UNIT V.

HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION

5.1 HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

Introduction to Highway Construction

• Highway construction - a critical part of civil engineering.It involves the building of roads, bridges, tunnels,
and other infrastructure. Planning, design, and construction are essential.

Steps in Highway Construction

• Planning and designing the highway route.

• Clearing and grading the land to prepare for construction.
• Building the roadway, including the base, sub-base, and pavement layers.

Materials Used in Highway Construction

• Asphalt - the most common material used for highway construction.

• Concrete - also used for highways, but is more expensive than asphalt.
• Other materials: Gravel, Crushed Stone, and Sand.

Maintenance and Repair of Highways

• Identify and repair potholes and cracks in the road surface.

• Regularly inspect and maintain traffic signs and signals.
• Keep drainage systems clear to prevent water damage.

Major Structural Parts of the Roadway

• Subgrade - the upper layer of natural soil, which maybe the undisturbed local materials, or soil
excavated elsewhere placed as fill.
• Subbase - a structural layer, which accepts greater compressive stress than the subgrade and thus
reduces the deformation of the pavement under traffic loading.
• Base Course - the materials laid on top of the subbase consisting of crushed stone or gravel, sometimes mixed
with asphalt binders. Base reduces the vertical compressive stress induced by
traffic in the subbase course and the subgrade.
• Pavement - the material laid over the base course consisting of Asphalt Concrete or Portland Cement Concrete.

5.2 CONSTRUCTION OF ROAD BED

Road Bed - the bed on which the ties, rails, and ballast of a railroad rest. Preparations include activities like
clearing and grubbing, removal of obstruction, the formation of subgrade, embankment of subbase coarse aggregates and
base-coarse aggregates the spreading of this course and compaction.

Earthwork Terminology

• Embankment - earth fills below the pavement necessary to raise the road above flood levels.
• Borrow - suitable material from sources outside the roadway prism, used for embankments.
• Slope - the angle of constructed soil plane usually expressed in a proportion of length and depth.
• Fill - the average depth of embankment material needed to be placed on top of the natural ground
at any designated location along the roadway to satisfy the designed grade.
• Cut - the average depth needed in excavating the natural found at a specific location along the
road traverse to satisfy the designed grade.
• Excavation - removing earth from its original position in a cut and transporting it to fill or to
waste deposit.
• Compaction - the pressing of soil particles to expel air from the mass and filling the voids to make the material
denser. The factors influencing the amount of compaction obtainable are
material gradation, soil shape, moisture content, and amount of compaction effort.
• Soil Stabilization - a tool for economic road building, material conservation, investment
protection, and roadway upgrading.
• Selected Borrow - suitable native material obtained from roadway cuts or borrow areas or other similar material
used for subbase, roadbed material, shoulder surfacing slope cover, or other
specific purposes.
• Leveling Course - The layer of material placed on an existing surface to eliminate irregularities before placing an
overlaying course.
Clearing and Grubbing - means removing and disposing of all surface objects including vegetation, trees, and other protruding
objects not designated to remain along the roadway.

Specification for clearing and grubbing provides that:

• Removal of undisturbed stumps and roots and nonperishable solid objects with a minimum depth of one (1) meter
below subgrade or slope of the embankment will not be required.
• In areas outside of the grading limits of cut and embankment areas, stumps and nonperishable solid objects shall
be cutoff not more than 150 mm (6 inches) above the ground line or low water level.
• In areas to be rounded at the top of cut slopes, stumps shall be cut off flush with or below the surface of the final
slope line.
• Grubbing of pits, channel changes, and ditches will be required only to the depth necessitated by the proposed
excavation within such areas.
Removal of Existing Obstructions - Typical Obstructions Are:
• Existing pavements
• Existing drainage structures
• Underground waterline
• Electrical post and lines
• Cable and telephone lines
• Residential houses and buildings
• Fences
Formation of Subgrade - Informing the road subgrade, excess suitable material located along the upper part of the designed
road profile is excavated and taken as fill to low lying areas along the road traverse. Roads in rolling hills are often engineered
to balance the cuts and fills so that all the material cut out in

The two components in forming the subgrade are:

• Roadway Excavation - the process of loosening and removing earth from its original position and transporting the same
for fill or to a waste deposit.
o Common Excavation - Involves excavation of common materials used as embankment fill which results from
excavation along the road traverse.
o Unsuitable Excavation - Is the removal and disposal of saturated or unsaturated mixtures
of soils and organic matter not suitable for foundation materials.
o Rock Excavation - Consists of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks which cannot be excavated
without blasting or the use of rippers
o Unclassified Excavation - Excavation and disposal of materials regardless of its nature, this
excavation is not classified nor included in the bill of quantities under other pay items.
o Surplus Excavation - Are suitable materials excavated along the road traverse which are
disposed of as excess in the formation of embankment subgrade.
• Embankment Fill - suitable materials which can be common or rock which is brought and compacted together
to a specified degree to form a stable embankment to bring the road to the desired grade or to elevate it above flood
level. Sand and gravel are most desirable as embankment fill when mixed with enough clay or silt to bind them
together.
o Unsuitable Material
. Materials containing detrimental quantities of organic materials, such as grass, roots, and
sewerage.
. Organic soils such as peat and muck.
. Soils with a liquid limit exceeding 80 and/or plasticity index exceeding 55.
. Soils with a natural water content exceeding 100%.
. Soils with very low natural density, 800 kg/m3, or lower.
. Soils that cannot be properly compacted as determined by the Engineer.

• Pre-Watering - Excavation areas and borrow pits maybe pre-watered before excavation. When pre-watering is
adopted, the areas to be excavated shall be moistened to the full depth from the
surface to the bottom of the excavation.
• Pre-Splitting - adrilling and blasting procedure that maybe employed to control over the break and to give a
uniform face to the back slope or rock cuts.
1. Drilling holes at uniform intervals along the slope line.
2. Loading and stemming the holes with appropriate explosives and stemming materials.
3. Detonating the holes simultaneously.
Quarrying and Hauling - Fill maybe obtained by quarrying with a bulldozer from borrow pits opened just to obtain the fill
and loading/hauling the same using a loader and dump trucks.

• Free Haul Distance - the specified distance wherein an excavated material will be hauled without
additional cost.
• Overhaul - an authorized hauling over the free haul distance.

Spreading and Compaction of Embankment

A Stable Embankment - attained by spreading the materials into a thin layer then compacted at moisture content close to
optimum.

The AASHTO-ARBA Joint Committee on Compaction of Earthwork proposed the following amendment to the original
AASHTO density requirements to wit:

1. Granular aggregates or those with an only slight degree of plasticity should be compacted to 95%- 100%
2. Fine-grained aggregate possessing a low degree of plasticity is compacted to approximately 100% at a moisture content
near laboratory optimum.
3. Densities for aggregates possessing moderate to high plasticity should not be so high as to lead to subsequent swelling.
Compacting procedures should not exceed the aggregate shear strength.
4. Clay soil should not be over compacted beyond about 90% to avoid post- construction swelling.

5.3 SUB BASE

• Stabilizing Layer - the Sub-base and the base course are known to be the stabilizing layers.
• Aggregate Sub Base Course - the ones placed over the subgrade.
• Aggregate Sub Base Course material requirement

Aggregate for subbase shall consist of hard, durable particles or fragments of crushed stone, crushed slag, or
crushed or natural graveland filler of natural or crushed sand or other finely divided mineral matter. The composite material shall
be free from vegetable matter and lumps or balls of clay and shall be of such nature that it can be compacted readily to form a
firm, stable subbase. According to the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) Blue Book, the grading
requirement for the sub-base course is presented in the table below

The fraction passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve shall not be greater than 0.66 (two thirds) of the fraction passing
the 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve.

The fraction passing the 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve shall have a liquid limit not greater than 35 and a plasticity index
not greater than 12 as determined by AASHTO T 89 and T 90,respectively.

The coarse portion, retained on a 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve, shall have a mass percent of wear not exceeding 50 by
the Los Angeles Abrasion Tests as determined by AASHTO T 96.

The material shall have a soaked CBR value of not less than 25% as determined by AASHTO T 193. The CBR
value shall be obtained at the maximum dry density and determined by AASHTO T 180, Method D.

Placing of Aggregate Sub Base Course

The aggregate subbase material shall be placed at a uniform mixture on a prepared subgrade in a quantity that will
provide the required compacted thickness. When more than one layer is required, each layer shall be shaped and compacted
before the succeeding layer is placed. The placing of material shall begin at the point designated by the Engineer.

Placing shall be from vehicles specially equipped to distribute the material in a continuous uniform layer or windrow.
The layer or windrow shall be of such size that when spread and compacted the finished layer be in reasonably close conformity
to the nominal thickness shown on the Plans. When hauling is done over previously placed material, hauling equipment shall be
dispersed uniformly over the entire surface of the previously constructed layer, to minimize rutting or uneven compaction
Spreading and compacting of Aggregate Sub Base Course

When uniformly mixed, the mixture shall be spread to the planned thickness, for compaction. Where the required
thickness is 150 mm or less, the material maybe spread and compacted in one layer.

Where the required thickness is more than 150 mm, the aggregate subbase shall be spread and compacted in two
or more layers of approximately equal thickness, and the maximum compacted thickness of any layer shall not exceed 150 mm.
All subsequent layers shall be spread and compacted similarly.

The moisture content of subbase material shall, if necessary, be adjusted before compaction by watering with
approved sprinklers mounted on trucks or by drying out, as required to obtain the required compaction.

Immediately following final spreading and smoothening, each layer shall be compacted to the full width using
approved compaction equipment. Rolling shall progress gradually from the sides to the center, parallel to the centerline of the
road, and shall continue until the whole surface has been rolled. Any irregularities or depressions that develop shall be
corrected by loosening the material at these places and adding or removing material until the surface is smooth and uniform.
Along curbs, headers, and walls, and at all places not accessible to the roller, the subbase material shall be compacted thoroughly
with approved tampers or compactors.

Compaction of each layershall continue until a field density of atleast 100 percent of the maximum dry density
determined by AASHTO T 180, Method D has been achieved. In-place density determination shall be made by AASHTO T
191.

Tolerances in the Aggregate Sub Base Course

The aggregate subbase shall be spread with equipment that will provide a uniform layer which when compacted
will conform to the designed level and transverse slopes as shown on the Plans. The allowable tolerances shall be as
specified hereunder which is according to Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH Bluebook)

5.4 BASE COURSE

Two Types of Base Course

• The granular base course or the untreated soil mixture

• Treated base course

Aggregate Base Course material requirement

The Aggregate Base Course are the ones placed over the subbase layer, Aggregate for a base course shall consist of
hard, durable particles or fragments of crushed stone, crushed slag, or crushed or natural gravel, and filler of natural or crushed
sand or other finely divided mineral matter. The composite material shall be free from vegetable matter and lumps or balls of
clay and shall be of such nature that it can be compacted readily to form a firm, stable base.
According to the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) Blue Book, the grading requirement for the
base course is presented in the table below

The fraction passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve shall not be greater than 0.66 (two thirds) of the fraction passing the
0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve. The fraction passing the 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve shall have a liquid limit not greater than 25 and
plasticity index not greater than 6 as determined by AASHTO T 89 and T 90,respectively.

The coarse portion, retained on a 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve shall have a mass percent of wear not exceeding 50 by the
Los Angeles Abrasion test determined by AASHTO T 96. The material passing the 19 mm (3/4 inch) sieve shall have a soaked
CBR value of not less than 80% as determined by AASHTO T 193. The CBR value shall be obtained at the maximum dry
density (MDD) as determined by AASHTO T 180, Method D.

Placing, Spreading and Compacting of Aggregate Base Course - the same as Aggregate Sub Base Coarse.

Tolerances in the Aggregate Base Course

The aggregate base course shall be laid to the designed level and transverse slopes shown on the Plans. The
allowable tolerances shall be following the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH Bluebook)

Treated Base Course

To stabilize the base course, it is sometimes treated with either Asphalt, Lime, Portland cement, or other materials as
binders mixed with the aggregate base course.

The treated base course is adopted if in the study or analysis of the highway agency, a better road can be produced at
a minimal overall cost or when a politician orders the highway office to construct the road with or without study because it was
a commitment during the campaign period. Asphalt or bituminous treatment is employed to waterproof and bind the granular
aggregate to the sand and clay. Thus, the primary function of the asphalt in a treated aggregate is waterproofing. Asphalt treated
base allows a thinner overall depth of the pavement.

Importance of Base and Subbase Course

• In concrete pavement, the subbase and base courses spread the load over the foundation.
• In asphalt pavement, the base and subbase courses serve to provide the structural capacity to bituminous concrete
slabs.
• Aside from being stabilizing layers, it also serves for draining purposes.

Difference between the Two Stabilizing Layer

The difference between these two stabilizing layers is the balance of economy and mechanics. The aggregate sub-base
course is made of materials with a relatively lower load-bearing capacity while the aggregate base course is made of high-
quality material with a higher load-bearing capacity.

The sub-base course generally made of locally available economical materials of a modified CBR value of 20 or
more. The plasticity index (PI) of the fraction of the Aggregate Sub Base Course material passing the 425µm sieve is not
greater than 6, with maximum particle size under 50mm.

The ability to distribute the load is primarily a function of the depth of the aggregate base course although the
quality of materials also affects the rate of load distribution to a certain extent. While distributing the load, the aggregate
base course itself, must not be a cause of failure thus, it must be strong enough to carry the load without shear failure and
resultant rutting.

To ensure that its strength is maintained, the aggregate base course must allow water drainage to the sides of the
pavement structure. Water enters the base through cracks and joints in the surface layer, by infiltration or from groundwater
sources.

• Surface - composed of either asphalt or concrete, and provides a smooth driving surface for traffic.
• Base - composed of aggregate, asphalt, stabilized materials, or a combination.
• Sub-base - composed of cement/lime-treated stabilized layer or not plastic material.
• Subgrade - composed of natural or select compacted soil and provides astable foundation.
Pavement - Being the uppermost component of the roadway, it should provide a long-lasting, smooth, clean surface and
should spread the load sufficiently so that the base material can support them. It protects the base against damage by traffic and
weather.

The two types of pavement are

• Rigid Pavement
• Flexible Pavement

5.5 RIGID PAVEMENT

• Rigid pavement - a type of concrete pavement that is designed to provide durability, has a long lifespan, and has the
ability to withstand heavy loads. It is commonly used for high-traffic roads, airports, and industrial areas, where the
pavement needs to be able to handle a lot of wear and tear.

The construction of rigid pavement typically involves pouring concrete slabs on top of a subgrade and base layer. The slabs
are usually reinforced with steel or other materials to improve their strength and joints are used to allow for expansion and
contraction due to changes in temperature.

Concrete pavement can be classified into four types:

• Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP) - uses contraction joints to control cracking and does not
use any reinforcing steel.
• Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP) - uses contraction joints and reinforcing steel to
control cracking.
• Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP) - type of concrete pavement that does not require any
transverse contraction joints. CRCP is designed with enough embedded reinforcing
steel so that cracks are held together tightly.
• Prestressed Concrete Pavement (PCP) - designed and produced to be prestressed to bear tensile forces caused by
external loads by various live objects such as vehicles on the roads or aircraft in the airports.

Rigid Pavement (PCCP) terminology

• Workability - how easily freshly mixed concrete can be mixed, placed, consolidated, and finished
with minimal loss of homogeneity.
• Consistency - Consistency is the relative mobility or ability of freshly mixed concrete to flow. It
includes the entire range of fluidity from the driest to the wettest possible mixtures.
• Water-Cement Ratio - describes the compressive strength of the concrete mix.
• Admixture - are substances other than aggregates water and Portland cement that can be added to
concrete to improve its properties and fulfill other special purposes.
• Curing Cement - is the treatment or protection applied to concrete during the hardening period to protect against early
shrinkage due to loss of moisture or abrupt changes in temperature.

Types of Joints in PCCP

• Construction Joint - occurs wherever concreting is stopped or delayed and hardened or constructed
when there is an interruption of more than 30 minutes in the concreting operation.
• Contraction Joint - is a sawed transverse joint normally placed every 18 ft to control cracking due
to pavement contraction caused by shrinkage and temperature fluctuations.
• Longitudinal Joint - used for joining lanes paved in separate passes. Tie bars are typically used with longitudinal
construction joints to make sure the joint remains tight and the lanes do not begin to
separate.
• Expansion Joint - are placed in concrete to prevent expansive cracks formed due to temperature change. Dowel bars
are used in expansion joints.

Types of Re-bar Used in PCCP Joints

• Dowel Bars - load transfer devices in joints to transfer wheel loads from one slab to another. Dowels are plain
round steel bars generally coated with a thin film of bitumen to protect them
against corrosion and to facilitate sliding in concrete.
• Tie Bars - deformed bars used in construction and longitudinal joints together with keys to tie two slabs. They are
designed to prevent lane separation and differential deflection and reduces
transverse cracks by holding the faces of abutting slabs in contact.
Construction Methodology

• Setting of Forms - Forms should be made of steel of an approved section and depth equal to the thickness of the
pavement. It is a temporary structure that supports its own weight and the freshly
placed concrete, as well as construction live loads including materials, equipment, and workers.
• Batching of Concrete - Concrete Batching Plant is necessary to provide a smooth flow of continuous supply
and transport of materials to the work. The process of measuring and combining
the ingredients required for the production of concrete in predetermined proportions.
• Concrete Pouring - Concrete is arguably the most important material used in a construction project.
• Use of Concrete Vibrator - When pouring concrete, it might have hundreds or even thousands of
air bubbles. Concrete vibrators eliminate air bubbles by vigorously shaking the poured concrete.
• Screeding - A screederis used to grade concrete in such a manner as to prevent segregation or in simple words,
Screeding refers to any action of smoothing out a pliable material. The screed is
moved forward on top of the forms with combined longitudinal and transversal shearing motion.
• Concrete Finishing
o Floating - After the concrete has been knocked off and solidified, it is strengthened. A longitudinal float
was used to smooth things out. A float is used after the surface has been
made level using a screed.
o Brooming - Broom Finish concrete is concrete finished by dragging a horsehair broom, or something similar,
over its wet surface. Brushing the concrete makes for a textured surface
with small, but noticeable grooves.
• Concrete Curing - required for drying to occur in order for the concrete to solidify appropriately
and avoid rapid moisture loss throughout the curing time.
o Burlap or Cotton Mats - spread over the surface.
o Waterproof Paper or Polyethylene Sheets - placed over the slab to retain the moisture.
o Curing Compound - the most popular method which involves the spray application of
light-colored fluid to the entire area of the wet concrete.
• Removal of Forms and Concrete Cutting
o Crowbars - used to remove forms and takeout nails and pins.
o Concrete Sawing - done within 24 hours after concrete pouring water using cooled diamond
edge saw blade.
• Pavement Protection
o Against Rain - required to have available materials for protection or covering materials
such as cotton mats, curing paper, or plastic sheeting materials.
o Against Traffic- Concrete pavement should be safe from oncoming cars. This entails deploying a
watchman to control traffic, as well as posting and maintaining warning signs,
lights, pavement bridges, and crossings.
• Sealing of Joints - Before the pavement is opened to traffic, joints should be sealed. Each joint should be clean and
dry when the seal is applied.

5.6 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Asphalt Concrete Pavement is also called flexible pavement implying its ability to absorb stresses imposed by traffic
and weather without cracking. It is made of mineral aggregate mixed with asphalt laid at a high temperature of about 275 to
300-degree F. The thickness of compacted asphalt concrete pavement varies from 0.05 meter for a lightly traveled road to 0.15
meter or more for roads where traffic is considered heavy.

Prime Coat

• An application of thin bituminous material to a porous base before putting on a surface course.
• It serves to stabilize the base and bind it to the paving material.
• It also serves to plug the capillary voids in the pavement to stop the upward movement of moisture and to
improve the adhesion between the base and the surface course.

Tack Coat

• It ensures the adhesion of the surface course to the binder course.

• Before applying a tack coat, the surface must be swept or flushed. The rate of application of either the rapid curing
cutback or the emulsified asphalt is within the range of 0.2 to 0.7 liter per sq.m.
• The tack coat is sprayed in advance on the surface course to permit it to dry into a tacky condition.
Binder Course

• It is a bituminous layer below the surface or wearing course.

• The mix is designed primarily for stability as it is not exposed to weather and traffic.
• Its aggregates are almost always larger than that of the wearing course.

Wearing Course

• It is the climax of the whole operation.

• The only part apparent to those who use the highway.
• It should be smooth yet skid-resistant, quiet, in contact with tires, cohesive, and durable enough to resist traffic
stresses and sufficiently impermeable to water and air to resist weathering.

Rigid Pavement by Olders Theory

a. Without dowel or Tie bars

t =

b. With Dowel or Tie bars

i. At the edge of the pavement

t =

ii. At the center of the pavement

t =

Where t = thickness of pavement at the edge and center pavement

W = wheel load in lb. or kg
f = allowable tensile stress of concrete in psi or kg/cm2

Flexible Pavement

t = 0.564 −T

Where t = thickness of pavement at the edge and center pavement

W = wheel load, kN or lb
f = allowable tensile stress of concrete in MPa or Psi
r = equivalent radius of the contact area of the tire