education

sciences
Article
Challenges and Opportunities of Generative AI for Higher
Education as Explained by ChatGPT
Rosario Michel-Villarreal 1, * , Eliseo Vilalta-Perdomo 2 , David Ernesto Salinas-Navarro 2 ,
Ricardo Thierry-Aguilera 3 and Flor Silvestre Gerardou 4

1 Sustainability Research Institute, School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
2 Community Resilience and Sustainability Lab (CoRSEL), Aston Business School, Aston University,
Birmingham B4 7ET, UK; [email protected] (E.V.-P.); [email protected] (D.E.S.-N.)
3 School of Engineering and Sciences, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey 64849, Mexico; [email protected]
4 Cornwall Business School, Falmouth University, Penryn TR10 9FE, UK; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: ChatGPT is revolutionizing the field of higher education by leveraging deep learning
models to generate human-like content. However, its integration into academic settings raises
concerns regarding academic integrity, plagiarism detection, and the potential impact on critical
thinking skills. This article presents a study that adopts a thing ethnography approach to understand
ChatGPT’s perspective on the challenges and opportunities it represents for higher education. The
research explores the potential benefits and limitations of ChatGPT, as well as mitigation strategies
for addressing the identified challenges. Findings emphasize the urgent need for clear policies,
guidelines, and frameworks to responsibly integrate ChatGPT in higher education. It also highlights
the need for empirical research to understand user experiences and perceptions. The findings provide
insights that can guide future research efforts in understanding the implications of ChatGPT and
similar Artificial Intelligence (AI) systems in higher education. The study concludes by highlighting
the importance of thing ethnography as an innovative approach for engaging with intelligent AI
systems and calls for further research to explore best practices and strategies in utilizing Generative
AI for educational purposes.
Citation: Michel-Villarreal, R.;
Vilalta-Perdomo, E.; Salinas-Navarro,
Keywords: academic integrity; chatbots; generative artificial intelligence; higher education; universities;
D.E.; Thierry-Aguilera, R.; Gerardou, professional education; educational innovation; barriers; risks
F.S. Challenges and Opportunities of
Generative AI for Higher Education
as Explained by ChatGPT. Educ. Sci.
2023, 13, 856. https://doi.org/ 1. Introduction
10.3390/educsci13090856 Generative AI (GenAI) can be defined as a “technology that (i) leverages deep learning
Academic Editor: Maiga Chang models to (ii) generate human-like content (e.g., images, words) in response to (iii) complex
and varied prompts (e.g., languages, instructions, questions)” [1] (p. 2). As generative
Received: 12 July 2023 Artificial Intelligence (AI) continues to evolve rapidly, in the next few years, it will drive
Revised: 11 August 2023
innovation and improvements in higher education, but it will also create a myriad of
Accepted: 19 August 2023
new challenges [2,3]. Specifically, ChatGPT (Chat Generative Pre-Trained Transformer),
Published: 23 August 2023
a chatbot driven by GenAI, has been attracting headlines and has become the center
of ongoing debate regarding the potential negative effects that it can have on teaching
and learning. ChatGPT describes itself as a large language model trained to “generate
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
humanlike text based on a given prompt or context. It can be used for a variety of natural
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. language processing tasks, such as text completion, conversation generation, and language
This article is an open access article translation” [4] (p. 4). Given its advanced generative skills, one of the major concerns in
distributed under the terms and higher education is that it can be used to reply to exam questions, write assignments and
conditions of the Creative Commons draft academic essays without being easily detected by current versions of anti-plagiarism
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// software [5].
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Responses from higher education institutions (HEIs) to this emerging threat to aca-
4.0/). demic integrity have been varied and fragmented, ranging from those that have rushed to

Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 856. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13090856 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/education

Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 856 2 of 18

implement full bans on the use of ChatGPT [6,7] to others who have started to embrace
it by publishing student guidance on how to engage with AI effectively and ethically [8].
Nevertheless, most of the information provided by higher education institutions (HEIs) to
students so far has been unclear or lacking in detail regarding the specific circumstances in
which the use of ChatGPT is allowed or considered acceptable [9,10]. However, what is
evident is that most HEIs are currently in the process of reviewing their policies around the
use of ChatGPT and its implications for academic integrity.
Meanwhile, a growing body of literature has started to document the potential chal-
lenges and opportunities posed by ChatGPT. Among the key issues with the use of ChatGPT
in education, accuracy, reliability, and plagiarism are regularly cited [1,3]. Issues related to
accuracy and reliability include relying on biased data (i.e., the limited scope of data used to
train ChatGPT), having limited up-to-date knowledge (i.e., training stopped in 2021), and
generating incorrect/fake information (e.g., providing fictitious references) [11]. It is also
argued that the risk of overreliance on ChatGPT could negatively impact students’ critical
thinking and problem-solving skills [3]. Regarding plagiarism, evidence suggests that
essays generated by ChatGPT can bypass conventional plagiarism detectors [11]. ChatGPT
can also successfully pass graduate-level exams, which could potentially make some types
of assessments obsolete [1].
ChatGPT can also be used to enhance education, provided that its limitations (as
discussed in the previous paragraph) are recognized. For instance, ChatGPT can be used
as a tool to generate answers to theory-based questions and generate initial ideas for
essays [3,12], but students should be mindful of the need to examine the credibility of
generated responses. Given its advanced conversational skills, ChatGPT can also pro-
vide formative feedback on essays and become a tutoring system by stimulating critical
thinking and debates among students [13]. The language editing and translation skills of
ChatGPT can also contribute towards increased equity in education by somewhat leveling
the playing field for students from non-English speaking backgrounds [1]. ChatGPT can
also be a valuable tool for educators as it can help in creating lesson plans for specific
courses, developing customized resources and learning activities (i.e., personalized learn-
ing support), carrying out assessment and evaluation, and supporting the writing process
of research [14]. ChatGPT might also be used to enrich a reflective teaching practice by
testing existing assessment methods to validate their scope, design, and capabilities beyond
the possible use of GenAI, challenging academics to develop AI-proof assessments as a
result and contributing to the authentic assessment of students’ learning achievements [15].
Overall, some early studies have started to shed some light regarding the potential
challenges and opportunities of ChatGPT for higher education, but more in-depth dis-
cussions are needed. We argue that the current discourse is highly focused on studying
ChatGPT as an object rather than a subject. Given the advanced generative capabilities
of ChatGPT, we would like to contribute to the ongoing discussion by exploring what
ChatGPT has to say about itself regarding the challenges and opportunities that it repre-
sents for higher education. By adopting this approach, we hope to contribute to a more
balanced discussion that accommodates the AI perspective using a ‘thing ethnography’
methodology [16]. This approach considers things not as objects but as subjects that possess
a non-human worldview or perspective that can point to novel insights in research [17].
This study will examine ChatGPT’s perspective on the opportunities and challenges
that it represents for academic purposes, as well as recommendations to mitigate challenges
and harness potential opportunities. In doing so, we will aim to answer the following
research questions:
1. What are the potential challenges for higher education posed by ChatGPT, and how
can these be mitigated?
2. What are the potential opportunities and barriers to the integration of ChatGPT in
higher education?
The structure of this paper is as follows. After this intro, the next section explores
‘thing ethnography methodology’ as a novel approach to engage with GenAI. It will also
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 856 3 of 18

explain the steps followed in this study to collect ChatGPT’s views. Section Three will
summarize the results, and section four will discuss the results in the context of existing
literature to validate the non-human perspective. Lastly, a conclusion will answer the
research questions and outline future research directions.

2. Method: Thing Ethnography Applied to ChatGPT

Ethnography refers to a form of social research that emphasizes the importance of
studying first-hand what people do and say in particular contexts [18]. It involves an
in-depth understanding of the world based on social relations and everyday practices.
Traditionally, the focus of ethnography has been on human perspectives via qualitative
methods such as observation and interviews. However, it is argued that as humans, “we
have complex and intertwined relationships with the objects around us. We shape objects;
and objects shape and transform our practices and us in return” [19] (p. 235). Recognizing
this continual interplay between humans and objects necessitates research methodologies
that grant both parties an equal role.
Recently, there has been a growing interest in moving away from a human-centered
ethnographic approach to that of seeking nonhuman perspectives in a context where
human perspectives are felt to be partial to fully understanding the interdependent relations
between humans and nonhumans [20]. By studying things as incorporated into practices,
we learn about both people and objects at the same time. This approach provides the
opportunity to reflect on us by reflecting on things [21]. Relatively consolidated methods
for exploring the distinct viewpoints, development paths, and possible worldviews of
nonhuman entities incorporate ‘thing ethnography’ [22]. Thing ethnography is an approach
that allows access to and interpretation of things’ perspectives, enabling the acquisition
of novel insights into their socio-material networks. Thing ethnography emerges at the
intersection of data that things give access to and the analysis and interpretation that human
researchers contribute [23]. Giaccardi et al. [19] contend that adopting a thing perspective
can offer distinct revelations regarding the interplay between objects and human practices,
leading to novel approaches for collectively framing and resolving problems alongside
these entities.
In this shift towards thing ethnography, artificial intelligence (AI) plays a significant
role as its unique capacities provide unprecedented access to nonhuman perspectives of the
world [20]. The unique perspectives of mundane things such as kettles, cups, and scooters
can now be accessed via the use of software and sensors [21,23]. For instance, by attaching
autographers to kettles, fridges, and cups, a study collected more than 3000 photographs
that helped to uncover use patterns and home practices around these objects [21]. Another
study looking into the design of thoughtful forms of smart mobility used cameras and
sensors to collect data from scooters in Taipei, generating a better understanding of the
socio-material networks among scooters and scooterists in Taiwan [23]. Moreover, the
development of chatbots opens the possibility of directly interacting and accessing AI
systems’ views via text exchange.
It has already been recognized that AI “has the potential to impact our lives and our
world as no other technology has done before” [24], both positively and negatively. This
knowledge is raising many questions concerning its ethical, legal, and socio-economic
effects, and even calls for a pause in the development of more advanced AI systems [25].
With the increasing intelligence of things, it becomes crucial to adopt suitable perspectives to
access, observe and understand the diverse social consequences and emerging possibilities
that arise from this advancement [23]. So far, the relationship between humans and things
in research has been unidirectional [19]. So, what happens if we change the focus to
‘things’, especially ‘things’ with human-like intelligence with the potential to become fully
self-aware within the next few decades or even achieve Artificial General Intelligence
(AGI) [26,27]? What happens if we try to understand the world from the perspective of
a ‘thing’, such as AI, which is increasingly impacting many aspects of life? Applying
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 856 4 of 18

thing ethnography to the study of AI systems can aid in exploring their social and cultural
dimensions and their impact on society from their own perspective.
In this context, we argue that ChatGPT should not be studied merely as an “object”
designed, trained, and used by people but as a “subject” that co-performs daily practices
with users and has an impact on the socio-material networks in which it is embedded. In
the case of thing ethnography applied to ChatGPT, the focus would be on understanding
the user experience, the impact on communication dynamics, and the broader societal
implications from ChatGPT’s perspective. A better understanding of this can help guide
the development and deployment of chatbot technologies in a way that is more responsive
to user needs, respects societal values, and promotes responsible AI practices. We believe
that thing ethnography approaches are becoming crucially relevant as efforts attempting to
build successively more powerful AI systems closer to AGI—AI systems that are generally
smarter than humans—continue [27]. As ‘things’ become increasingly intelligent, there is
an unprecedented and pressing demand to enhance our ability to access and comprehend
the perspective of these entities.
In this study, we apply thing ethnography to engage with ChatGPT. Whereas previous
thing ethnography interventions have used different smart devices to access the perspective
of things, our study will engage with the ‘subject’ via a written conversation given the
unique text generation capacities of chatbots. To answer the research questions stated in
the previous section, this study has adopted a semi-structured interview. This type of
interview facilitates the collection of rich data related to participants’ views [28], with the
required degree of structure and flexibility [29]. An interview guide containing a list of
themes and key questions was prepared before the interview. Nevertheless, the flexibility
of semi-structured interviewing allowed the use of probes devised during the interviews.
Probing is useful to further explore responses that are deemed significant for the research
topic [28]. In line with King and Horrocks’ [30] suggestion, probing was adopted to seek
clarification for unclear words or phrases, completion for stories that the interviewer felt
unfinished, and elaboration to encourage the interviewee to ‘keep talking’.
The six-phase thematic analysis approach proposed by Braun and Clarke [31] formed
the foundation for analyzing data from the semi-structured interview. This approach
provided guidance for coding and categorizing the data, enabling a systematic, thorough,
and cumulative analysis of the case study information. During the reporting phase, we
aimed for dependability and transparency by providing verbatim quotes linked to specific
codes being analyzed. These links are what connect raw data to “the data summary
and interpretation generated by the researcher” [32] (p. 95). Additionally, we addressed
transferability by comparing the emerging findings with the existing body of literature [33].
This was accomplished by examining similarities, contradictions, and their underlying
reasons. This approach can lead to broader applicability and increased credibility of
qualitative data.

3. Results: How Did ChatGPT Respond?

The unedited transcript of the interview with ChatGPT is shown below. This is
followed by post-interview reflections and discussions on emerging themes.
Interviewer: What are the potential challenges for higher education posed by ChatGPT?
ChatGPT: ChatGPT, as an advanced language model, presents certain challenges for higher
education. Here are a few potential challenges that institutions may face:
1. Academic Integrity: With the ability to generate human-like responses, ChatGPT raises
concerns about academic integrity. Students could potentially misuse the model to generate
plagiarized content or cheat on assignments and assessments. This poses a challenge for
educators and institutions in ensuring fair evaluation and maintaining academic standards.
2. Quality Control: ChatGPT generates responses based on the data it has been trained on, which
includes a vast amount of information available on the internet. While the model strives to
provide accurate and helpful information, there is still a possibility of generating incorrect
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 856 5 of 18

or misleading responses. Institutions need to carefully assess and validate the information
provided by ChatGPT to ensure its accuracy and reliability.
3. Personalized Learning: While ChatGPT can provide personalized responses to individual
queries, it might not fully capture the nuanced needs of each learner. Higher education
institutions often focus on tailoring education to meet the specific requirements of students.
Relying solely on ChatGPT for personalized learning experiences may overlook certain aspects
of individual student needs, such as their learning style, preferences, and unique challenges.
4. Expertise and Authority: ChatGPT lacks the domain-specific expertise that specialized in-
structors and professors possess. Higher education institutions emphasize the role of subject
matter experts in providing deep insights, critical analysis, and guidance in specific fields.
Relying solely on ChatGPT might not fully meet the expectations and needs of students seeking
expertise from highly qualified professionals.
5. Communication and Collaboration: Effective communication and collaboration are integral
parts of the higher education experience. ChatGPT, being an AI language model, might not
possess the same level of human interaction and interpersonal skills as an instructor or peers.
This can limit its effectiveness in supporting group work, discussions, and other collaborative
activities that are crucial for a well-rounded educational experience.
It is important to note that these challenges are not insurmountable, and institutions can de-
velop strategies to address them effectively. With careful implementation and integration, ChatGPT
can still offer significant benefits and opportunities for higher education.
Interviewer: What significant benefits or opportunities for higher education can ChatGPT
offer?
ChatGPT: ChatGPT indeed presents several significant benefits and opportunities for higher
education. Here are some of them:
1. 24/7 Support and Accessibility: ChatGPT can provide round-the-clock support to students,
offering assistance and answering queries at any time. This accessibility can be particularly
valuable for distance learning programs, international students in different time zones, or
individuals who prefer to learn at their own pace. ChatGPT can offer instant access to
information and resources, enhancing the overall learning experience.
2. Personalized Learning and Tutoring: ChatGPT can provide personalized feedback, explana-
tions, and recommendations based on individual student queries. By tailoring responses to
specific needs, ChatGPT can assist students in understanding complex concepts, identifying
knowledge gaps, and offering customized learning pathways. This personalized approach can
enhance student engagement and promote self-directed learning.
3. Supplemental Learning Resource: ChatGPT can serve as a valuable supplementary resource
alongside traditional course materials. Students can seek additional explanations, examples,
or alternative perspectives from ChatGPT, enabling them to explore topics in greater depth.
This can enhance comprehension, reinforce learning, and encourage independent research.
4. Language Learning and Communication Skills: Language learners can benefit from interacting
with ChatGPT to practice and improve their language proficiency. ChatGPT can simulate
conversational exchanges, provide language correction, and offer vocabulary and grammar
assistance. It can also foster communication skills by engaging students in dialogue and
encouraging them to express their thoughts and ideas effectively.
5. Support for Instructors and Teaching Assistants: ChatGPT can assist instructors and teaching
assistants by handling routine queries, providing quick references, or offering guidance on
commonly asked questions. This frees up their time to focus on higher-level tasks, such as
facilitating discussions, leading critical analyses, and providing personalized feedback to
students.
6. Innovative Learning Experiences: Incorporating ChatGPT into the curriculum can intro-
duce innovative and interactive learning experiences. For instance, instructors can create
simulations or virtual characters powered by ChatGPT to engage students in role-playing
scenarios, decision-making exercises, or historical reenactments. Such immersive experiences
can enhance student motivation, critical thinking, and creativity.
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 856 6 of 18

7. Research and Data Analysis: ChatGPT can support research efforts by assisting with literature
reviews, data analysis, and generating hypotheses. Researchers can leverage the model’s ability
to sift through vast amounts of information and provide insights on complex topics. ChatGPT
can aid in discovering relevant sources, summarizing findings, and even suggesting potential
research directions.
By leveraging the strengths of ChatGPT while addressing its limitations, higher education
institutions can harness the benefits and opportunities it offers to enhance the learning experience,
promote student success, and foster innovative educational practices.
Interviewer: What factors can prevent universities from fully harnessing the benefits of
ChatGPT?
ChatGPT: Several factors can prevent universities from fully harnessing the benefits of
ChatGPT:
1. Lack of Awareness and Understanding: A lack of awareness and understanding about the
capabilities and potential applications of ChatGPT can hinder its adoption. If faculty, ad-
ministrators, and students are not familiar with the technology and its benefits, they may be
reluctant to explore its potential.
2. Technological Barriers: Implementing ChatGPT or other AI tools may require technical in-
frastructure, such as high-performance computing resources and robust network connectivity.
Universities that lack the necessary technological infrastructure may face challenges in fully
utilizing the benefits of ChatGPT.
3. Resistance to Change: Resistance to change within the university community can impede the
adoption of new technologies. Faculty members, administrators, or staff may be resistant to
integrating ChatGPT into existing workflows or may prefer traditional teaching and learning
methods. Overcoming resistance to change requires effective communication, training, and
highlighting the value and potential of ChatGPT.
4. Ethical and Privacy Concerns: The responsible use of AI, including ChatGPT, raises ethical
and privacy concerns. Universities need to address issues related to data privacy, algorithmic
biases, and the responsible use of AI-generated content. Failure to address these concerns may
result in hesitance or skepticism around implementing ChatGPT.
5. Academic Rigor and Quality: Some may argue that relying too heavily on AI tools like
ChatGPT could compromise the academic rigor and quality of education. Concerns may arise
regarding the authenticity of student work, the development of critical thinking skills, and the
role of human interaction in the learning process. Universities need to carefully balance the
integration of AI with maintaining high academic standards.
6. Resource Constraints: Adopting ChatGPT or any AI tool requires investment in resources,
including faculty training, technical support, and ongoing maintenance. Universities with
limited financial or personnel resources may struggle to fully harness the benefits of ChatGPT
due to resource constraints.
7. Legal and Regulatory Considerations: The use of AI tools in education may be subject to
legal and regulatory frameworks. Universities need to navigate intellectual property rights,
copyright, privacy regulations, and other legal considerations when implementing ChatGPT,
which can be a complex and time-consuming process.
8. Lack of Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Harnessing the full benefits of ChatGPT often requires
interdisciplinary collaboration. Universities may face challenges in fostering collaboration
between computer science, education, ethics, and other relevant disciplines. Bridging these
disciplinary gaps is crucial to effectively leverage ChatGPT in an educational context.
To overcome these barriers, universities can focus on raising awareness, providing training and
support, addressing ethical considerations, fostering collaboration across disciplines, and developing
policies and guidelines that promote the responsible and effective use of ChatGPT. It is essential for
universities to actively engage in discussions, seek stakeholder input, and create an environment
that encourages innovation and experimentation while upholding academic rigor and ethics.
Interviewer: Many universities are struggling with addressing the emerging risks; what
should be the priorities?
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 856 7 of 18

ChatGPT: When it comes to addressing the emerging risks associated with integrating AI
models like ChatGPT, universities can prioritize the following key areas:
1. Policy Development: Developing clear policies and guidelines regarding the use of AI models
in higher education is crucial. Institutions should establish policies that define acceptable and
responsible use of AI, address issues of academic integrity, data privacy, algorithmic bias, and
ethical considerations. These policies should be communicated effectively to all stakeholders,
including students, faculty, and staff.
2. Education and Training: Providing comprehensive education and training to faculty, staff,
and students is essential. Universities should offer workshops, seminars, or online courses to
raise awareness about the benefits, limitations, and potential risks of AI models. This education
should cover topics such as responsible AI use, data ethics, digital literacy, critical thinking,
and academic integrity.
3. Collaboration and Interdisciplinary Efforts: Addressing emerging risks requires a multidis-
ciplinary approach. Universities can encourage collaboration between faculties of computer
science, ethics, education, and law, among others. By fostering interdisciplinary conversations
and collaborations, institutions can effectively identify and address the challenges associated
with AI integration in higher education.
4. Research and Development: Investing in research and development efforts focused on AI
in higher education is vital. This includes studying the impact of AI models on student
learning outcomes, developing algorithms for bias detection and mitigation, exploring ways to
combine AI models with human expertise, and investigating ethical frameworks for AI use in
educational settings. Research can provide evidence-based insights to guide policy decisions
and best practices.
5. Ethical Review Processes: Universities can establish ethical review processes to evaluate the
integration of AI models like ChatGPT. These processes should assess potential risks and
benefits, address data privacy concerns, evaluate algorithmic biases, and ensure compliance
with relevant ethical standards. Ethical review boards or committees can help institutions
make informed decisions regarding the implementation and use of AI models.
6. Continuous Monitoring and Evaluation: It is important for universities to continuously
monitor and evaluate the impact of AI integration in higher education. This involves gath-
ering feedback from students, faculty, and staff, assessing the effectiveness of risk mitigation
strategies, identifying areas for improvement, and making necessary adjustments based on the
evolving landscape of AI technologies.
By prioritizing these areas, universities can proactively address the emerging risks associated
with AI integration, promote the responsible use of AI models, and create an environment that
maximizes the benefits while minimizing potential harm.
Interviewer: Can you tell me more about what can be considered acceptable and responsible
use of AI in this context?
ChatGPT: Certainly! Acceptable and responsible use of AI in the context of higher education
involves adhering to ethical principles and best practices. Here are some key considerations:
1. Academic Integrity: Institutions should emphasize the importance of academic integrity and
discourage the use of AI models like ChatGPT for generating plagiarized content or cheating
on assignments and assessments. Students should be educated about proper citation practices,
originality of work, and the ethical use of AI tools.
2. Transparency and Disclosure: Institutions should promote transparency in the use of AI
models. When students interact with AI systems like ChatGPT, they should be made aware
that they are communicating with an AI and not a human. It is important to disclose the
limitations of AI models, such as their potential for generating incorrect or biased information.
3. Data Privacy and Security: Universities should prioritize the privacy and security of student
data when using AI models. It is crucial to comply with relevant data protection regulations
and establish robust security measures to safeguard sensitive information. Institutions should
clearly communicate their data handling practices and obtain necessary consents from students.
4. Bias Awareness and Mitigation: AI models can inadvertently perpetuate biases present in
the training data. Institutions should be proactive in identifying and addressing biases in
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 856 8 of 18

AI-generated responses. Regular monitoring, bias detection tools, and ongoing training of AI
models can help mitigate bias and ensure fair and inclusive outcomes.
5. Human Oversight and Intervention: While AI models can provide valuable support, human
oversight and intervention are essential. Institutions should emphasize the role of instructors
and teaching staff in guiding students, verifying the accuracy of AI-generated information, and
providing additional context when needed. Human intervention can help address limitations,
verify facts, and ensure the quality of education.
6. Informed Consent and Opt-out Options: Students should be given the choice to engage with
AI models or opt-out if they have concerns or preferences for alternative modes of learning.
Institutions should clearly communicate the purposes and implications of using AI tools,
allowing students to make informed decisions about their participation.
7. Continuous Monitoring and Evaluation: Institutions should continuously monitor and
evaluate the use of AI models to identify potential ethical or educational issues. This includes
collecting feedback from students and instructors, assessing the impact on learning outcomes,
and making necessary adjustments to ensure responsible use and effectiveness.
By adopting these principles, universities can promote an environment of responsible AI use in
higher education, ensuring that AI models like ChatGPT are employed in a manner that upholds
ethical standards, protects student rights, and enhances the overall learning experience.
Interviewer: Finally, what do you think about universities banning the use of ChatGPT?
ChatGPT: The decision to ban the use of ChatGPT or any AI tool in universities is a complex
one that requires careful consideration of various factors. While I, as an AI language model, do not
possess personal opinions, I can provide some insights on the matter.
Universities may choose to ban the use of ChatGPT for several reasons:
1. Plagiarism Concerns: ChatGPT, as a powerful language model, can generate text that might
be used for plagiarism if not properly attributed or verified. Universities may be concerned
about maintaining academic integrity and ensuring that students produce their own original
work.
2. Lack of Human Interaction: AI tools like ChatGPT lack human qualities such as empathy,
contextual understanding, and common sense reasoning. The absence of human interaction
in certain educational scenarios may be seen as a limitation that detracts from the quality of
education and the development of critical thinking and communication skills.
3. Educational Value: Some argue that relying solely on AI tools for learning may limit the
depth of understanding and exploration. Universities may believe that the interaction with
instructors, peers, and authentic learning experiences is essential for a comprehensive and
meaningful education.
However, it’s important to note that banning ChatGPT entirely may overlook its potential
benefits. Instead of a blanket ban, universities could consider alternative approaches:
1. Guidelines and Responsible Use: Develop clear guidelines and policies that outline the respon-
sible and ethical use of AI tools, including ChatGPT. These guidelines can address issues such
as plagiarism, disclosure, limitations, and the role of human oversight.
2. Integration with Human Instruction: Encourage the use of ChatGPT as a supplementary
tool to support teaching and learning rather than a replacement for human instruction.
Instructors can leverage ChatGPT to augment their lessons, provide additional resources, or
spark discussions while still maintaining their role as facilitators and subject matter experts.
3. Education and Training: Offer education and training programs for students and faculty on
the responsible and effective use of AI tools. This can include workshops, seminars, or online
modules that address the potential benefits, limitations, and ethical considerations associated
with AI.
4. Continuous Monitoring and Evaluation: Continuously monitor the use of AI tools like
ChatGPT and evaluate their impact on learning outcomes, student engagement, and overall
educational experience. This ongoing assessment can help inform policies and practices to
ensure the responsible and beneficial integration of AI in higher education.
 ff

Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 856 9 of 18

Ultimately, the decision to ban or allow the use of ChatGPT in universities depends on the
specific context, institutional goals, and values. It is important for universities to carefully consider
the potential benefits, risks, and alternatives before making a final decision.

4. Discussion
This study conducted a semi-structured interview with ChatGPT to document its
views on the challenges and benefits of integrating AI in higher education. In line with
previous studies, the results revealed that ChatGPT has the potential to revolutionize
ff
education in different ways [3,12,14,34]. However, vast challenges need to be addressed
first. ChatGPT’s views are generally in line with existing literature; however, it provided
additional insights that have not been extensively documented. Figure 1 summarizes the
key themes emerging from the interview, including opportunities, challenges, barriers, and
mitigation strategies mentioned by ChatGPT. These are discussed in more detail in this
section.

Figure 1. Themes emerging from the interview (own elaboration).

4.1. Opportunities
The integration of ChatGPT in higher education translates into a set of potential oppor-
tunities or benefits for key stakeholders, including students, teaching staff, and researchers.
Of the seven opportunities mentioned by ChatGPT, five have a strong emphasis on stu-
dents, whilst the other two focus on teaching staff and researchers, respectively. Firstly,
ChatGPT sees itself as a tool capable of providing “personalized feedback, explanations, and
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 856 10 of 18

recommendations based on individual student queries”, thus promoting self-directed learning.

This is echoed in the literature as findings suggest that ChatGPT can provide personalized
feedback on essays and become a tutoring system by stimulating critical thinking and
debates among students [13]. Similarly, ChatGPT suggests that it “can serve as a valuable
supplementary resource alongside traditional course materials” to reinforce learning and encour-
age independent research. In line with this, the literature argues that ChatGPT can be used
as a supplementary tool to generate answers to theory-based questions and generate initial
ideas for essays [3,12].
Another opportunity includes the role that ChatGPT can play in enhancing language
and communication skills, as it can “simulate conversational exchanges, provide language
correction, and offer vocabulary and grammar assistance”. This feature of ChatGPT can arguably
have a positive effect on widening participation in higher education by removing barriers
that some students face. For instance, Lim et al. [1] suggest that the language editing and
translation skills of ChatGPT can contribute towards increased equity in education by
somewhat leveling the playing field for students from non-English speaking backgrounds.
It could also remove some barriers for students who suffer from disabilities such as dyslexia,
as it can support paraphrasing text that is free of grammar or spelling errors given the
correct prompts and input. Another opportunity mentioned by ChatGPT has to do with
improving accessibility by providing “round-the-clock support to students”. This capability
could be particularly valuable for distance learning students or international students
in different time zones. This potential benefit of ChatGPT seems to be less studied and
documented in the existing literature. The last benefit for students relates to the idea that
“Incorporating ChatGPT into the curriculum can introduce innovative and interactive learning
experiences”. Although the literature recognizes the potential of ChatGPT and similar large
language models for improving digital ecosystems for education [3,35], this has not been
extensively documented.
ChatGPT mentioned two opportunities that focus on teaching and research staff.
Firstly, it suggested that it “can assist instructors and teaching assistants by handling
routine queries, providing quick references, or offering guidance on commonly asked
questions”. Interestingly, ChatGPT goes on to say that “this frees up their time to focus
on higher-level tasks”, which seems to indicate that ChatGPT does not see itself as a tool
that can contribute to such higher-level tasks. In this regard, the literature suggests that
ChatGPT can also be a valuable tool for educators as it can help in creating lesson plans for
specific courses, developing customized resources and learning activities (i.e., personalized
learning support), and generating course objectives, learning outcomes, and assessment
criteria [14,36,37]. However, given the novelty of ChatGPT, these benefits seem to be mostly
theoretical or speculative at this point, as more empirical works are needed to demonstrate
how this can be fully achieved. Empirical works to test the effectiveness of this approach
are also required.
Lastly, ChatGPT suggested that it “can support research efforts by assisting with literature
reviews, data analysis, and generating hypotheses”. The literature supports this view by
acknowledging that ChatGPT can support the writing process of research [14], improve
collaboration, facilitate coordinated efforts, and be conducive to higher-quality research
outcomes [38]. However, a key concern remains regarding the loss of human potential and
autonomy in the research process [39]. Some publishers have started to provide general
advice regarding the role that ChatGPT can play in the writing process, but there is a call
for more specific guidelines regarding how to acknowledge the use of AI in research and
writing for journals [38]. Van Dis et al. [39] suggest that whilst the focus should be on
embracing opportunities of AI, we also need to manage the risks to the essential aspects
of scientific work: curiosity, imagination, and discovery. The authors call for measures to
ensure that humans’ creativity, originality, education, training, and interactions remain
essential for conducting research. In line with this, Kooli [38] argues that ChatGPT and
other chatbots should not replace the essential role of the human researcher. Instead,
they should adopt a “research assistant” role that requires constant and close supervision.
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 856 11 of 18

Overall, the current debate around potential applications remains hypothetical as there is
still a lack of a regulatory framework to advance the use of ChatGPT in research activities.

4.2. Challenges
ChatGPT’s views on the challenges that it poses for higher education clearly revolve
around several of the shortcomings of GenAI systems, including the lack of accuracy and
reliability of the information it generates. But other issues relate to the actual misuse by
students. Challenges associated with the shortcomings of ChatGPT are summarized into
four categories: Quality Control, Expertise and Authority, Personalized Learning, and
Communication and Collaboration. Regarding Quality Control, ChatGPT suggests that
whilst it “strives to provide accurate and helpful information, there is still a possibility of generating
incorrect or misleading response”. Similar issues are echoed in the literature, with concerns
about how the inherent biases of ChatGPT and other GenAI systems could seriously impact
the accuracy and reliability of information generated by these systems [11,40]. ChatGPT
further suggests that regular monitoring, bias detection tools, and ongoing training of
AI models can help mitigate biases and ensure fair and inclusive outcomes. In terms of
Expertise and Authority, ChatGPT explains that it “lacks the domain-specific expertise that
specialized instructors and professors possess”. Therefore, relying solely on ChatGPT for higher
education may not meet students’ needs regarding deep insights, critical analysis, and
guidance in specific fields. This challenge links to the previous one (i.e., Quality Control),
and in this regard, ChatGPT adds that “Institutions should emphasize the role of instructors
and teaching staff in guiding students, verifying the accuracy of AI-generated information, and
providing additional context when needed”.
Two challenges that have not been extensively documented in existing literature
include Personalized Learning and Communication and Collaboration. Whilst the idea
of using ChatGPT to develop personalized learning and tutoring systems has been dis-
cussed [3,13,40], the downsides have not been fully considered. In this regard, ChatGPT
warns that it may not be able to fully capture the distinctive needs of each learner, adding
that “Relying solely on ChatGPT for personalized learning experiences may overlook certain aspects
of individual student needs, such as their learning style, preferences, and unique challenges”. Once
again, the central role of teaching staff in overseeing the use and application of ChatGPT
in higher education is evidenced here. The other challenge concerns Communication and
Collaboration as integral parts of higher education. ChatGPT suggests that being an AI
language model, it “might not possess the same level of human interaction and interpersonal
skills as an instructor or peers”, which can limit its contribution to certain elements of the
educational experience, such as facilitating group work and other collaborative activities.
The challenges discussed here and in the previous paragraph suggest that we are still a
long way (if we ever get there) from a world where GenAI systems fully replace teaching
staff. ChatGPT views seem to suggest that it can serve as a tool but cannot fully substitute
the human element. Hence, those wanting to incorporate it into education need to pro-
vide teachers with the skills and training to effectively utilize the technology in order to
minimize the challenges discussed here.
A final challenge mentioned by ChatGPT has to do with its misuse, especially when it
can negatively affect academic integrity. ChatGPT suggests that “Students could potentially
misuse the model to generate plagiarized content or cheat on assignments and assessments”. This is
arguably one of the most cited concerns in existing academic literature, prompting an ongo-
ing debate on whether the technology should be completely banned from HEIs [11,40,41].
Plagiarism and academic misconduct are not new threats to higher education and have
been extensively studied [42]. However, the novelty of ChatGPT has amplified the threat
for two main reasons, lack of clear academic policies and low probability of detection. A
recent study found evidence of a clear absence of clarity regarding the use of ChatGPT
and similar GenAI tools in academic policies. Out of 142 HEIs surveyed in May 2023,
only one explicitly prohibited the use of AI [43]. This is an important finding as there is
evidence to suggest that academic dishonesty is inversely related to understanding and
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 856 12 of 18

acceptance of academic integrity policies [44,45]. Therefore, it is imperative that HEIs

prioritize the clarification of institutional expectations regarding the use of ChatGPT in
learning and assessment. Updating academic integrity policies is crucial to address GenAI
tools threats. Updates should provide clear instructions on AI tool usage and penalties for
policy violations and be accessible to students [43]. The absence of specific guidelines for AI
tools creates ambiguity, indicating a hesitancy among HEIs to take a clear stance, possibly
due to limited experience. This poses challenges in formulating comprehensive policies
that address evolving issues posed by emerging AI technologies. The other key issue has to
do with the low probability of detection perceived by students wanting to use ChatGPT for
cheating. There is evidence suggesting that the likelihood of students engaging in cheating
increases when they believe that the chances of getting caught are minimal [45]. Thus,
the lack of readily available AI plagiarism checkers to detect ChatGPT-generated content
can increase the threat to academic integrity. So, the challenge for HEIs is how to create
an environment where academic dishonesty enabled by GenAI is socially unacceptable.
This must involve ensuring that institutional expectations are clearly communicated and
understood and that students perceive the probability of plagiarism detection as high.

4.3. Barriers
Having reflected on the potential benefits for higher education, ChatGPT provided
some interesting insights regarding the barriers that HEIs may face in adopting GenAI
technology; these included Lack of Awareness and Understanding, Technological Barri-
ers, Resistance to Change, Ethical and Privacy Concerns, Academic Rigor and Quality,
Resource Constraints, Legal and Regulatory Considerations, and Lack of Interdisciplinary
Collaboration. Some of these barriers have already been documented in existing literature;
however, the majority remain unexplored and open avenues for future research directions.
One obvious barrier is a Lack of Awareness and Understanding. In this regard,
ChatGPT suggests that “if faculty, administrators, and students are not familiar with the
technology and its benefits, they may be reluctant to explore its potential”. This issue is
further compounded by the current lack of clear academic policies. For instance, this may
hinder the progress toward the adoption of ChatGPT for teaching and learning purposes.
Currently, academic staff wanting to develop innovative interventions using ChatGPT
do not have a regulatory framework to guide them. This can have a negative effect on
the empirical testing of the potential benefits discussed in this paper. A recent study on
students’ acceptance and use of ChatGPT found that students are comfortable adopting
GenAI technology and that their frequency of use contributes to the development of
habitual behavior [46]. In this context, habitual behavior or habit refers to the level of a
regular and consistent pattern of use of ChatGPT as part of an academic routine. Therefore,
HEIs have the unique opportunity to shape the principles of responsible use of emerging
AI technology and guide students in the formation of habitual behavior that is in line with
such principles. Figure 2 summarizes the principles that ChatGPT suggests considering
to “promote an environment of responsible AI use in higher education, ensuring that AI
models like ChatGPT are employed in a manner that upholds ethical standards, protects
student rights, and enhances the overall learning experience”. All of these principles
deserve further consideration and open avenues for future research direction.
Other barriers include Ethical and Privacy Concerns and Academic Rigor and Quality.
Some aspects of these have already been discussed in this paper as part of the challenges of
integrating ChatGPT in higher education. These barriers relate to a wide range of issues,
including data privacy, algorithmic biases, and authenticity of student work. As suggested
by Dignum [24], “As the capabilities for autonomous decision-making grow, perhaps the
most important issue to consider is the need to rethink responsibility. Being fundamentally
tools, AI systems are fully under the control and responsibility of their owners or users”
(p. 2011). Thus, there is a pressing need for more research into the responsible use of AI
in the higher education context. This will hopefully translate into academic policies that
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 856 13 of 18

contain the principles for responsible use of AI, as well as training and dissemination
activities to increase awareness among key users (i.e., academic staff and students).

Academic
Integrity

Continuous
Transparency
Monitoring
and
and
Disclosure
Evaluation

Acceptable
and
Responsible
Informed
Consent and
Use of AI in Data Privacy
Opt-out
Options
HE and Security

Human Bias
Oversight Awareness
and and
Intervention Mitigation

Figure 2. Principles for acceptable and responsible use of AI in higher education (own elaboration).

Economic barriers include a lack of technology and resource constraints. ChatGPT

suggests that “Universities with limited financial or personnel resources may struggle to
fully harness the benefits of ChatGPT due to resource constraints”. Equally, the adoption
of GenAI technology may require sophisticated technical infrastructure such as high-
performance computing resources and robust network connectivity. Therefore, “Universi-
ties that lack the necessary technological infrastructure may face challenges in fully utilizing
the benefits of ChatGPT”. For those HEIs that manage to overcome the exclusionary eco-
nomic barriers, resistance to change may become another hurdle. According to ChatGPT,
“Faculty members, administrators, or staff may be resistant to integrating ChatGPT into
existing workflows or may prefer traditional teaching and learning methods”. In this
regard, emerging literature points to the need to train academic staff on how ff to make the
best of ChatGPT during teaching preparation and course assessment [11]. In addition, as
we continue (or start) to embrace the use of ChatGPT in teaching and learning, it is critical
to disseminate empirical findings on the use of ChatGPT that can inform the teaching
practices of the wider academic community.

4.4. Mitigation Strategies

ChatGPT provided some priorities for mitigating the challenges discussed here; these
include Policy Development, Education and Training, Collaboration and Interdisciplinary
Efforts, Research and Development, Ethical Review Processes, and Continuous Monitoring
and Evaluation. The urgency of developing
ff or updating academic policies to address the
use of ChatGPT has already been raised in this study as well as in existing literature [11,43].
ChatGPT’s views suggest that changes to policies need to “address issues of academic integrity,
ff
data privacy, algorithmic bias, and ethical consideration”. Given the novelty of the technology as
well as the robustness of HEIs’ governance systems, it is likely that HEIs will have clearer
positions on the use of GenAI tools later this year [41], and this will hopefully translate
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 856 14 of 18

into updated academic policies. Subsequently, it will become crucial to focus resources
on Education and Training. ChatGPT suggests that “Universities should offer workshops,
seminars, or online courses to raise awareness about the benefits, limitations, and potential risks
of AI models”. This is in line with existing literature suggesting academic dishonesty is a
multifaceted behavior influenced by various factors, and simply developing an academic
policy is insufficient in addressing the problem [44]. The dissemination of such policies is
just as crucial; this could include adopting practices such as having students sign honor
pledges, providing reminders about the gravity and repercussions of academic dishonesty,
and including statements about academic misconduct in course syllabi. Furthermore,
as GenAI technologies continue to evolve rapidly, it is imperative to regularly update
academic integrity policies with clear guidelines on their appropriate and inappropriate
applications [43].
Investing in Research and Development is another important mitigation strategy,
according to ChatGPT: “This includes studying the impact of AI models on student learning
outcomes, developing algorithms for bias detection and mitigation, exploring ways to
combine AI models with human expertise, and investigating ethical frameworks for AI use
in educational settings”. These efforts can provide evidence-based insights to guide policy
decisions and best practices for the integration of GenAI in higher education. Another
important issue is the passive role that HEIs are currently playing in GenAI research. Most
cutting-edge GenAI technologies are exclusive products created by a handful of prominent
technology corporations that possess the necessary resources for AI advancement. This
raises ethical issues and goes against the move toward transparency and open science [39].
Dignum [24] agrees that AI algorithm development has so far focused on enhancing
performance, resulting in opaque systems that are difficult to interpret. Thus, there is a
call for non-commercial organizations, including HEIs, to make significant investments
in open-source AI technology to create more transparent and democratically controlled
technologies [39].
An important mitigation strategy that was not mentioned by ChatGPt but figures
prominently in existing literature relates to the need for a reevaluation of the traditional
modes of assessment [43]. To overcome some of the challenges and barriers that GenAI
pose for students’ learning and their authentic assessment, this technology might be used in
combination with active learning pedagogies, such as experiential learning [47], challenge-
based learning [48], or problem-based learning [49]. In this sense, GenAI might be used as
leverage to constructively enrich teaching and learning-by-doing activities beyond a passive
approach in which students sit, listen, and do assignments. By doing this, GenAI cannot
provide specific answers to the practicality of problem-solving in a situated real-world or
contrived learning experience but supports students in addressing study situations. Taking
this view offers a promising use of GenAI for teaching and learning purposes.

5. Conclusions
The findings of this study highlighted the transformative potential of ChatGPT in
education, consistent with previous studies, while also revealing additional insights. It
also highlighted significant challenges that must be addressed. The paper presents key
themes identified during the interview, including opportunities, challenges, barriers, and
mitigation strategies. Given the novelty of ChatGPT, existing literature about its use
within higher education is limited and largely hypothetical or speculative. Our hope
is that the findings presented here can serve as a research agenda for researchers and
the wider academic community to identify research priorities, gaps in knowledge, and
emerging trends. A key takeaway point is the urgent need for empirical research that
delves into best practices and strategies for maximizing the benefits of GenAI, as well
as user experiences, to understand students’ and academics’ perceptions, concerns, and
interactions with ChatGPT. Another priority is the development of policies, guidelines, and
frameworks for the responsible integration of ChatGPT in higher education. Based on the
conversation with ChatGPT, this paper also presents some principles for the acceptable
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 856 15 of 18

and responsible use of AI in higher education. These principles can be useful for Higher
Education Institutions working towards internal AI policies. However, empirical studies
are needed to explore the transferability of findings presented here to varied contexts with
specific features, for instance, distance or online learning.
This study employed a thing ethnography approach to explore ChatGPT’s perspective
on the opportunities and challenges it presents for higher education. This is an innovative
approach that has been implemented in design research but could become a powerful
tool for researchers from other disciplines wanting to engage with “intelligent things”.
In this study, thing ethnography provided a methodological framework to collect the
viewpoints of ChatGPT. This helped us to test its potential biases and accuracy, as well
as uncover insights that have not been extensively documented in the existing literature.
As an interviewee, ChatGPT provided very relevant and interesting insights, showing
some level of critique towards itself when questioned about potential risks and challenges,
which indicates some level of transparency regarding its own shortcomings. A benefit of
this approach is that ChatGPT enables interviewers to request further information and
clarify responses, which can enhance data collection. Additionally, the chatbot displays
a very good level of recollection during a conversation. Its memory seems to be limited;
however, this did not represent an issue for the length of our interview. Despite the absence
of non-verbal cues and expressions, the answers obtained seemed balanced and clearly
conveyed meaning. Therefore, it is argued that interviews with ChatGPT have the potential
to collect relevant data.
Limitations inherent to ethnographic research [50] are also applicable to thing ethnog-
raphy and, therefore, to this study. The first one relates to the limited scope and selection
bias; ethnographic research usually focuses on specific individuals, groups, or communities.
In this study, there is a strong focus on ChatGPT as a form of GenAI. However, other
GenAI chatbots, such as Bard or Bing Chat, have recently emerged and become accessible
to the public. Thus, the findings presented here may not be representative of the views
of all existing GenAI chatbots. Future interactions could aim to compare the views from
different GenAI chats to find similarities and discrepancies. This could provide us with a
more holistic understanding of GenAI chatbots’ perspectives in the context of higher edu-
cation. Another limitation could be the replicability of results; even though the interview
can be easily replicated, it is still not clear that ChatGPT will provide the same answers.
As consecutive and improved versions of ChatGPT are released, there will be a need to
replicate interventions such as the one proposed here to test for stability in the findings.
Another limitation relates to the potential research bias during the analysis of data. The
audit trail was particularly important in increasing the dependability and transparency
of thematic analysis [32]. A significant aspect of documenting this process is providing
verbatim quotes linked to specific codes. These links are what connect participants’ words
(i.e., raw data) to “the data summary and interpretation generated by the researcher” [32]
(p. 95). This approach can increase the capacity of external reviewers to judge the research
findings fairly. Furthermore, transferability was addressed by comparing emerging results
with existing literature [33]. Lastly, ethnographic studies tend to be highly immersive and
lengthy, requiring extended periods in the field to gain an in-depth understanding of the
research subject. However, thing ethnography does not necessarily require a longitudinal
research design and cross-sectional research designs, where data is collected at one point in
time, have been documented [21,23]. In this context, we see the intervention reported here
as the first step in a broader research study. The next steps include further conversations
with ChatGPT, and other chatbots, to test the replicability of findings presented here and
the exploration of more topics not covered in the initial interview.
We believe the use of thing ethnography to engage with ChatGPT is very relevant and
would encourage other researchers to involve GenAI entities in the process of collectively
framing and resolving current challenges. Our argument is that ChatGPT should be
approached not merely as an object controlled by humans but as a subject actively engaging
in daily practices alongside users, influencing communication dynamics, and impacting
Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 856 16 of 18

socio-material networks. We believe that thing ethnography approaches are increasingly

significant, particularly as endeavors to create more advanced AI systems closer to artificial
general intelligence (AGI) persist. As “things” grow more intelligent, there arises an urgent
demand to improve our ability to access and comprehend the perspectives (and biases) of
these entities for research purposes.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.M.-V.; methodology, R.M.-V.; validation, E.V.-P.,

D.E.S.-N., R.T.-A. and F.S.G.; formal analysis, R.M.-V., E.V.-P., D.E.S.-N., R.T.-A. and F.S.G.;
writing—original draft preparation, R.M.-V.; writing—review and editing, R.M.-V., E.V.-P., D.E.S.-N.,
R.T.-A. and F.S.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support of Writing Lab, Institute
for the Future of Education, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Mexico, in the production of this work (Los
autores desean agradecer el apoyo financiero de Writing Lab, Institute for the Future of Education,
Tecnologico de Monterrey, Mexico, en la producción de este trabajo).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: A full transcript of the interview with ChatGPT is included in this
paper. No additional data was created for this study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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