DEFINITION AND DETAILS OF FLANGES FLANGES GENERAL A flange is a method of connecting pipes, valves, pumps and other equipment

to form a piping system. It also provides easy access for cleaning, inspection or modification. Flanges are usually welded or screwed. Flanged joints are made by bolting together two flanges with a gasket between them to provide a seal. Pipe flanges are manufactured in all the different materials. Some flanges are made of cast and ductile iron, but the most used material is forged carbon steel and have machined surfaces. TYPES OF FLANGES The most used flange types in Petro and chemical industry are:

Welding Neck Flange Slip On Flange Socket Weld Flange Lap Joint Flange Threaded Flange Blind Flange

All types except the Lap Joint flange are provided with a raised flange face.

SPECIAL FLANGES Except the flanges, which are mentioned above, there are still a number of special flanges such as:

Orifice Flanges Spectacle Blinds (part of flange connection) Spades and Ring Spacers (part of flange connection) Long Welding Neck Flanges Weldoflange / Nipoflange Expander Flange Reducing Flange

MATERIALS FOR FLANGES The most common materials used in flanges produced is carbon steel, stainless steel, cast iron, aluminium, brass, bronze, plastic et cetera. In addition, flanges, like fittings and pipes, for specific purposes sometimes internally equipped with layers of materials of a completely different quality as the flanges themselves, which are "lined flanges". The material of a flange, is basically set during the choice of the pipe, in most cases, a flange is of the same material as the pipe.

All flanges, discussed on this website fall under the ASME en ASTM standards, unless otherwise indicated. ASME B16.5 describes dimensions, dimensional tolerances et cetera and ASTM the different material qualities. EXAMPLE OF WELDING NECK FLANGE 6"-150#-S40 Each flange according to ASME B16.5 has a number of standard dimensions. If a draftsman in Japan or the work preparer in Canada or a pipefitter in Australia is speaking about a Welding Neck flange 6"-150#-S40 according to ASME B16.5, then it goes over the flange which in the image here below is shown.

If the flange is ordered, the supplier want to know the material quality. For example ASTM A105 is a forged carbon steel flange, while A182 is a forged stainless steel flange. So, in a correct order to a supplier two Welding Neck flange 6"-150#-S40-ASME B16.5 / ASTM A105. PRESSURE CLASS The Pressure Class or Rating for flanges will be given in pounds. Different names are used to indicate a Pressure Class. For example: 150 Lb or 150 Lbs or 150# or Class 150, all are means the same. Forged steel flanges are made in seven primary ratings: 150Lbs - 300Lbs - 400Lbs - 600Lbs - 900Lbs - 1500Lbs - 2500Lbs The concept of flange ratings likes clearly. A Class 300 flange can handle more pressure than a Class 150 flange, because a Class 300 flange are constructed with more metal and can withstand more pressure. However, there are a number of factors that can impact the pressure capability of a flange. EXAMPLE Flanges can withstand different pressures at different temperatures. As temperature increases, the pressure rating of the flange decreases. For example, a Class 150 flange is rated to approximately 270 PSIG at ambient conditions, 180 PSIG at approximately 400F, 150 PSIG at approximately 600F, and 75 PSIG at approximately 800F. In other words, when the pressure goes down, the temperature goes up and vice versa. Additional factors are that flanges can be constructed from different materials, such as stainless steel, cast and ductile iron, carbon steel et cetera. Each material have different pressure ratings. standards must be specified:

PRESSURE-TEMPERATURE RATINGS Pressure-temperature ratings are maximum allowable working gage pressures in bar units at the temperatures in degrees celsius. For intermediate temperatures, linear interpolation is permitted. Interpolation between class designations is not permitted. Pressure-temperature ratings apply to flanged joints that conform to the limitations on bolting and on gaskets, which are made up in accordance with good practice for alignment and assembly. Use of these ratings for flanged joints not conforming to these limitations is the responsibility of the user. The temperature shown for a corresponding pressure rating is the temperature of the pressure-containing shell of the component. In general, this temperature is the same as that of the contained fluid. Use of a pressure rating corresponding to a temperature other than that of the contained fluid is the responsibility of the user, subject to the requirements of applicable codes and regulations. For any temperature below -29C, the rating shall be no greater than the rating shown for -29C. As an example, below you will find two tables with material groups acc. to ASTM, and two other tables with flange pressure-temperature ratings for those ASTM materials acc. to ASME B16.5.

ASTM Group 2-1.1 Materials Nominal Forgings Castings Designation C-Si C-Mn-Si C-Mn-Si-V 3Ni NOTES:

Plates

ASTM Group 2-2.3 Materials Nominal Forgings Castings Designation 16Cr-12Ni- A182 2Mo Gr.F316L 18Cr-13Ni- A182 3Mo Gr.F317L 18Cr-8Ni -

Plates A240 Gr.316L A240 Gr.304L(1)

A105(1) A350 Gr.LF2(1)

A216 A515 Gr.WCB(1) Gr.70(1) A516 Gr.70(1),(2) A537 Cl.1(4) -

A350 Gr.LF6Cl 1(3) A350 Gr.LF3 -

A182 Gr.F304L(1)

(1) Upon prolonged exposure to temperatures above 425C, the carbide phase of steel may be converted to graphite. Permissible but not recommended for prolonged use above 425C. (2) Do not use over 455C. (3) Do not use over 260C. NOTE: (4) Do not use over 370C.

(1) Do not use over 425C.

Pressure-Temperature Ratings for ASTM Group 2-1.1 Materials Working pressures by classes, BAR Temp.C 150 300 400 600 900 1500 2500 -29 to 38 19.6 51.1 68.1 102.1 153.2 255.3 425.5 50 19.2 50.1 66.8 100.2 150.4 250.6 417.7 100 17.7 46.6 62.1 93.2 139.8 233 388.3 150 15.8 45.1 60.1 90.2 135.2 225.4 375.6 200 13.8 43.8 58.4 87.6 131.4 219 365 250 12.1 41.9 55.9 83.9 125.8 209.7 349.5 300 10.2 39.8 53.1 79.6 119.5 199.1 331.8 325 9.3 38.7 51.6 77.4 116.1 193.6 322.6 350 8.4 37.6 50.1 75.1 112.7 187.8 313 375 7.4 36.4 48.5 72.7 109.1 181.8 303.1 400 6.5 34.7 46.3 69.4 104.2 173.6 289.3 425 5.5 28.8 38.4 57.5 86.3 143.8 239.7 450 4.6 23 30.7 46 69 115 191.7 475 3.7 17.4 23.2 34.9 52.3 87.2 145.3 500 2.8 11.8 15.7 23.5 35.3 58.8 97.9 538 1.4 5.9 7.9 11.8 17.7 29.5 49.2 Pressure-Temperature Ratings for ASTM Group 2-2.3 Materials Working pressures by classes, BAR Temp.C 150 300 400 600 900 1500 2500 -29 to 38 15.9 41.4 55.2 82.7 124.1 206.8 344.7 50 15.3 40 53.4 80 120.1 200.1 333.5 100 13.3 34.8 46.4 69.6 104.4 173.9 289.9 150 12 31.4 41.9 62.8 94.2 157 261.6 200 11.2 29.2 38.9 58.3 87.5 145.8 243 250 10.5 27.5 36.6 54.9 82.4 137.3 228.9 300 10 26.1 34.8 52.1 78.2 130.3 217.2 325 9.3 25.5 34 51 76.4 127.4 212.3 350 8.4 25.1 33.4 50.1 75.2 125.4 208.9 375 7.4 24.8 33 49.5 74.3 123.8 206.3 400 6.5 24.3 32.4 48.6 72.9 121.5 202.5 425 5.5 23.9 31.8 47.7 71.6 119.3 198.8 450 4.6 23.4 31.2 46.8 70.2 117.1 195.1

DEFINITION AND DETAILS OF FLANGES FLANGE TYPES As already before described, the most used flange types acc. to ASME B16.5 are: Welding Neck, Slip On, Socket Weld, Lap Joint, Threaded and Blind flange. Here below you will find a short description and definition of each type, completed with an detailed image. WELDING NECK FLANGE Welding Neck Flanges are easy to recognize at the long tapered hub, that goes gradually over to the wall thickness from a pipe or fitting. The long tapered hub provides an important reinforcement for use in several applications involving high pressure, sub-zero and / or elevated temperatures. The smooth transition from flange thickness to pipe or

fitting wall thickness effected by the taper is extremely beneficial, under conditions of repeated bending, caused by line expansion or other variable forces. These flanges are bored to match the inside diameter of the mating pipe or fitting so there will be no restriction of product flow. This prevents turbulence at the joint and reduces erosion. They also provide excellent stress distribution through the tapered hub and are easily radiographed for flaw detection. This flange type will be welded to a pipe or fitting with a single full penetration, V weld (Buttweld). Image of details Welding Neck flange.

1. Welder neck flange 2.Butt weld 3.pipe or fitting SLIP On FLANGE The calculated strength from a Slip On flange under internal pressure is of the order of two-thirds that of welding neck flanges, and their life under fatigue is about one-third that of the latter. The connection with the pipe is done with 2 fillet welds, as well at the outside as also at the inside of the flange. The X measure on the image, are approximately: Wall thickness of pipe + 3 mm. This space is necessary, to do not damage the flange face, during the welding process. A disadvantage of the flange is, that principle always firstly a pipe must be welded and then just a fitting. A combination of flange and elbow or flange and tee is not possible, because named fittings have not a straight end, that complete slid in the Slip On flange. Image of details Slip On flange.

1. Slip On flange 2. Filled weld outside 3. Filled weld inside 4. Pipe

Socket Weld FLANGE Socket Weld flanges were initially developed for use on small-size high pressure piping. Their static strength is equal to Slip On flanges, but their fatigue strength 50% greater than double-welded Slip On flanges. The connection with the pipe is done with 1 fillet weld, at the outside of the flange. But before welding, a space must be created between flange or fitting and pipe. ASME B31.1 1998 127.3 Preparation for Welding (E) Socket Weld Assembly says: In assembly of the joint before welding, the pipe or tube shall be inserted into the socket to the maximum depth and then withdrawn approximately 1/16" (1.6 mm) away from contact between the end of the pipe and the shoulder of the socket. The purpose for the bottoming clearance in a socket weld is usually to reduce the residual stress at the root of the weld that could occur during solidification of the weld metal. The image shows you the X measure for the expansion gap. The disadvantage of this flange is right the gap, that must be made. By corrosive products, and mainly in stainless steel pipe systems, the crack between pipe and flange can give corrosion problems. In some processes this flange is also not allowed. I am not an expert in this matter, but on the internet, you will find a lot of information about forms of corrosion. Also for this flange counts, that principle always firstly a pipe must be welded and then just a fitting. Image of details Socket Weld Flange.

1. Socket weld flange 2. Filled weld 3. Pipe X = Expansion gap

Lap Joint FLANGE Lap Joint Flanges have all the same common dimensions as any other flange named on this page however it does not have a raised face, they used in conjunction with a "Lap Joint Stub End". These flanges are nearly identical to a Slip On flange with the exception of a radius at the intersection of the flange face and the bore to accommodate the flanged portion of the stub end. Their pressure-holding ability is little, if any, better than that of Slip On flanges and the fatigue life for the assembly is only one tenth that of welding neck flanges. They may be used at all pressures and are available in a full size range. These flanges slip over the pipe, and are not welded or otherwise fastened to it. Bolting pressure is transmitted to the gasket by the pressure of the flange against the back of the pipe lap (Stub End).

Lap Joint flanges have certain special advantages:

Freedom to swivel around the pipe facilitates the lining up of opposing flange bolt holes. Lack of contact with the fluid in the pipe often permits the use of inexpensive carbon steel flanges with corrosion resistant pipe. In systems which erode or corrode quickly, the flanges may be salvaged for re-use.

Image of details Lap Joint Flange.

1. Lap Joint flange 2. Stubend 3. Butt weld 4. Pipe or Fitting Stub End A Stub End always will be used with a Lap Joint flange, as a backing flange. This flange connections are applied, in low-pressure and non critical applications, and is a cheap method of flanging. In a stainless steel pipe system, for example, a carbon steel flange can be applied, because they are not come in contact with the product in the pipe. Stub Ends are available in almost all pipe diameters. Dimensions and dimensional tolerances are defined in the ASME B.16.9 standard. Light-weight corrosion resistant Stub Ends (fittings) are defined in MSS SP43. Image of Stub End with Lap Joint Flange.

THREADED FLANGE Threaded Flanges are used for special circumstances with their main advantage being that they can be attached to the pipe without welding. Sometimes a seal weld is also used in conjunction with the threaded connection. Although still available in most sizes and pressure ratings, screwed fittings today are used almost exclusively in smaller pipe sizes.

A threaded flange or fitting is not suitable for a pipe system with thin wall thickness, because cutting thread on a pipe is not possible. Thus, thicker wall thickness must be chosen...what is thicker ? ASME B31.3 Piping Guide says: Where steel pipe is threaded and used for steam service above 250 psi or for water service above 100 psi with water temperatures above 220 F, the pipe shall be seamless and have a thickness at least equal to schedule 80 of ASME B36.10. Image of details Threaded flange.

BLIND FLANGE Blind Flanges are manufactured without a bore and used to blank off the ends of piping, valves and pressure vessel openings. From the standpoint of internal pressure and bolt loading, blind flanges, particularly in the larger sizes, are the most highly stressed flange types. However, most of these stresses are bending types near the center, and since there is no standard inside diameter, these flanges are suitable for higher pressure temperature applications. Image of details Blind flange.

1. Blind flange 2. Stud Bolt 3. Gasket 4. Other flange BOLT HOLES FOR FLANGES Just as already circumscribed, ASME B16.5 is also de standard for the number and the diameter of the bolt holes in a flange. The numbers and diameters diverge per Pressure Class, but is for every typ of flange in a specific Pressure Class the same. The bolt holes are be similar divided over the diameter of the bolt circle, and the number is always an even number (4, 8, 12, 16 et cetera).

BOLT HOLE ORIENTATION During the prefab of a flange to for example a elbow, the position of the bolt holes are of particular importance. Maybe you have ever seen the following on a drawing: All flange bolt holes straddle the centerlines That means: 1. For a vertical flange face (the flange face in the vertical and the line is horizontal) the bolt holes want to be orientated to straddle the vertical and horizontal centerlines. Image of correct vertical position. Image of incorrect vertical position.

For a horizontal flange face (the flange face is horizontal and the line is vertical above or vertical down) the bolt holes want to be orientated to straddle the Plant North centerlines. See below on this page, a image of a plant north situation. Image of correct horizontal position. Image of incorrect horizontal position.

It is very important, that is not deviated from the standard bolt hole orientation. Only on explicit request, e.g. of the customer, may be a different orientation be applied. In 99 percent of all cases, where you will see a different orientation, you can assume that it is a mistake. This centerline rule for flanges, understood and followed by all responsible equipment manufacturers and piping fabricators. PLANT NORTH A plant north, is a horizontal reference point, and is derived from an official geographical reference point. A plant north is applied...see more about plant coordinates in the main menu "DOCS".

1 = Official reference point 2 = South West angle of new plant X = East West distance from new plant to reference point Y = North South distance from new plant to reference point

FLANGE FACES With flange Face the form and implementation of the side of a flens are meant, where a sealing ring or gasket will be placed. The most used types are:

Raised Face (RF) Flat Face (FF) Ring-Type Joint (RTJ) Male-and-Female (M&F) Tongue-and-Groove (T&G)

RAISED FACE (RF) The Raised Face type are the most applied flange type, and is easily to identify. It is referred to as a raised face because the gasket surfaces are raised above the bolting circle face. Image of raised face flanges.

Diameter and height are in ASME B16.5 defined, by Pressure Class and diameter. The height in Pressure Class up to 300 Lbs is approximately 1.6 mm, and in Pressure Class 400 up to 2500 Lbs the height is approximately 6.4 mm. Pressure rating of the flange determines the height of the raised face. The purpose of a RF flange is to concentrate more pressure on a smaller gasket area and thereby increase the pressure containment capability of the joint. Raised Face height For the height measures H and B of all described dimensions of flanges on this website, with exception of the Lap Joint flange, it is important to understand and remember the following:

In Pressure Classes 150 and 300 Lbs, the height of raised face is approximately 1.6 mm (1/16 inch). In these two Pressure Classes, almost all suppliers of flanges, show in their catalog or brochure, the H and B dimensions including the raised face height. See figure 1 on the image below.

In Pressure Classes 400, 600, 900, 1500 & 2500 Lbs, the height of raised face is approximately 6.4 mm (1/4 inch). In these Pressure Classes, most suppliers show the H and B dimensions excluding the raised face height. See figure 2 on the image above. On this website you will find two dimensions. The top row dimensions are excluding the raised face height, and in the bottom row the dimensions are including the raised face height. FLAT FACE (FF) The flat face (full face) flange has a gasket surface in the same plane as the bolting circle face. Applications using flat face flanges are frequently those in which the mating flange or flanged fitting is made from a casting. Image of flat face flanges.

Flat face flanges are never to be bolted to a raised face flange. ASME B31.1 says that when connecting flat face cast iron flanges to carbon steel flanges, the raised face on the carbon steel flange must be removed, and that a full face gasket is required. This is to keep the thin, bittle cast iron flange from being sprung into the gap caused by the raised face of the carbon steel flange. RING-TYPE JOINT (RTJ) RTJ flanges have grooves cut into their faces which steel ring gaskets. The flanges seal when tightened bolts compress the gasket between the flanges into the grooves, deforming (or Coining) the gasket to make intimate contact inside the grooves, creating a metal to metal seal. Image of ring type joint flanges.

An RTJ flange may have a raised face with a ring groove machined into it. This raised face does not serve as any part of the sealing means. For RTJ flanges that seal with ring gaskets, the raised faces of the connected and tightened flanges may contact each other. In this case the compressed gasket will not bear additional load beyond the bolt tension, vibration and movement cannot further crush the gasket and lessen the connecting tension. Ring Type Joint gaskets are metallic sealing rings, suitable for high-pressure and high-temperature applications. They are always applied to special, accompanying flanges which ensure good, reliable sealing with the correct choice of profiles and material. Ring Type Joint gaskets are designed to seal by "initial line contact" or wedging action between the mating flange and the gasket. By applying pressure on the seal interface through bolt force, the "softer" metal of the gasket flows into the microfine structure of the harder flange material, and creating a very tight and efficient seal. Image of ring type joint gaskets.

The most applied rings are: Type R-Oval according to ASME B16.20 The original style of metallic ring joint. Used on round bottomed groove flanges though can also be used on later, flat-bottomed groove flanges. Suitable for ASME B16.5 flanges from Class 150 to 2500. Type R-Octagonal according to ASME B16.20 An improved design over the original Oval design. However these can be used only in flat-bottomed groove flanges. Suitable for ASME B16.5 flanges from Class 150 to 2500. MALE-AND-FEMALE (M&F) With this type the flanges must be matched. One flange face has an area that extends beyond the normal flange face (Male). The other flange or mating flange has a matching depression (Female) machined into it's face. Custom male and female facings are commonly found on the heat exchanger shell to channel and cover flanges.

TONGUE-AND-GROOVE (T&G) With this type the flanges also must be matched. One flange face has a raised ring (Tongue) machined onto the flange face while the mating flange has a matching depression (Groove) machined into it's face. These facings are commonly found on pump covers and valve bonnets. General flange faces such as the RTJ, T&G and the F&M shall never be bolted together. The reason for this is that the contact surfaces do not match and there is no gasket that has one type on one side and another type on the other side. FLANGE FACE FINISH The ASME B16.5 code requires that the flange face (raised face and flat face) has a specific roughness to ensure that this surface be compatible with the gasket and provide a high quality seal. Image of serrated texture on Raised Face.

A serrated finish, either concentric or spiral, is required with 30 to 55 grooves per inch and a resultant roughness between 125 and 500 micro inches. This allows for various grades of surface finish to be made available by flange manufactures for the gasket contact surface of metal flanges.

THE MOST USED SURFACES ARE Stock Finish The most widely used of any flange surface finish, because practically, is suitable for all ordinary service conditions. Under compression, the soft face from a gasket will embed into this finish, which helps create a seal, and a high level of friction is generated between the mating surfaces. The finish for these flanges is generated by a 1.6 mm radius round-nosed tool at a feed rate of 0.8 mm per revolution up to 12 inch. For sizes 14 inch and larger, the finish is made with 3.2 mm round-nosed tool at a feed of 1.2 mm per revolution. Spiral Serrated This is also a continuous or phonographic spiral groove, but it differs from the stock finish in that the groove typically is generated using a 90-deg tool which creates a "V" geometry with 45 angled serration. Concentric Serrated As the name suggests, this finish is comprised of concentric grooves. A 90 tool is used and the serrations are spaced evenly across the face. Smooth Finish This finish shows no visually apparent tool markings. These finishes are typically utilized for gaskets with metal facings such as double jacketed, flat steel and corrugated metal. The smooth surfaces mate to create a seal and depend on the flatness of the opposing faces to effect a seal. This is typically achieved by having the gasket contact surface formed by a continuous (sometimes called phonographic) spiral groove generated by a 0.8 mm radius round-nosed tool at a feed rate of 0.3 mm per revolution with a depth of 0.05 mm. This will result in a roughness between Ra 3.2 and 6.3 micrometers (125 - 250 micro inch). GASKETS To realize a leak-free flange connection gaskets are necessary. Gaskets are compressible sheets or rings used to make a fluid-resistant seal between two surfaces. Gaskets are built to operate under extreme temperature and pressures and are available in a wide range of metallic, semi-metallic and non-metallic materials. The principle of sealing, for example, is the compression from a gasket between two flanges. A gaskets fills the microscopic spaces and irregularities of the flange faces and then it forms a seal that is designed to keep liquids and gases. Correct installation of damage free gaskets is a requirement for a leak-free flange connection. On this website gaskets according to ASME B16.20 (Metallic and semi-metallic gaskets for Pipe flanges) and ASME B16.21 (Nonmetallic flat gaskets for pipe flanges) will be defined. On the Gaskets page you will find more details concerning types, materials and dimensions.

BOLTS To connect two flanges with each other, also bolts are necessary. The quantity will be given by the number of bolt holes in a flange, diameter and length of bolts is dependent of flange type and Pressure Class of flange. The most used bolts in Petro and chemical industry for ASME B16.5 flanges are stud bolts. Stud bolts are made from a threaded rod and using two nuts. The other available type is the machine bolt that using one nut. On this site only stud bolts will be discussed. Dimensions, dimensional tolerances et cetera have been defined in the ASME B16.5 and ASME 18.2.2 standard, materials in different ASTM standards. On the Stud bolts page you will find more details concerning materials and dimensions. GASKETS FOR FLANGE CONNECTIONS WHAT IS A FLANGE GASKET Flange gaskets are used to create a static seal between two flanges faces, at various operating conditions, with varied pressure and temperature ratings. A gaskets fills the microscopic spaces and irregularities of the flange faces, and then it forms a seal that is designed to keep liquids and gases. Correct installation of damage-free gaskets and demage-free flange faces is a requirement for a leak-free flange connection. If it would be technically possible, in order to manufacture flanges perfectly flat and smooth, and perfectly compatible with one another under all operating conditions, a gasket would not be necessary. But in normal practice it is not possible, because flange connections under ANY circumstances should be made. Small impurities and a small bit of dirt, is in practice not be avoided and therefore it is necessary to use a gasket. TYPES OF GASKETS Materials for gaskets can be divided into three main categories:

Non-metallic types Semi-metallic types Metallic types

Non-metallic gaskets are usually composite sheet materials are used with flat-face and raised-face flanges in low Pressure Class applications. Non-metallic gaskets are manufactured from arimid fiber, glass fiber, elastomer, Teflon (PTFE), graphite et cetera. Full-face gasket types are suitable for use with flat-face flanges. Flat-ring gasket types are suitable for use with raised face flanges. ASME B16.21 covers types, sizes, materials, dimensions, dimensional tolerances, and markings for nonmetallic flat gaskets. Image of both Non-metallic gaskets types.

Semi-metallic gaskets are composites of metal and non-metallic materials. The metal is intended to offer strength and resiliency, while the non-metallic portion provides conformability and sealability. Often used semi-metallic gaskets are spiral wound and camprofile, and a variety of metal-reinforced graphite gaskets. Semi-metallic are designed for almost all operating conditions and high-temperature and pressure applications, and are used on raised face, male-and-female, and tongue-and-groove flanges. ASME B16.20 covers materials, dimensions, dimensional tolerances, and markings for metallic and semimetallic gaskets. Image of a typical Spiral Wound gasket.

Metallic gaskets are fabricated from one or a combination of metals to the desired shape and size. Often used metallic gaskets are ring-type-joint gaskets (RTJ). They are always applied to special, accompanying flanges which ensure good, reliable sealing with the correct choice of profiles and material. Ring Type Joint gaskets are designed to seal by "initial line contact" or wedging action between the mating flange and the gasket. By applying pressure on the seal interface through bolt force, the "softer" metal of the gasket flows into the microfine structure of the harder flange material, and creating a very tight and efficient seal. ASME B16.20 covers materials, dimensions, dimensional tolerances, and markings for metallic and semimetallic gaskets. Image of two types of RTJ gaskets.

OFTEN USED SEMI-METALLIC GASKETS Here below you will find a short description of a number of semi-metallic gaskets, which are largely used. For information on other types, I refer to the World Wide Web. There you can find a lot of reliable information about gaskets. Spiral wound gaskets The spiral wound gasket meets the most exacting conditions of both temperature and pressure in flanged joints and similar assemblies and against every known corrosive and toxic media. The spiral wound gasket depends upon the mechanical characteristics of a formed metal spiral strip, rather than the compressive virtues of more traditional gasket materials. This makes it particularly suitable for low or fluctuating bolt loads. The sealing strips, or fillers, are usually graphite, although other materials such as Teflon (PTFE) may be used, the windings are always stainless steel. For this type of gasket to work the spiral must not be over compressed, hence one of two types of compression control is usually used. The completed gasket is fitted into a steel ring of specific thickness. When the gasket is fitted into a flange and the bolt load is applied, flange closure is governed by the outer steel ring of the gasket. To further improve the pressure rating of the spiral wound gasket, a steel ring may be added to the inside. This gives an additional compression limiting stop and provides a heat and corrosion barrier protecting gasket windings and preventing flange erosion. It is customary to select inner ring material to be the same as the metal winding. ASME B16.20 which covers spiral wound gaskets requires the use of solid metal inner rings in: Pressure Class 900, nominal pipe sizes 24 and larger, Pressure Class 1500 from nominal pipe sizes 12 and larger, Pressure Class 2500 from nominal pipe sizes 4 and larger and all PTFE filled gaskets. In the same standard is also described how a spiral wound gasket should be characterized, below you will find a image on it. Image of marking Spiral Wound Gaskets.

Camprofile gaskets Camprofile or "Grooved" gaskets have proven themselves in all industrial applications. Camprofile gaskets are found in industrial power plants and in the primary circuits in nuclear installations. Used either between flanges or in heat exchanger units in nuclear applications. The Petro and chemical industry benefit too, as the gaskets are used in applications where high pressures and temperatures are maintained and consequently high bolt loads need to be controlled. Camprofile gaskets consist of a metal core (generally Stainless Steel) with concentric grooves on either side with sealing materials. The sealing layers (depending on the service duty) can be Graphite, PTFE (Teflon), CAF or Metal (e.g. Aluminium or Silver). Camprofile's can be used without sealing layers to provide an excellent seal but there is a risk of flange surface damage - especially at high seating loads. The sealing layers protect the flange surfaces from damage in addition to providing an effective seal. In the main menu "Others" you will find a link to the dimensions of that kind of grooved gasket. Metal jacketed gaskets Metal Jacketed gaskets, as the name suggests, are comprised of a metallic outer shell with either a metallic or non-metallic filler. The filler material gives the gasket resilience, while the metal jacket protects the filler and resists pressures, temperatures and corrosion. They are traditionally used for heat exchanger applications, pumps and valves, however the resilience and recovery properties of these gaskets are limited. Metal Jacketed gaskets require smooth flange surface finishes, high bolt loads and flange flatness in order to seal effectively. There are many different styles of jacketed gaskets available. In the main menu "Others" you will find a link to the dimensions of double jacketed flange gaskets. In that type the filler material is completely enclosed by a two piece metal jacket, which covers both the inside and outside diameters and both contact surfaces. BOLTS FOR FLANGE CONNECTIONS TYPES OF BOLTS In Petro and chemical industry for flange connections actually only stud bolts are used, but in principle, two types of bolts for flange connections are available. 1. Stud bolt 2. Hex bolt The stud bolt is a threaded rod with 2 heavy hexagon nuts, while the hex bolt has a head with one nut. Nuts and head are both six sided. STUD BOLT GENERAL Stud bolt length are defined in ASME B16.5 standard. The length in inches is equal to the effective thread length measured parallel to the axis, from the first to the first thread without the chamfers (points). First thread is defined as the intersection of the major diameter of the thread with the base of the point. This image shows the effective thread length of stud and hex bolts.

Note: The length of metric stud bolts measured parallel to axis, is the distance from each stud bolt, including the point. The quantity of bolts for a flange connection will be given by the number of bolt holes in a flange, diameter and length of bolts is dependent of flange type and Pressure Class of flange. To allow the use of hydraulic tensioning equipment, larger dimension studs shall be often one diameter longer than "standard". That bolts to have plastic end cap protection. Bolts threading are defined in ASME B1.1 Unified Inch Screw Threads, (UN and UNR Thread Form). The most common thread is a symmetrical form with a V-profile. The included angle is 60. This form is widely used in the Unified thread (UN, UNC, UNF, UNRC, UNRF) form as the ISO / metric threads. The advantage of a symmetrical threads is that they are easier to produce and inspect compared with nonsymmetrical threads. These are typically used in general-purpose fasteners. Thread series cover designations of diameter/pitch combinations that are measured by the number of threads per inch (TPI) applied to a single diameter. Standard Thread Pitches

Coarse thread series (UNC/UNRC) is the most widely used thread system and applied in most of the screws, bolts and nuts. Coarse threads are used for threads in low strength materials such as iron, mild steel, copper and softer alloy, aluminium, et cetera. The coarse thread is also more tolerant in adverse conditions and facilitate quick assembly. Fine thread series (UNF/UNRF) is commonly used in precision applications and in there where require a higher tensile strength than the coarse thread series. 8 - Thread series (8UN) is the specified thread forming method for several ASTM standards including A193 B7, A193 B8/B8M, and A320. This series is mostly used for diameters one inch and above.

Hex nuts (dimensional data) are defined in ASME B18.2.2, and even as bolts the threading in ASME B1.1. Depending on a customer specification, nuts must be both sites chamfered or with on one side a washerface. The height of a nut for stud bolts are the same as the diameter of the thread rod.

Image of a both sites chamfered nut.

Image of a nut with on one side a washer-face.

MARKING OF STUDBOLTS Thread rods and nuts must be marked by the manufacturer with a unique identifier to identify the manufacturer or private label distributor, as appropriate. Below you will find a number of ASTM examples.

MATERIALS FOR STUDBOLTS Dimensions from stud bolts are defined in the ASME B16.5 standard. The material qualities for studs are defined in the different ASTM standards, and are indicated by Grade. Frequently used grades are A193 for thread rods and A194 for the nuts. ASTM A193 covers alloy and stainless steel bolting material for pressure vessels, valves, flanges, and fittings for high temperature or high pressure service, or other special purpose applications. ASTM A194 covers a variety of carbon, alloy, and martensitic and austenitic stainless steel nuts. These nuts are intended for high-pressure or high-temperature service, or both. Below you will find as an example a table with materials and grades for flanges, thread rods (bolts) and nuts, arranged on design temperature, flanges, thread rods and recommended nuts.

DESIGN FLANGES GRADE THREAD RODSGRADE NUTS TEMPERATURE ASTM A 182 -195 to 102C Gr. F304, F304L, F316,A320 Gr. B8 Class 2 A194 Gr. 8A F316L, F321, F347 ASTM A 350 -101 to -47C A 320 Gr. L7 A 194 Gr. 7 Gr. LF3 ASTM A 350 -46 to -30C A 320 Gr. L7 A 194 Gr. 7 Gr. LF2 -29 to 427C ASTM A 105 A 193 Gr. B7 A 194 Gr. 2H ASTM A 182 428 to 537C A 193 Gr. B16 A 194 Gr. 2H Gr. F11, F22 ASTM A182 538 to 648C A 193 Gr. B8 Class 1 A 194 Gr. 8A Gr. F11, F22 ASTM A182 649 to 815C A 193 Gr. B8 Class 1 A 194 Gr. 8A Gr. F304 H, F316 H Note: materials in the table above are being provided for guidance purposes

TORQUE TIGHTENING To obtain a leak-free flange connection, a proper gasket installation is needed, the bolts must be assign on the correct bolt tension, and the total bolt strength must be evenly divided over the whole flange face. With Torque Tightening (the application of preload to a fastener by the turning of the fastener's nut) the correct bolt tension can be realized. Correct tightening of a bolt means making the best use of the bolt's elastic properties. To work well, a bolt must behave just like a spring. In operation, the tightening process exerts an axial pre-load tension on the bolt. This tension load is of course equal and opposite to the compression force applied on the assembled components. It can be referred to as the "tightening load" or "tension load" TORQUE WRENCH Torque Wrench is the general name for a hand-guided screwing tool, and used to precisely set the force of a fastening such as a nut or bolt. It allows the operator to measure the rotational force (torque) applied to the bolt so it can be matched to the specifications. Image of manual and hydraulic wrench. The selection of the proper flange bolt tigtening technique requires experience. The successful application of any technique also requires qualification of both the tools that will be used and the crew who will do the work. The following summarizes the most commonly used flange bolt tightening techniques.

Manual Wrench Impact Wrench Hammer Wrench Hydraulic Torque Wrench Manual Beam and Gear-Assisted Torque Wrench Hydraulic Bolt Tensioner

TORQUE LOSS Torque loss is inherent in any bolted joint. The combined effects of bolt relaxation, (approximately 10% during the first 24 hours after installation), gasket creep, vibration in the system, thermal expansion and elastic interaction during bolt tightening contribute to torque loss. When torque loss reaches an extreme, the internal pressure exceeds the compressive force holding the gasket in place and a leak or blow-out occurs. A key to reducing these effects is proper gasket installation. By bringing the flanges together slowly and parallel when installing a gasket and taking a minimum of four bolt tightening passes, following the correct bolt tightening sequence, there is a payoff in reduced maintenance costs and increased safety. Proper gasket thickness is also important. The thicker the gasket, the higher the gasket creep which in turn can result in torque loss. On standard ASME raised face flanges a 1.6 mm thick gasket is normally recommended. Thinner gasket materials can take a higher gasket load and therefore higher internal pressures. LUBRICATION REDUCES FRICTION Lubrication reduces the friction during tightening, decreases bolt failure during installation and increases bolt life. Variation in friction coefficients affect the amount of preload achieved at a specific torque. Higher friction results in less conversion of torque to preload. The value for the friction coefficient provided by the lubricant manufacturer must be known to accurately establish the required torque value. Lubricant or anti-seizure compounds should be applied to both the nut bearing surface and the male threads. TIGHTENING SEQUENCE The first pass, lightly tighten the first bolt then move directly across or 180 degrees for the second bolt, then move 1/4 turn around the circle or 90 degrees for the third bolt and directly across for the fourth. Continue this sequence until all bolts are tightened. When tightening a four-bolt flange, use a criss-cross pattern.

Tightening Sequence

PREPARATION FLANGE BOLT-UP In a flanged connection, all components must be correct to achieve a seal. The most common cause of leaky gasketed joints is improper installation procedures. Before beginning a bolting process, the following preliminary steps will avoid future problems:

Clean the flange faces and check for scars; the faces must be clean and free of defects (burrs, pits, dents, et cetera). Visually inspect all bolts and nuts for damaged or corroded threads. Replace or repair bolts or nuts as necessary. Remove burrs from all threads. Lubricate the threads of the bolt or stud, and the surface of the nut face adjacent to the flange or washer. Hardened washers are recommended in most applications. Install the new gasket and be sure gasket is properly centered. DO NOT REUSE old gasket, or use MULTIPLE gaskets. Check flange alignment according to ASME B31.3 Process Piping: ...flange faces must be parallel within 1/16" per foot of diameter, and flange bolt holes must be aligned to within 1/8" maximum offset. Adjust the position of the nuts to insure that 2-3 threads is visible above the top of the nut.

Irrespective which method of tightening is used, above determined checks and preparations always must be done.