated immunity. Living cells target
● Is the INNATE arm of the immune system: These are virus-infected cells, cancer cells, and cells of foreign
inflammation, natural killer cells(kills virus- infected grafts.
cells), neutrophils & macrophages (phagocytes). ● Cellular immunity primarily involves T cells and deals
Interferons is a substance released by activated cells with threats inside cells.
and inhibits viral replication.

INNATE IMMUNITY THIRD-LINE DEFENSES

● ADAPTIVE arm of immune system- B cells and T
cells.

ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
● Refers to defenses (antibodies) against specific
microorganisms.
● Protection develops more slowly (days).
● Developed by an individual only after a specific
challenge (antigen).
● Resulting products effective only against the specific
antigen.
● Has enhanced ability to deal with recurring antigen
(memory). THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
● Acquired ● The Main function of the immune system : to defend
● Await days = no the host against infection (infxn) caused by viruses,
● Immediate response bacteria, fungi, parasites.
● Accurate = specific ● Cells involved in the immune system are: B
● Autoregulation lymphocytes or B cells , T lymphocytes or T cells.
● Autoimmunity
● Occurs AFTER exposure to antigen, improves upon PRIMARY (CENTRAL) LYMPHOID ORGANS
repeated exposure. 1. Thymus
● It is Antigen specific - recognizes and acts against 2. Bone marrow (where B & T originates)
particular foreign substances.
● It is a Systemic - immunity is not restricted to the TAKE NOTE:
initial infection. ● B cells remain in bone marrow to reach maturity
● It is responsible for conferring lifetime protective ● T cells – need to migrate in the thymus where they
immunity to re- infection with the same pathogen. mature.
There is a Memory that recognizes and mounts a ● Upon maturation, B and T cells enter the blood
stronger attack on previously encountered pathogens. stream and migrate to secondary lymphoid organs.
● Active immunity and passive immunity are two types
of adaptive immunity. Immunity or resistance acquired SECONDARY OR PERIPHERAL LYMPHOID ORGANS
as a result of the active production of antibodies is ● LN, Spleen, Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue
Active Acquired Immunity while Passive Acquired (tonsils, appendix, peyer’s patches of SI)
Immunity is an Immunity or resistance acquired as a ● Sites where antigens from organisms entering the
result of receipt of antibodies produced by another body or present on the body surface are trapped.
person or by an animal.
● Lymphocytes are cells that circulate in your blood that
are part of the immune system.

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 ● Present on the surface of B cells where it
acts as an Ag binding receptor. Present in
small amounts in serum.
3. IgA
● Main Iga in secretions (colostrum, saliva,
tears, resp, intestinal , genital secretions.
● Prevents attachment of organisms (bacteria
& viruses) in mucous membranes.
4. IgD
● no known Ab function . Found on the surface
of many B cells, it serves as a marker for B
cells.
● May also function as an Ag receptor. Present
in small amounts in serum.
5. IgE
● Mediates immediate (anaphylactic)
hypersensitivity reactions.
● Provides defense against certain parasites
B LYMPHOCYTES (B CELLS) (helminthes).
● Differentiate into antibody producing plasma cells. ● Binds on the surface of mast cells &
● Produces antibodies. basophils. Serves as an Ag receptor for Ag
● Antigen presenting cell. (allergen).
● Possesses immunologic memory
● With Ig on its surface (IgM & IgD)

2 MAIN SUBSETS OF T LYMPHOCYTES (T CELLS)

1. T helper cells (CD4+ T cells) - Promote inflammation
& antibody production
2. Cytotoxic T cells (CD8T cells) - Recognize & kill
virus infected cells, tumor cells & foreign cells also
possess immunologic memory.

HUMORAL IMMUNITY
● Both innate & acquired immunity can be humoral or
CELL MEDIATED.
● INVOLVE mainly activities of different antibodies &
involve in both primary & secondary responses.
● ANTIBODIES are globulin proteins (immunoglobulins)
that react w/ specific antigen that stimulated their
production.

5 MAIN CLASSES OF ANTIBODIES

1. IgG
● Predominant antibody in secondary
response & major defense against bacteria &
viruses.
● Only antibodies to CROSS THE PLACENTA.
MOST ABUNDANT ANTIBODY IN THE
NEWBORNS.
● MAIN immunoglobulin in CHRONIC
infections
2. IgM
● LARGEST immunoglobulin (Ig) . main PRIMARY RESPONSE
immunoglobulin produced early in primary ● Involved during 1st encounter with Ag.
response. ● Ab become detectable in serum after a period of 7-10
● Predominant Ig in ACUTE infections, days, but can be longer depending on nature & dose
Together w/ IgG , it can activate of Ag & route of administration. First to appear are
complement. IgM followed by Ig IgG or IgA.
13
SECONDARY RESPONSE 4 MAIN TYPES OF HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTIONS
● Occurs after re-exposure to the same Ag.
● A 2nd encounter w/ same Ag or a closely related one
occurring months or years after primary response
leads to a rapid Ab response of a much higher
intensity than primary response.
● This is explained by persistence of Ag- specific
memory cells after 1st contact.
● During the secondary response, IgM amount is less
than the amount of IgG produced.
● IgG levels tend to persist much longer than primary
response.

1. Type I- Immediate Anaphylactic Hypersensitivity

● What we know as allergy. The process
begins when an allergen induces the
formation of IgE, which binds to mast cells
and basophils. Re-exposure to the same Ag
results in the release within minutes by the
mast cells & basophils of chemicals
(histamine). The 1st contact with the allergen
sensitizes, that is, induces the Ab.
Subsequent contact elicits the allergic
response.
● Examples of allergens( pollens, animals fur,
foods various drugs)
CELL - MEDIATED IMMUNITY (CMI) ● C/M: urticaria (hives), eczema, rhinitis,
● In many bacterial (tuberculosis) & viral infections. CMI conjunctivitis (also known as hay fever),
- imparts resistance & & aids in recovery. asthma.
● Important in defense against fungi, parasites, tumors, ● Most severe form is anaphylaxis, severe
rejection of organ transplants. bronchoconstriction, hypotension or shock
can be fatal. Common cause of anaphylaxis-
COMPONENTS OF CMI: foods ( peanuts, shellfish), bee venom, drugs
1. Macrophages - Present the Ag to T cells, ingest & (penicillin).
destroy microbes
2. Helper T cells - Participate in Ag recognition & in 2. Type II- Cytotoxic/Cytolytic Hypersensitivity
regulation of B cells & cytotoxic T cells fxns. ● 3 possible mechanisms
3. Natural killer cells (NK cells) - Can inactivate a. Ab dependent cellular
pathogens. cytotoxicity (ADCC) - Entry of Ag
4. Cytotoxic T cells - Can kill virus-infected cells with or stimulates formation of IgG w/c
without antibody (Ab). binds to Ag. Binding causes
activation of the NK cells, w/c are
TAKE NOTE: responsible for the destruction of
● Macrophages & helper T cells produce substances Ag.
called cytokines w/c can activate further helper T cells b. Ab complement dependent lysis -
& cytotoxic T cells. Occurs when an Ab directed at Ag
of the cell membrane activates the
HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTIONS complement. This generates a
● Is used when an immune response results in membrane attack complex,w/c
exaggerated or inappropriate reactions that are damages cell membrane. The Ab
harmful to the host. IgG or IgM attaches to Ag & this
binding leads to activation of
complement. As a result, there is
complement mediated lysis.

14
 Ex:Hemolytic anemias, BT with the agent, but does not confirm the
reactions, Blood incompatibility. presence of the disease.
c. Formation of antibodies Ab
directed against receptors - Ex:
Myasthenia Gravis.

3. Type III- Immune Complex Hypersensitivity

● Occurs when Ag-Ab complexes activate
complement & induce an inflammatory
reaction in tissues. Whenever immune
complex are deposited, they activate the
complement system. Neutrophils are
attracted to site, inflammation & tissue injury
occur. In persistent bacterial or viral infx,
immune complexes may be deposited in
organs (kidneys) resulting in damage.
● Ex: Malaria, Dengue, Hepatitis B
REMEMBER:

4. Type IV- Delayed (cell-mediated) Hypersensitivity

● Involves T lymphocytes, not Ab. The
response is delayed in that it starts hours or
days after contact with the Ag & often lasts
for days. Involves either helper T cells or
cytotoxic T cells.
● Ex: Contact hypersensitivity. Occurs after
sensitization of simple chemicals (nickel)
plant materials (poison ivy) topically applied
drugs, some cosmetics, soaps & other
substances.
● CMI involving cytotoxic T cells is induced
after contact w/ same substances. Cytotoxic
T cells attack skin cells & the sensitized skin
develops erythema, itching, vesicles,
eczema or necrosis within 12 hours.
● Involvement of helper T cells is seen in
granulomatous conditions(tuberculosis) or
VACCINE
systemic fungal infections. Also involved in
● Is a substance that is used for the production of
tuberculin skin test (PPD). When a pt
antidotes in the body and provides immunity against
previously exposed to M. tuberculosis is
one or a few diseases. In biological terms, a vaccine
injected w/ a small amount of tuberculin or
is defined as a biological and formulated preparation
PPD, there is a little reaction in the 1st few
to provide acquired immunity for a particular disease.
hours. Gradually, the reaction reaches a
● Is an agent which contains a weakened or killed form
peak in 48-72 hours hrs. A (+) skin test
of the disease-causing agent, its surface, or its toxins.
indicates that the person has been infected
When this solution is introduced to the human body,

15
 the immune system is able to identify the threat and this can be done through treatment with a
destroy it. More than this, the human body will chemical such as formalin or by heat.
recognize the threat and can initiate an appropriate 4. SUBUNIT VACCINE
response in the future also. ● Subunit vaccines are only used as part of a
● The process of implementing the vaccine is called target pathogen to promote a response from
vaccination. It is responsible for the clearance of the immune system. This can be done by
many diseases, especially infectious diseases like isolating a specific protein from a pathogen
smallpox and chickenpox. The word "vaccine" is and presenting it as an antigen on its own.
derived from the Latin word "vaccines" which means 5. CONJUGATE VACCINE
"from the cows". ● Conjugate vaccines are somehow similar to
recombinant vaccines, they are made up of a
INVENTION OF VACCINE combination of two different components.
● The practice of immunization of the body dates back Conjugate vaccines, however, are made up
hundreds of years, but the first official vaccination was of using the pieces from the coat of bacteria.
developed by Edward Jenner who is considered the These coats are chemically linked to a
founder of vaccinology. In 1796, he injected a 13 carrier immune protein, and this is how a
year-old-boy with cowpox(vaccinia virus) and combinational vaccine is used.
established immunity to smallpox. In 1798, the very 6. VALENCE VACCINE
first smallpox was developed. During the 18th and ● Vaccines may be monovalent. The
19th centuries, systematic implementation of mass monovalent vaccine is designed to be
smallpox immunization culminated in its global immune against a single microorganism or
establishment in 1979. single antigen. A multivalent or polyvalent
vaccine is made to immunize against two or
TYPES OF VACCINES more viruses of the same microorganism.
● There are many initiations to vaccine development, 7. HETEROTYPIC VACCINE
but vaccines can be mainly classified by how the ● Heterologous vaccines are also called
antigen, active component, that produces a specific "jennerian vaccines". These vaccines are
immune response against the disease-causing pathogens of different animals that either do
organism, are prepared. not cause disease or cause disease or
cause mild disease in the organism being
CLASSIFICATIONS OF VACCINES treated.
1. LIVE ATTENUATED VACCINES 8. mRNA VACCINE
● Attenuated vaccines are developed in many ● An mRNA Vaccine (or RNA Vaccine) is a
several ways. The common methods include different type of vaccine which is a
passing the disease-causing virus through a combination of nucleic acid RNA, packaged
series of cell cultures or animal embryos. within a vector such as lipid nanoparticles.
When the vaccine virus is implemented in a
human, it will be unable to replicate enough SOME TERMINOLOGIES:
to cause illness, but still promotes an 1. Active Immunity - is resistance induced after contact
immune response that can protect against w/ foreign antigens.
future infection. 2. Long-term resistance - Slow onset.
2. INACTIVATED VACCINE 3. Adjuvant - Any foreign material introduced with an
● Vaccines of this category are developed by antigen tolerance its immunogenicity, e.g. killed
inactivating a pathogen, typically using bacteria,
chemicals or even heat such as 4. Helper cells - A functional subclass of T cells which
formaldehyde or formalin. This destroys the can help generate cytotoxic T cells and cooperate
pathogen's ability to replicate but keeps it with B cells in the production of antibody responses.
intact so that the immune system still 5. Immunocompetent Person - A person who is able to
remembers it. mount a normal immune response; a person whose
3. TOXOID VACCINE immune system is functioning properly.
● There are some bacterial diseases that are 6. Immunoglobulins - A class of glycoproteins, which
not directly caused by a bacteria itself, but by contains antibodies.
producing toxins by the bacterium. For this 7. Immunosuppressed Person - A person whose
type, immunization of pathogens can be immune system is not functioning properly; such
developed by inactivating the toxin that persons are also said to be immunosuppressed or
causes disease symptoms. As the viruses or immunocompromised
organisms used to kill or inactivate vaccines,

16
 8. Killer (K) cells - Type of cytotoxic lymphocyte that is PATHOGEN
able to mediate antibody-dependent cellular ● An Organism That Invades & Causes Damage Or
cytotoxicity (ADCC). Injury To The Host.
9. Langerhans’ cells - Antigen-presenting cells of the
skin which emigrate to local lymph nodes to become PATHOGENICITY
dendritic cells; they are very active in presenting ● Refers To An Organism's Ability To Cause Disease.
antigen to T cells.
10. Memory Cells - The cells that mediate innate CONTAMINATION
immune memory and their functional significance in ● Is Defined As The Presence Of Organisms Outside Of
inflammatory and infectious diseases. The Body, Such As Those Found In Water, Food, And
11. Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) - Other Biological Substances.
Lymphoid tissue associated with the bronchial tree,
gastrointestinal tract and other mucosa. POLLUTION
12. Natural killer (NK) cell - Type of cytotoxic ● The Presence Of Undesired Compounds In Water,
lymphocyte that has the intrinsic ability to recognize Air, Or Soil.
and destroy virally infected cells and some tumor
cells. Specializes in killing cells that express little or KOCH’S POSTULATES
no MHC molecules. ● Is a set of rules for establishing a relationship
13. Passive Immunity - Is resistance based on between a causative microbe and a disease.
antibodies performed in another host. Example: IgG
passed from mother to fetus during pregnancy; IgA RULES:
passed from mother to newborn during breastfeeding. 1. The same organism must be found in all cases of a
14. Suppressor cells - Functionally defined populations given disease & must not be present in healthy
of T cells which reduce the immune responses of individuals.
other T cells or B cells. 2. The organism must be isolated & grown in pure
15. Vaccine - A substance that stimulates antibody culture from the infected person.
production to provide immunity against diseases. 3. The organisms from the pure culture must reproduce
the disease when inoculated into susceptible animals.
4. The organism must be isolated in pure culture from
WEEK 5 MICP LECTURE the experimentally infected animal.
BACTERIA AND DISEASE
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE OCCURRENCE OF
DISEASE INFECTION
● Is An Abnormal State In Which Part Or All Of The
Body Is Not Properly Adjusted Or Is Unable To Carry
Out Usual Functions; Any Deviation From One's
Current Condition Of Health.

INFECTION
● Is Defined As Pathogenic Microorganisms Invading
The Body.
HOW ORGANISM PRODUCE DISEASE?
SYMBIOSIS 1. Mechanical - Organisms directly damage tissues or
● The Relation Between The Indigenous Flora And The surfaces.
Host. 2. Chemical - Bacteria produce chemicals & toxins.
3. Immunologic - Response of the immune system.
COMMENSALISM
● Is a Type Of Symbiosis In Which One Organism BACTERIAL TOXINS
Benefits From The Other Without Harming It. ● A toxin is a specific substance, often a metabolic
product of an organism that damages the host.
MUTUALISM
● Form Of Symbiosis In w/c Both Organisms Benefit
From The Relationship.

PARASITISM
● A Connection In Which One Organism Benefits From
Another While Also Harming It.

17
 CLASSIFICATION OF INFECTION DISEASES ACCORDING TO SEVERITY OR DURATION OF
ACCORDING TO ABILITY FOR A PERSON-TO-PERSON INFECTIOUS DISEASE
SPREAD 1. Acute disease - Develops rapidly but lasts for a short
1. Communicable Disease - A disease that spreads period of time. ( ex. common colds)
from one host to another, either directly or indirectly. 2. Chronic disease - Develops more slowly & occurs for
2. Non communicable disease - Not spread from one a long period. ( ex. tuberculosis)
person to another. 3. Latent disease - Causative organisms remain
3. Contagious disease - Easily spread from one person inactive for a time but can become active & produce
to another. symptoms of disease. (Ex:Shingles- disease that is
caused by same virus that causes chicken pox)
ACCORDING TO SOURCE OF INFECTION
1. Exogenous infection - Is an infection that is caused ACCORDING TO EXTENT OF HOST INVOLVEMENT
by organisms not normally present in the body but 1. Local infection - Invading microorganisms are limited
which have gained entrance from the environment. to a relatively small area of the body.
2. Endogenous infection - Is an infection caused by an 2. Focal infection - A local infection enters blood or
infectious agent that is present on or in the host prior lymphatic vessels & spreads to specific parts where
to the start of the infection. they become confined to the specific area of the body.
3. Fulminating infection - Coming on suddenly and (ex. can arise from teeth, sinuses)
with great severity; infection that results in the death 3. Systemic or generalized infection - Invading
of the patient over a short period of time; microorganisms or their products are spread
4. Nosocomial infections - Or healthcare associated throughout the body by blood or lymph.
infections occur when a person develops an infection
during their time at a healthcare facility. STAGES OF INFECTIOUS DISEASE
5. Incidence - Is a measure of the number of new cases
of a characteristic that develop in a population in a
specified time period.
6. Prevalence - Is the proportion of a population who
have a specific characteristic in a given time period,
regardless of when they first developed the
characteristic.

ACCORDING TO OCCURRENCE OF INFECTION 1. Incubation period - The time interval between entry
1. Sporadic - Refers to a disease that occurs of microorganism & the first appearance of s/s.
infrequently and irregularly; occurs occasionally 2. Prodromal period - Mild symptoms of a disease w/c
2. Endemic disease - A disease that is constantly are non specific. (fever, cough, colds, malaise)
present in a certain population. (Malaria endemic in 3. Period of illness - Period of maximal invasion. The
Palawan) disease is most acute during this period.
3. Epidemic disease - A disease acquired by many 4. Carrier state - Pt. does not show s/s but still
hosts in a given area in a short time; many people continues to shed infecting microorganisms.
develop disease in a given locality at a short period of 5. Period of decline - Period of defervescence- s/s start
time to subside. - Pt. vulnerable to secondary in fxns.
4. Pandemic disease - An epidemic that occurs 6. Period of convalescence - Pt regains strength, body
worldwide. returns to its pre-diseased normal.
5. Zoonosis - Disease that occurs primarily in wild and
domestic animals but can be transmitted to humans. RESERVOIRS OF INFECTION
6. Epi Zoonosis - Disease that occurs epidemic in lower 1. Living - (animals , humans)
animals. 2. Non-living - (can be found in soil (clostridium tetani &
7. Enzoonosis - Endemic in lower animals. water vibrio cholera, salmonella)
8. Bacteremia - Presence of bacteria in the blood.
9. Septicemia - Presence of actively multiplying bacteria ROUTES OF TRANSMISSION
in blood. 1. Contact transmission - Refers to spread of
10. Toxemia - Presence of toxins in the blood. microorganism through direct contact, indirect contact
11. Viremia - Presence of viruses in the blood. or droplet transmission.
12. Pyemia - Pre of pus producing bacteria in the blood. 2. Direct Contact - Aka person to person transmission
& involves direct transmission by physical contact
between the source of infection & the susceptible
host. (kissing, touching). Ex. Common cold,

18
 Respiratory tract infections, chicken pox, syphilis, admission, unlike healthcare-associated infections
gonorrhea (HAIs). Formerly known as community-acquired
3. Indirect contact - Refers to transmission of causative infections.
agent from reservoir to susceptible host through non 6. Epidemiologically important pathogens - Infectious
living object (fomites). Ex of common fomites: agents that have one or more of the following
handkerchiefs, towels, spoons, toys. of diseases are characteristics: 1) are readily transmissible; 2) have a
common colds, sore eyes, tuberculosis) proclivity toward causing outbreaks; 3) may be
4. Droplet - Is a form of contact transmission in w/c the associated with a severe outcome; or 4) are difficult to
organism is spread in droplet nuclei that travel only treat. Examples include Acinetobacter, MRSA, and C.
short distances usually 1 meter from reservoir to the difficile.
host. These droplets are spread into the air by 7. ICU: intensive care unit - Hospital unit that provides
coughing, laughing, talking, and sneezing. Ex: intensive observation and treatment of patients either
pneumonia, influenza dealing with or at risk of developing life-threatening
5. Vehicle transmission - Refers to transmission of problems. Also known as a critical care unit.
organisms through media such as food, water, air. 8. Infection preventionist (IP) - A healthcare worker
6. Food-borne - Pathogens are transmitted through who specializes in infection surveillance, control, and
ingestion of food that are improperly cooked, poorly prevention. Also known as an Infection Control and
refrigerated , unsanitary conditions. Ex. food Prevention Professional or an Infection Control
poisoning, gastroenteritis Practitioner (ICP).
7. Air- borne - Refers to spread of pathogens by droplet 9. Infection control and prevention program - A
nuclei in dust that travels 1 meter from the reservoir to multidisciplinary program that includes a group of
the host. ( ex. measles, tuberculosis) activities to ensure that recommended practices for
8. Water borne - Pathogen is spread through the prevention of healthcare-associated infections are
contaminated water. ( ex , typhoid fever, cholera) implemented and followed by healthcare workers,
9. Vectors - Are animals that carry organism from one making the healthcare setting safe from infection for
host to another Insects (arthropods) - most impt group patients and healthcare personnel. This program
of vectors. usually includes surveillance of healthcare associated
10. Mechanical transmission - Refers to passive infections (HAIs), investigation of any HAIs trends or
transport of organisms on insect’s feet or other parts. problems, implementation of prevention practices,
Ex: cockroaches & flies evaluation and management of outbreaks, and
11. Biological transmission - Active transport of reporting HAI data to designated authorities.
organisms. Organism enters the insect vector after 10. Invasive procedure - A medical procedure that
the insect vector bites an infected person. involves entering the body, usually by cutting or
puncturing the skin or by inserting instruments into the
TERMINOLOGIES body
1. Alcohol-based hand rub (ABHR) - A method of 11. Multidrug-resistant organism (MDRO) - Type of
hand hygiene that includes an alcohol-containing bacteria that has become resistant to many of the
preparation designed for application to the hands for drugs that used to be effective against it.
reducing the number of viable microorganisms on the 12. Post-exposure prophylaxis - The administration of
hands. ABHR is not an alternative for washing with medications following exposure to a disease in an
soap and water if hands are visibly soiled. attempt to prevent infection.
2. Ambulatory care settings (ACS) - Facilities that
provide health care to patients who do not remain
overnight.
3. Barrier precautions - Any method or device used to
decrease contact with potentially infectious body
fluids. Examples may include masks, gloves, and
gowns.
4. Clostridium difficile - An anaerobic, gram-positive,
spore-forming bacillus that can cause diarrhea and
other intestinal diseases when competing bacteria in
the gut are diminished by antibiotics
5. Community-acquired infections - See
community-associated infections
Community-associated infections (CA): Infections that
are contracted outside of a healthcare facility and are
present or incubating at the time of admission or
develop within a designated period of time after
19
 4. PHASE CONTRAST MICROSCOPE
WEEK 1 MICP LABORATORY ● Phase contrast is a light microscopy
MICROSCOPE, OTHER EQUIPMENTS, PROKARYOTE AND technique used to enhance the contrast of
EUKARYOTE images of transparent and colourless
specimens. It enables visualization of cells
TYPES OF MICROSCOPES and cell components that would be difficult to
● In Ancient Greek, ‘mikro’ means ‘of minute size’ and see using an ordinary light microscope.
‘skopion’ refers to ‘means of viewing’. ● Can also use dark field in the research of live
● Microscopes can be classified in a number of different bacterium, as well as mounted cells &
ways; based on the source of light (light,electron tissues.
etc), arrangement, number of lenses (simple, 5. DIFFERENTIAL INTERFERENCE CONTRAST
compound), or method of interaction between the MICROSCOPE (DIC)
sample and lens (probe, laser etc). Simple ● Known as Nomarski microscopy or
microscopes use the power of a single lens to imaging, differential interference contrast
magnify a given sample. While compound microscopy takes advantage of differences in
microscopes use an objective lens to collect an the light refraction by different parts of living
image enhanced by a secondary system of lenses. cells and transparent specimens and allows
them to become visible during microscopic
1. COMPOUND MICROSCOPE evaluation.
● A microscope that uses multiple lenses to ● Type of imaging is that the three-dimensional
magnify the image of a sample. A compound 6. FLUORESCENCE MICROSCOPE
microscope is used to examine materials at ● Magnifying properties of a light microscope
high magnification (40-1000x), which is are merged with the fluorescence emitting
accomplished by combining the effects of properties of molecules. Fluorescence
two lenses: the ocular lens (in the eyepiece) microscopy uses a high-intensity light source
and the objective lenses (close to the to trigger fluorescent molecule called as
sample). fluorophore in the sample under
● The total magnification is derived by investigation
multiplying the ocular lens magnification by ● Generally used in combination with
the objective lens magnification antibodies
2. BRIGHTFIELD MICROSCOPE 7. CONFOCAL MICROSCOPE
● Also known as the Compound Light ● Known as confocal laser scanning
Microscope. microscopy (CLSM) or laser confocal
● It's an optical microscope that creates a dark scanning microscopy (LCSM).
image against a bright background by using ● An optical imaging technique for increase
light rays. It is the most common microscope optical resolution & contrast of a micrograph
used in biological, cellular, and by means of using spatial pinhole to block
microbiological laboratory research. out-of-focus light in image formation
● Bright field microscopy is best suited to ● Uses lasers & fluorescence to create a 3
viewing stained or naturally pigmented -dimensional image of a sample
specimens such as stained prepared slides 8. ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
of tissue sections or living photosynthetic ● This is a microscope that uses a beam of
organisms. accelerated electrons as a source of
3. DARKFIELD MICROSCOPE illumination. As the wavelength of an
● Dark-field microscopy is perfect for electron can be up to 100,000 times shorter
illuminating unstained samples against a than that of visible light photons, electron
dark background, making them appear microscopes have a higher resolving power
brightly lighted. A special condenser in this than light microscopes and can reveal the
type of microscope scatters light and causes structure of smaller objects
it to reflect off the material at an angle. The ● Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) is a
condenser is designed to create a hollow type of electron microscope that produces
cone of light instead of illuminating the images of a sample by scanning the surface
sample with a filled cone of light. with a focused beam of electrons. The
● It is more useful in examining external electrons interact with atoms in the sample,
details, such as outlines, edges producing various signals that contain
● Ideal for viewing objects that are unstained, information about the surface topography
transparent and absorb little or no light. and composition of the sample.

20
 ● Transmission electron microscopes Ultra-sound is the most popular acoustic
(TEM) are microscopes that use a particle microscope modification.
beam of electrons to visualize specimens & 3. DIGITAL MICROSCOPES
generate a highly-magnified image. TEMs ● To perform live imaging, digital microscopes,
can magnify objects up to 2 million times which were initially presented in 1986, use a
● The chief differences between the two are digital camera and a computer. Some
that the TEM gives a two-dimensional devices have eyepieces, while others are
picture of the interior of the sample while entirely computer-controlled. Thecomputer
the SEM gives a three-dimensional can examine image aspects that are not
picture of the surface of the sample visible to the naked eye, such as distance
9. SCANNING PROBE MICROSCOPE measurements, fluorescence strength,
● Scanning probe microscopy is used to create andminute thickness fluctuations.
images of nano scale surfaces and 4. DINO-LITE DIGITAL MICROSCOPES
structures or manipulate atoms to move ● Dino-Lite digital microscopes are a recent
them in specific patterns. It involves a innovation. These are handheld devices,
physical probe that scans over the surface of smaller than a pen that are capable of up to
a specimen gathering data that is used to 500X magnification.
generate the image or manipulate the atoms.
● Forms images of surfaces using a physical PARTS, USE CARE OF A MICROSCOPE AND OTHER LAB
probe that scans the specimen. EQUIPMENT/INSTRUMENTS
● Scanned-probe microscopy (SPM) ● Because the microscope is such a valuable
produces real-time images of highly device, proper care and maintenance are
magnified, three-dimensional formed essential.
specimens. SPM uses a tiny probe to scan
the object's surface, bypassing the 1. Carry the microscope with both hands, one firmly
limitations of electron and light microscopy. clutching the arm and the other firmly grasping the
SPM refers to a range of related base. Avoid sudden jars.
technologies for imaging and measuring 2. Maintain the microscope and lens systems'
surfaces down to molecules and atom cleanliness: Do not put your fingers on the lenses in
groups on a micro scale. any way. If the lenses become dusty, clean them
lightly using lens paper. Never leave a slide on the
OTHER MICROSCOPES microscope when it is not in use.
1. CRYO-ELECTRON MICROSCOPE 3. To keep the microscope from breaking, follow
● The device is a modification of transmission these steps: Never force the adjustments. All
electron microscopes (TEM). While TEMs adjustments should work freely and easily. Never
use a beam of electrons to examine allow an objective lens to get stuck in the slide or
samples, most biological materials degrade cover slip, or even touch it.When viewing through the
in these conditions. microscope, never use the coarse adjustment to focus
● This allows for high resolution of lower. Always keep your head to the side and your
biomolecules by freezing them. The device gaze parallel to the slide so that downward movement
also uses electron beam which does not is stopped before the objective reaches the slide.
affect biological structures thus enabling Never swap objectives or eyepieces between
visualization of proteins, DNA and other microscopes, and never remove the front lenses from
bio-molecules as they move and perform the objectives under any circumstances. Never hold
function. two microscopes at the same time.
● In 2010, these devices enabled the 4. Proper storage of the microscope: Make sure the
visualization of atoms in a virus. immersion oil is no longer present in the lens. Turn
● Researchers have used the cryo-electron the stage all the way down and place the low power
microscopy to examine impact of COVID-19 (10X) objective in place. Make sure the slide holder
vaccine on human cells and found that it does not extend past the microscope's left edge.The
helps the cells develop spike proteins similar electrical cord should be wrapped around the cord
to those found on the virus, which in turn hanger.
allows the body to build some immunity.
2. AUTISTIC MICROSCOPE LOW POWER, HIGH DRY, AND IMMERSION LENS
● Instead of using light, acoustic microscopes ● The light microscope uses a variety of glass lenses to
study samples using sound waves. This produce a magnified image that is focused before the
allows for non-invasive sample imaging. eye. The resolution of the light microscope is sufficient

21
 to produce excellent images of many of the important
cell structures and organelles
● Many of the diseases that have plagued humanity
have been discovered at the microscopic level. The
microscope, one of humanity's greatest inventions,
has aided in the discovery of causes and, as a result,
remedies for many of these diseases.

HOW TO FOCUS A MICROSCOPE

1. Adjust lenses to low power
2. Place the slide on the stage
3. Position specimen directly over light
4. Focus with coarse knob
5. Focus with fine knob

PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES

● Some cells are uncomplicated, but others are
complex with internal structures called organelles.
These cells can be put into two categories which are
the prokaryotes and the eukaryotes, and they have
many differences and similarities. Humans and other
multicellular organisms are eukaryotes while
Prokaryotic cells comprise bacteria and archaea.

TERMINOLOGIES
1. Field of View - The field of view refers to how much
you can see through the eyepiece or on the screen
(FOV).
2. Immersion Oil - A special technique used in light
microscopy that involves the immersion of both the
specimen and the objective lens in a transparent oil
that has a high refractive index.
3. Internal Structure - The inner pieces and parts that
keep organisms alive, help them grow, and help them
reproduce.
4. Magnification - The amount by which the dimensions
of an image are, or appear to be, magnified when
compared to the same dimensions in the actual
sample is known as magnification.
5. Optical microscopes - Refers to an optical
instrument that uses a lens or an arrangement of
lenses to magnify an object.
6. Organelles - Cell organelles are specialized entities
present inside a particular type of cell that performs a
specific function.
7. Resolution - The ability to see small, close-together
things as distinct is referred to as resolution.

22
 5. Keystone species - A species whose presence and
WEEK 2 MICP LABORATORY role in an ecosystem has a disproportionate impact on
THE CELL. BACTERIAL STRUCTURES other creatures in the system is referred to as a
keystone species.
LAB INTRODUCTION 6. Metagenomics - is a culture-independent analysis
● All living organisms have a functioning unit called a method that entails extracting DNA from communities
cell. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have developed of microorganisms, sequencing it in a "shotgun"
into two essentially different types, which may be fashion—that is, fragmenting the organisms' genomes
separated by their structure and organizational into small pieces that can be sequenced—and
complexity. Prokaryotes are the simplest organisms, characterizing genes and genomes using known gene
consisting of only one cell. Eukaryotes are more sequences. Researchers can use this knowledge to
complicated organisms. learn more about how members of the microbial
● Single-celled microorganisms without a nucleus and community interact, evolve, and execute complicated
other internal compartments are known as functions in their environments.
prokaryotes. Prokaryotes were the sole life on Earth 7. Microbial threats - Microbes that cause disease in
for about two billion years, dating back at least 3.5 humans are known as microbial threats.
billion years according to study. Prokaryotes include 8. Microbiome - The aggregate genome of our
bacteria and algae, for example. It has nuclear indigenous microbes (microflora) is referred to as the
material without a nuclear envelope in its nucleoid, an microbiome.
irregularly shaped area within the cell of prokaryotes. 9. Myxobacteria - Any of a variety of Gram-negative,
● Eukaryotic cells are compartmentalized. A plasma rod-shaped saprophytic bacteria (those that feed on
membrane surrounds all cells. Eukaryotic cells dead or decaying organic matter) that belong to the
contain organelles. phylum Myxobacteria. They are commonly found
● Bacteria are microscopic organisms that require a embedded in slime, where they form complex
microscope to view. Millions of bacteria exist on the colonies, and are known for their ability to move by
skin,in the intestines, and on the genitalia in the gliding along surfaces without the use of any known
normal state as normal flora. Bacterial infections organs of locomotion.
occur when harmful bacteria enter a typically sterile 10. Phylogenomic - The application of evolutionary
portion of the body, such as the bladder, or when they information to gene function prediction.
swamp out beneficial bacteria in places like the 11. Phylogeny - is the study of the evolutionary history
intestine. and development of a species or higher taxonomic
● The cell wall, on particular, gives structural support to grouping of organisms. Planktonic: Bacteria that are
bacteria. The functions of the subcellular structure are suspended or growing in a fluid environment as
supported by the cell membrane. Flagella are the opposed to those attached to a surface.
longtail-like structures that allow bacteria to move, as 12. Polymeric matrix - Cells in a biofilm secrete
well as migrate to and survive at their infection site. polymers of varying chemical composition that form
Toxins are extremely hazardous substances that an extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) or a slime
cause clinical symptoms and complications. A matrix that gives the biofilm stability and helps it to
conducive environment, such as temperature and adhere to a surface. Although generally assumed to
oxygen, are critical for bacterial growth. be primarily composed of polysaccharides, the EPS
can also contain proteins and nucleic acids.
TERMINOLOGIES 13. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) - A biologically important
1. Colonization - refers to a bacterium's ability to type of molecule that consists of a long chain of
remain and reproduce at a particular location. nucleotide units. Each nucleotide consists of a
2. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - Any of several nitrogenous base, a ribose sugar, and a phosphate.
nucleic acids that are usually the molecular basis of RNA is very similar to DNA, but differs in a few
heredity and are made up of a double helix held important structural details: in the cell, RNA is usually
together by hydrogen bonds between purine and single-stranded, while DNA is usually
pyrimidine bases that project inward from two chains double-stranded; RNA nucleotides contain ribose
containing alternate deoxyribose and phosphate links, while DNA contains deoxyribose (a type of ribose that
and are found primarily in cell nuclei in eukaryotes. lacks one oxygen atom); and RNA has the base uracil
3. Genomics - The study of genes and their roles is rather than thymine that is present in DNA.
known as genomics.
4. Heterotropic - An organism that is unable to
manufacture its own food and must rely on organic
matter, typically plant or animal tissue, for nutrition
and energy.

23
 Clostridium difficile, hand washing with soap and
WEEK 3 MICP LABORATORY water is the preferred means.
NORMAL FLORA.. TECHNIQUES FOR CONTROLLING
PATHOGENIC MICROORGANISMS HOW TO HANDRUB?

NORMAL FLORA OF THE HUMAN BODY

● Microbial Ecology is the a study of relationships
between microorganisms and their environment
● Indigenous flora/Normal flora are group of
microorganism, inhabits the body of a normal healthy
individual There are two types of Flora: Resident
and Transient.
● Resident Flora: consists of relatively fixed types of
microorganisms regularly found in a given area at a
given age.
● Transient Flora: consists of microorganisms that
inhabit the skin & mucous membrane temporarily for
hours, days, or weeks and are derived from the
environment.

NORMAL FLORA OF DIFFERENT BODY SITES ARE:

1. SKIN
● Part of the human body constantly in contact
with the environment.
● It is most exposed to different
microorganisms.
● Predominant microorganism found in the
skin: Staphylococcus Epidermidis
2. MOUTH & RESPIRATORY TRACT
● Streptococcus viridans
● Implicated in pathogenesis of dental carries.
3. DIGESTIVE TRACT
● ANAEROBES: particularly Bacteroides ● Rub hands for hand hygiene
fragilis ● Duration of the entire procedure: 20-30 seconds
● Helps in Synthesis of vit.B complex & vit.K
4. GENITOURINARY TRACT 1. Apply a palmful of the product in a cupped hand,
● Lactobacillus covering all surfaces;
● Prevents gonococcal infection by producing 2. Rub hands palm to palm;
lactic acids,adds acidity to vagina 3. Right palm over left dorsum with interlaced fingers
and vice versa;
HAND HYGIENE 4. Palm to palm with fingers interlaced;
● The most important measure to avoid the 5. Backs of fingers to opposing palms with fingers
transmission of harmful microbes and prevent interlocked;
healthcare-associated infections is hand hygiene. It is, 6. Rotational rubbing or left thumb clasped in right palm
either with soap and water or with alcohol-based and vice versa;
handrub. 7. Rotational rubbing, backwards and forwards with
● Clean your hands by rubbing them with an clasped fingers of right hand in left palm and vice
alcohol-based formulation, as the preferred mean for versa;
routine hygienic hand antisepsis if hands are not 8. Once dry, your hands are safe.
visibly soiled. It is faster, more effective, and better
tolerated by your hands than washing with soap and
water.
● Wash your hands with soap and water when hands
are visibly dirty or visibly soiled with blood or other
body fluids or after using the toilet.
● If exposure to potential spore-forming pathogens is
strongly suspected or proven, including outbreaks of

24
 HOW TO HAND WASH? 5 MOMENTS OF HAND HYGIENE

1. Before touching a patient

● WHY? To protect the patient against
colonization and, in some cases, against
exogenous infection, by harmful germs
carried on your hands.
2. Before clean / aseptic procedure
● WHY? To protect the patient against
infection with harmful germs, including
his/her own germs, entering his/her body
3. After body fluid exposure risk
● WHY? To protect you from colonization or
infection with patient’s harmful germs and to
protect the health-care environment from
germ spread
4. After touching a patient
● Wash hands when visibly soiled
● WHY? To protect you from colonization with
● Duration of the handwash (steps 2-7): 15-20
patient germs and to protect the health-care
seconds
environment from germ spread
● Duration of the entire procedure: 20-60 seconds
5. After touching patient surroundings
● WHY? To protect you from colonization with
1. Wet hands with water;
patient germs that may be present on
2. Apply enough soap to cover all hand surfaces;
surfaces / objects in patient surroundings
3. Rub hands palm to palm;
and to protect the health-care environment
4. Right palm over left dorsum with interlaced fingers
against germ spread
and vice versa;
5. Palm to palm with fingers interlaced;
GLOVE USE
6. Rotational rubbing or left thumb clasped in right palm
● Rationale for using medical gloves: Medical gloves
and vice versa;
are recommended to be worn for two main reasons:
7. Rotational rubbing, backwards and forwards with
1.To reduce the risk of contamination of health-care
clasped fingers of right hand in left palm and vice
workers hands with blood and other body fluids. 2. To
versa;
reduce the risk of germ dissemination to the
8. RInse hands with water;
environment and of transmission from the health-care
9. Dry hands thoroughly with a single tower;
worker to the patient and vice versa, as well as from
10. Use towel to turn off faucet;
one patient to another.
11. Your hands are now safe.
SAFE GLOVE USE INVOLVES:
● Using the correct technique for donning gloves that
prevents their contamination
● Using the correct technique for removing gloves that
prevents health-care workers’ hands becoming
contaminated

25
SUMMARY OF THE INDICATIONS FOR GLOVING AND FOR ● Alcohol-based handrub - Rub hands for
GLOVE REMOVAL: 20-30 seconds or;
● Water and soap - Wash hands for 40-60
INDICATION GLOVES ON seconds
1. Before a sterile procedure
2. When anticipating contact with blood or another body 2. Put on the gown
fluid, regardless of the existence of sterile conditions 3. Put on the mask
and including contact with non-intact skin and mucous ● Medical mask.
membrane 4. Put on eye protection
3. Contact with a patient (and his/her immediate ● Put on face shield or goggles.
surroundings) during contact precautions. 5. Put on gloves
● Ensure glove is placed over the cuff of the
GLOVES OFF gown
1. As soon as gloves are damaged (or non-integrity
suspected) HOW TO GUIDE - TAKING OFF PPE
2. When contact with blood, another body fluid,
non-intact skin and mucous membrane has occurred
and has ended
3. When contact with a single patient and his/her
surroundings, or a contaminated body site on a
patient has ended
4. When there is an indication for hand hygiene

HOW TO GUIDE - PUTTING ON PPE

1. Remove gloves
2. Remove the gown
● Ensure gown is pulled away from the body
during removal and that clothing does not
become contaminated and dispose of them
safely.
3. Perform hand hygiene
● Alcohol-based handrub - Rub hands for
20-30 seconds or;
● Water and soap - Wash hands for 40-60
1. Perform hand hygiene seconds

26
 4. Remove eye protection 10. Hand hygiene - Any action of hygienic hand
● Remove face shield or goggles. antisepsis in order to reduce transient microbial flora
5. Remove the mask (generally performed either by handrubbing with an
● Ensure you are taking the mask off from the alcohol-based formulation or handwashing with plain
straps, avoid touching the mask. or antimicrobial soap and water). Indication for hand
6. Perform hand hygiene hygiene Moment during health care when hand
● Alcohol-based handrub - Rub hands for hygiene must be performed to prevent harmful germ
20-30 seconds or; transmission and/or infection.
● Water and soap - Wash hands for 40-60 11. Health-care associated infection - Any illness
seconds acquired by a patient while a patient is admitted to a
healthcare facility is referred to as a health-care
TERMINOLOGIES associated infection.
1. Alcohol-based formulation - An alcohol-containing 12. Iatrogenic infection - one that is caused by a doctor.
preparation (liquid, gel or foam) designed for This infection is contracted as a result of medical or
application to the hands for hygienic hand antisepsis. surgical procedures.
2. Antisepsis - is the process of killing microorganisms 13. Invasive medical device - Any medical device that
or limiting their growth on the skin and non-living enters the body either through a body opening or
objects. Chemicals used in antisepsis are called through a skin or mucous membrane breaking.
antiseptics. 14. Occupational exposure - occurs when healthcare
3. Body fluids - Blood; excretions like urine, faeces, personnel are exposed to various infectious
vomit; meconium; lochia; secretions like saliva, tears, pathogens while on the job.
sperm, colostrum, milk, mucous secretions, wax, 15. Sanitization - refers to cleaning practices and
vernix; exudates and transudates like lymphatic, techniques that physically remove microorganisms.
pleural fluid cerebrospinal fluid, ascitis fluid, articular These include handwashing and cleaning of clients’
fluid, pus (except sweat); organic samples like personal equipment, clothing, and linens.
tissues, cells, organ, bone marrow, placenta.
4. Clean / aseptic procedure - Any care activity that
implies a direct or indirect contact with a mucous WEEK 4 MICP LABORATORY
membrane, non-intact skin, an invasive medical PHYSICAL CHEMICAL STERILIZATION, IMMUNITY,
device. During such a procedure no germs should be HYPERSENSITIVITY, AND VACCINES
transmitted.
5. Contamination - When an aseptic or sterile item PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL METHODS OF STERILIZATION
comes into touch with germs, contamination occurs. ● Sterilization is a technique that uses physical or
6. Critical site - Critical sites are associated with risk of chemical methods to eradicate or eliminate all kinds
infection. They either correspond to body sites or of microbial life in health-care facilities.
medical devices that have to be protected against ● Disinfection is the process of destroying most
harmful germs (called critical sites with risk of microbiological forms in a nonliving material, except
infection for the patient), or bodysites or medical saprophytes and bacterial endospores.
devices that potentially lead to hand exposure to body ● Antisepsis is the application of chemical agents to
fluids and bloodborne pathogens (called critical sites living tissues (skin) to prevent the spread of microbes
with body fluid exposure risk). Hand care Actions to by inhibiting or killing their growth.
prevent skin irritation. ● Bactericidal or germicidal an agent that kills the
7. Decontamination - is the process of physically or bacteria.
chemically removing, inactivating, or eliminating ● Bacteriostatic agents are substances that can
microorganisms on the surface of an item to render it impede bacteria's proliferation without necessarily
sterile and suitable for use killing them.
8. Disinfection - is the process of destroying bacteria ● Agents that kill spores, fungi, and viruses are known
on devices that come into touch with your patients on as sporicidal, fungicidal, and viricidal.
a regular basis, such as overbed tables, wheelchairs,
stretchers, urinals, bedpans, and blood pressure PHYSICAL METHODS OF STERILIZATION
monitors. It's vital to remember that disinfection HEAT
won't kill spores. ● Universally applicable method of sterilization. Rate of
9. Disinfectants - are chemicals that are used in killing is expressed in thermal death time.
disinfection. Disinfectants are significantly stronger
than antiseptics; thus,they are not used on the skin! 1. MOIST HEAT - preferred over dry heat because of its
Furthermore, when handling disinfectants, you should more rapid killing action.
always use home or utility gloves to avoid skin
irritation.
27
 ● Steam under pressure (autoclaving) - CHEMICAL METHOD OF STERILIZATION
Most efficient method of sterilization, it can FACTORS THAT CAN AFFECT EFFICACY OF CHEMICAL
destroy all microbial forms. AGENT:
● Boiling - inv. utilizing temp. of 80 -100°C 1. Concentration of chemical agent - higher
,Destroys vegetative forms of bacteria but concentration is bactericidal -lower concentration is
not endospores. bacteriostatic
● Fractional sterilization (Tyndallization) - 2. Time - the longer time of exposure the better the
the material is exposed to live steam for 3o killing action
mins for 3 consecutive days. Vegetative 3. Temperature - higher temperature speeds up the rate
forms are destroy not endospores of chemical reaction
● Pasteurization - destroying 4. Nature surrounding the medium - the pH of the
disease-producing organisms in milk and medium & the presence of pus or blood decreases
milk products and other beverages efficiency of chemical agents.
2. DRY HEAT - used to sterilize materials in enclosed 5. Nature of organism - refers to ability of bacteria to
tubes, oils, jellies, powders & glassware (test tubes produce endospores w/c are resistant to chemical
and petri dish) agents
● Hot air Oven - used to sterilization of
powders, ointment, other glassware that MECHANISMS OF ACTION
cannot be sterilized using autoclave. ● Damage to the cell membrane - can cause smaller
● Incineration - aimed at burning the molecules to leak out the bacterial cell and interfere
organisms into ashes (garbage disposal) with the active transport and energy metabolism
● Open Flame - burning the organism into within the cell .
ashes Ex. Bunsen burner and alcohol lamps
1. SURFACE ACTIVE AGENTS
DESSICATION ● Decrease surface tension of cell membrane
● deprive the microorganisms of moisture. Used in food lipids
preservation (dried fish and fruits) ● Cationic agents - quaternary ammonium
compound (zephiran) that are effective at
FREEZING alkaline Ph
● Lyophillization (freeze-drying) organisms are ● Anionic agents - like soaps & detergent
rapidly frozen, then dehydrated in high vacuum and remove dirt through EMULSIFICATION most
stored in a vacuum sealed container ….. Ex. Large effective at acidic pH
laboratories for preserving microorganisms 2. PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS
● Phenol - no longer used as disinfectant, its
FILTRATION toxic to human cells
● form of mechanical sieving .Microorganisms are not ● Cresol - more safer than phenol (Lysol)
killed, but merely separated from the fluid 3. ALCOHOL
● Disorganized the lipid structure and cause
RADIATION denaturation of cellular proteins
1. ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT (UVL) - most effective ● Ethyl alcohol - bactericidal and remove lipid
wavelength of UVL is 240-280 nm. Its application is from the skin surface
limited only to sterilization of small enclosed areas like ● Isopropyl alcohol - – has greater
operating rm & hospital wards bec/ of its poor bactericidal activity and less volatile but
penetrating ability exerts greater toxic effects (narcosis due to
2. IONIZING RADIATION - formation of free radicals that inhalation of fumes)
will chemically interact w/ proteins & nucleic acids ● Benzyl alcohol - used as a preservative
resulting in cell death. Potentially hazardous to human
cells. MODIFICATION OF FUNCTIONAL GROUPS OF PROTEINS
AND NUCLEIC ACIDS
OSMOTIC PRESSURE 1. HEAVY METALS - Damage the enzyme activity of
● Based on principle of osmosis. For preservation of bacteria
foods in syrup & meats in brine. a. Mercurials (merthiolate or
mercurochrome) - ARE BIOCIDAL &
USED AS ANTISEPTICS
b. Silver compounds are bactericides - (1%
silver nitrate –prophylaxis for ophthalmia
neonatorum)
(silver sulfadiazine – tx for burn wounds)
28
 2. HALOGENS - bactericidal oxidizing agents that cause E. Dose of Immunogen - If tiny in amount, very poor
the inactivation of enzymes immune responses could be induced.
a. Iodine - CONSIDERED AS BEST F. Genetic Constitution of the Host
ANTISEPTIC, bec. of its sporicidal G. Route of Entry of Immunogen
bactericidal, fungicidal, amoebicidal,
virucidal. IMMUNE SYSTEM
b. Chlorine - – used in the treatment of water. ● Abnormalities of the immune system can lead to
Also a common household disinfectant allergic diseases, immunodeficiencies and
c. Hydrogen peroxide - a weak antiseptic and autoimmune disorders.
used for cleaning wounds ● Our immune systems are built to recall things. We are
3. ALKYLATING AGENTS usually protected against a disease for
a. Formaldehyde - sporicidal and years,decades, or even a lifetime after receiving one
commercially available as FORMALIN or more doses of a vaccination. Rather than treating a
b. Glutaraldehyde - sporicidal and used as disease after it has developed, vaccines prevent us
cold sterilant in sterilizing medical from being sick in the first place.
equipment.
c. Ethylene oxide - sporicidal and used in TERMINOLOGIES
gaseous sterilization of heat-sensitive 1. Acellular vaccine - A vaccine made up of partial
materials equipment cellular material rather than whole cells.
2. Adjuvant - A vaccine component that boosts the
IMMUNITY immune response.
3. Anaphylaxis - An allergic reaction that occurs quickly
and severely. (e.g. food or drugs). Symptoms of
anaphylaxis include breathing difficulties, loss of
consciousness and a drop in blood pressure. This
condition can be fatal and requires immediate medical
attention.
4. Antitoxin - solution of antibodies against a toxin.
Antitoxin can be derived from either human (e.g.,
tetanus immune globulin) or animal (usually equine)
sources (e.g., diphtheria and botulism antitoxin).
Antitoxins are used to confer passive immunity and
for treatment.
● The immune system is a complicated network of cells 5. Booster shots - Additional vaccination doses are
and proteins that fights infection in the body required on a regular basis to "boost" the immune
● The immune system keeps track of every infection system. For example, the tetanus and diphtheria (Td)
(microbe) it has ever eliminated so it can rapidly vaccine which is recommended for adults every ten
recognize and eliminate the microbe if it re-enters the years.
body. 6. Breakthrough infection - Development of a disease
● Immunity is a complex biological system with the despite a person’s having responded to a vaccine.
ability to recognize and accept what belongs to the 7. Combination vaccine - A product containing
self, as well as to recognize and reject what does not components that can be divided equally into
belong to the self (non-self). independently available routine vaccines.
● Immune response means antigenic challenge leads to 8. Community immunity - When a large enough
activation of either B-lymphocytes or T-lymphocytes. percentage of a population is immune to an infectious
These foreign substances may be: Immunogenic, disease. (through vaccination and/or prior illness) to
Antigenic. make its spread from person to person unlikely. Even
individuals not vaccinated (such as newborns and
PROPERTIES OF ANTIGEN (FOREIGN SUBSTANCES) TO those with chronic illnesses) are offered some
BE IMMUNOGENIC ARE: protection because the disease has little opportunity
A. Foreignness - Identifies the substances as being to spread within the community. Also known as herd
foreign (non-self) immunity.
B. Chemical Composition - It's either proteins or large 9. Conjugate vaccine - To boost the efficiency of a
polysaccharides molecules. Rarely lipids vaccination, two compounds (typically a protein and a
C. Molecular size (molecular weight - The larger the polysaccharide) are joined together.
molecule’s weight, the better it will work as an antigen 10. Efficacy rate - A measure used to describe how good
D. Chemical Complexity - The more complex the a vaccine is at preventing disease.
chemical structure is more potent immunogen
29
 11. Investigational vaccine - A vaccine that has been CLASSIFICATION OF ANTIBIOTICS
approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) ACCORDING TO SPECTRUM OF ACTIVITY
for use in clinical trials on humans. However, 1. Broad spectrum - with wide range of activity
investigational vaccines are still in the testing and 2. Narrow spectrum - with limited range of activity
evaluation phase and are not licensed for use in the
general public. ACCORDING TO ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY
12. Potency - A measure of strength. 1. Bactericidal - capable of killing microorganism
13. Quarantine - The isolation of a person or animal who 2. Bacteriostatic - only inhibit the growth of the
is suspected of having a disease in order to prevent organism
further spread of the disease.
14. Seroconversion - Development of antibodies in the ACCORDING TO ABSORBABILITY FROM SITE OF
blood of an individual who previously did not have ADMINISTRATION
detectable antibodies. 1. Locally-acting - ex: topical agents (topical ointments
15. Serology - Measurement of antibodies, and other & eyedrops)
immunological properties, in the blood serum. 2. Systemically-acting - affects several body systems
16. Serosurvey - Study measuring a person’s risk of (ex: antibiotics administered intravenously)
developing a particular disease.
17. Strain - A specific version of an organism. Many
diseases, including HIV/AIDS and hepatitis, have
multiple strains
18. Teratogenic - Of, relating to, or causing
developmental malformations.
19. Thimerosal - Thimerosal is a mercury-containing
preservative used in some vaccines and other
products since the 1930’s. There is no convincing
evidence of harm caused by the low concentrations of
thimerosal in vaccines, except for minor reactions like
redness and swelling at the injection site.
20. Waning Immunity - The loss of protective antibodies
over time. ACCORDING TO MECHANISM OF ACTIONS
● Agents that inhibit the synthesis of the bacterial
cell wall - these agents act by inhibiting the different
WEEK 5 MICP LABORATORY stages of peptidoglycan synthesis; by destroying an
ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS IN THERAPY already formed peptidoglycan by activating autolytic
enzymes.
ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS ● Ex: beta-lactam antibiotics - Penicillins (ampicillin,
● Antibiotics or Antimicrobials are substances amoxicillin, benzathine penicillin)
produced from microorganisms or synthetically. They cephalosporins (ceftriaxone), vancomycin, bacitracin,
are capable of inhibiting or destroying microorganism cycloserine
even at low concentrations 1. AGENTS THAT ALTER THE
● Antimicrobials are substances that kill or suppress FUNCTION/PERMEABILITY OF THE CELL
microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and viruses MEMBRANE
● First antimicrobials dates back to the Egyptians who ● They disrupt the cell membrane - antifungal
used moldy bread to treat surface infections drugs
● Beginning of the 20th century, Paul Ehrlich ● (POLYENES – nystatin, amphotericin B)
synthesized the first antimicrobial agent known as ● They change permeability of a cell
Salvarsan, a drug used for treating syphilis membrane - Azoles (clotrimoxazole,
● Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin by noticing ketoconazole,- antifungals )
the growth of Staphylococcus aureus was inhibited in 2. AGENTS THAT ACT INHIBITS SYNTHESIS OF
presence of the mold produced by Penicillium fungi. PROTEINS
Led to the conclusion that microorganisms produce ● They binds the ribosomes 30s ribosomal
substances to limit growth of other competing subunit: (AMINOGLYCOSIDES –
microorganisms . From that moment onwards, new streptomycin, gentamicin, and kanamycin)
types of antimicrobial agents were developed such as 50s ribosomal subunit - (chloramphenicol,
streptomycin, chloramphenicol, macrolide and macrolides, and lincosamides)
tetracycline, causing a significant decrease in the 3. AGENTS THAT ACT ON THE NUCLEIC ACID
mortality rate due to bacterial infections ● They inhibit DNA replication- (quinolones,
novobiocin & metronidazole)
30
 ● Inhibit the synthesis of folic acid - can acquire HIVDR. Latest WHO ARV guidelines now
(trimethoprim, sulfonamides and sulfones) recommend the adoption of a new drug, dolutegravir,
● Inhibits RNA synthesis- (rifampicin) as the preferred first-line treatment for adults and
children.
WHAT IS ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE? ● Drug resistance in malaria parasites .
● Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) occurs when Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) are
bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites change over the recommended first-line treatment for
time and no longer respond to medicines making uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria and are used by
infections harder to treat and increasing the risk of most malaria endemic countries. In the WHO Eastern
disease spread, severe illness and death. Mediterranean Region, P. falciparum resistance to
sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine led to
WHAT ACCELERATES THE EMERGENCE AND SPREAD artesunate-sulfadoxine- pyrimethamine failures in
OF ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE? some countries, necessitating a chang
● AMR occurs naturally over time, usually through ● Drug resistance in fungi. Drug-resistant Candida
genetic changes. auris, one of the most common invasive fungal
● Antimicrobial resistant organisms are found in people, infections, is already widespread with increasing
animals, food, plants and the environment (in water, resistance reported to fluconazole, amphotericin B
soil and air). They can spread from person to person and voriconazole as well as emerging caspofungin
or between people and animals, including from food resistance.
of animal origin.
● The main drivers of antimicrobial resistance TERMINOLOGIES
include the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials; lack 1. Antagonism - refers to the action of any organism
of access to clean water, sanitation and hygiene that suppresses or interferes with the normal growth
(WASH) for both humans and animals; poor infection and activity of a plant pathogen, such as the main
and disease prevention and control in health-care parts of bacteria or fungi. These organisms can be
facilities and farms; poor access to quality, affordable used for pest control and are referred to as biological
medicines, vaccines and diagnostics; lack of control agents.
awareness and knowledge; and lack of enforcement 2. Antifungal agents - A drug that selectively eliminates
of legislation. fungal pathogens from a host with minimal toxicity to
the host
DRUG RESISTANCE IN BACTERIA 3. Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (AST) - A
● common bacterial infections such as urinary tract procedure used to determine which antibiotics a
infections, sepsis, sexually transmitted infections, and specific organism or group of organisms are
some forms of diarrhoea have high rates of resistance susceptible to.
against antibiotics. 4. Antiviral agents - Agents that are used to inhibit
● For example, the rate of resistance to ciprofloxacin, production of viruses that causes disease. Most
an antibiotic commonly used to treat urinary tract antiviral agents are only effective while the virus is
infection replicating
● Escherichia coli for Klebsiella pneumoniae 5. Commensal bacteria - the skin and mucous
fluoroquinolone antibiotics for E. coli, (treatment of membranes are continuously colonized by
urinary tract infections) commensal bacteria that do not cause disease unless
● Staphylococcus aureus (part skin flora) - the subject is weakened
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) . 6. Empiric therapy -
● strains of N. gonorrhoeae -has resistance emerged to 7. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase -
sulphonamides, penicillins, tetracyclines, macrolides, beta-lactamases are a family of enzymes responsible
fluoroquinolones, and early generation for bacterial resistance to certain antibiotics such as
cephalosporins. In most countries, the injectable penicillin.
extended-spectrum cephalosporin (ESC) ceftriaxone 8. Genotyping - determination of all the genes
is the only remaining empiric monotherapy for contained in the cells of an organism.
gonorrhea 9. Immunoassay - diagnostic test based on an
● Drug resistance in mycobacterium tuberculosis - antigen/antibody reaction, enabling the detection of
new cases of rifampicin-resistant TB (RR-TB). infectious agents (bacteria, viruses, parasites) and
Majority have multi-drug resistant TB (MDR-TB), a pathogen markers.
form of tuberculosis that is resistant to the two most 10. In vitro diagnostics - analysis of biological samples
powerful anti-TB drugs (urine, blood, etc.) performed outside the human
● Drug resistance in viruses - an increasing concern body.
in immunocompromised patient with drug- resistant 11. In vivo diagnostics - tests or research performed on
HIV (HIVDR). People receiving antiretroviral therapy a living organism.
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12. Methicillin - a semi-synthetic penicillin used primarily
against non-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.
13. Molecular biology - technique that can detect a
bacterium, virus, yeast, parasite or a biomarker
through the presence of DNA or RNA genetic
sequences in a sample
14. Multi-resistant bacteria - bacteria are said to be
multi-resistant to antibiotics when they are sensitive
only to a small number of the antibiotics customarily
used in therapy, as a consequence of the
accumulation of natural and acquired resistances.
15. PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) - molecular
biology technology for in vitro amplification of genetic
sequences, used to copy known DNA or RNA
sequences in large quantities (by an order of
magnitude of a billion) from an initially small quantity.
This technology is particularly useful for detecting the
presence of viruses
16. Superbug - Are strains of bacteria, viruses, parasites
and fungi that are resistant to most of the antibiotics
and other medications commonly used to treat the
infections they cause. A few examples of superbugs
include resistant bacteria that can cause pneumonia,
urinary tract infections and skin infections.
17. Superinfection - is the process by which a cell that
has previously been infected by one virus gets
co-infected with a different strain of the virus, or
another virus, at a later point in time. Viral
superinfections may be resistant to the antiviral drug
or drugs that were being used to treat the original
infection.
18. Synergism - The interaction of things resulting in the
overall effect that is greater than the sum of individual
effects of any of them. Supplement. Synergism occurs
when different entities work together and enhance the
effect to an extent that cannot be produced singly.

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