IFUGAO HERITAGE

Michelle J. Dulay, Desiree Gume G. Nangpuhan,

Serafin L. Ngohayon, Eva Marie C. Dugyon

Photo: Batad Rice Terraces in Banaue, Ifugao (the fields are golden during harvest time)
UNIT I. HISTORICAL, SOCIO-CULTURAL FEATURES

Ifugao Territories

The province of Ifugao consists of eleven (11) municipalities. These include Aguinaldo,
Asipulo, Banaue, Hingyon, Hungduan, Kiangan, Lagawe, Lamut, Alfonso Lista, Mayoyao,
and Tinoc. Lagawe is the capital of the province.
Ifugao is rugged and mountainous except for Lamut and Alfonso Lista which has large
areas of rolling hills and plains.
The Magat River runs between the provinces of Isabela and Ifugao on the eastern side.
Mount Pulag is located on the western side between Ifugao and Benguet. Mount Polis is
located between Ifugao and Mountain Province in the north, and the Lamut River is located
between Ifugao and Nueva Vizcaya in the south.
Ifugao used to be a part of the previous Mountain Province. Republic Act No. 4695,
also known as the Division Law of Mountain Province. This became effective on June 18,
1966, and gave Ifugao the status of an independent province. Benguet, Ifugao, Kalinga
Apayao, and Mountain Province were the four provinces created as a result of this law.
Ifugao is popularly believed to have emanated from the word ‘pugaw’ which is “earth in the
cosmic belief” or “hill”, hence, i-pugaw which was later modified to Ifugao, means “from the
hill”.

Figure 1. Map of Ifugao (Source: wikemedia.org)

Ifugao Settlements
Narratives on the settlement history of the Ifugao people have been written by various
authors and researchers. Early settlements in Ifugao are evident with the tangible marks
that they left in the areas they occupied. Hence, the most common organized settlements
which are very evident are where the Ifugao Rice Terraces (IRTs) are. A recent archeological
study puts the IRTs at 400-700 years old and posits that the boost in land cultivation
coincided with the Spanish colonization (Acabado, 2017). It is furthered that it is during this
time were waves of migration toward the upland areas by the people who do not like to be
under the Spanish rule. The early settlements characterized by tangible heritages mostly by
the rice terraces and by oral accounts include Kiangan, Hungduan, Banaue and Mayoyao
with the so called Old Kiyyangan as the earliest settlement.
In the recent decades, migration and settlements by the Ifugao people is a common
phenomenon inside and outside the Ifugao province.
The Ifugao People

Accordingly, Ifugao is derived from the word “ipugo” which means people of the earth,
or mortals as distinguished from those of the other realms. Furthermore, it also means
‘people of the hill’ or mountain people. People of Ifugao like to be identified as Ifugaos or
‘immipugo’. They are among the groups, who at certain time/s did not like to be called
‘Igorots’. This is mainly due to the historical meaning of the term and also, by the aspiration
to be identified as people who have distinct culture as compared to the rest of the Cordillera.
The Ifugaos are grouped based on the language they speak. Dialects like the Tuwali and
Ayangan were also used to name the different ethno-linguistic groups.

Ethno-Linguistic Groups:
1. Tuwali
- spoken largely in the Western area including Kiangan, Lagawe, Hingyon,
Hungduan, and some parts of Banaue, Asipulo, and Lamut.
2. Ayangan
- spoken in the Eastern area including Mayoyao, Aguinaldo, Alfonso Lista, and some
parts of Banaue and Lamut.
3. Kalanguya
- Mostly spoken by the people in Tinoc and some parts of Asipulo

Lamut (western part) and Alfonso Lista (eastern part) are melting pots of all these
groups. There are also other minor groups, especially in these areas. These include Ilocanos
and Gaddangs, in Alfonso Lista. These two municipalities share common features, they are
adjacent to lowland provinces, Isabela for Alfonso Lista and Nueva Vizcaya for Lamut.

The Ifugaos, as an indigenous peoples’ group are not bound by geographical location.
Those who have migrated to other provinces, regions and even abroad have brought with
them their language and some cultural practices as Ifugaos.

Lesson 3: Education and Social Institutions

Social Institutions
Before Ifugao is organized into political and geographical groups similar to the rest of
the country, Ifugao societies are largely informal. Social structures were mostly developed
based on kinship. According to Dulawan (2001), the Ifugao kinship system comprised all
those related by consanguinity including the dead ancestors at least up to the fourth
generation ascending. This kinship system is of great importance to the Ifugaos which
underlies their social structure, land use, and rice production. This system, which warrants
the commitment and an obligation from each member, highlights its purpose; the survival,
and the sustenance of Ifugao families.
Like many societies, the nuclear family is the smallest social group consisting of the
couple (husband and wife) commonly called “himbale” and children. The clan is the larger
group and is mostly based on the kinship system as discussed earlier. This bigger social
group is divided into classes (Dulawan (2001), Acabado, 2017). Dulawan (2001) identified the
three classes which include: 1) kadangyan (wealthy), 2) the common tagu (children and
family of kadangyan who did not perform any of the prestige feasts), and 3) the nawotwot
(the poor). The distinctions are generally based on material possessions (rice fields, animal
holdings, etc.), prestige rituals performed, and role in the community. In certain groups,
clothing/apparel is also distinct for each of the classes. The nawotwot usually do not own
lands but either works as paid labors or land tillers (kumapya) for the wealthy.
Generally, wealth is measured by the volume and value of material possessions. But
to the Ifugaos, mere possessions of properties do not make one wealthy or kadangyan
(Dulawan (2001). He/she must perform the Ifugao customary prestige rites which include
the uyya-uy and/or the ultimate prestige rite, the hagabi. A person who performed the rites
are called immuyya-uy and/or himmagabi. The people belonging to the wealthy clan usually
dominate and control the political structure and even the rice production cycle. During
festivities and feast, everyone in the neighborhood and nearby communities are expected to
attend, wealthy or poor.
At present, like any other part of the country, Ifugao is structured in the same way.
However, through the law which creates NCIP, culture-based social structures are present
like the council of elders, who are often invited to be part of the local justice system. To learn
more about the social organizational structures of the Ifugaos in the past and present,
reading other comprehensive references is recommended as the concepts cannot be all
contained in this material.

Educational Institutions
Education in Ifugao before schools were established is informal and largely based on
oral tradition. Before the arrival of external influencers in the 1900s, learning is mainly done
at home and in other communal areas. Learning then is generally the passing of knowledge
and skills through oral mode and by observation. The oral tradition of transmitting
knowledge and skills is done in several ways. The role of skilled, elders, and other culture
bearers as mentors and teachers was imperative during this period. A mumbaki, an Ifugao
priest, is also tasked in training mumbaki aspirants. After deemed prepared by the mumbaki
trainer, an aspirant will be ordained into priesthood.
Learning areas especially for skills training, the apprenticeship system is used. For
the passing of oral traditions, the agamang, or community sleeping quarters play an
important role. This is usually a house of an old widow where girls/ young women, or
widower, for boys/ young men go to sleep at night. An agamang, according to (Dulawan, M.,
2005), is a community institution, and has been an institutional force in the transmission of
the oral heritages of the Ifugaos. With the losing relevance of the agamang in present times,
community gatherings, like wakes, weddings, among other ceremonial activities, are
platforms in the transmission of culture. Education institutions are also finding its role in
the preservation of culture – transmission of the Ifugao IKSP.

Lesson 4. Games, Oral Literature, Music, Sports and Dances

Ifugao Games

Indigenous games of the Ifugaos at present, are originally part of the practices having
cultural relevance and purpose. In the distant past, they were not performed as competitive
events for entertainment purposes but played a role in the cultural justice system. These
indigenous games are done to settle disputes, determine favored groups by deities, and
identify individuals for a specific task, among others. It is believed that winners of such
competitions, with the appropriate rites which are conducted before, are the wills of the
gods/deities.

At present, these games are being performed during cultural festivals and occasions
as a way of paying homage to the cultural identity and also for the generation to be educated
through practice the diminishing cultural practices.

Some examples of the cultural competitions which are commonly used to settle
disputes or to determine the favored groups in the past include but are not limited to the
following:
1. Akkad
 This game is played by two or more individuals/groups where they walk or run using
a pair of stilts or akkad. This akkad is made of wood with protruding branch or nailed wood
to step on. The first individual/group to finish the race wins.
2. Bangngunan
This is participated by men and to play the game, the players lie down in opposite
direction with their hips at the same level. At the signal of a referee, each tries to swing to
raise the opponent from the ground. The winner is the one who remains on the ground while
the one lifted from the ground loses.
3. Bultung (Wrestling)
The bultung is an indigenous wrestling match of the Ifugaos. To play, the wrestlers
holds the G-string and tries to pin the opponent. The following strategies can be employed by
a wrestler inorder to win: ballabag (dumping the opponent to the ground), pakkid (using leg
to hook the opponent’s leg), hidil (to impede leg movement to make the opponent
unbalanced), tagge (lifting of the opponent), guyud (pulling), tulud (pushing). The “Bultung”
or wrestling in the past is one way to settle disputes, especially those involving land disputes
such as boundaries. In most cases, the claim of the victorious party is deemed the true
boundary and the loser in the wrestling is also the loser in the dispute (Dulawan, 20021).
The ‘Hidit’, a rite that is usually performed to signify negotiations and settlements, is usually
performed to ensure that no ill feelings between the parties.
4. Guyyudan (tug-of-war)

The “Guyyudan” or tug-of-war is an indigenous game which has evolved. In the

distant past, guyyudan is played in cultural activities such as the ‘Punnuk’ ritual Among the
activities that culminate the “Punnuk” is the tug-of-war by the river. It was also played with
the use of a piece of wood where two players try to pull the bunch of wood and whoever is
dragged away from his original position is the loser. It has evolved and players nowadays use
a rope and it also became a competitive event during festivals.

5. Hanggul
Hanggul is usually played by males and this game determines the strongest in a
community. This could also be used in settling conflicts aside from bultung and others
depending on the agreement of both parties. To play the hanggul, the players rest their
hands on a flat area, preferably a table, and tangle their right hands while their left hands
are at their backs. The player who presses his opponent’s hand flat on the surface wins. The
player who lifts his elbow from the table will also lose.
6. Uggub
The ‘Uggub’ or throwing of darts (young runo shoots) is a trial by ordeal in cases of
theft. Representatives of the two parties are selected and will stand six to seven meters apart.
The accuser is the first to throw the uggub while the accused turns his back. If the accuser
hits the back of the accused, then it proves his accusation. If he fails, then his accusation is
false, and/or if the accuser is hit by the accused, then it further proves that the accusation
is false.

7. Hinnukting/Hukting-ngan
The Hukting-ngan as a game is based from cockfighting. Hukting in the Ifugao-Tuwali
language means ‘bump’. Hence, bumping is the common strategy being used to win in the
game. To play the game, firstly, the player must hold one of his legs and held steady by the
opposing arm while the other hand is steady and bent at the midriff area; secondly, the
player limps with his free leg and balances himself as he bumps towards his opponent/s
using the shoulders or forearm; thirdly, a player who loses his grip of his leg loses or is
disqualified.
Oral Literature
Ifugao has a rich oral literature heritage that has been passed down from generation
to generation. Manuel (2005) stated that is a progression in the development of the Ifugao
oral literature from its early beginning to its present types. Authorship to such literature are
also not identified. Accordingly, it is impossible to attribute authorship of any piece to one
particular person or group. The are identified 4 types of the Ifugao oral literature:
1) Narratives. This include folktales, legends, myths (bukad, hudhud).
2) Chant (Ritual and Non-ritual Chants). Ritual chants include the “Alim” and “Baltung”
while non-ritual chants include the hudhud, liwliwa/bonwe or ap-apnga.
3) Song. This usually include simple folk songs, ballads, palat
4) Rhyme. Although there is similarity as to types with western literature, there are
differences in terms of structure and manner of delivery or performance.
Some specific Ifugao oral literature pieces:
1. Hudhud
This includes long narrations depicting the lives and conquests of local heroes. They
also portray the life of early Ifugaos and their culture. This is evident in one of the oral
literature called “Hudhud”, which consists of narrative chants performed especially during
harvest and wakes (elderly persons who died a natural death). This Hudhud, an Ifugao oral
literature, is inscribed by UNESCO in 2008 as one of the World’s Intangible Cultural
Heritage of Humanity.

2. Alim
This is a ritual ballad that highlights the supposed achievements of a hero. This is not
as popular as the Hudhud since the Alim cannot be performed by anyone and for anybody.
This is only performed during prestige rituals and the death of a wealthy elder as they
remove precious items from his body.

5) Liwliwa
This is a jovial parody and mostly contains mutual criticism by males and females
who are chanting alternately. This usually happens during prestige feasts when people are
intoxicated by wine.

6) A-apo
These are usually short stories consisting of myths, folktales, legends, and fables for
entertainment and also in teaching the children cultural values.

Baltung

Music

Music also plays a huge part in the Ifugao ways of life. Their music is among the
constant in festivities, ceremonies, and other social gatherings in the communities. The
songs are generally chant-like storytelling which is commonly performed in groups on
occasion. In some songs, the community singing may also include solo parts. The
instruments which are usually used include gongs, wooden bars (bangibang), palipal (made
of bamboo), Ingngiing (nose flute), and dipdipu (leather drum).

Dances

The Ifugaos have a distinctive indigenous dance that features the eagle-like opening of
hands. The dance is usually accompanied by the beating of gongs. There are slight variations
in the dance steps among the three ethnolinguistic groups in Ifugao but share many
commonalities. There are types of Ifugao dances that are commonly based on geographical
origin and/or purpose. Identified dances are as follows (Ngohayon, 2011, Ifugao IK
Workbook):
 1. Dinnuy-a
This is usually performed by the Ifugao-Tuwali group in Kiangan, Lagawe, Hingyon,
Banaue, and Hungduan. The number of gong beaters may vary from 3-5. This is performed
during weddings, thanksgiving parties, and other social gatherings.

2. Futageh
This is widely danced by the Ayangan people who inhabit the Northeastern region of
Ifugao. This dance recognizes the equal role of men and women in the community.
Accordingly, this dance originated in the past as a victory dance in celebration of a
successful head-hunting expedition. Nowadays, it is mainly performed during special
occasions such as a wedding or other social gatherings.

3. Pagaddut
The Pagaddut is a wedding dance that originated in Kiangan, characterized by a faster
beat as compared to the dinnuy-a. This becomes a ceremonial dance when performed during
an Uya-uy ritual.

4. Tayaw
The tayaw dance is commonly performed by the Kalanguya people, especially during
festivals like “Keleng”. Accordingly, it is a natural dance based on a bid bird called
“Tuldo”.

UNIT 2: WORLDVIEW

Lesson 1. Cosmology, Values, Spirituality, Healings and Rituals

Cosmology, Values, Spirituality, Healing, and Rituals

The cosmic belief of the early Ifugaos is considered polytheistic. They believe in many
gods and goddesses. This covers the worship of nature and ancestors. There are more than a
thousand named gods/deities which are often called out during rituals, especially by the
“Mumbaki”. This belief system is strong, especially among the early Ifugaos, and permeates
even to this 21st century society (with a significantly lower hold on the people).
Among the early written references related to Ifugao cosmology is by Beyer and
Conklin (1911) who recorded accounts of the Ifugaos that the great deities reside in the Sky
World (Ad Daya) and the Upper World (Ad Kabunian). The minor deities inhabit other realms.
An Ifugao contemporary writer, Manuel Dulawan (2005) described the six realms of the
Ifugao cosmos. Four of the six realms are habitations of gods and deities. These are the
Kabunyan (skyworld), Dalom (Underworld), Daya or Pah-adan (Western World) and Lagud
(Eastern world), and Pugaw (earth world). The sixth is Kadungayan, the place where the
linnawa or souls of the dead go after being accorded the appropriate death rites.
Some of the recorded gods and deities by various authors and as described by Ifugao
elders, identified to be the most important ones are:
Amalgo - chief of the Sun gods
Ambulan - chief of the Moon gods
Manahaut - the Deceiver
Amkidul - Thunder god
Amkolyog - Earthquake god

The gods/deities are clustered following a hierarchy according to Dulawan (2001) and
may belong to any but not limited to the following categories:

1. Bagol - superior gods

 2. Maknongan - gods to whom the sacrifice is due and considered gods of reproduction
and controllers of man’s life
3. Matungulan - gods to be appeased
4. Nangga Idoh - evil gods
5. Halupe - charmer gods
6. Munkontad - charmer gods
7. Pipinading ya bibiyo - earth spirits who dwell in big trees, rivers, mountains, etc.

Values
The Ifugaos put premium on the moral values to which each of the people should
strive for. The word “maphod” among the tuwali-ethnic group is translated in English as
good. The following are the common phrases that are often heard from any “nanomnoman”,
meaning “wise” which is a characteristic of a respected and designated elder in the
community.
Maphod an a-at/ ni-attan good background
Maphod an pangat good deeds
Kiphodan common good/ general welfare
Maphod an kitaguwan honest living
There are also things and/or deeds that should be avoided and should not be done by
the people. These are termed as “paniyo” in the Ifugao-tuwali or taboo in English. which are
usually taught by the parents, elders or also enumerated by the community e word Paniyo
Rituals
Rituals are part of the cosmic beliefs of the early Ifugaos. The rites performed usually
cover the life cycle of man (including before birth and after death), health, politics, and
agriculture (Gonzales, 2009). The Baki is the Ifugao form of prayer and also the general term
for sacrificial rituals to the gods/deities and ancestors (Getting to Know the Ifugao). The
‘priests’ or mumbaki play very important roles in the Ifugao rituals. They are in charge of
identifying appropriate rites as well as their subsequent performance. Animals such as
carabaos, pics, chickens, and others specifically identified by a mumbaki are butchered.
Ritual paraphernalia is also present during rituals. These include but are not limited to
bulul, hukup, etc.
Rituals among the early Ifugaos range from simple to elaborate series of rites which
may take months. These are characterized by the constant butchering of animals and rituals
performed by the mumbaki. Some of the rituals involving the life cycle of man and rice
production are as follows:
1. Imbango/ moma - this is a betrothal ritual and may even start at infancy
2. Bubun/tanig - marriage ceremony
3. Uya-uy - elaborate marriage feasts for the kadangyans
4. Hagabi - a prestige rite and the most expensive, highest, and final display of
wealth. A himmagabi attained the highest social status and is entitled to respect
and privileges.
5. Burial rites – burial rites vary depending on the social status and/or cause of
death. The burial ritual for a kadangyan follows an elaborate series of rites. For a
murdered victim, an elaborate but unusually different ritual called the ‘munhim-
ong’ is performed. Beyer and Conklin (1911) documented the ritual at a time when
limited external influences have impacted cultural practices.
6. Punnuk – is an elaborate post-harvest ritual among the Hungduan people and is
inscribed by UNESCO in 2015 on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural
Heritage of Humanity. This is performed on the concluding days of the harvest
season and includes a series of activities culminating in the tug-of-war competition
at the river. Performance of ‘Baki’ is also part of the activities.
 Beliefs in superstitions and taboos are also strong among the early Ifugaos. Some of
the common superstitions include; the red or black bird omen, kilkilang, and sneezing
among others. Examples of taboos may include not eating fish with meat, not sleeping on the
roof by brothers, sisters, or cousins of opposite sexes, not eating fish or edible snails after
attending a wake, etc.
With the introduction of Christianity by missionaries in the past, the cosmic beliefs in
present-day Ifugao are highly diverse. The Ifugao people in terms of their cosmic belief can be
categorized as follows: those who adopted the totality of the new religion (e.g. Christianity),
those who hold onto the old Ifugao cosmic belief and would do nothing with the ‘Christian
beliefs and practices” and those who accept both or more (they go to church but still practice
rites dedicated to a deity/es). Cosmology at present is impacting the ways of life of the
people, and the Ifugao ‘culture’ in general. Christianity in Ifugao is among the top factors in
the rapid changes and reasons for the abandonment of indigenous knowledge systems and
practices. Christianity is monotheistic in nature with the belief in one God and most often
than not, believers regard other gods/goddesses as not belonging to the ‘good One’ but
rather of the other side.

UNIT 3. TECHNOLOGICAL
Lesson 1. Symbols and Textiles, Arts and Crafts
Symbols and Textiles:
One of the most fascinating crafts in the Philippines is handweaving textiles, which
has a huge cultural impact. The Ifugao people have a very old heritage of weaving. They
employ a number of symbols to create their distinctive textiles. These symbols are traditional
patterns handed down from predecessors. It is so ancient that every stage of the weaving
process, from cotton to cloth, has been deified. The Ifugaos weave bags, blankets, skirts,
loincloths, daily wear, and ceremonial clothing, such as clothing for the afterlife and gifts for
gods and dead ancestors (Martin et al., 2020 and Aguilar, 2019).
Arts and crafts:
Ifugao arts and crafts include a variety of a wide range of items, many of which are
used regularly. Among the examples are:

Hagabi of the Ifugao

Lingling-o/hubong/uvong
Ifugao Bulul

Lesson 2. Land and Biodiversity and Natural Resource Management

Land Use and Management
Following are some of the indigenous methods used by early Ifugaos to manage their
utilization of land and water (Ngohayon, S.(Ed).2021):
1. Numboblayan (village), payoh (pond fields), habal(swidden), muyung (forest), pa’laban
(pastureland) and punbakiyan (religious and ritual site).
 2. For mutual safety and assistance, the Ifugao live in communities known as "bobleh."
Ordinarily, residential areas are located in a predetermined place near pond fields, a
little away from the muyung, and on a raised area that is only a bit higher than the
river.
3. The Ifugao constructed payoh on the narrow plains and valleys along river banks.
Terracing for rice fields is done on mountainside.
4. When the soil is unsuitable for cultivating rice, it is converted into habal for root crops
to supplement human diets and feed livestock.
5. Ifugao land is used also for punbakiyan (religious ritual site) and pa'laban (pasture
land).
6. The significance of Muyung in the Ifugao ecosystem is embedded in the Ifugaos. It
holds water in reserve and releases it as needed. The main function of the water from
the creeks, streams and rivers is to water the rice terraces aside from the daily use in
households. With the direct connection between the forest and water production, the
Ifugaos see to it that the forests are sustained. The Ifugao realizes that there is
interconnectedness between the land and water and the depletion of one will lead to
consequences at his disadvantage. The sustainability of the communal and private
forests directly relates to the water production.
Indigenous Biodiversity Conservation Practices
Ifugao indigenous biodiversity conservation practices (Gonzales et al, 2021, p. 105).
1. Muyung System
2. Rice terraces forest coupled agroforestry (Payoh-pinugo/hayyukung/hino-ub system).
3. Multi-storey Agroforestry System

Lesson 3. Engineering and Architecture

Indigenous House
Another heritage showing the ingenuity of the Ifugaos is
their indigenous houses. The indigenous house shows the
ingenuity of the Ifugaos with its architectural design,
engineering principles and superb construction techniques
and methods that could made it last for generations. The
Ifugao native house is one of the most admired
architectural designs having employed an indigenous
system of construction that is more complex than its seeming simplicity (Ananayo, 2010). A
typical Ifugao house is typhoon resistant and is built entirely with natural materials. The
Ifugao traditional house is preserved as a tangible representation of indigenous cultural
heritage, and cultural practices associated with its building and use are upheld.
Other architectural landmarks
 Among the capabilities Ifugaos are known for is their skills in stone works. The stone
works observable in the Ifugao heritage are stone walls, retaining walls and stone tiles.
The IRT in itself and even the irrigation systems are evidence of the engineering
principles adopted by the people.

Unit 4. POLITICAL FEATURE

Lesson 1. Political Feature

Indigenous Governance and Laws
Ifugao people follow the teachings of their ancestors, known as tugun di a-am-mod,
and keep the paniyo in mind when interacting with their family and the community. To
uphold peace and order in the community,
Traditionally, there is no law based on judicial decisions since there is no formal
courts or judges. Accordingly, Ifugao law derives from two sources. The first is the paniyo or
taboo. Paniyo is the “evil way” or “bad way of doing”, which largely concerns the individual
and is based on “magic” (Barton, 1919 in NCCA, 2015). These taboos are ethical and
religious in nature and were occasionally created as superstitious beliefs; therefore, breaking
them may be the cause of some bad omens. The second is custom laws that embrace the
laws on property, individual rights, family laws, and penal laws. (Martin, M & et al, 2021, p.
185).
Administration of Justice
As mentioned, Ifugaos has prohibited acts and conduct of taboos or Paniyo related to
gender-family, religion-related, Property, Life and Financial, and personhood related.
The following are prohibited acts and conducts
Crimes and Penalties
a. Person related crimes
b. Property related crimes
c. Chastity related crimes
Settlement of crimes
a. Against persons
b. Life
c. Properties
d. Trial by OrdeaL