Department of Industrial & Production Engineering

Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology

IPE-332: Production Process Sessional
Credit Hour: 0.75

General Guidelines:

1. Students shall not be allowed to perform any experiment without apron and shoes.
2. Students must be prepared for the experiment prior to the class.
3. Report of an experiment must be submitted in the next class.
4. Viva for each experiment will be taken on the next day with the report.
5. The report should include the following:

• Top sheet with necessary information

• Main objectives
• Work material/machines/tool/equipments used (with their specifications)
• Experimental procedures
• Experimental results and discussions (Experimental setup, Experimental conditions,
Data, Graph, Calculation etc.).
• Conclusions
• Assignment
• References

6. A quiz will be taken on the experiments at the end of the semester.

7. Marks distribution:

Total Marks: 75
Report Viva Quiz
25 25 25

List of Experiments:

1. Study of chips and cutting zone temperature in turning medium carbon steel by uncoated
carbide insert.
2. Study of tool wears and tool life in turning medium carbon steel by high speed steel (HSS).
3. Study of different types of joining methods: Arc welding, TIG welding, MIG welding and
Resistance welding.
4. Manufacturing of a machine component (Jack) by using lathe, shaper, milling, drill and
grinding machine
5. Manufacturing of a spur and helical gear on a column and knee type milling machine.
 Experiment: 01

Study of chips and cutting zone temperature in turning medium carbon

steel by uncoated carbide insert

Objective

i. To study different types of chip (type, shape and color)

ii. To determine chip reduction co-efficient (ξ)
iii. To determine temperature (θ) at chip tool interface

Theory
Chip Formation: When force is applied by cutting tool against the workpiece, the uncut layer
deforms first elastically followed by plastic deformation due to the shearing action near the cutting
edge of the tool. Shearing takes place along a shear zone and shear is maximum at the shear plane.
After passing out of the shear plane, the deformed material slides along the tool face as chip as
cutting progresses. Four main categories of chips (as shown in Fig.1) are:

Discontinuous chips: These chips are small segments, which adhere loosely to each other. They
are formed when the amount of deformation to which chips undergo is limited by repeated
fracturing. Hard and brittle materials like bronze, brass and cast iron will produce such chips.

Continuous or ‘ribbon’ type chips: In continuous chip formation, the pressure of the work piece
builds until the material fails by slip along the plane. The inside on the chip displays steps produced
by the intermittent slip, but the outside is very smooth. It has its elements bonded together in the
form of long coils and is formed by the continuous plastic deformation of material without fracture
ahead of the cutting edge of the tool and is followed by the smooth flow of chip up the tool face.

Continuous chip built up edge: This type of chip is very similar to that of continuous type, with
the difference that it is not as smooth as the previous one. This type of chip is associated with poor
surface finish, but protects the cutting edge from wear due to movement of chips and the action of
heat causing the increase in tool life.

Serrated chips: These chips are semi continuous in the sense that they possess a saw-tooth
appearance that is produced by a cyclical chip formation of alternating high shear strain followed
by low shear strain. This chip is most closely associated with certain difficult-to-machine metals
such as titanium alloys, nickel-base super alloys, and austenitic stainless steels when they are
machined at higher cutting speeds. However, the phenomenon is also found with more common
work metals (e.g., steels), when they are cut at high speeds.
 (a) Discontinuous chip (b) Continuous chip

(c) Continuous with built-up edge (d) Serrated

Fig.1: Four types of chip formation in metal cutting

Chip Shape: In production practice, chips of different shapes are generally produced, the common
shapes of which are spiral coil chip, long and tight coil chip, ribbon chip, hair strips coil chip,
pagoda-like coil chip, cracking chip, and C-shape chip, as shown in the following Figure. This is
primarily associated with the workpiece material, tool geometric, and cutting parameters. On the
different cutting conditions, the disparate anticipative chip shapes are obtained.

Fig 2: (a) Spiral coil chip (b) Long and tight coil chip (c) Ribbon chip (d) Hair strips
coil chip (e) Pagoda like coil chip (f) Cracking chip (g) C-shape chip
During finish machining, spiral coil chip is more anticipated, the shape of chips will break off
automatically if they reach a certain length, and cutting process is relatively stable. In cutting,
cracking chip is least expected to gain, the next is C-shape chip.

Chip Color: When cutting steel materials, the high-speed friction between the tool and the cutting
materials will generate a lot of cutting heat. The chips will be heated rapidly by the heat of cutting
and will be rapidly cooled in the air after being cut away from the base. This phenomenon causes
the chips to produce different colorings of oxidative films on the surface. The color can be yellow,
yellow brown, brown, purple, deep purple or dark blue, blue, light blue, blue green, yellow green,
dark red.

Chip Reduction Co-efficient: Chip reduction co-efficient (ξ) is the ratio of chip thickness (a2) to
uncut chip thickness (a1) (as shown in Fig.3). Mathematically,
a a2
= 2 = ..........................(1)
a1 s0 Sin

Chip
a1
a2

Workpiece
Tool

Fig.3: Schematic representation of chip formation

The inverse of ξ is known as cutting ratio, rc. ξ is an important index which indicates the degree of
deformation and hence the force required. ξ is affected by process parameters (i.e. Vc, So, t, γ etc)
and other variables (i.e. friction at tool-chip interface, cutting fluid, tool material, work material
etc).
In the turning process, the materials ahead the cutting insert is compressed all sided and
deformation takes place in the form of a chip. The chip thickness (a2) is always larger than the
thickness of uncut chip (a1)
The thickness of the chip varies with the feed rate; heavier feed rates form thicker chips while
lighter feed rates form thinner chips. The thickness of the chip formed decides how the chip will
fracture, but this is also dependent on the material being machined. At the same time, changing
the speed impacts the chip thickness; the higher the speed of the tool, the more heat generated in
the cut, which makes the material more elastic. So a balance between speeds and feeds is necessary.
Machine, Equipment & Work Material
i. Lathe machine
ii. Work material (medium carbon steel)
iii. Cutting tool (High-speed steel)
iv. Milivoltmeter
v. Mica
vi. Slide caliper
Procedure
i. Turn the work material in an engine lathe with three different cutting velocities (Vc) at a
constant feed rate (So).
ii. Repeat the above procedure for three different feed rates.
iii. Collect the chips obtained, study them to identify their types, shapes and colors and calculate
the chip reduction co-efficient for each chip.
iv. Take the mV reading from the Milivoltmeter and then determine temperature (θ) at chip-tool
interface from,  = 75.28 + 63.05 mV − 0.57 mV 2 .
v. Plot ξ vs Vc ; ξ vs So and θ vs Vc
Experimental Setup for Temperature Measurement

Insulation

Copper brush

Insulation

Millivoltmeter
Fig.4: Schematic representation of temperature measurement
 DATA SHEET
Study of chips and cutting zone temperature in turning medium carbon steel by uncoated
carbide insert

Work Material :
Diameter :
Cutting Tool :
Material :
Cutting Conditions :
Cutting Velocity :
Feed Rate :
Depth of Cut :
Environment :

So N (rpm) Vc mV θ (oC) a1 a2 ξ Chip

(mm/rev) (m/min) (mm) (mm) type shape color

Signature of the teacher

 Experiment: 02

Study and Determination of Tool life and tool wear

Objectives:

1. Study and determine different types of tool wear (flank wear and crater wear).
2. Determine tool life (T)

Theory:

Wear is the progressive loss or removal of material from a surface. It causes the tool to lose its
original shape, so it ceases to cut efficiently or even fails in time. After a certain degree of wear,
the device has to be re-sharpened for further use. The tool wear rate depends on tool and work
piece material, shape, cutting fluid, process parameters (Vc, So, and t), and machine tool
characteristics.

Causes of Wear: The following fundamental reasons, depending on cutting or environmental

conditions, singly or in combinations, produce tool wear –
i. Abrasion – The inherently hard constituents in the work piece, the strain-hardened chip and
work piece, or broken BUE can cause abrasive wear while sweeping over the tool face and
flank.
ii. Adhesion – If a fracture occurs not along the chip and tool interface during sliding at the
point of adhesion but in the tool material, the tool material is removed with the chip.
iii. Diffusion – Metal and carbon atoms may diffuse from the tool surface into the work material
and the chips. It depends on high temperature and pressure and the metallurgical relationship
of tool and work material.
iv. Attrition – Fragments of the tool may be torn intermittently from the tool surface at a low
cutting speed where material flow past the cutting edge is irregular and less streamlined.
v. Corrosion – It is due to a chemical reaction between the tool surface and work material or
environment (i.e., cutting fluid).
vi. Electrochemical occurs when ions are passed between the tool and work piece, causing
oxidation of the tool surface, cutting fluid acting as an electrolyte.
vii. Plastic Deformation – When high compressive stresses act on the tool rake face, the tool
may be deformed downward (primarily in the nose area), promoting other wear.
viii. Thermal Cracking – The tool often observes short cracks called comb cracks due to thermal
cyclical stresses at the cutting edge. These cracks start at the cutting edge and then widen
along the rake face and flank.
ix. Fatigue Wear – It is due to cyclic loading.
x. Chipping – It is the sudden breaking away of a small piece from the cutting edge or nose of
the tool. It may be microchipping, microchipping, or fracture.
Types of Wear: The prominent wear in the cutting tool is as follows.

1. Flank Wear: It occurs on the principal and auxiliary flanks of the tool and develops a wear
land, as shown in Figure 1.6. It is mainly due to the rubbing of the tool by the machined surface,
causing abrasion. Adhesion is also a factor. When BUE is torn away, it takes particles of tool
material with it. Thermal cracking is also a cause of the breakdown of small particles in the
flanks, predominant in brittle material and the case of discontinuous chips.
Here,
VN = notch wear
VB = average principal flank wear
VM = maximum principal flank wear

The tool life is generally determined by VB. If VB is greater than 300μm, the tool needs re-
sharpening. VB varies with machining time.

2. Crater Wear: It occurs on the rake face of the tool, where there is direct contact of the tool
with the chip in the form of the cavity, as shown in Figures 1.6 and 1.7. It is prominent inductile
materials like steel and its alloys. It occurs at the point of impingement of the chip on the tool
and widens with time. It does not reach the cutting edge but causes a rupture of the tool before
getting it. It leads to the weakening of the tool and increased cutting temperature, friction, and
cutting forces. It is mainly due to diffusion and corrosion. Abrasion and adhesion also influence
the wear.

Here,
KT = maximum crater depth,
KB = crater width and
KM = distance of maximum crater depth from cutting-edge

As diffusion increases with temperature, the maximum KT is at the maximum temperature at

the tool-chip interface. Crater wear is characterized mainly by KT and KB. Change in the length
of the crater (KL) is negligible.

3. Nose Wear: With the machining time, the tool nose becomes blunt and round due to wear. It
is less significant for failure than flank or crater wear.

In the general case, both crater and flank wear increase in the course of operation. But depending
upon the machining condition, one of them may predominate. The study of tool wear is essential
in finding optimal tool wear before grinding, scheduling production, correlating other factors of
cutting, etc.

Tool life:

Tests with many materials under many conditions have shown that tool life is shorter the higher
the cutting speed. In most cases, this follows the relationship that.

VTn = C
Here,
V = cutting speed (m/min)
T = Tool life
C = constant
n = an exponent that depends on tool and work piece materials and cutting conditions. Each
combination of work piece, tool material, and cutting condition has its n, determined
experimentally. The range of n values observed in practice is given in the following table.

Table: Range of n values for various tool Materials

High-speed steel 0.08 – 0.2

Cast alloys 0.1- 0.15

Carbides 0.2 - 0.5

Ceramics 0.5 – 0.7

C = A constant (called Taylor tool life constant) defined as the cutting speed in m/min for 1 min
tool life. Comparative values for C are given in Table 2.
Machine, Equipment & Work Material:

i. Lathe machine
ii. Work material
iii. Cutting tool
iv. Microscope
v. Stopwatch
vi. Brush

Procedure:
1. Turn the work material for a predetermined duration and remove the chip particles from the
tool.
2. Observe the tool's wear by microscope and measure VB, VM, VN, KT, KB, and KM.
3. Draw the wear diagram of the tool.
4. Take the above readings after turning for 3, 5, 10, and 15 minutes.
5. Plot VB vs. time, KT vs. time, and KB vs. time in the report.
6. Find tool life from VB vs time plot
7. Also find the tool life using formula VTn = C

Assignment:

1. Explain the various types of tool wear observed during the experiment. Discuss the
mechanisms behind each type and their impact on tool performance.
2. Describe the factors influencing tool wear in machining operations. How do cutting
parameters, work piece materials, and cutting fluids affect wear rate and tool life?
3. Define and explain the concept of tool life (T) based on the experiment's observations. How
was tool life determined in this experiment?
 Data Sheet:

Work material :

Work piece diameter :

Cutting tool :

Tool material :

Cutting operation :

Cutting speed :

Feed rate :

Depth of cut :

Cutting environment : Dry

No of Average principal Maximum principal flank

Time Cumulative Time
Observatio flank wear VB wear VM
(min) (min)
n (mm) (mm)

………………………………
Signature of the teacher
 Data Sheet:

Work material :

Work piece diameter :

Cutting tool :

Tool material :

Cutting operation :

Cutting speed :

Feed rate :

Depth of cut :

Cutting environment : Wet

No of Average principal Maximum principal flank

Time Cumulative Time
Observatio flank wear VB wear VM
(min) (min)
n (mm) (mm)

………………………………
Signature of the teacher
 Experiment: 04

Manufacturing of a Machine Component (Jack) by using Lathe, Shaper,

Milling, Drill and Grinding Machine
Objective

i. To introduce with lathe, shaper, milling, drill and grinding machine

ii. To operate the machines to produce the jack (machine component)

Theory

In a lathe machine, material is removed from a work-piece by rotating it when a cutting tool is
moved longitudinally with a depth of cut. Lathe machines are widely used to work on cylindrical
work-piece. Various lathe operations are turning, (straight and taper), facing, threading,
chamfering, parting etc.

In shaper machines, the cutting tool reciprocates over the work-piece to remove metal by digging
deep into it. Cutting action takes place only in the forward stroke. The work piece remains rigidly
clamped on the table. Depth of cut is imparted on the cutting tool

In this experiment, Milling Machine will be used for the purpose of slot making. Drill machine
will be used in our experiment for drilling operation. It is to be mentioned here that drilling is a
hole making operation. After making hole, boring tool may be used for enlarging hole. Finally, a
reamer can be used for reaming operation which is a hole finishing process. These operations are
necessary to maintain accuracy and surface finish of a hole.

Machine, Equipment & Work Material

i. Lathe Machine
ii. Shaper Machine
iii. Milling Machine
iv. Drill Machine
v. Grinding Machine
vi. Work material
vii. Caliper
viii. Tap

Procedure

i) Be familiar with lathe, shaper, milling, drill and grinding machine.

ii) Be divided into groups to produce the various parts of the job.
iii) Be cautious about accuracy in machining, as dimensional accuracy of individual items is
important for assembly
iv) Determine the sequence of machining and equipment’s needed.
v) Assemble the manufactured parts
Material: Mild steel
Dimensional tolerance allowed:  0.1mm , Chamfering angle=450

Internal
threading (Φ6) 15 35
Turning
Grinding
Chamfering Facing

Φ15.20
10

11

Slot making

Side View (Internal Part)

All the dimensions are in mm
45 Turning
Drilling, Boring, 30
Reaming 15
Φ30

Φ16

Φ29

Figure 2: Side View (External Part)

Process Roughness
Symbol
Grinding ∆∆∆∆
Boring/Turning ∆∆∆
Milling ∆∆∆
Shaping ∆∆
Drilling ∆∆

3-D view of Jack

Assignment
i. Name the various operations used in the experiment sequentially for both the parts.
ii. What are the difference between turning and threading operation?
iii. Differentiate drilling, boring and reaming operation.
iv. Why are finishing process necessary in this experiment?
v. Is there any cutting fluid used in this experiment? What are the reasons behind it.
 Experiment: 05

Manufacturing of a Spur and Helical Gear on a Column & Knee Type Milling Machine

Objective:
a. To introduce with different types of gears.
b. To perform different milling operations
c. To observe different milling methods
d. To operate milling machine to manufacture a Spur and Helical gear.

Theory:

Gears are used for the transmission of motion and power between two shafts without slippage.
There are different types of gears such as spur gear, helical gear, bevel gear, herringbone gear,
worm and worm wheel, rack and pinion etc. Each type of gear is suitable for certain purposes.

Plain or Simple Indexing: Here, the work piece is positioned by utilizing the step index plate
and the index crank. The standard size index plate is provided with a number of circles having
following number of holes:

Numbers of hole in a Standard Index Plate

24 25 28 30 34 37 38 39 41 42 43 45 47 49 50 53 54 57 58 59 62 65

The number of turns of the crank of a dividing head required to index the crank one division is
equal to the ratio of the dividing head (40 or example) divided by the number of equally spaced
divisions required for one full turn of the work piece. If now a gear has 36 teeth, the indexing will
be as follows:

40 4
40 = =1 ……………………………………………………… [1]
36 36

Now to get consecutive spaces in the gear blank one must turn the crank handle through one full
turn and up to 4th additional hole on the index plate having 36 holes in the circle.

Gear parameters

Calculation:
We have,
DN
V= ft / min ……………………………………………………… [2]
12

Where, D = diameter of the cutter, inches

V= Surface speed
If tool material is High Speed Steel (HSS) and blank material is Cast Iron (CI). Surface speed =90
rpm (approx.)

T+2
Outside Diameter= O.D=   = Dp + 2a ………………………………………….. [3]
 d 
P

Where, T = No. of Teeth to be cut

Pd = Diametral Pitch

 T 
Pd = 
 D  …………………………………………………..[4]
 p

Where, Dp = Pitch Diameter

1
Addendum = a =   …………………………………………………..[5]
 Pd 

 0.157 
Clearance = c =   …………………………………………………..[6]
 Pd 

 1.157 
Dedendum = b = a+c=   …………………………………………………..[7]
 Pd 

 2.157 
Full Depth = a+b =   …………………………………………………..[8]
 Pd 

Cutting Helical Gear

In milling helical gear the table of the milling machine is set to the spindle axis at an angle  equal
to the helix angle of the groove being cut. In milling a left hand thread, the table is swiveled
clockwise at an angle  , in cutting a right hand thread the table is swiveled counterclockwise.
The set angle  for the table is,

 πd  ………………………………………………….
θ=tan -1 
 P  [9]
 hg 

Where,
D= diameter of the work piece being cut
Phg =Lead of helical gear;
If the helix is determined by the lead angle  , the table should be set at an angle of ( 90 −  ).
a  c 
To cut helical gears, setting of change gears  1  .  1  is necessary. It can be done with the help
 b1   d1 
of following formula:

 a1   c1   Phg 
  .  =   …………………………………………………[10]
 b1   d1   z o .Pls 

Where,
Phg is pitch of the helical gear
zo is the no. of tooth in the warm wheel
Pls is the lead of work-table lead screw

Machine, Equipment & Work Material

i. Milling machine
ii. Milling cutter
iii. Gear blank

Procedure

i. Be introduced with different types of gears and their functions.

ii. Study of the different components of horizontal and vertical milling machine.
iii. Operate horizontal milling machine to manufacture a Spur and helical gear.
iv. Operate vertical milling machine to make a slot on a square block

Assignment
1. Describe the differences between plain or simple indexing and differential indexing in
gear manufacturing.
2. Explain the process of cutting helical gears on a milling machine, including the angle
settings and the significance of the lead of the helical gear.
3. Explain the specific functions of spur gears, helical gears, bevel gears, and worm gears in
various mechanical systems.
4. Describe the fundamental differences between up milling and down milling operations in
milling processes.