Bio F3 New Curr Notes

Form 3 (O-Level) / Biology
Content
SAFETY, CAREERS AND BRANCHES IN BIOLOGY
SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY

BY THE END OF THIS SUB-TOPIC, LEARNERS SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
1. Identify causes of accidents in the laboratory

2. Outline causes of accidents in the laboratory.
3. Outline laboratory safety rules.
4. Perform fire drills, make a fire guard around the lab
and demonstrate use of first aid kit.
5. Memorise the local emergency numbers.
Introduction
 Laboratory users (students, teachers or laboratory technicians) are
required to always practice safety when using the biology science
laboratory.
 There are several laboratory safety rules and measures which users must
follow in order to avoid harmful accidents.
 Accidents are sudden incidences which cause unintentional property
damage, human injury or even death.
 Most accidents are as a result of loss of control of material or energy.
 The most effective way of minimizing these accidents in the laboratory is
by identifying their causes and preventing them from taking place.
Causes of accidents
 The most common causes of accidents in the laboratory are:
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1. Fire
 Fire hazards include mishandling of Bunsen burners, open flames,
unclosed gas taps and improper handling and storage of flammable
materials.
2. Fumes
 Improperly sealed volatile substances and poor ventilation in the
laboratory result in intoxication.
3. Chemicals (Acids and Strong Bases)
 Spilling of corrosive substances can cause chemical burns on the skin.
4. Improper Handling of Apparatus
 Fast movement in the laboratory may cause unnecessary glassware
breakages which can result in cuts and scrapes.
 Mishandling of sharp tools poses danger in the laboratory.
 Heat burns may result if hot apparatus is not handled with the
appropriate tools.
5. Handling Microorganisms
 There is high risk of contamination of people and other places by
potentially harmful microorganisms if proper precautions are not taken
in handling them.
6. Electricity
 Electrical hazards (fig.1.1.1) include:
o short-circuiting
o exposed electric wires
o overloaded circuits
o defective insulation
o damaged power tools
o wet conditions
 These can cause electric shocks and may result in electric fires.
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Fig.1.1.1:
Examples of electrical hazards
Laboratory safety rules

 Ten general safety laboratory rules are:
1. Never eat or drink in the laboratory.
2. Do not use any laboratory equipment without supervision.
3. Do not taste or smell chemicals unless instructed to do so.
4. Read labels and instructions carefully or ask the laboratory technician to
explain them.
5. Wear protective clothing (such as laboratory coats, gloves, goggles) when
working with hazardous materials and/or equipment.
(Shorts and open shoes should not be worn in the laboratory at any time.)
6. Long hair or loose clothes must be tied back or confined.
7. Keep the work area clear of all materials except those needed for the
experiment.
8. Used materials must be properly disposed of.
9. Report any accidents or equipment failure to the laboratory technician.
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10. Wash hands before leaving the laboratory.
Fig.1.1.2:
Illustration of some common unsafe laboratory practices
Handling of laboratory apparatus and equipment

1. Glassware Safety
 Use lubricant or turning motion during insertion of glass tubing into a
rubber stopper.
 Always use dry glassware.
 Use a wire screen to protect glassware from any flame.
 Wear heat resistant gloves to handle hot glass.
 Keep cold water away from hot glass: the glass will shatter.
 Do not use broken or chipped glass: if glassware breaks, notify the
laboratory technician and dispose of the glass in the proper trash
container.
 Any broken glass must be cleaned up immediately.
 Clean and dry glassware thoroughly before storing it away.
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2. Sharp Instruments Safety
 Handle sharp and pointed objects such as scalpels, razor blades, scissors
and pins with extreme care.
3. Chemicals Safety
 Gently wave the hand over the opening of a container and direct the fumes
toward the nose when smelling chemicals.
 Keep all lids closed when a chemical is not being used.
 Use a pipette filler for drawing out chemicals.
 Be extra careful when working with acids or bases: pour such chemicals
over the sink, not over the work bench.
 When diluting an acid, pour the acid into water: never pour water into the
acid.
 Rinse any chemical spills off the skin or clothing with water for at least
fifteen minutes and immediately notify the laboratory technician of any
acid spill.
 Dispose of all chemicals as instructed by the laboratory technician.
4. Handling Living Organisms
 Animals should be handled only if necessary.
 Treat all living things with care and respect: no investigations that will
cause pain, discomfort, or harm to mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, and
amphibians should be done in the classroom or at home.
 Do not touch any organism in the classroom or laboratory unless given
permission to do so: many plants are poisonous or have thorns, and even
tamed animals may bite or scratch if frightened.
 Wear gloves when handling small animals.
 Treat all microorganisms as if they were harmful and use aseptic
procedure, as directed by the instructor.
 Dispose of microorganisms as your laboratory technician directs.
 Clean your hands thoroughly after handling animals or the cage
containing animals.
5. Electrical Safety
 Treat all circuits as though they were active.
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 Make sure power is off when connections are made.
 Inspect all electrical equipment for defects or damage and report any
faults to the instructor.
 Keep the surroundings dry when working with electrical apparatus.
6. Heating and Fire Safety
 Know how to light a Bunsen burner.
 Switch off burners when not in use.
 Wear safety goggles when working with heat sources.
 Do not reach across a flame.
 If clothing catches fire, do not run as this increases the supply of air and
increases the flames and DROP to the floor and ROLL on the floor to
smother the flames.
 If the flame leaps out of a burner towards an individual, turn the gas off
immediately: do not touch the burner, it may be hot.
 Never heat a chemical without being instructed to do so: a chemical that
is harmless when cool, can be dangerous when heated.
 Point a test tube or bottle that is being heated away from you and others:
chemicals can splash or boil out of a heated test tube.
 Heat of liquids should be done in open container, not closed containers
because the expanding gases produced may blow the container apart,
injuring you or others.
 Check for heat radiation before handling hot apparatus: use a clamp,
tongs or heat-resistant gloves when handling hot containers.
 For any heat burns, immerse burnt area in cold water for at least fifteen
minutes, or apply cold wet packs.
7. End of Practical Rules
 Tidy up the work area; clean, dry up and return all apparatus to its proper
place.
 Wash hands after every experiment.
 Turn off all burners before leaving the laboratory.
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Fire drills
 In conjunction with lab rules and safety measures, lab users must be
familiar with basic fire drills in case a fire breaks out in the lab.
 A fire drill is a practice of emergency procedures in the event of a fire.
 Similar procedures can also be used to evacuate a building in case of any
other emergency.
 An example of a fire drill is illustrated in fig.1.1.3.
Fig.1.1.3:
A fire drill
 Fire damages and injuries can be reduced by proper use of safety fire
equipment such as fire extinguishers, sand buckets and fire blankets
(fig.1.1.4).
 Another effective method of fire control is building a firebreak or fire
guard around the lab.
 A fire guard is a landscaped area, around a structure, that has been
maintained and designed to slow or stop the spread of fire.
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 Vegetation and any flammable materials are removed when making a fire
guard.
Fig.1.1.4:
Safety fire equipment
 Fire extinguishers: used to extinguish or control small fires in emergency

situations.
 Fire blanket: non-flammable blanket used to extinguish starting fires.
 Sand buckets: buckets filled with sand which are used to prevent or
extinguish fires.
Activity: Making a fire guard
Materials
o Grass cutting tools (for example, lawn mower or sickles)
o Digging tools (such as hoes)
Procedure
1. Use the provided tools to clear any vegetation surrounding the lab area.
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2. If there are any surrounding trees, find out if it is necessary to remove
them and acquire relevant authorisation before eliminating them.
Note: According to the Environmental Management Authority (EMA), a

standard fire guard should measure at least 9 metres wide on either side
of a boundary (fig.1.1.5) and must be free from any combustible
materials.
Fig.1.1.5:
Fire guard construction around the lab
3. Continue to maintain the fire guard by regularly slashing or hoeing any

vegetation regrowth and by removing flammable materials.
First Aid
 Following any accidents in the lab, first aid should be provided for minor
injuries.
 As a result, a First Aid Kit should always be readily available in the lab.
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 A First Aid Kit (fig.1.1.6) is a collection of supplies and tools that are used
to give medical treatment.
 However, it is recommended to seek medical attention after application
of first aid.
Fig.1.1.6:
First Aid Kit
Table 1.1.1: Basic First Aid Kit contents

Collective name Item Use
Sterile dressings  Plasters  For dressing small cuts

and plasters and grazes.
 Sterile gauze pads  To provide more

cushioning when
dressing a wound.
 Sterile wound dressing  To apply more pressure

and help stop bleeding
for larger wounds.
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Bandages  Roller bandages  To support joint injuries,
hold dressings in place,
put pressure on wounds
to stop bleeding and to
reduce swelling.
 Triangular bandages  Used as either a bandage

or sling, or, if sterile, as a
dressing for large
wounds and burns.
Protective items  Disposable gloves  Reduces the risk of

infection between the
first aider and the patient
when dressing wounds or
dealing with any body
fluids or waste.
 Face shields or pocket  These are designed to

masks prevent infection when
giving rescue breaths.
Other items  Cleansing wipes, alcohol  To clean the skin around

free wipes the wound.
 Sticky tape (adhesive  To hold dressings in

tape) place or to hold the loose
end of bandages.
 Pins and clips  To fasten the loose end

of bandages.
 Scissors, shears and  To cut sterile pads,

tweezers bandages or sticky tape
to the right length.
Useful extras  Kitchen film or clean  To dress burns and

plastic bags scalds.
 Alcohol gel  To sterilise hands.
 Cold packs  To place on wounds and

reduce pains or swelling.
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For outdoors  Blankets  To keep someone warm
and protect them from
the cold.
 Survival bags  To keep someone warm

and dry in an emergency.
 Torch  To help when visibility is

limited or to attract
attention.
 Whistle  To help attract attention

and get help.
  Activated charcoal  To treat poisoning.

tablets
 In case of emergencies, local emergency contact numbers (table 1.1.2)

must be available to provide the necessary assistance.
Table 1.1.2: Emergency contact numbers
SERVICE CONTACT NUMBER
All emergencies (landlines) 999
Ambulance 994
Fire brigade 993
Police 995
All emergencies (mobile phones) 112
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Content
SAFETY, CAREERS AND BRANCHES IN BIOLOGY
BRANCHES & CAREERS IN BIOLOGY

1. Identify various branches of biology.

2. List Biology related careers.
Introduction
 Biology is science that studies living organisms.
 The study of living organisms can be grouped according to the groups of
different organisms which exist.
 Three such branches are Botany, Zoology and Microbiology.
o Botany: This is the scientific study of plants.
o Zoology: This is the study of animal life including human beings.
o Microbiology: The study of microscopic organisms such as bacteria
and fungi.
 Botany, Zoology and Microbiology can be further studied individually
resulting in several other branches of biology such as:
o Anatomy: The study of the structure of organisms and their parts.
o Physiology: The study of the various functions performed by living
organisms including metabolism, digestion, respiration and
excretion.
o Cytology/Cell biology: The study of cell structure and function.
o Ecology: The study of the inter-relationships of living organisms
and their interactions with the physical environment OR the study
of the ecosystem.
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o Genetics: The study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in
living organisms.
o Biotechnology: A novel branch of biology that studies the use of
micro-organisms, plant cells and animal cells for development of
new and valuable products for human benefit such as antibiotics
and hormones.
Fig.1.2.1:
Branches of Biology
 The study of biology equips the learner with a variety of scientific skills
such as:
o understanding and application of scientific concepts
o use of laboratory techniques and equipment
o and how to research, organise, and analyse data.
 Consequently, biology learners improve their critical thinking and
problem-solving skills, along with developing their manual skills.
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 Biologists increase understanding about the environment and help to find
solutions to some natural problems, such as diseases, climate change and
environmental degradation.
 The skills that biology learners acquire can be applied to both scientific
and non-scientific careers after completion.
 Thus, pursuing a career in biology can be very exciting and hugely
rewarding.
 Some biology related jobs are listed in table 1.3.1.
Table 1.3.1: Careers in Biology

Job/career Description Location Biology
branch
related to
career
Research  Research scientists  Equipped with  Life sciences
Scientist study the natural the appropriate such as
world, using the additional Zoology,
latest scientific qualifications, Botany or
tools and research Microbiology.
techniques in both scientists can be  Genetics
laboratory settings found within  Biotechnology
and the natural academia
environment, to (mainly
understand how universities and
living systems other higher
work. Most education
common is institutions),
research within the research
medical and life institutes,
sciences, covering medical
areas such as facilities and
health and hospitals, and
disease, genetics, also within
microbiology and business and
pharmacology. industry.
 To qualify as
research scientists
one needs to have
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at least a masters
degree but some
positions require a
Ph.D.
Ecologist  Ecologists are  They usually  Life sciences
concerned with specialise in a Ecology
ecosystems as a particular area,
whole, the such as
abundance and freshwater,
distribution of marine,
organisms terrestrial,
(people, plants, fauna or flora
animals), and the and carry out a
relationships range of tasks
between relating to that
organisms and area.
their environment.
 An ecologist needs
to have at least a
bachelor’s degree
in life sciences or
ecology.
Conservationist  Nature  This can include  Life sciences
conservation grassland,  Ecology
officer (park woodland,
rangers, forests and
zoologists, coastal areas
botanists) work to depending on
protect, manage the region.
and enhance the
local environment.
 To work as a
conservationist
one needs to have
at the minimum a
bachelor’s degree
in any biology
related field.
Medicine/Healthcare  Healthcare  Biologists are  Life sciences
biologists with the recruited not  Anatomy
necessary only within  Physiology
qualifications and hospitals and  Cytology
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experience work other medical  Genetics
as veterinarians, facilities; they  Biotechnology
pharmacists, are also hired
doctors, nurses, by volunteer
dentists and other non-
healthcare government
professionals. organisations in
 They also develop order to bring
campaigns to help advanced
treat and cure healthcare to
diseases such as developing and
AIDS, cancer, war-torn
tuberculosis, heart regions.
disease, and many
lesser-known
illnesses and
diseases. A doctor
needs a bachelor’s
degree in
medicine,
complete a
residence program
at a local hospital
and obtain a
license to practise.
Dietician/  Dieticians and  They work in  Zoology
Nutritionist nutritionists are hospitals, long-  Anatomy
experts in the use term care  Physiology
of food and facilities, clinics,  Cytology
nutrition to private practice,
promote health and other
and manage institutions.
disease. They
advise people on
what to eat in
order to lead a
healthy lifestyle or
achieve a specific
health-related
goal.
 A nutritionist
should have a
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bachelor’s degree
in nutritional
sciences and earn
a practicing
certificate in
nutrition.
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Content
CHEMICALS OF LIFE
CONSTITUENTS AND IDENTIFICATION OF CHEMICALS OF LIFE

1. State the constituent elements of water, carbohydrates, proteins,

lipids and nucleic acids.
2. Describe the chemical structure of water.
3. Relate the properties of water to its uses in living organisms and
as a habitat for living organisms.
4. Name the sub-units of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic
acids.
5. Perform tests to identify reducing sugars, non -reducing sugars,
proteins and lipids.
Chemicals of life
 Chemicals of life range from simple inorganic elements to complex
organic compounds.
 There are five important chemicals which support life:
o Water
o Carbohydrates
o Proteins
o Lipids
o Nucleic acids
Water
 It is the most abundant liquid compound on earth and in a human body.
 Water can also exist in solid (ice) or gaseous (vapour) state.
 It is made up of two hydrogen (H) atoms held onto an oxygen (O) atom by
covalent bonds (as shown in fig.2.1.1) hence the chemical formula H2O.
19
Fig.2.1.1:
Model of a water molecule
Properties of water in relation to its functions

1. Transparency
 Water allows light to pass through it so that objects lying inside are seen
clearly.
 This property makes water a suitable habitat for aquatic life;
o photosynthetic organisms are able to receive light
o aquatic animals are able to use vision for hunting and finding mates.
2. Universal Solvent
 Water allows many solutes to dissolve in it more than any other liquid.
 This property makes water a very efficient medium to transport
substances throughout an organism.
 The solvent properties of water are vital because many biochemical
reactions like respiration.
3. High Specific Heat Capacity
 Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat per unit mass needed to raise
the temperature by one degree Celsius.
 Water has high specific heat capacity meaning that a given mass of water
requires large amount of heat to increase its temperature by one degree
Celsius.
 This property allows water to maintain a narrow range of environmental
temperature hence is a stable habitat for many organisms.
 This also facilitates the efficient functioning of enzymes within an
organism.
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4. Reagent
 Water is an essential input to many biochemical reactions for example
photosynthesis.
 Water reacts with carbon dioxide to produce glucose in photosynthesis.
Carbohydrates
 A carbohydrate is an organic molecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen
(H) and oxygen (O) atoms.
 There are three groups of carbohydrates shown in fig.2.1.2 are;
1. Simple sugars (for example glucose, fructose, galactose)
 They are also called reducing sugars because they are very reactive
especially in respiration.
 They are very soluble in water and all of them have a sweet taste.
2. Disaccharides (for example sucrose, maltose, lactose)
 They are more complex than the simple sugars.
 They are made up of two molecules of simple sugars chemically bonded
together.
 Two glucose molecules bonded together form maltose, fructose and
glucose molecules form sucrose (table sugar) and, glucose and galactose
form lactose.
 They are soluble in water and have a sweet taste.
3. Polysaccharides (for example starch, cellulose, glycogen)
 They are very complex polymers formed when many simple sugars join
together.
 They are very big in structure; some contain more than thousand simple
sugars molecules joined together in a line.
 Cellulose and starch are polysaccharides found in plants.
 Glycogen is a storage carbohydrate in animals, starch for storage in plants
and cellulose for plant cell structural support.
 They are insoluble in water that is why they are used for storage.
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Fig.2.1.2:
General structures of various carbohydrates.
Experiment: Testing for glucose (Benedict’s solution test)

Materials
o 1% albumen (egg white)
o 1% starch solution
o 10% glucose solution
o distilled water
o tap water
o 4 test tubes
o beaker
o Bunsen burner
o 5ml and 15ml syringes
o clock
o water resistant marker
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Procedure
Precautions: Test tubes should be put into a water bath
pointing away from the person doing the experiment. Avoid
direct heating of test tube to prevent risk of cracking.
1. Half fill a beaker with tap water and place it on a tripod and gauze.
2. Heat the water with a Bunsen burner.
3. While waiting for the water to boil, carry on with instructions 4 to 6.
(stages 1-3 can be ignored if an electric water bath is used)
4. Label four test-tubes 1-4.
5. Put 15ml of; 1% starch solution into tube 1, 10% glucose solution into tube
2, 1% albumen solution into tube 3 and distilled water into tube 4.
6. To each tube add about 5ml Benedict's solution.
7. Place the test-tubes in the beaker of hot water (see Fig.2.1.3) and adjust
the flame to keep the water just boiling.
Fig.2.1.3:
Testing for glucose
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8. After about 5 minutes, turn out the flame.
9. Place the four tubes in a test-tube rack and compare the colours.
10. Record the results.
Observations
Copy and complete the table.
Test Initial colour on heating with Final
Solution
tube Benedict’s reagent colour
1 1% starch
2 10% glucose
3 1% albumen
Distilled
4
water
Expected Observations
Fig.2.1.4:
Expected results of Benedict’s test for reducing sugars
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Experiment: Testing for starch (Iodine solution test)
 Many different food groups contain starch.
 Using iodine solution, you can test for the presence of starch.
 Iodine solution changes from brown to blue-black or purple when starch
is present.
Materials
o Starchy foods to test: potato (cooked or raw), pasta, rice, or bread
o Non-starchy solution, such as milk, for comparison
o Non-starchy foods for comparison: apple, cucumber, pure sugar
o Iodine solution
o Distilled water
o Dropper
o 5ml Syringe
o Spatula
o Test tubes (on test tube rack or in beaker), transparent plastic cups or
containers
o White tile or white background for easy comparison of any colour
changes
o White paper plates to put solid foods
o Paper towels
o Marker
Procedure
Precautions: Be careful in handling iodine, it can stain
clothing, equipment and skin. Do not put iodine in your mouth
and do not eat any tested foods, as iodine can be poiso nous.
Wash your hands and throw everything away when done.
Solid Sample
1. Peel off the skin (as shown on fig.2.1.5) of any vegetables e.g. potato and
fruits as these are often impermeable.
2. Use a clean spatula to remove samples of desirable amount of powdered
food onto a white paper plate but avoid cross contamination with other
foods.
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3. Add a few (2-3) drops of iodine solution using a dropper to a piece of
solid food on a white tile or paper plate.
4. Label the container appropriately using a marker.
5. Wipe off any spillages on workbench or excess iodine solution with paper
towel.
6. Wait for 3 – 5 minutes and observe the colour changes.
Fig.2.1.5:
Steps of testing for starch using a potato
Liquid Sample
1. Use a syringe to add 10 cm3 of milk (or any liquid food) sample to a clean
and dry test tube or transparent container.
2. Add about 3 – 5 drops of iodine solution to the test tube.
3. Label the container appropriately using a marker.
4. Observe any colour changes.
5. Repeat steps 1 -3 using distilled water instead of milk in step 1 to prepare
a control.
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6. Copy and complete the table below using information obtained in the
experiment.
Food Colour change Is starch present?
Observation Interpretation
Brown colour Starch is not present
Blue-black Starch is present
Lipids
 Lipids are called fats in animals and oils in plants.
 Like carbohydrates, they contain three kinds of atoms; carbon (C),
hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O).
 Fats are made of smaller molecules called fatty acids and glycerol.
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Fig.2.1.6:
Model structure of a lipid
Experiment: Testing for fats (Alcohol emulsion test)

Materials
o vegetable oil
o alcohol
o distilled water
o 4 test tubes on a test tube rack
o measuring cylinder
o dropper
Procedure
Precautions: All apparatus must be dry and all flames must be
extinguished.
2. Pour about 20 ml alcohol into tubes 1 and 2.
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3. Add one drop of vegetable oil to tube 1, and shake the tube sideways until
the oil dissolves in the alcohol.
4. In tubes 3 and 4 pour about 20 ml of water.
5. Pour the contents of tube 1 into tube 3 and the contents of tube 2 into
tube 4.
6. Record your results as below.
Tube Contents Tube Result when added to Interpretation
water
1 Oil dissolved in 3
alcohol
2 Alcohol alone 4
Tube Contents Tube Result when added to water Interpretation
1 Oil 3  A layer of cloudy white suspension Lipids are
dissolved forms at the top of the present
in alcohol solution.(Upon close inspection
there are tiny droplets of fat
suspended in the solution-this is
an emulsion. )
2 Alcohol 4  Solution remains colourless No Lipids are not
alone emulsion is formed present
Proteins
 Proteins contain more elements than carbohydrates.
 On top of elements in carbohydrates all proteins contain nitrogen (N) and
some also have sulphur (S).
 Proteins are polymers made of chains of small units called amino acids.
 A short chain of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds is called a
peptide whilst a long chain is called a polypeptide.
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Fig.2.1.7:
Model structures of proteins
 There are about 20 different types of amino acids, of which any of these
can be used to make different types of proteins.
 Different arrangement and length of amino acids results in different
proteins, even if one amino acid is replaced by a different one.
 Some proteins like haemoglobin (red pigment in blood) are soluble while
others like keratin (protein in nails and hair) are insoluble.
 They are body building nutrients responsible for growth, defence and
repair.
Experiment: Testing for proteins (Biuret solution test)
Materials
o 1% starch solution
o 10% glucose solution
o 1% albumen (egg white)
o dilute copper sulphate solution
o dilute sodium hydroxide
30
o distilled water
o 4 test tubes
o 5ml and 20ml syringe
Procedure
Precautions: Sodium hydroxide is caustic and dissolves
clothing, skin and bench tops. It is destructive so if any is
spilt on the bench neutralize it immediately with an equal
volume of dilute hydrochloric acid and wipe dry. If spilt on
clothing do the same but follow with a wash in as much water
as possible. If spilt on the skin do not add acid but wash under
the tap until the 'soapy' feeling is removed.
2. Put about 20ml of;
o 1% starch solution into tube 1
o 10% glucose solution into tube 2
o 1% albumen solution into tube 3
o distilled water into tube 4
3. Pour into each tube, about 5ml dilute sodium hydroxide (remember
precautions).
4. Add to this about 5ml dilute copper sulphate solution. Shake the tube
sideways to mix the contents.
5. Return the tubes to the rack, leave for a few seconds and record the
resulting colours in your notebook.
6. Copy the table below and record your observations.
Tube Substance Reaction with copper sulphate and sodium hydroxide
31
 A positive result would show the mixture turn from blue to a purple
colour.
 The intensity of the purple colour is directly proportional to the amount
of protein present in the sample.
Nucleic acids
 These are polymers that enable organisms to transfer hereditary
information from one generation to the next.
 Nucleic acids contain elements Carbon (C), Oxygen (O), Hydrogen (H),
Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P).
 Nucleic acids are polynucleotide chains made from nucleotide molecules
joined together.
 Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids that contain three
parts namely:
o Nitrogenous base
o Five-carbon (pentose) sugar
o Phosphate group
 Individual nucleotides are bonded together by covalent bonds between
the phosphate of one and the sugar of another to form polynucleotide
chains.
 There are two types of nucleic acids deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA).
 DNA is composed of a phosphate, deoxyribose sugar and the four
nitrogenous bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine.
 In double stranded DNA, adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs
with cytosine.
 DNA with paired bases coils and twists (as shown in fig.2.1.8) to form a
structure called double helix.
 RNA exists as a single stranded molecule composed of a
phosphate, ribose sugar and the bases adenine, guanine, cytosine and
uracil.
32
 The first part of a name of the two nucleic acids is derived from the type
of five carbon sugar used to make it.
Fig.2.1.8:
Model structures of nucleic acids and a nucleotide
 Table 2.1.2 summarises the element constituents of organic compounds.

Table 2.1.2: Constituent elements of organic compounds
Organic Constituent elements Sub-units
compound
Carbohydrates Carbon, Hydrogen and Glucose ( sub-unit for
Oxygen starch, cellulose and
glycogen)
Proteins Carbon, Oxygen Hydrogen, Amino acids
Nitrogen and Sulphur
Lipids (fats Carbon, Hydrogen and Fatty acids and glycerol
and oils) Oxygen
Nucleic acids Carbon, Oxygen Hydrogen, Nucleotides
Nitrogen and Phosphorus

Content
33
CELLS AND CELLULAR ACTIVITIES
PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

1. Define a cell.
2. Identify parts of the cells.
3. Outline functions of cell organelles.
4. Compare the structures of plant and animal cells.
Cells
 Living organisms are made up of made up of microscopic units called
cells.
 A cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of an organism.
 They have the following characteristics:
Respire to obtain energy

Irritability (sensitivity) – response to stimuli
Nutrition to absorb nutrients
Growth and development
Excretion to remove metabolic wastes
Reproduce to make more of same kind
[RINGER]
 Most cells cannot be seen by the naked eye but they can be viewed under
a microscope.
 Fig.3.1.1 below shows the structure of a light microscope, commonly used
in school science laboratory.
34
Fig.3.1.1:
A light microscope
Table 3.1.1: Parts and functions of a microscope

Part Function
Objective lenses Magnification lenses - usually x4, x10, x40 and x100
magnification
Light source Projects light up through the diaphragm
Diaphragm Regulates the amount of light on the specimen
Eye piece Magnifies the image
Stage Supports the slide with the specimen to be viewed
Stage clips Holds the slide in position
Base Supports the microscope, specimen, and the lenses
Experiment: Examination of onion epidermis
Materials
o quarter onion (freshly cut)
o iodine solution
o distilled water
o slide
o slide cover
35
o microscope
Procedure
1. Prepare the onion epidermis as illustrated in stages in fig.3.1.2.
Fig.3.1.2:
Slide preparation-onion epidermis
2. To obtain a clear view of the specimen:

3. Use a small and thin specimen to allow light penetration
4. Ensure that the specimen does not dry.
5. Avoid folding and trapping air between the cover slip and the slide - lower
the cover slip slowly.
6. Do not press the cover slip to avoid damaging the specimen tissue.
7. Stain the specimen with iodine solution; it improves the contrast between
the different structures in the observed image.
8. Observe under low and high magnification of microscope.
9. Select the magnification which provides as much detail as possible for the
cells.
36
10. Calculate the magnification used.
11. Magnification (M)= Eyepiece magnification x Objective lens
magnification, for example:
M = Eyepiece (x10) x Objective lens (x40)

= x400
(NB: magnification should always be expressed with “x” before the
digits)
 Given that the onion specimen is viewed under a total magnification of
x1000 and one of the cells from the image measures 15mm in length.
Calculate the actual size of the cell using the formula below.
Magnification = Image size

Actual size
Fig.3.1.3 shows the onion cell when viewed under a
microscope.
Fig 3.1.3:
Onion epidermal cells stained with iodine seen under a light microscope at x40 magnification
 Actual size = Image size

Magnification
37
= 15 mmx1000
= 0,015mm
= 15µm
Structure and function of plant and animal cells
Fig.3.1.4:
Structure of plant and animal cells
 The living matter inside a cell is called protoplasm.

 Within the protoplasm are structures known as organelles.
 Organelles are structures in both plant and animal cells which perform
specific functions.
 They enable the cells to carry out the basic processes of life.
 Organelles common to both plant and animal cells are cytoplasm,
nucleus, vacuole, and cell membrane.
 In addition to these, plant cells have cell walls, chloroplasts and starch
granules.
38
Structure and function of cell organelles
1. Cytoplasm
 This is a gel-like fluid where all organelles are suspended.
 Cytoplasm is mostly composed of water and salts.
 It is surrounded by a selectively permeable membrane to maintain
optimum conditions for chemical reactions.
 The chemical reactions include protein synthesis and respiration.
2. Nucleus
 It contains the genetic material (DNA) which determines nature of the
cell.
 The nucleus controls all the activities of the cell.
3. Cell Membrane
 The cell membrane is a semi-permeable covering which surrounds the
cytoplasm separating cell contents from its surroundings.
 It controls the entrance and exit of dissolved substances.
4. Cellulose Cell Wall
 Cellulose is tough carbohydrate which provides structural support to the
cell.
 The cell wall is freely permeable to water and dissolved substances.
 It also protects the cell from damage by osmotic absorption of water.
5. Vacuole
 In animal cells, the vacuoles are relatively small and temporary; some are
involved in digestion (phagocytes) while others are for removing excess
water.
 In plant cells, the vacuole is large and permanent, and it contains cell sap
(solution of salts and sugars).
 Cell sap helps to draw water into the cell through osmosis.
 Water in vacuole maintains turgor pressure which in turn maintains the
definite shape structure of a plant cell.
6. Mitochondrion
It is the site where respiration takes place.
39
Respiration is an enzyme controlled process that releases energy through
breaking down of food substances especially carbohydrates like glucose.
It is referred to as the powerhouse of a cell.
It is located in the cytoplasm.
7. Chloroplasts
It is the site where photosynthesis takes place.
Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll - a green pigment which absorbs light
for photosynthesis.
They also contain enzymes which are needed for photosynthesis.
It is located in the cytoplasm.
Table 3.1.2: Comparing plant and animal cell structure
Cell Plant Animal
structure
Nucleus Present (often found Present (found anywhere inside
near the cell)
the edges of the cell)
Cytoplasm Present and Present
surrounded by a
cell wall
Cell Present Present
membrane
Vacuole Present (large, Present (small, temporary)
permanent)
Cell wall Present Absent
Chloroplasts Present in some cells Absent
Shape Permanent shape as Vary due to absence of
determined by rigid rigid cell wall.
cell
wall
40
Content
CELL SPECIALISATION
1. Identify specialised cells.

2. Relate cell structure to function.
Introduction
Cell specialisation is when newly divided cells begin to change shape,
inner structure, cytoplasm, and cell membrane.
This enables the cell to adapt to a specific function more effectively and
efficiently.
Multicellular organisms are composed of numerous specialised cells.
Some examples of specialised cells are red blood cells, root hair cells,
neurons, muscle cells, palisade cells and xylem vessels.
Examples of specialised cells in plants

1. Root Hairs
These are modified epidermal cell of the roots.
Their main function is to absorb water and mineral salts by osmosis and
active uptake respectively.
41
Fig.3.2.1:
Root Hair
Table 3.2.1: Structural adaptations of root hair cells

Structural Function
adaptation
Have a large vacuole Allows maximum storage for the
absorbed water and mineral salts.
No chloroplasts Enables the vacuole to stretch out.
Have cell sap Lowers water potential in the root so that
osmosis occurs faster.
Have large number Provides energy for the active
of transport of mineral salts.
mitochondria.
Shaped like tiny Increases surface area to volume
finger-like ratio for faster and maximum
projection. absorption of water and mineral
salts.
2. Palisade Cells
Palisade cells are vertically elongated and closely packed cells which have
numerous chloroplasts to absorb sunlight.
42
They are located on the upper part of the leaf to allow them to capture
maximum amount of light energy.
Fig.3.2.2:
Structure of a palisade cell
Examples of specialised cells in animals

1. Red Blood Cells
Red blood cells have a biconcave disc shape.
43
Fig. 3.2.3:
Red blood cells
They are composed of cell membrane and cytoplasm, but no nucleus.

The main function of red blood cells is to transport oxygen to all respiring
cells.
This function is enabled by a red protein pigment called haemoglobin,
which is found in large amounts in the cytoplasm of red blood cells.
Absence of nucleus leaves more space for haemoglobin which increases
amount of oxygen that can be transported at a given time.
Red blood cells are very small in size and flexible which enables them to
squeeze through narrow capillaries hence bringing the oxygen very close
to nearly all body cells.
Their disc-like biconcave shape gives them a large surface area which
increases diffusion of oxygen in and out of cell.
2. White Blood Cells
White blood cells are also called leukocytes.
They are specialised for immunity of the body from diseases.
Immunity system is involved in protecting the body against both
infectious pathogens and foreign invaders.
All white blood cells are produced in the bone marrow.
44
White blood cells are found throughout the body but injured or infected
areas have large quantities of these cells.
There are two major types of white blood cells;
a. Phagocytes
o They engulf and digest pathogens or foreign bodies that invade the
body.
o Phagocytes have irregular shaped nucleus that allows the cell to
squeeze through walls of capillaries towards an infected part of the
body.
o Some phagocytes have a C-shaped nuclei that helps to surround
and engulf foreign bodies or pathogens.
o Enzymes in the cytoplasm assist in the digestion of engulfed
material.
o The cell membrane is sensitive for detecting foreign organisms in
the body.
b. Lymphocytes
o They produce antibodies that destroy pathogens.
o Lymphocytes produce antitoxins that neutralise the toxins released
by pathogens.
Fig.3.2.4:
45
White blood cells
3. Muscle Cells
Muscle cells have a cell membrane, cytoplasm, and many nuclei in each
cell instead of one.
Muscle cells are specialised for movement such as breathing movements,
chewing and movement of limbs.
The cytoplasm contains numerous protein fibres which can shorten the
cell when movement is required.
Cells of muscles are long and elastic, enabling the muscle tissue to
contract and relax.
Fig.3.2.5:
Muscle cells
Some of the structures that enable the muscle cells to adapt to their
function are:
They possess numerous mitochondria - for producing energy needed
during movement.
They are long and thin - this allows muscle tissue to contract and relax.
Their elasticity allows the muscle tissue to return to normal after each
contraction.
46
4. Neuron Cells (Nerve Cells)
These cells are specialised for transmitting impulses throughout the body.
Impulses are electro-chemical signals sent by nerve cells.
Nerve cells are adapted for their function since they are very long (more
than a meter), enabling rapid impulse transmission, to and from all parts
of the body.
Neurons also have axons wrapped around by myelin sheath to insulate
against loss of impulses during transmission.
Fig.3.2.6:
Structure of a typical neurone
5. Sperm
It is a male sex cell that is specialised for fertilisation and motility (ability
to move spontaneously and actively to propel a body).
The structure of a sperm is related to its function because it has a tail for
swimming towards an ovum.
It has very little energy store but has numerous mitochondria in the
midpiece to support respiration.
47
Respiration provides energy required by the tail for swimming.
The acrosome has enzymes that breaks down the walls of the ovum to
effect fertilisation.
Millions of sperms are released during a single ejaculation to increase
chances of fertilisation.
Fig.3.2.7:
Structure of a sperm
6. Ovum (Egg Cell)

It is a female sex cell that is specialised for fertilisation.
It is much larger than a sperm cell and non-motile.
Ovum has a large food store in cytoplasm to support the zygote.
Its large size makes more space to accommodate the nucleus from sperm
cell during and after fertilisation.
48
Fig.3.2.8:
Structure of an ovum (egg cell).

Content
CELLULAR TRANSPORT
1. Define diffusion.
2. Investigate factors that affect the rate of diffusion.
3. Define osmosis.
4. Describe active transport.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of particles or molecules from a region of their
higher concentration to a region of their lower concentration.
49
It is a passive process meaning that particles move down the
concentration gradient (without energy expenditure) until equilibrium is
reached.
The concentration difference of particles between two places is called
concentration gradient.
The particles are in constant motion because of the kinetic energy they
possess.
This process occurs mostly in gases and liquids and is faster in gases than
in liquids.
It hardly occurs in solids because of the closely packed and fixed structure
of its particles.
Fig.3.3.1:
Diffusion process
Experiment: Diffusion in liquids

Materials
o potassium permanganate crystal
o beaker (filled with water)
o straw/forceps
Procedure
1. Use a straw/forceps to place a crystal of potassium permanganate at the
bottom of a beaker filled with water.
50
2. Allow the beaker to stand undisturbed.
3. Observe what happens after a few minutes, an hour, after a day and more.
Fig.3.3.2:
Diffusion of potassium permanganate in water
After a day or two days beaker C, shows a purple cloud-like rising from
the bottom to the top of the beaker.
A complete purple colour is observed in beaker D a few more days.
The particles of the potassium permanganate moved from where they
are highly concentrated (bottom) to where they are less concentrated
(top), until equilibrium was reached.
Experiment: Diffusion in gases
Materials
o 50ml hydrochloric acid
o 50ml ammonia
o 2 equal volume containers
51
Procedure
1. Place two bottles, one containing hydrochloric acid and the other
containing concentrated ammonia close to each other (in a fume cupboard
because the chemicals are dangerous).
2. Observe what happens.
A white cloudy mist is observed.
The vapours from the two liquids (ammonia and concentrated
hydrochloric acid) diffuse into the air.
The two vapours react to form the mist.
Factors affecting the rate diffusion
The rate of diffusion is affected by:
o temperature
o surface area to volume ratio
o particles size
o concentration gradient
o diffusion distance
1. Temperature
o The higher the temperature the faster the rate of diffusion and vice
versa.
o At higher temperatures, particles gain kinetic energy and move
faster.
2. Surface Area to Volume Ratio
o The larger the surface area to volume ratio, the faster the rate at
which diffusion occurs.
o Cell membranes that are folded present a large surface area to
allow many molecules to cross by diffusion at a given time.
3. Particle Size
o The smaller the particle size, the faster the rate of diffusion and
vice versa.
o Powders tend to diffuse at a faster rate compared to crystals.
52
o Smaller particles at a given temperature move faster than larger
particles because they require less kinetic energy to move.
4. Concentration Gradient
o The greater the concentration gradient of the particles between two
places the faster the rate of diffusion.
o Particles tend to move very fast down a steep concentration
gradient.
Experiment: Comparing effects of temperature on diffusion in liquids
Materials
o potassium permanganate (3×5g)

o 200ml cold water
o 200ml water at room temperature
o 200ml water at 60oC
o 3 beakers (250ml)
Fig.3.3.3:
Effect of temperature on the rate of diffusion
Procedure
1. Measure equal amount of water in three beakers.
2. Water in beaker A is cold, in B is at room temperature, and in C is at 60oC.
53
3. Place 5g of potassium permanganate crystal is to the bottom of each
beaker using a straw.
4. Leave the beakers undisturbed.
5. Observe what happens in each beaker.
A purple streak of the potassium permanganate rises faster in beaker C
than in B, and is very slow in beaker A.
Fig.3.3.4:
Effect of temperature on the rate of diffusion
High temperatures increase kinetic energy of the particles, so that they

move more freely and faster around each other.
Experiment: Comparing effects of surface area/volume ratio
Materials
o 5g powdered potassium permanganate
o 5g crystal potassium permanganate
o 2 beakers each containing 200ml water at room temperature
54
Fig.3.3.5:
Effect of surface area/volume ration on the rate of diffusion
Procedure
1. Measure 200ml of water at room temperature in beaker A and in beaker
B.
2. Place 5g potassium permanganate crystals in beaker A and 5g of
potassium permanganate powder in beaker B.
3. Allow the two beakers to stand and observe after some minutes, a day
and a week.
55
Fig.3.3.6:
Effect of surface area/volume ration on the rate of diffusion
Diffusion is faster if surface area is large in ratio to the volume.

Diffusion and living things
Diffusion is a vital process in all living organisms.
It is the major process by which substances for example gases and
nutrients move in and out of tissue cells.
In Humans:
In the respiratory system, oxygen diffuses out of the red blood cells into
the respiring cells.
In gaseous exchange, oxygen diffuses from the alveoli to the red blood
cells, while carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood capillaries to the
alveoli.
In digestive system, soluble food diffuses from the ileum into the blood
stream.
56
In Plants:
Carbon dioxide and Oxygen move in and out (respectively) of the palisade
and spongy mesophyll cells during photosynthesis.
Osmosis
This is a special type of diffusion that involves movement of water
molecules only.
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a region of their higher
concentration to a region of their lower concentration through a partially
or selectively permeable membrane.
Fig.3.3.7:
Osmosis
In fig.3.3.7, water molecules are separated from the glucose solution by

differentially permeable membrane.
This membrane allows diffusion of water molecules only but not glucose
molecules.
57
Water moves from their concentration (right) to their lower concentration
(left) (water flows down a water potential gradient).
This process continues until water concentration equilibrium is reached.
Experiment: Osmosis in living plant tissue (potato cells)
Materials
o freshly peeled potato
o 200ml distilled water
o 200ml 5% salt or sugar solution
o 200ml 10% salt or sugar solution
o ruler
o balance scale
Procedure
1. Prepare three small pieces of peeled potato of the same size.
2. Measure and record the length or mass of each potato piece.
3. Put one piece into each solution, and leave the experiment for a day.
4. Measure and record the length or mass of each potato piece on day 2.
5. Tabulate the results: original mass or length, final mass or length,
decrease or increase in mass or length, and the % increase or decrease.
Distilled 5% 10%
water salt/sugar salt/sugar
solution solution
Original mass 5,0cm 5,0cm 5,0cm
or length
Final mass or 7,3cm 4,0cm 2,9cm
length
Increase or +2,3cm -1,0cm -2,1cm
decrease in
mass or length
% increase or decrease in mass or =46% -20% -42%
length
The potato piece in distilled water increased in length by 46%.
58
The water molecules diffused into the potato, region of their low
concentration.
The percentage decrease was higher in the 10% sugar solution than in the
5% sugar solution. Movement of water molecules from potato into
solution was higher in the 10% solution than in the 5% solution.
Experiment: Osmosis using visking tubing
A visking tubing is an artificial semi -permeable membrane
with microscopic holes which allow smaller molecules like,
glucose and water to pass through.
Materials
o 200ml 10% sugar solution
o A prepared visking tubing containing 50ml distilled water (with a
capillary tube)
o A prepared visking tubing containing 50ml of 10% sugar solution
(with a capillary tube)
o 2 beakers
Procedure
1. Place the visking tubing containing glucose solution into the beaker with
distilled water, (beaker A).
2. Place the visking tube filled with distilled water into the beaker with
glucose solution (beaker B).
3. Leave the experiment for 15 - 20 minutes.
4. Observe water level in the capillary tube.
5. Remove the visking bags and observe their shape and size.
59
Fig.3.3.8:
Osmosis in visking tubing
In A; the liquid level in the capillary increases, the visking tubing swell,
is firm and hard.
In B; has the liquid level in the capillary decreases, the visking tubing
shrinks, feels soft and flaccid.
The visking tubing in A is surrounded by distilled water which has a
higher water potential. The water molecules enter the visking tubing by
osmosis causing the level in the capillary tube to rise.
The water concentration surrounding the visking tubing in B is lower,
than in the tubing. Water molecules leave the visking tubing into the
solution resulting in a decrease of the liquid level in the capillary tube.
60
Osmosis in animal cells:
Solutions inside and outside the animal cell are separated by a partially
permeable cell membrane.
Inside the cell, the cytoplasm has a fairly concentrated solution of proteins
and other substances in water.
Outside the cell, the solution is much more dilute (highly concentrated in
water).
Water molecules move from outside the cell into the cell by osmosis.
Fig. 3.3.9:
Osmosis in a red blood cell
Fig.3.3.9 shows what happens to a red blood cell in three different

concentration solutions.
When placed in an isotonic (balanced) solution, the red blood cell
maintains its shape because water concentrations in the red blood cell
and in the isotonic solution are balanced, therefore no osmosis occurs.
The red blood cell placed in hypotonic (dilute) solution swells as a result
of movement of water molecules from the solution into the red blood cell.
61
If more and more water continues to enter, the red blood cell membrane
bursts.
The hypertonic solution has more solutes than water molecules.
Water will therefore diffuse from the red blood cell into the solution by
osmosis; the red blood cell shrinks and becomes crenated.
Osmosis in plants cells:

If water enters the plant cell by osmosis the cytoplasm swells and it
pushes against the cell wall.
However, the cell is prevented from bursting by the strong cellulose cell
wall.
If however, water leaves the plant cell by osmosis, the cytoplasm will
shrink and pull away from the cell wall.
Fig.3.3.10:
Osmosis in plant cells
62
1. Plant cell in solution of equal water potential
The water concentration in the cytoplasm and in the solution is balanced;
therefore there is no net movement of water (no osmosis).
The cytoplasm just presses against the cell wall.
2. Plant cell in hypertonic (concentrated sugar) solution
A cell surrounded by concentrated sugar (a solution of lower water
potential) than in the cytoplasm, will lose water by osmosis to the
surrounding solution.
This causes the cytoplasm to shrink and become flaccid or "floppy".
As water continues to leave the cell by osmosis, the cytoplasm pulls away
from the cell wall and the cell becomes plasmolysed.
Plasmolysis results in the death of the cell as the cell membrane usually
gets damaged while it gets torn away from the cell wall.
3. Plant cell in hypotonic (dilute) solution
When a cell is surrounded by a dilute (higher concentrated water) solution,
water moves into the cytoplasm by osmosis.
As more and more water enters the cell the cytoplasm and the vacuole
expands, the cytoplasm pushes against the cell wall.
The cell wall stops the cell from expanding enough to break the cell
membrane.
The cell becomes full of water, very firm, and rigid; it is said to be turgid.
Turgidity is important in plants as it helps them to stay upright and keeps
the leaves firm (structural support).
Active transport
This is a process by which dissolved molecules or ions move into and out
of a cell against a concentration gradient using energy.
Carrier proteins in cell membranes change shape to move the ions or
molecules against their concentration gradient.
This process requires energy which must be supplied by the cell from
respiration.
Fig.3.3.11 shows a representation of active transport.
63
Fig.3.3.11:
Diagrammatic representation of active transport
Active transport in plants

Plants require mineral salts (nitrates, phosphorous, potassium) for
growth; however, these are more concentrated in the root cells than in the
soil.
Cells utilise energy to actively transport these mineral salts across the cell
membrane into the root cells, against a concentration gradient.
Active transport in animals

At some point in the ileum, food molecules become less concentrated that
they can no longer diffuse into the bloodstream, yet more nutrients will
still be needed by the body cells.
These nutrients namely amino acids, sugars, vitamins, mineral salts are
then actively transported against their concentration gradient.
64
Content
ENZYMES
NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES

1. Define an enzyme.
2. Explain the properties of enzymes.
3. Describe enzyme action.
4. Investigate factors that affect the rate of enzyme
catalysed reactions.
Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts.
They speed up the rate of chemical reactions in living organisms.
An enzyme has an active site to which substances bind and where a
reaction is catalysed to form products.
Enzymes work on a specific kind of substrate.
Substrate molecules fit exactly into the active site of the enzyme to form
an enzyme-substrate complex.
This is also called the lock and key hypothesis of enzyme activity.
Fig.4.1.1 shows the mechanism of action of an enzyme-catalysed
reaction.
65
Fig.4.1.1:
Lock and key mechanism
Properties of enzymes
1. They are protein in nature.
o The protein molecules can be folded into many different shapes to
make enzyme molecules.
o An enzyme molecule can only work best if its shape is not altered.
o Two factors which affect shape of an enzyme are temperature and
pH.
2. They are highly specific.
o Each type of enzyme has a shape that makes it suitable for
catalysing one type of reaction.
o For example, in the digestive system salivary amylase breaks down
starch only, and will have no effect on fats or proteins.
3. They are reusable.
o Enzymes are not consumed in the reaction instead, they remain
unchanged.
66
o When the reaction is over the product(s) leave the enzyme and
another substrate molecule enters.
The mechanism of enzyme action

Enzyme (Amylase) Used For Germination
A seed contains an embryo plant which needs energy while germinating,
until it has developed leaves and start to germinate.
The source of this energy comes from the food store in their cotyledons
or endosperm.
The food is stored as starch, an insoluble complex carbohydrate.
Starch cannot be used as an immediate source of energy by respiration
and needs to be broken down into soluble components.
An enzyme amylase is secreted when the seed begins to germinate.
The amylase breaks down the starch into maltose, which is soluble and is
absorbed by the growing embryo.
The seedling breaks down the maltose into glucose and uses it to supply
energy for growth.
The glucose is also used to build up cellulose to make cell walls for the
new cells that are produced as the seedling grows.
67
Fig.4.1.2:
Breaking down of starch in germinating seed
Catalase from potatoes

A catalase is an enzyme that catalyses the breakdown of hydrogen
peroxide into oxygen and water.
Hydrogen peroxide is a poisonous waste product of metabolism and must
be immediately removed from cells.
Both plants and animal cells can make the enzyme catalase to remove the
hydrogen peroxide.
Potatoes are used as a good source of catalase.
Experiment: Effects of catalase (potato) on hydrogen peroxide
Materials
o potato discs (8 to 10)

o 25cm3 10% hydrogen peroxide
68
o 500ml measuring cylinder
o 500ml beaker
o test tube
Fig.4.1.3:
Effects of catalase on hydrogen peroxide
Procedure:
1. Set up the experiment as shown in fig.4.1.3.
2. After a few minutes observe the changes in the measuring cylinder.
3. Use a glowing splint to test the gas collected in the measuring cylinder.
Gas bubbles are released, (hydrogen peroxide breaking down to form
water and oxygen).
The collected gas relights a glowing splint, (a positive test for oxygen).
69
Factors affecting enzyme activity
An enzyme molecule can only work best if its shape is not altered.
If an enzyme molecule loses its shape, its substrate will not fit into its
active site.
Two factors which affect shape of an enzyme are temperature and pH.
1. Temperature
The graph in fig.4.1.4 represents the effects of temperature on an enzyme
activity.
The enzyme-catalysed reaction increases, reaches a maximum (optimum)
rate and then decreases as the temperature increases.
In a temperature range of 0oC – 40oC, increasing the temperature increases
rate of reaction.
This results from the molecules of both the enzyme and the substrate
gaining more kinetic energy and colliding with each other more
frequently.
Increasing the temperature above 40oC decreases the rate of reaction.
The enzyme molecules begin to lose their shape (denature) and the active
sites are distorted causing the substrate not to fit thus inhibiting the
reaction.
At 60oC the enzyme becomes completely denatured.
A denatured enzyme cannot function as a catalyst.
At low temperatures, the enzyme and substrate molecules have less
kinetic energy and move slowly (they become inactive), resulting in
decreased rate of reaction.
70
Fig.4.1.4:
Effects of temperature on enzyme-catalysed reactions
The human body temperature is about 37oC.

Most of the enzymes that work in our body have an optimum temperature
of 40oC.
Enzymes functioning in plants have an optimum temperature of around
25oC.
Bacteria from hot springs have enzymes that can have optimum
temperatures of more than 70oC.
Experiment: Effects of temperature on enzyme action

Materials
o 8 test tubes
o 4 water baths at 0oC, 20oC, 40oC and 60oC
o syringe
71
o stop watch
o some milk
o some trypsin solution
Procedure
1. Put 10ml of milk into 4 test tubes.
2. Put 10ml of trypsin into the other 4 test tubes.
3. Place one test tube of milk and one test tube of trypsin into each of the
four water baths for 2 minutes.
4. Starting with the test tubes in 0oC water bath, pour the trypsin into the
milk and immediately start the stop watch.
5. Observe and record the time taken for the milk to clear.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 for the other set of test tubes.
No colour change is observed in the 0oC and 60oC water baths - the
enzyme trypsin is inactive at 0oC and are denatured at 60oC.
A clear colour is observed after a shorter time in 40oC water bath than in
the 20oC water bath.
The enzyme trypsin speeds up the breakdown of the protein polypeptide
in milk, resulting in a clear colour.
2. pH
pH of a solution is a measure of how acidic or alkaline the solution is.
The shape and activity of enzyme molecules affected by pH.
For most enzymes there is a small range of pH in which their molecules
are exactly the right shape (pH optimum)
In extremes of pH (too low or too high) most enzymes are denatured.
The graph in Fig.4.1.5 shows the optimum pH for pepsin, amylase, and
lipase.
72
Fig.4.1.5:
Effects of pH on digestive enzymes activity
Experiment: Effects of pH on digestive enzyme pepsin, amylase, and lipase

Materials
o 5 test tubes
o neutral buffer solution
o weakly acidic buffer solution(pH 5)
o strongly acidic buffer solution(pH 2)
o strongly basic buffer solution(pH 12)
o weakly basic buffer solution(pH 8)
o 25ml pepsin
o 25ml milk
Procedure
1. Measure 5ml milk and pour into each test tube.
73
2. Measure 5ml of each buffer solution.
3. Add one of each buffer solution into the milk.
4. Measure 5ml pepsin and add to the milk-buffer solution.
5. Observe which solution becomes clear.
6. Repeat the experiment using lipase on fats-buffer solution.
7. Observe which solution turns.
8. Repeat the experiment using amylase on starch-buffer solution.
9. Observe which solution turns.
The pepsin-milk-buffer solution becomes clear in the strongly acidic
solution.
The pH in the stomach ranges from 1-3, because of the presence of
hydrochloric acid.
The enzyme pepsin is found in the stomach, it digests proteins.
The lipase-fats-buffer solution becomes clear in the slightly alkaline
solution.
The amylase-starch-buffer solution in the neutral solution.
Salivary amylase digests starch in the mouth and in the small ileum, has
an optimum pH between 7.0 - 7.5, neutral to slightly basic.
The enzyme lipase digests fats in a slightly alkaline environment of pH
level 8.
74
Content
PLANT SCIENCE
NUTRITION IN PLANTS
1. Define photosynthesis.
2. Investigate conditions necessary photosynthesis.
3. Describe factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis.
4. Describe how leaf structure is adapted for
photosynthesis.
5. Describe the functions and effects of deficiency of
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium on plant growth.
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a process in which green plants manufacture
carbohydrates using carbon dioxide, water and light energy trapped by
chlorophyll.
Light energy is trapped and converted into chemical energy (glucose).
Plants can manufacture their own food using inorganic substances hence
they are called autotrophs or producers.
This can be summarised by the following equation;
𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
Carbon dioxide + Water > Glucose + Oxygen
𝒄𝒉𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒉𝒚𝒍𝒍
The equation only shows glucose as a food product and oxygen is

released as a by-product of this reaction.
The glucose produced is transported as sucrose and stored in the plant
cells as starch.
75
Experiment: Testing for starch on a leaf
Materials
o boiling water bath

o methylated spirit or ethanol
o boiling tube
o test tube holder
o test tube rack
o petri dish or glass/ceramic tile
o iodine solution
Fig.5.1.1:
Testing for starch on a leaf
76
Procedure
1. Bring some water to boiling either in a beaker of water heated by a Bunsen
burner or in an electric water bath.
2. Submerge a leaf in boiling water for one minute. This kills the leaf as it
destroys membranes, making it easier to extract chlorophyll.
3. Place this leaf in a boiling tube with enough alcohol to just cover the leaf
and place the boiling tube in the boiling water bath for 10 minutes.
Precaution: When the alcohol begins to boil, turn off the Bunsen. This will
prevent the alcohol from boiling too vigorously and shooting out of the
mouth of the boiling tube.
4. Wash the leaf in warm water which removes the ethanol and rehydrates
the leaf and makes it easy to spread out.
5. Spread the leaf flat out on a tile or Petri dish and put some drops of iodine
solution on it.
If the leaf turns blue-black, starch is present and if it stays red/brown
there is no starch.
Conditions necessary for photosynthesis

As from the equation of photosynthesis, the requirements of
photosynthesis are:
1. Availability Of Light
o Light provides the energy that drives photosynthesis.
2. Chlorophyll
o It is the green pigment found in the chloroplasts of leaf cells.
o This pigment absorbs light energy.
3. Carbon Dioxide And Water
o Carbon dioxide and water are the raw materials used to synthesise
glucose.
77
Experiment: Is light necessary for photosynthesis?
Materials
o potted plant that has been kept in the dark for 48 - 72 hours
o aluminium foil or black tape
o scissors
o starch test materials
Procedure:
1. Cut a small piece of aluminium foil or black tape.
2. Cover a part of one leaf on both sides with a strip of aluminium foil.
3. Leave the plant in the sun for 3 hours (the exposed parts of the leaf form
the control of the experiment).
4. After 3 hours remove the leaf from the plant and form a starch test.
Fig.5.1.2:
(a) Previously de-starched leaf (b) Appearance of leaf after testing with iodine solution
In the experiment because light is the energy needed for photosynthesis,
the leaf will appear as in fig.5.1.2 (b).
The part in sunlight will show presence of starch.
78
Experiment: Is chlorophyll necessary for photosynthesis?
Materials
o plant with variegated leaves that has been kept in the dark for 48-
72 hours
Procedure
1. Remove the plant from the dark and put it in the sun for 3 hours.
2. After 3 hours remove the leaf from the plant and form a starch test.
Fig.5.1.3:
(a) Normal de-starched variegated leaf (b) after boiling in alcohol and (c) after treatment with iodine
solution
The part that contained chlorophyll (green colour) showed presence of
starch concluding that chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis.
Experiment: Is carbon dioxide necessary for photosynthesis?

Materials
o de-starched potted plant
79
o conical flask or polythene bag
o lime water
o cotton wool
o sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide
Procedure
1. Remove the plant from the dark.
2. Encase a leaf of the plant in a polythene bag or conical flask filled with
potassium hydroxide as in fig.5.1.4.
3. Place the plant in the sun for 3 hours.
4. Take the leaf enclosed and any other leaf on the plant, which is the control
and perform a starch test.
Fig.5.1.4:
Testing significance of carbon dioxide in photosynthesis
80
After the starch test, the enclosed leaf showed lack of starch showing
carbon dioxide is needed for photosynthesis.
Fate of end products of photosynthesis

Process of photosynthesis produces simple sugars such as glucose, and
gaseous oxygen.
Glucose is directly used by the plant, converted into other forms of sugars
or is used as building blocks for other organic substances.
Some of the glucose is broken down in respiration to release energy that
can be used for biochemical processes like active absorption of mineral
ions from soil into root cells and cell division during growth and repair.
Some glucose is converted to sugar called sucrose and translocated to
non-photosynthesising cells like roots and stems or storage structures
such as seeds and fruits, through the phloem.
Excess glucose or sucrose is converted to starch for storage in cells.
Some excess sugars are converted to oils which store energy efficiently in
seeds.
Glucose is also used to synthesise cellulose that is required for making
cell walls.
Glucose is combined with nitrates to form amino acids that are
consequently used to form various proteins that are required for growth,
repair and enzyme synthesis by the plant.
Oxygen gas is used for respiration by the plant and the excess is lost to
the atmosphere through the stomata.
Importance of photosynthesis in an ecosystem

Photosynthesis results in production of food substances from inorganic
raw materials.
Green plants are producers of organic food to all heterotrophic
organisms.
81
Photosynthesis decreases the concentration of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere.
Photosynthesis adds oxygen in the atmosphere required by all organisms.
Fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and natural are formed from long time
degradation of the past plant and animal parts.
Plant products like timber, rubber, resin, drugs, oils are derived from
photosynthesis.
Rate of photosynthesis
Limiting factors
o Limiting factors are the factors that directly affect the rate at which
photosynthesis can take place.
o The main factors affecting rate of photosynthesis are light
intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature.
1. Light intensity
As light intensity increases the rate of photosynthesis increases steadily
in a linear manner as in fig.5.1.5.
Eventually, the rate of photosynthesis levels off (becomes constant) due
to effect of other limiting factors such as the carbon dioxide
concentration or the temperature.
82
Fig.5.1.5:
Effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis
Experiment: Effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis

Materials
o pond weed
o 500 cm3 Beaker
o desk lamp or light source
o 1 meter ruler
o stopwatch
o water at room temperature
o knife or scissors
o baking soda
o test tube
o thermometer
83
Fig.5.1.6:
Investigating the effect of light intensity
Procedure
1. Cut a segment of the pond weed plant approximately 8cm with scissors
and crush the end of the stem at the incision gently.
2. Submerge the plant into a test tube filled with 40ml room temperature
water and 1g baking soda.
3. Place the test tube in the beaker of water and note the temperature where
the beaker acts as a heat shield.
4. Set the apparatus as in fig.5.1.6.
5. Darken the laboratory by turning off as many lights as possible.
6. Turn on the light source and allow the plant to equilibrate or adjust to the
light intensity for 2-3 minutes.
7. Count the number of bubbles given off in one minute.
8. Move the light 10 cm further back.
84
9. Leave for 2-3 minutes for the pondweed to adjust again.
10. Count the number of bubbles given off in one minute.
11. Repeat by moving the lamp away by 10 cm intervals until 50 cm is
reached.
1. As the light source was continuously being moved further back the number
of bubbles given off per minute decreases.
2. Carbon dioxide concentration
An increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide increases the rate at
which carbon is incorporated into sugars, thus increase in the rate of
photosynthesis.
Normally carbon dioxide is present in low concentrations in the
atmosphere (0.04%).
Increasing the concentration causes a rapid rise in the rate of
photosynthesis which eventually becomes constant as shown by the graph
in fig.5.1.7.
85
Fig.5.1.7:
Effect of carbon dioxide concentration on the rate of photosynthesis
Experiment: Effect of carbon dioxide concentration on the rate of photosynthesis

Materials
o pond weed
o test tube
o thermometer
o sodium bicarbonate solution of varying concentrations
o 5 boiling tubes
o beaker
86
Fig.5.1.8:
Investigating effect of carbon dioxide concentration on photosynthesis
Procedure:
Fill each boiling tube with different concentrations of sodium bicarbonate
solution, label and place in a water bath to warm to 25°C.
Cut the stem of the pond weed at an angle and remove several leaves
from around the cut end of the stem.
With the cut end upwards, immerse the pond weed in the boiling tube
with the lowest concentration and place in a beaker as in fig. 5.1.8 above.
Place the water bath with the boiling tube at a measured distance from a
light source and allow the plant to adapt for 5 minutes.
Count and record the number of bubbles released per minute and repeat
these procedure using different concentrations of sodium bicarbonate.
A graph should be drawn of the rate of bubble production against
sodium bicarbonate concentration.
87
Note: During this experiment only one factor (carbon dioxide
concentration) should be varied, whilst the other are kept constant
(temperature 25°C and light intensity).
An increase in the concentration of sodium bicarbonate (carbon dioxide
concentration) cause an increase in the number of bubbles produced per minute.
Temperature
As temperature increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases slowly
until the optimum temperature is reached, any further increase results in
a sharp decrease in the rate of photosynthesis (as shown by asymmetrical
shape of the graph in fig.5.1.9).
The rate of chemical reaction doubles for every rise of 10°C, this is true
only if light or carbon dioxide is not the limiting factors.
The process of photosynthesis is catalysed by enzymes hence is affected
by temperature changes.
As the enzymes approach their optimum temperature the overall rate of
photosynthesis increases as shown in fig.5.1.9.
At higher temperatures molecules have more kinetic energy and collide
more frequently thus are more likely to react.
At low temperatures the enzymes are inactivated and at very high
temperatures the enzymes are denatured.
In general photosynthesis occurs between minimum and maximum
temperature.
Minimum Temperature
o It is the lowest temperature at which the process of photosynthesis can
occur.
o Plants in cold and temperate regions have lower values of minimum
temperature whilst tropical plants have higher values of minimum
temperature.
o The rate of photosynthesis increases gradually or slowly from
minimum to optimum temperature.
88
o Photosynthesis hardly starts at about 5°C in tropical plants.
Optimum Temperature
o It is the best or most suitable temperature at which photosynthesis can
occur fastest.
o The optimum temperature varies greatly from tropical to arctic regions.
o Rate of photosynthesis is highest at the optimum temperature and it is
the temperature at which most amount of products are formed per
given unit time.
o The general optimum temperature for tropical areas like Zimbabwe is
around 25°C
Maximum Temperature
o It is the highest temperature at which the process of photosynthesis
can occur.
o Photosynthesis stops (rate of photosynthesis is zero) if temperature
increases beyond this point.
o The rate of photosynthesis decreases sharply from optimum to
maximum temperature.
o The decrease may be due to one or more of the following causes:
o Accumulation of the end products of photosynthesis.
o Denaturing of active site of enzymes.
o Permanent wilting effect
o Destruction of chlorophyll at high temperatures.
o The general maximum temperature for tropical areas like Zimbabwe is
around 40°C
89
Fig.5.1.9:
Effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis
Experiment: Investigating effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis

Materials
o pond weed
o test tube
o thermometer
o sodium bicarbonate solution
o boiling tube
o beaker
o hot plate or burner
90
Fig 5.1.10:
Investigating effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis
Procedure:
1. Cool the water bath to 5°C with ice packs.
2. Fill in the boiling tube with an excess of sodium bicarbonate.
3. Cut the stem of the pond weed at an angle and remove several leaves
from around the cut end of the stem.
4. With the cut end upwards, immerse the pond weed in the boiling tube and
put it in the water bath at 5°C and maintain the temperature.
5. Place the water bath with the boiling tube at a measured distance from a
light source and allow the plant to adjust for 5 minutes as in fig.5.1.10
above as well as maintaining the temperature at 5°C.
6. Count and record the number of bubbles released per minute.
7. Repeat the procedure using the temperatures of the water bath at 10°C,
20°C, 30°C, 35°C, 40°C and 50°C.
91
8. A graph should be drawn of the rate of bubble production against
temperature.
An increase in the temperature caused an increase in the number of
bubbles produced per minute from 5°C to 40°C.
At 50°C there was a decrease in the number of bubbles caused by the high
temperature which can denature the enzymes involved in photosynthesis.
Structure of the leaf
Fig.5.1.11:
External structure of a dicotyledonous leaf
The vascular bundles (xylem and phloem) form the midrib and veins of
the leaf.
A dicotyledonous leaf has a branching network of veins that get smaller
as they branch away from the midrib.
92
Table 5.1.1: Adaptations of a dicotyledonous leaf to its functions
Adaptation Function
Large surface  They have a broad shape with a high surface area
area
to volume ratio to increase the absorption of light.
 Allow light to reach all the cells and create a short

Thin cross
section distance for carbon dioxide to diffuse in and
oxygen to diffuse out.
 It prevents water loss from the plant to the
Cuticle
atmosphere whilst at the same time allowing light
to pass through to underlying palisade mesophyll
because it is transparent.
Leaf stalk
(petiole)  It holds the leaf in the best position to receive light.
Chlorophyll
 It captures light energy which is required for
photosynthesis.
Stomata  Increases efficiency of gaseous exchange.
 The network of veins is very fine and water has to

pass from a vein through only a few cells to reach
Veins other cells.
 It supports the structure of the leaf and transport
substances to and from the leaf.
93
Internal structure of a dicotyledonous leaf
Fig.5.1.12:
Internal structure of a leaf
Leaf structure is a compromise between maximising photosynthesis and

minimising water loss.
For efficient photosynthesis a leaf needs:
water delivery to the leaf
removal of the products of photosynthesis (glucose) to storage organs of
the plant
an efficient means of absorbing light energy
a method of gaseous exchange between the leaf and its surrounding
94
Features of The Leaf And Their Adaptations To Photosynthesis
1. Cuticle
o This is a transparent surface layer which covers the leaf and allows
light to travel to the mesophyll layer.
o It is usually found on the upper surface of the leaf as it is most
exposed to the sun.
o It is waxy to reduce water loss.
2. Epidermal Layer
o It is usually one cell thick (to reduce distance travelled by light to
reach mesophyll cells) and the cells are closely fitting with no air
spaces (to reduce evaporation).
o The cells do not have chloroplasts and are transparent so light can
pass through to the photosynthesising cells.
o The upper epidermis secretes a waxy substance which forms the
cuticle.
o The lower epidermis has pores called stomata.
o Stomata are openings made up of two guard cells which contain
chloroplasts.
o The epidermal layer maintains the shape of the leaf and protects
inner cells from bacteria, fungi and mechanical damage and
reduces evaporation.
3. Palisade Mesophyll Layer
o These are tall thin cells arranged in columns and separated by very
narrow air spaces.
o The cells contain numerous chloroplasts in the cytoplasm lining
the walls.
o The cell wall and cell membrane are easily permeable to carbon
dioxide and water.
o The chloroplasts are arranged along the side walls close to carbon
dioxide in the air spaces and can move up and down the cell
depending on the light intensity.
95
o The dense packing of these cells allows the absorption of the
maximum amount of light.
o The cells contain a thin layer of water on cell surface that can
dissolve carbon dioxide.
4. Spongy Mesophyll Layer
o These cells are rounded, rather loosely packed, and are covered
with a thin layer of water.
o The air spaces between them aid the diffusion of gases and water
through the leaf to the palisade layer.
o The cells can photosynthesise but contain less chloroplasts than
those of the palisade layer.
5. Vascular Bundle
o This is the transport system in and out of the leaf.
o The xylem is located towards the upper epidermis and the phloem
towards the lower epidermis.
o The xylem delivers water and mineral salts and the phloem sieve
tubes carry away photosynthetic products such as glucose to other
parts of the plant and storage organs such as roots.
6. Stomata
o These are openings or pores usually found on the lower epidermis
of the leaf.
o Each stoma is made up of a pair of guard cells that regulate the
opening and closing of the stoma.
o The guard cells on the stomata can increase or reduce the size of
the stoma or close it completely depending on their turgor
pressure (movement of water in and out of cells).
o Opening and closing of the stomata helps to control gaseous
exchange of carbon and oxygen, and transpiration rate.
o The stomata tend to close in the absence or in excessive amount
of light, high temperature, low humidity and high wind speed
(environmental conditions that increase transpiration rate).
96
Fig.5.1.13:
Mechanism of stoma opening and closing
Experiment: Gaseous exchange in plants using bicarbonate indicator

Materials
o 4 test tubes with corks

o bicarbonate indicator solution
o test tube rack
o 4 equal sizes of fresh leaves
o beaker
o strings
o tissue paper
o aluminium foil
97
Procedure:
1. Tie the leaf stalk with a string long enough to hang it in the test tube
midway.
2. Completely cover two test tubes with aluminium foil and the other with
tissue paper.
3. Boil one of the fresh leaves for 3 minutes.
4. Add 2ml of bicarbonate indicator to all the 4 test tubes.
5. Hang the leaves in the test tube and close with a cork and place on a test
tube rack.
6. Place the test tube rack in sunlight for 6 hours.
After 6 hours the indicator solution will appear as in fig.5.1.14.
Fig.5.1.14:
Bicarbonate indicator changes in response to amount of carbon dioxide in the air
98
Mineral Nutrition
In order for plants to photosynthesise and grow they need light energy,
carbon dioxide and water.
However, for healthy growth of plants, plant nutrients (mineral salts) are
required.
These are used for a variety of purposes in plants such as protein
synthesis.
A lack of nutrients in the soil causes stunted growth of plants and show
certain conditions known as deficiency symptoms.
Mineral salts are absorbed by roots from the soil in small quantities as
ions using active transport.
Macronutrients
These are nutrients required by plants in relatively large quantities.
The primary macronutrients are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and
potassium (K).
1. Nitrogen
o It is part of every living cell and is a primary component of proteins.
o It is absorbed as nitrates, nitrites and ammonia.
o Its main function is for protein synthesis hence it promotes growth
and increases yield.
o It is also required for the formation of chlorophyll hence promoting
efficient photosynthesis and healthy leaf growth.
o Other functions include cell division (component of hereditary
material), component of vitamins and is involved in all enzymatic
processes.
Effects of deficiency in nitrogen
o Plants exhibit stunted growth.
o General yellowing of leaves called chlorosis occurs, with older
leaves first before younger leaves.
o Yellowing starts at the tip and moves along the middle of the leaf.
o Upwards cupping of leaflets if severe.
99
Fig.5.1.15:
In older leaves chlorosis begins at the tips and moves along the centre in maize plant with a
deficiency in nitrogen
2. Phosphorus
o The plant absorbs phosphorus in the form of phosphate ions.
o It is an essential constituent of an energy carrier molecule called
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and hereditary material.
o ATP is produced in respiration.
o Phosphorus is an important nutrient required for synthesis of
nucleic acids.
o Nucleic acids are genetic material that is important for heredity.
o There are two types of nucleic acids namely DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid)
o Phosphates also help in root formation of young plants.
Effects of deficiency of phosphorus
o Plants appear stunted, thin and spindly with dark green leaves.
100
o Root growth is drastically reduced.
o Purple or purple-red colours develop and start on the edges of
older dark green leaves.
o In severe deficiency the leaves burn and die (necrosis).
o Distortion in leaf shape and premature leaf fall.
Fig.5.1.16:
Reddish or purple on older leaves in maize plant with a deficiency in phosphates
3. Potassium
o It is found in the form of potassium ions.
o It is the most important ion with respect to physiological and
biological functions because it ensures ion and osmotic balance in
cells.
o It is important in fruit ripening and development.
o It also maintains regular cell function such as water intake,
respiration and regulates the opening and closing of stomata.
101
Effects of deficiency in potassium
o Leaves take on scorched appearance with black pigmentation and
necrotic (dead tissue) edges.
o Bronzing or browning of leaf colour.
o Shortening of internodes and dwarfing of plants.
o Prominent red stripes develop on the lower stems in severe
deficiency.
o Lodging (bending of the stem) occurs.
Fig.5.1.17:
In older leaves there is drying and necrosis along tips and margins in potassium deficient maize
plant.
Experiment: Culture experiments to investigate the deficiencies of nitrogen, phosphorus

and potassium on plant growth
Materials
o maize, wheat or pea seedlings
102
o 12 test tubes
o cotton wool
o mineral nutrient solution
o cotton wool
o foil or black paper
o test tube rack
o plastic drinking straws
Procedure
1. Prepare 4 solutions labelled A - D by dissolving the salts in table 5.1.2
in 1 litre of distilled water.
Table 5.1.2: Culture solutions
Solution A (Full Solution B (Lacking Solution C (Lacking Solution D (Lacking
culture) nitrogen) potassium) phosphate)
Solution A
0.16g
calcium nitrate
Solution B 0.25g 0.25g 0.25g
0.25g
calcium sulphate
Solution C 0.25g
magnesium 0.25g 0.25 0.25g
sulphate
Solution D 0.59g
sodium nitrate
Solution E
Calcium(V) 0.25g 0.25g 0.25g
phosphate
Solution F
potassium (III) 0.52g
chloride
Solution H 0.70g
0.70g
Potassium nitrate
Solution I 0.08g
0.08g 0.08g 0.08g
Sodium chloride
Solution J
0.005g 0.005g 0.005g
iron (III) chloride 0.005g
2. Set up healthy seedlings of the same type and age as in fig.5.1.18 below
using three seedlings in separate test tubes for each solution.
103
Fig.5.1.18:
Essential mineral elements necessary for plant growth
3. Allow seedlings to grow for three weeks.

4. The culture solutions are aerated once a day by bubbling air through a
straw during the whole period.
5. Maintain the correct amount of culture solution by adding distilled water
if the level lowers.
6. Record the results weekly using table 5.1.3 below:
Table 5.1.3: Essential mineral elements necessary for plant growth
Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week
One One One Two Two Two Three Three Three
Sol B Sol C Sol D Sol B Sol C Sol D Sol B Sol C Sol D
Shoot
development
Length of shoot
104
Number of
leaves
Leaf colour
Root
development
Root lengths
Number of roots
In the first week all the seedlings will grow and appear similar as they will
be using the elements stored in the seed.
After the elements have been used up the effects of deficiency in the
elements nitrogen, potassium and phosphate become more pronounced.
The observation will be compared with plants in Solution A which is the
control of the experiment.
Solution B lacked the mineral element nitrogen so the plants had the
deficiency effect of nitrogen:
o stunted growth
o leaves turning yellow among other signs
Solution C lacked the mineral element potassium and will exhibit the
following:
o yellow/brown leaf margins
o early death among other signs
Solution D had no phosphate mineral element and thus the plants will
exhibit among other signs the following:
o purple leaf colour
o stunted roots
105
Content
PLANT SCIENCE
PRODUCTIVITY IN PLANTS
1. Define biomass and productivity.

2. Identify types of plant pests and diseases.
3. Explain factors that affect productivity.
4. Describe methods of controlling pests and disease.
5. Outline the advantages and disadvantages of each
controlling method.
Introduction
 Productivity refers to the amount of living matter within any given
environment produced in a certain unit of time.
 The total mass of living matter within any given environment at any one
time is called biomass.
 Photosynthesis results in the production of glucose which is later
converted to other organic products resulting in an increase in biomass.
 A plant will accumulate biomass with time a condition referred to as
growth.
 This is due to the fact that the cells multiply and enlarge thus the plant
grows bigger.
 The dry mass is considered to constitute the biomass since water does
not store energy.
 The productivity of plants (primary producer) is important to ecosystems
because they are the organisms that can convert light energy to chemical
energy.
 Producers bring energy to any food chain.
106
Measuring biomass in plants
Plant dry weight
 It is the weight of any plant after all its water content has been removed
by drying.
 The dry weight is determined by means of drying processes which would
remove water since plants have a high composition of water and the level
of water in a plant will depend on the amount of water in its environment
Experiment: Measuring a plants’ dry weight
Materials
o plant
o oven or dehydrator
o triple beam balance
o calculator
Procedure
1. Choose a random plant, and remove it from its pot. Leave the other plants
alone.
2. Wash off the soil carefully from the roots.
o With a gentle stream of water, rinse dirt from the plant.
o You can use your fingers to gently remove clumps.
o Pat it dry with a paper towel.
3. Place your plant in the oven.
o A drying oven is ideal.
o Set the temperature at 60-70.
o Heat the plants for at least 8 to 12 hours and up to two days to dry
out the plants.
4. Place your plant in a plastic zip bag.
o Pinch the zipper closed to prevent moisture from entering.
o This will keep the plants dry.
o Allow the plants to cool in the bag.
o If leaves fall off during cooling, keep them.
107
o Place the detached leaves on the scale with the rest of the plant.
5. Weigh your plant.
o When it is completely cool, place the plant on the scale.
o Record the weight.
Factors affecting productivity

1. Light
 Light is essential for any plant to photosynthesise.
 Productivity often increases in direct proportion with increasing amount
of light.
 The light properties that affect plant growth and development are
o light intensity – strength of the light energy,
o light quality – type of wavelengths in light and
o photoperiod – duration of the day which the plant is illuminated
with light.
2. Mineral Salts
 These are elements that are needed by plants to complete all life functions
in which the deficiency can be corrected only by the application of the
specific element causing the deficiency.
 Mineral salts include nitrates, phosphates and potash.
3. Temperature
 It influences photosynthesis, water and nutrient absorption, transpiration,
respiration and enzyme activity.
 Different plants have different temperature requirements but most
mesophyte (example in fig.5.2.1) crop species have an optimum of 25°C.
 Enzyme activity and the rate of most chemical reactions that occur in
plants generally increase with rise in temperature up to a point.
 At higher temperatures denaturation of enzymes and protein occurs
which decreases or halts productivity and at lower temperatures has a
limiting effect on plant growth and development.
108
 Temperatures below freezing affects plant growth as it inhibits water
absorption (more viscous) and can cause rupture of cell walls (increase in
volume).
4. Availability of Water
 It affects plant growth and development because it is essential in plant’s
biochemical processes.
 Plants contain approximately 70-90% moisture.
 Plant growth is restricted by low and high levels of moisture.
 Excess water in the soil can damage plants like maize due to lack of
oxygen.
5. Pests and Diseases
 A pest is any organism, plant or animal which has harmful effects on
humans, their food sources or living conditions.
 A disease is a condition of the living plant body or of one of its parts that
disrupts normal functioning and is typically manifested by distinguishing
signs and symptoms.
 Some common plant pests are:
a. Tissue eating pests
 These have chewing mouth parts and include organisms such as ruminant
animals, rodents, insects and molluscs which feed on plant tissue.
 Damage caused by these are varied and include:
 death of the entire plant or organ
 reduced root, stem and leaf or inflorescence mass
 bores and holes on plant parts
 cut edges of plant parts
 total defoliation
 Examples of common tissue eating pests are shown below in fig.5.2.1.
109
Fig.5.2.1:
Common tissue eating pests
b. Sap-sucking pests
 Unlike tissue eating which have chewing mouth parts; insects that
feed on sap have piercing/sucking mouth parts.
 These feed on the sugary sap produced in foliage and transported
in the soft phloem tissue beneath the bark.
 In aphids, the visible mouth piece has needle-like mouth parts that
pierce the veins and suck.
 Spider mites puncture individual cell walls on the outside of the
leaves and suck out the contents.
 The damage appears as spots on leaves and stems.
 This may lead to wilting and premature drop.
 Plants being attacked by sap-feeders will take on a shiny look and
sticky feel which can take black due to black sooty mould which
feeds on the drips of sap.
110
Fig.5.2.2:
Sap-sucking pests, (a) Aphid, (b) Scale bug and (c) Red spider mite
c. Bacterial wilt
 It is a disease of the vascular tissue caused by bacteria.
 Bacteria are microscopic organisms.
 The disease is spread by insect vectors through infected mouth parts.
 When the plant is infected, the bacteria multiply in the xylem and
block the plant's water transport system.
 The first sign is wilting of the youngest leaves on a single stem.
 The disease then spreads and affects the whole plant as shown in
fig.5.2.3.
d. Fungal Rust
 It is caused by pathogenic fungus.
 The disease can be identified by a rust colour on leaves and stems.
 They appear on the underside of leaves.
 It usually affects growing and healthy plants.
 The infection is normally limited to plant parts such as leaves,
petioles, tender shoots, stem and fruits.
 Plants may appear stunted, chlorotic and discoloured as in fig.5.2.3.
111
Fig.5.2.3:
Tomato plants affected by (a) Bacterial wilt and (b) Fungal rust
Effect of pests and diseases on plant productivity

 Pests and diseases damage shoots, leaves and crowns which affects plant
growth and condition.
 Physiological processes of plants such as photosynthesis, respiration and
other processes associated with normal growth and development of
plants can be disrupted.
 This decreases yields of crops.
 Whole crops maybe eaten or diseased.
 Part of the plant maybe destroyed or the organic food manufactured by
the plant is used up by the pest.
112
Pests and diseases control
 Pests and diseases pose a serious risk for primary producers as they can
impact on market access and agricultural production.
a. Chemical control methods

 It involves using chemicals (pesticides) that are toxic or poisonous to the
targeted pests.
 Pesticides are graded depending on their toxicity as in fig.5.2.4 below
Fig.5.2.4:
Pesticides labels
 Pesticides are grouped into five main categories:

1. Fungicides which act on fungus.
2. Herbicides which are used against weeds.
3. Insecticides which act on harmful insects.
4. Acaricides which protect plants from mites.
5. Nematicides which control nematodes that attack the plant.
113
Advantages and disadvantages of chemical control method
Table 5.2.1: Chemical control method
Advantages Disadvantages
 Are fast acting  Can also harm other beneficial organisms that
helps plants to grow.
 Usually are specific as they  Higher doses are needed as pests become
are specially formulated. resistant.
 Can be controlled if used  Need special handling.

correctly
 Easy to apply and control the  Can also harm the environment as they release
pest. harmful toxins to the surroundings.
 Readily available  Human exposure can be harmful
  Accumulation of the pesticide in the food chain.
  Residues or remains may be left on the crop and

consumed
b. Biological control method

 These are natural methods which use certain organisms to destroy pests.
 It uses various parts which include:
a. Biological controls using predators or parasites.
 It assumes that natural predators and parasites can suppress the effects
of pests.
 The ladybirds act as a predator which feed on aphids and there are some
viruses which can parasitize certain insect pest thus killing them.
b. Control using micro -organisms.
 Some microorganisms have beneficial effects because they can compete
for nutrients or space with the pests.
 They can produce antibiotics which prevents colonisation by other
microorganisms.
 Some microorganisms can simply eat other microorganisms.
 This method also has its advantages and disadvantages.
114
Advantages and disadvantages of biological methods
Table 5.2.2: Advantages and disadvantages of biological control methods
Advantages Disadvantages
 The natural enemy can be  Natural enemies may move away.

established and have long
term results.
 Risk of resistance is lower.  Pest are never destroyed completely.
 Natural pest control is  Not possible to use them before the pest has
targeted. occurred and this means some damage would
have been destroyed.
 Low costs  The predator may also damage the crop.
 Good availability of natural  Slow process

pesticides like ash and milk.
 Safe to use.  Needs to be repeated over a long period.
c. Management control
 This combines cultural, natural and chemical controls to maintain insect
pest populations below detrimental levels.
 In management control, insecticides are only used when necessary.
 Insect damage does not reduce crop value to pay for cost of treatment.
 Management control is beneficial because it:
o maximise profits
o reduce pesticide residue in the crop
o reduce or prevent environmental contamination
o reduce human exposure to pesticides
o increases or aids natural control provided by beneficial organisms
Control of cotton bollworm

 The bollworm moth can destroy a cotton crop as it lays its eggs in the
buds and flowers of the cotton plant.
 Attacked buds and immature bolls drop off and the lint is destroyed.
115
 The holes of entry close down by excreta of larvae which are feeding
inside the seed kernels.
 The eggs of the bollworm will feed and grow in the cotton plant when they
hatch.
 Various natural methods can be used to control the pest at each stage of
the life cycle.
Fig.5.2.5:
Pink bollworm on a cotton plant
116
Fig.5.2.6:
Management control of cotton bollworm in its life cycle
Management control of tobacco

 When tobacco seed are planted the seed beds are fumigated with chemical
pesticides.
 The seed beds can be fumigated with wood smoke.
 To prevent the infection of tobacco plants by diseases they can be sprayed
with milk and water.
 This management control of pests involves certain practices that are done
by the farmer to reduce effects of pests on crops.
1. Cultural Control
 Early ploughing in spring – To reduce cutworm infestations and aids in
wireworm control.
117
 Use recommended quantities of fertilisers – Excessive amounts can
make the plant a favourable host for pests.
 Adjust the transplanting date – To match pest attack and their natural
enemies.
 Destroy left-over transplants immediately after transplanting is
completed – Prevent development of high populations of insect pests
which can migrate to the field tobacco.
 Manage field borders to reduce insect habitat.
 Stalk cutting and root destruction after harvesting – reduce feeding site
for insect and worm pests.
 Crop rotation – To reduce infestations of soil inhabiting insects and
pests.
 Conservation tillage – method of cultivating that reduces soil or water
loss.
2. Natural Control
 Beneficial organisms like predators, parasites and pathogens can
control several insect pests.
 For example, hornworms are parasitised by cotesia wasp whose larvae
feed inside the caterpillars as in the diagram below.
 Aphids are destroyed by lady beetles though they may not keep aphids
below minimal levels.
118
Fig.5.2.7:
Image of cotesia larvae attached to the body of a hornworm and on the right the adult cotesia wasp
3. Chemical Control
o Pesticides are usually used when the pest population or injury level
of the plant is greater to cause economic damage to crop.
o Plants are constantly monitored to determine if pesticides are
necessary.
o Pesticides are applied in:
 transplant water
 soil treatments
119
Content
PLANT SCIENCE
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
1. Describe the general structure of a plant.

2. Distinguish between monocotyledonous and
dicotyledonous plants.
3. Compare parts of the internal structure of a young
dicotyledonous root and stem.
4. Define transpiration and, describe the functions and
effects of transpiration
5. Define translocation and describe the effect of ring
barking.
External plant structure

a. Roots
 The roots of a plant typically grow underground and are responsible for
absorbing water and nutrients.
 Roots also anchor into ground in support of the shoot of the plant
 There are two basic types of roots: taproots and fibrous roots.
 A taproot is a single, thick root from which a large network of roots grows.
 Plants with fibrous roots have no taproot but just a dense mat of thinner
roots.
 Both fibrous roots and taproots are covered in root hairs.
 These tiny protrusions of root hairs increase the roots' surface area,
allowing them to absorb more water and nutrients.
120
b. Stems
 The stem of a plant refers to the portion typically above ground that holds
the leaves and reproductive structures.
 Stems are composed of three basic types of tissues: ground, dermal, and
vascular.
 Ground tissue is any plant tissue that is not dermal or vascular.
 The dermal tissue is the outermost layer protecting the interior tissue.
 The vascular tissue includes the xylem and the phloem.
 Water is absorbed through the plant's roots and is transported to the
leaves via the xylem.
 The xylem is a tube that moves water and mineral ions up the plant.
 Energy and nutrients produced via photosynthesis in the leaves are moved
in solution down the plant via the phloem.
 The phloem is a tube that moves organic compounds from leaves to other
parts or storage organs of the plant.
 Phloem can also transport organic substances from storage organs to
other parts of the plant.
c. Leaves
 Leaves are the primary region of photosynthesis.
 The most basic form is a flat, green leaf, but there are many modified
types that have evolved to thrive in specific environments.
 Some common examples are conifer leaves (often called needles), and the
succulent leaves of aloe plants.
 Leaves are dermal tissue packed with vascular and ground tissues, and
attach to the stem via a petiole.
 Leaves also have stomata, pores through which water can be lost through
evaporation.
 This process contributes to the overall process of transpiration, which
moves water through the plant.
 Leaves are made up of a variety of layers, beginning with the outer-most
cuticle and epidermis.
121
 The interior of the leaf is called the mesophyll.
 Within the mesophyll, there are veins that are part of the plant's vascular
system.
d. Flowers
 They are the reproductive structures of plants.
 It is the site for pollination and fertilisation.
 Flowers hold the male and female components necessary for fertilisation.
 Fruits and seeds are produced from flowers.
Fig.5.3.1:
General structure of a plant
 All flowering plants share similar morphology that enables them to be

classified under the same group.
 However some differences exist between flowering plants which enable
scientists to sub-divide them into two major groups.
122
 Flowering plants are classified into monocotyledons (monocots) and
dicotyledons (dicots) according to the number of cotyledons (seed leaves)
their seeds have, among other things.
 Monocots are flowering plants that have one seed leaf, or cotyledon for
example cereals (grass crops) like maize, rice and wheat.
 Dicots are flowering plants that have two seed leaves, or cotyledons for
example legumes like beans, peas and groundnuts.
Distinguishing between monocots and dicots
1. Seeds
o Monocots have only one seed leaf inside the seed coat.
o It is often only a thin leaf, because the endosperm which provides
nutrition for the new plant is not inside the seed leaf.
o Dicots have two seed leaves inside the seed coat. They are usually
rounded and fat, because they contain the endosperm to feed the
embryo plant.
Fig.5.3.2:
Illustration of internal structure of maize (monocot) and bean (dicot) seeds
123
2. Leaves
o The leaves of monocots are usually long and narrow, with their
veins in straight lines up and down the leaf.
o Sometimes, the veins run from the centre of the leaf to the edge,
parallel to one another.
o Leaves of dicots are usually broad and short.
o The veins go from the central midrib to the edge of the leaf,
crossing and joining to form a netted pattern all over the leaf.
o The differences are clearly evidently shown in fig.5.3.3.
Fig.5.3.3:
External structure of a monocot and dicot leaves
3. Internal Stem Structure

o Vascular bundles of monocots stems are scattered throughout the
ground tissue as shown in fig.5.3.4.
124
o Stems of dicots have vascular bundles arranged in a circular order
around the ground tissue.
o Xylem and phloem are separated by a cambium in dicots vascular
bundles whilst cambium is absent in monocots.
o Dicots have a pith on the centre of ground tissue but it is absent in
monocots stems as illustrated in fig.5.3.4.
Fig.5.3.4:
Cross section of monocot and dicot stems
4. Root Systems (External Structure)

o In most dicots the radicle, the part of the embryo from which the
root develops, gives rise to an apical meristem.
o The meristem continues to produce root tissue for greater part of
the plant’s life thereby developing into a tap root system which has
one dominant root that branch into smaller root hairs.
o However, in monocots, the radicle aborts and new roots
adventitiously arise from nodes in the stem which give rise to a
fibrous root system as shown in fig.5.3.5
125
Fig.5.3.5:
Fibrous and tap root systems
5. Internal Root Structure

o Monocot roots contain xylem and phloem in an alternate manner,
forming a circle or ring.
o While on the contrary, dicot roots contain xylem resembling a
cross or X - shape on the centre and phloem surrounding it.
o The differences are illustrated in fig 5.3.6
126
Fig.5.3.6:
Cross section of monocot and dicot roots
Table 5.3.1: Comparison of morphology of monocots and dicots

Monocots Dicots
Number of  Have one cotyledon in the  Embryo has two

cotyledons embryo. cotyledons.
Leaf venation  Leaf veins are parallel.  Leaf veins are branched
or in net form.
Flowers  Petals are in multiples of three.  Petals are in multiples

of four or five.
Root Pattern  Fibrous roots.  Tap root system.
Stem and  Bundles of vascular tissue are  Bundles of vascular

vascular scattered throughout the stem tissue arranged in a
system with no particular arrangement, ring form.
and have no cortex.  The vascular system is
divided into a cortex
and stele.
127
Secondary  Absent  Often present
growth
Examples  Grains, (wheat, corn) lilies,  Legumes (pea, beans,

sugarcane, banana, onions, peanuts) daisies, mint,
bamboo, and grass. lettuce, tomato and
oak.
Internal structure of a dicot stem
Fig.5.3.7:
Cross section of a dicot stem
A. Epidermis
 It is a single layer of cells that covers the stem, and is in turn covered by
a waxy cuticle as shown in fig.5.3.7.
 The cuticle which is waterproof helps to reduce water loss hence it
prevents dehydration of inner tissue.
128
 Since the function of the epidermis is to protect underlying tissues,
epidermal cells are tightly packed and have thicker walls than other plant
cells.
 The epidermis may contain stomata with guard cells especially in arid
environments like deserts.
 Stomata present in the epidermis allow for gaseous exchange for
respiration and photosynthesis.
B. Cortex
 It is a region which comprises of collenchyma, parenchyma and
the endodermis
1. Collenchyma
o It is a few layers of living cells that lie under the epidermis.
o These cells do not have lignin but have thickened cell walls which
strengthen the stem.
o The cells contain chloroplasts which produce food for the plant
during photosynthesis.
2. Parenchyma
o These cells are found beneath the collenchyma cells and makes up
the greater part of cortex.
o The cells are thin-walled and are separated by intercellular spaces
which are important in gaseous exchange.
o These cells store synthesised organic substances (mostly starch)
produced by collenchymas cells.
3. Endodermis
o It is a single layer of tightly-packed rectangular cells that forms the
innermost layer of the cortex.
o The endodermis also stores starch and regulates the passage of
solutions from the vascular bundles to the cortex.
129
C. Vascular bundles
 Mature vascular bundles are made up of xylem and phloem separated by
cambium.
1. Phloem
o The function of phloem is to transport synthesised food from the
leaves to other parts of the plant.
o It can also transport organic substances (food) from storage organs
like roots to the rest of the plant
o The phloem is located on the outside of the bundle and the xylem
towards the centre.
o The phloem and xylem is separated by tissue known as cambium,
which is responsible for secondary thickening.
2. Xylem
o It functions in transporting water and minerals from the root
system to the leaves.
o It has lignified cell walls which functions in strengthening and
supporting the stem.
o Xylem vessels are hollow and are made of dead lignified cells.
o Lignin makes dicotyledonous stems woody.
3. Pith
o It occupies the large, central part of the stem.
o The pith is made up of thin-walled parenchyma cells containing
intercellular spaces.
o The cells of the pith store water and starch, while the intercellular
spaces allow for gaseous exchange.
o The pith breaks down forming a hollow stem in some plants.
o Older woody plants may have pith that is filled with rigid xylem
wood fibre.
130
Internal structure of a dicotyledonous root
Fig.5.3.8:
Cross section of a dicot root
A. Epidermis
 It is a single layer of cells located on the outside that protects the inner
tissues.
 The epidermal layer of the root has no waterproof cuticle as this would
prevent the absorption of water.
 Structurally, the cells of the root hair (shown in fig.5.3.8) have large
central vacuoles and cover a large surface area which allows water to enter
these cells readily by the process osmosis.
B. Cortex
 It is made up of parenchyma cells.
 These cells are large which enables them to store water and food.
131
 They also facilitate the movement of water from the root hair cells on the
outside of the plant to the xylem on the inside of the plant.
C. Endodermis
 It constitutes the innermost layer of the cortex.
 It is a layer of tightly-packed, modified parenchyma cells.
 The radial and transverse cell walls are thickened with a water-
impermeable, waxy layer, known as the Casparian strip. This layer helps
to regulate the flow of water from the cortex into the stele, rather than
allowing the water to spread to all the root cells.
D. Vascular bundles
 Mature vascular bundles are made up of xylem and phloem separated by
cambium.
1. Phloem
o This tissue is responsible for transporting organic substances from
the leaves to the rest of the plant.
o The cambium separates the xylem and phloem tissues from each
other and it is the area where secondary growth of xylem and
phloem tissues occurs.
2. Xylem
o This tissue is responsible for transporting water and dissolved
mineral salts to the xylem tissue of the stem and leaves.
o Xylem vessels are made of dead cells and they are hollow.
o These cells are strengthened with lignin for support.
o The pits in the cell walls of root hair cells allow for the lateral (side
to side) movement of water.
Experiment: Identifying vascular tissue in dicots
Materials
o celery plant
132
o eosin (red) or methylene blue
o beaker with water
o white tile or dissection board
o scalpel or sharp cutting tool
o hand lens
Procedure
Precaution: Take care with sharp scalpels. Avoid skin contact
with some dyes.
1. Immerse the celery under water and cut the stem.
2. Add eosin or methylene blue to water in the beaker
3. Place the stem containing leaves in the beaker.
4. Leave for a few hours.
5. Cut off about 5cm of the celery.
6. Use a hand lens to look for the stain on the cut surface.
 The stain will colour the xylem vessels in a circular fashion.
Transport of substances in plants

 Plants have two transport systems, one for water and dissolved mineral
salts and another for organic compounds (sucrose and amino acids).
 Xylem vessels carry water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the
leaves.
 Phloem vessels carry organic compounds from leaves to the storage
organs/rest of the plant or from storage organs to parts that need food
(from source to sink).
Water and ion uptake in plants

 Root hairs are elongated projections specialised for absorbing water from
the soil into the plant.
133
 The root epidermis contains numerous root hair cells (fig.5.3.9) to
increase the absorption surface area.
 Water tension in vessels draws water through the root from the soil.
 Water in the xylem vessels move up in the same way the drink moves up
the straw when you suck it.
 This is because there is higher water pressure in the roots than in the
leaves.
 Low pressure is created in the leaves by transpiration and photosynthesis.
 The flow of water in the xylem is called the transpiration stream.
 The process of osmosis is also very important during the uptake of water.
 There is high concentration of water in the soil than the root hair cell, so
water moves from the soil to the root hair cell.
 Minerals are also present in the soil but in low concentration, using active
up take, the root hair cells takes the mineral ions in.
 The mixture of mineral ions and water moves from the root hair cells
through other cells by osmosis and active uptake till it reaches the xylem
vessel in the root and it enters the xylem through pits.
 The xylem vessel transports the water from the root to the stem (forming
the vascular bundle with the phloem) and upwards to the leaves.
 The water and dissolved minerals leave the xylem and get absorbed by
the cells in the leaves.
 The xylem vessels pass through the stem and veins of the leaf until the
water is used in photosynthesis or lost through the stomata
(transpiration).
134
The structure of a root hair cell
Fig.5.3.9:
Absorption of water and mineral ions by root hair cell
Adaptations of the root hair cell for water and mineral ion absorption
o It has a long and narrow projection that increases surface area to
volume ratio for faster rate of absorption of water and mineral ions.
o Large vacuole absorbs large volume of water.
o Cell surface membrane prevents leaking of cell sap which in turn
maintains low water potential inside cell for efficient osmosis.
o It is a living cell able to release energy by respiration, for active
transport of mineral salts.
Transpiration
 Transpiration is the loss of water into the atmosphere from plants in the
form of water vapour.
135
 The water evaporates from aerial parts, such as leaves, stems and
flowers.
 However, most of the water vapour (approximately 90%) diffuses through
the stomata in the leaves.
How transpiration occurs
Fig.5.3.10:
Transpiration in leaf
 Mesophyll cells are lined by a thin film of water on their outer surface
which is necessary for the exchange of gases (carbon dioxide and
oxygen).
 This water is evaporated into the airspaces in between the cells.
 More water moves out of the mesophyll cells to replace the water lost.
 As a result, the water potential of the mesophyll cells decreases.
 Water from the leaf xylem then moves into the mesophyll cells by osmosis
because the water potential of the water in xylem vessel is higher than in
the cytoplasm of mesophyll cells.
136
 Continued evaporation of water from the mesophyll cells increases the
humidity inside the air space.
 When the humidity inside the airspace becomes greater than that in the
atmosphere outside the leaf, the water vapour diffuses out through the
open stomata.
 This is called transpiration.
Measuring the rate of transpiration
Fig.5.3.11:
Measuring the rate of transpiration using a potometer
 Transpiration rate in plants can be measured by an instrument called a

potometer.
 The diagram above shows the apparatus set up for a potometer.
 Petroleum jelly is applied around the rubber bungs to ensure an airtight
seal, thus the only water loss from the apparatus is via transpiration.
137
 The function of the reservoir is to allow the air bubble to travel back to
the start of the measuring scale on repeating the experiment.
 As water moves up through the plant the air bubble moves along the scale
giving a measure of water absorbed by the plant over time and hence
the transpiration rate.
Functions of transpiration
 Transpiration acts to pull up a column of water from the stem and roots
in the xylem; this ensures a constant supply of water to the cells in the
leaves.
 Transpiration also causes a movement of water through the soil bringing
ions like nitrates to the roots.
 After ions are absorbed into the root, they are carried to the leaves in the
transpiration stream.
 Evaporation of water from the surface cools the plant.
Factors affecting the rate of transpiration

1. Temperature
o If the temperature increases, then the rate of transpiration
increases as warm air holds more water vapour than cold air.
2. Humidity
o The rate of diffusion of water vapour depends on the difference in
concentration between the air inside the leaf and the atmospheric
air.
o As the leaf is often surrounded by dry air, water is usually lost from
the plant.
3. Light Intensity
o Stomata open fully in bright light and close at night.
o The rate of transpiration is low at night but increases in the day as
the stomata open.
138
4. Wind Speed
o Water vapour is blown away from the surface of the leaf very
quickly in windy conditions.
o This increases the rate of transpiration.
5. Surface Area And Stomata
o Leaves with a large surface area will have a greater number of
stomata.
o This will mean there can be more diffusion of water out of the
leaves.
o When stomata open, transpiration rates increases and when they
are closed transpiration rates decreases.
Experiment: Factors affecting the rate of transpiration
Materials
o a drinking straw
o a soft green leafy shoot
o petroleum jelly
o marking pen
o play dough
o plastic bag
o elastic band
o ruler
139
Fig.5.3.12:
A simple potometer
Procedure
1. Cut the stem of the leafy shoot (at an angle to increase the surface
area) under water.
o The reason we cut it under water is to prevent air bubbles entering
the xylem vessel.
o Use a very sharp knife or new scalpel and cut at an angle in order
to increase surface area for water uptake in the xylem.
2. Test to make sure the stem of the leafy twig will fit snugly into the top
of the straw.
3. Remove the leafy shoot from the straw and set aside.
4. Fill the straw with water. Place your finger over one end of the straw to
stop the water from running out.
5. Put the leafy shoot into the open end and seal it with play dough while
removing it from water keeping your finger on the straw.
140
6. Seal with petroleum jelly and make sure it is air tight and water tight. If
not, all the water will run out when you take your finger off the straw.
7. Mark the water level on the straw.
8. Place your potometer under one of the following conditions for one hour:
o in a warm, sunny place (no wind)
o in a warm, windy place
o with a plastic bag tied around the leaf, in a warm, sunny place; or
o a shady place
9. Every 10 minutes use a marking pen to mark the change in water level
on the straw. Continue taking measurements for 1 hour.
 Measure the distance the water moves during each time interval.
Fig.5.3.13:
Graphs showing relationship between different factors against rate of transpiration
141
Experiment: Investigating water is loss from leaf surfaces
Materials
o leaf attached to a healthy potted plant

o cobalt chloride paper
o forceps
o microscope slides
o rubber bands
o filter paper
Fig.5.3.14:
Water loss through leaves
Procedure
1. Select one healthy leaf and clean the leaf to remove the water droplets
using a filter paper.
142
2. Place two strips of cobalt chloride paper: one on the upper and the other
on the lower surface of a leaf of the potted plant.
3. Take two glass slides and place one over the upper and the other over
the lower side of the leaf.
4. Clip the slides together using rubber bands.
5. Note the time taken by the cobalt chloride paper to change its blue colour
to pink.
 Cobalt chloride is blue when dry and pink when wet.
 The time taken to change colour of the cobalt chloride paper from blue
to pink on the lower leaf surface is less than the upper surface.
 The paper attached to the leaf surfaces of the leaf turns pink showing
that water is lost through leaves by transpiration.
Experiment: Measuring transpiration by weighing

Materials
o plant
o polythene bag
o plant pot
o balance
143
Fig.5.3.15:
Measuring transpiration by weighing
Procedure
1. Water the potted plant well.
2. Wrap the plastic bag around the pot to prevent water loss from the soil.
3. Place the plant on the balance and weigh at intervals.
 Changes in weight indicate water loss by transpiration.
Experiment: Investigating water loss through the stomata

Materials
o 4 leaves from the same plant
o petroleum jelly
Procedure
1. Choose four similar leaves of a plant with thin leaves and stomata only
on the lower sides of the leaves.
2. Smear both surfaces of leaf 1 with petroleum jelly.
144
3. Smear only the upper surface of leaf 2 with petroleum jelly.
4. Smear only the lower surface of leaf 3 with petroleum jelly.
5. Let leaf 4 hang freely in the air as a control without smearing it with
petroleum jelly.
6. Examine the leaves on the next day.
 Leaf 1 and leaf 3 show signs of wilting.
 Leaf 2 and leaf 4 show no signs of wilting.
 Water is lost through the plant stomata during transpiration.
 Stomata are found on both leaf surfaces of leaves but most plants have
more on the lower surface.
Adaptations by plants to minimise water loss

 Plants which live in hot and dry weather face problems of extreme water
loss.
 Xerophytes are plants which are adapted to a dry habitat and are able to
survive and grow.
 They exhibit the following features listed in table 5.3.1.
Table 5.3.1: Adaptions to minimise water loss in xerophytes
Adaptation How it works Example
Thick cuticle  Stops uncontrolled  Most dicots
evaporation through
leaf cells.
Small leaf surface  Less area for  Conifer
area evaporation. needles, cactus
spines
Low stomata  Fewer gaps in leaves. 
density
Stomata on lower  More humid air on lower  Most dicots
surface of leaf surface, so less
only evaporation.
145
Shedding leaves  Reduce water loss at  Deciduous
in dry/cold certain times of year. plants
season
Sunken stomata  Maintains humid air  Marram grass,
around stomata. pine
Stomatal hairs  Maintains humid air  Marram grass,
around stomata. couch grass
Folded leaves  Maintains humid air  Marram grass,
around stomata.
Succulent leaves  Stores water  Cacti
and stem
Extensive roots  Maximise water uptake.  Cacti
Fig.5.3.16:
Examples of xerophytes
146
Wilting
 Young plant stems and leaves rely on their cells being turgid to keep them
rigid.
 Wilting occurs if the amount of water lost from the leaves of a plant is
greater than the amount taken into the roots.
 The plant will have a water shortage and cells become flaccid (soft) and
will no longer press against each other.
 Stems and leaves lose their rigidity and wilt.
Fig.5.3.17:
Wilting in plants
Translocation
 It is the movement of organic substances/assimilates (such sucrose,
amino acids and fatty acids) from one part of the plant to another.
 It is an active process which occurs in the phloem.
147
 Plants produce sugars in their leaves by photosynthesis which are
translocated to non-photosynthetic parts of the plant which also require
these sugars.
 Glucose produced by photosynthesis is converted into sucrose (which is
soluble but not metabolically active).
 Sucrose can be:
o broken down by enzymes and used in respiration
o converted to starch and stored in roots, fruits or seeds
o used to make new cell walls.
o Translocation typically begins in any plant location where sucrose
(or the other organic solute) is in high concentration (the source)
to where it is used or stored (the sinks).
 The rate of translocation is rather constant and barely affected by
environmental conditions.
Fig.5.3.18:
Phloem vessel
148
Translocation in the phloem sieves
 Sucrose is transported in sieve elements which work closely together with
companion cells to achieve translocation.
 Companion cells actively load sucrose in the phloem from photosynthetic
cells in the leaves.
 This movement of sucrose decreases the water potential in the phloem
sap inside the sieve tube.
 This causes the water to move into the sieve element down a water
potential gradient by osmosis creating a pressure gradient in the sieve
tubes.
 Phloem sap then moves by mass flow down the turgor pressure gradient
generated.
 Sucrose is then moved into the sink cells from the phloem by either
diffusion or active transport.
 Water diffuses from the phloem by osmosis and is then transpired or
recycled via the xylem back into the phloem sap.
149
Fig.5.3.19:
Translocation in phloem
Effect of ring-barking to plants

 Ring-barking is also known as girdling.
 This process involves the removal or severance of a complete band of bark
(consisting of phloem, cambium and sometimes going into the xylem)
from around the entire circumference of a stem or branch of a tree as
shown in fig.5.3.20.
 The shoots above and beyond the debarking will usually die but if the ring
is complete and strips of bark remain intact the part beyond the ring may
survive.
 Debarking disrupts flow of sap (sucrose and other organic compounds)
from leaves to other parts hence stressing the tree.
 This can cause dieback in the shoot and root system, and colonisation by
wood decaying organisms like fungi and bacteria.
150
 Any break in the bark can allow entry of parasitic, pathogenic or
saprophytic organisms.
 Eventually the plant will die, decompose and the inorganic compounds
will be recycled back into the environment by detrivores.
 This may lead to deforestation.
Fig.5.3.20:
Ring-barking on a stem
151
Content
ANIMAL SCIENCE
NUTRITION
1. Defined balanced diet and list the components of a

balanced diet.
2. List major sources of nutrients and describe major
functions of nutrients.
3. Carry out food tests for the presence of nutrients and
compare energy content of carbohydrates and lipids.
4. Relate food intake different ages, sex, activities and
health requirements.
5. Define malnutrition and discuss causes and effects.
Balanced diet
 Diet is the food an animal eats at a particular time.
 A balanced diet is eating food containing all the necessary nutrients in
correct quantities and proportions.
 Nutrients are the food components that provide nourishment essential for
maintenance of life and for growth.
Components of a balanced diet
 Nutrients required by humans in their diet include; carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids (fats), vitamins, fibre, water and mineral ions such as
calcium, iron and magnesium.
Sources and functions of nutrients
Table 6.1.1: Nutrients and their importance in the body
Nutrient Food source Functions in human body
Carbohydrates Potatoes, rice,  Provides energy.
wheat, maize,
152
Proteins Meat, beans, fish,  Growth, development,
eggs, nuts defence, tissue repair.
Lipids (fats) Fatty meat, butter,  Insulation, energy
cream, cheese storage and synthesis of
(dairy products) cell membranes.
Fibre Cereals, vegetables  Stimulates peristaltic
(roughage) movements in the gut.
Calcium Milk, cheese,  Strengthens bones and
yoghurt teeth.
Vitamin A Carrots, green  Maintains normal vision,
vegetables, liver, essential for maintaining
cod-liver oil, butter healthy immune system.
and milk.
Vitamin C Citrus fruits, raw  Bonds cells and tissues
vegetables, nuts together.
Vitamin D Fish oil, milk, eggs,  Needed in the small
butter and made in intestine to absorb
the skin by the sun Calcium.
Iodine Iodised salt, sea  Production of thyroid
food hormones, helps cells to
convert food into energy.
Iron Red meat, liver,  Haemoglobin production
eggs
Water Tap, borehole, well  Medium for metabolism,
temperature regulation
and transport of soluble
substances.
Testing for the presence of nutrients

 Refer to chapter two (Chemicals of life) for food tests of reducing sugars,
starch, proteins and lipids.
153
Experiment: Testing for vitamin C
 Vitamin C is in juices, such as freshly-squeezed orange/lemon juice. A
vitamin C solution can be made by dissolving vitamin C pills in distilled
water. DCPIP is a blue liquid that loses its colour when it comes into
contact with vitamin C.
 The higher the concentration of vitamin C the greater the change of
colour of DCPIP.
Materials
o DCPIP solution
o vitamin C solution or orange juice
o distilled water
o syringe or a dropping pipette
o 2 test tubes
Procedure
1. Put a known volume of DCPIP in 2 test tubes.
2. Label the test tubes as orange juice and control (distilled water).
3. Fill a syringe or dropping pipette with vitamin C solution or orange juice.
4. Add the liquid into the test tube, one drop at a time.
5. Observe the colour change.
6. Repeat steps 3 – 5 using distilled water to prepare a control.
7. Copy the table below and record your observations.
Food substance Initial DCPIP Final DCPIP
colour colour
Vitamin C solution or
orange juice
Distilled water
154
 DCPIP loses its blue colour in presence of vitamin C (positive) but
maintains its blue colour in absence of vitamin C (negative).
NOTE: For more food tests refer to Topic 2.0 Chemicals of life.
Comparing energy content of carbohydrates and lipids

 Lipids have more than twice the energy value of carbohydrates.
 However, lipids are less easily digested and absorbed than
carbohydrates.
Experiment: Comparing energy values of foods
Materials
o variety of starch and fatty foods

o food holders
o small containers for heating water
o thermometer
o heat resistant test tubes
o mounting needle
o retort stand
o crocodile clamp
o balance
155
Procedure
Fig.6.1.1:
Determining value of energy in food
1. Set up apparatus as shown in fig.6.1.1.

2. Measure 2g of each food substance and mould into a spherical shape.
3. Pierce the mounting needle on each spherical shaped food substance.
4. Heat the piece of food until it ignites and burn on its own.
5. Hold the mounting needle with burning food under the test tube
containing water
6. Simultaneously measure the temperature of the water.
7. Allow food to burn until the flame dies out.
8. Measure the temperature of the water again and record the increase in
temperature.
9. Repeat the procedure using other food substances of the same amount.
o Design a table and record your findings.
o Plot your results on a bar graph.
o Which foods produced the greatest rise in temperature?
156
Various nutritional demands for different individuals
 Diets should have a variety of foods because different foods provide
different nutrients to the body.
 People of different ages require different diets, for example, young
children need a lot of calcium since their teeth and bones are still growing
and developing actively; proteins, since they are still growing, repairing
damaged tissues and strengthening their immune system.
 Adults require more carbohydrates (calories) than young children because
they do the laborious work.
Table 6.1.2: Daily estimated calories and recommended servings for calories fat, milk and lean
meat, according to age and gender
1 year 2 -3 4 -8 9 -13 14 -18

years Years years years
Calories 900kcal 1000kcal
Female 12000 16000 18000

kcal kcal kcal
Male 14000 18000 22000

kcal kcal kcal
Fat (kcal) 30-40% 30-35% 25- 25-35% 25-35%

35%
Milk 2 cups 2 cups 2 cups 3 cups 3 cups
Lean 42g 56g 142g

meat/beans
Female 85g 142g
Male 113g 170g
157
 Manual (heavy weight) workers who are more active require more
carbohydrates for energy than sedentary (light weight) workers who
spent most of the time in the office as shown in fig.6.1.2.
Fig.6.1.2:
Manual workers (left) and sedentary workers (right).
 People of different sex also require a different diet for example females
require a lot of iron since they menstruate.
 Males require lots of carbohydrates than females because they do most
of the physical work.
 Females at the age of menstruating need more iron than males of the
same age because their bodies need to produce more red blood cells to
replace blood lost by the body during the process of menstruation.
 A pregnant woman requires more calcium, iron and proteins for blood,
development and growth of the foetus.
 Calcium is also required in large quantities for bone formation and
development.
158
Malnutrition
 Malnutrition is eating food without correct amount of nutrients (it is
eating an unbalanced diet).
 It is also wrong nutrition, resulting from not having enough to eat, not
eating enough of the correct food, or being unable to use the food that
one does eat.
 Malnutrition is different from starvation!
 Starvation is when one does not have anything to eat or is not eating
enough food for a long period of time.
 Starvation can lead to malnutrition because starving people start to eat
whatever food they find even if the food is of the same type since they
want to survive.
 Malnutrition exists in two forms; under nutrition and over nutrition.
A. Under nutrition
 It is a form of malnutrition resulting from a reduced supply of food or
from inability to digest, absorb, assimilate, and use the necessary
nutrients.
 It includes being underweight for one's age, too short for one's age
(stunted), too thin for one's height (wasted) and deficient in vitamins and
minerals.
Effects of under nutrition
1. Kwashiorkor
 This disease is evidence of malnutrition where the diet lacks proteins.
 Staple foods of many developing countries are carbohydrate (energy
giving) foods but they do not contain much protein for example maize,
bread, rice, potatoes.
 It mainly affects young children in developing countries as shown in
fig.6.1.3.
159
Fig.6.1.3:
Child suffering from kwashiorkor
Symptoms of kwashiorkor
o Change in skin and hair colour (to a rust colour) and texture (hair
loses its curliness).
o Protruding and enlarging belly as shown in fig.6.1.3.
o Loss of muscle mass.
o Failure to grow or gain weight (stunted growth).
o Oedema (excess water retention in body tissues), which makes
them look puffy and bloated.
o Body weakness and irritability, and in many cases their skin flakes.
o Enlargement of the liver.
o Damaged immune system, which can lead to more frequent and
severe infections.
160
2. Marasmus
 Marasmus is a form of extremely severe malnutrition characterised by
energy deficiency.
 Marasmus is caused by severe deficiency of almost all nutrients, especially
proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids (extremely low intake of energy giving
foods).
 It has significant, chronic wasting (extensive using up) of muscles, fats
and tissues of the body as shown in fig.6.1.4 below.
 It is more prevalent in young children in developing countries like Africa,
South Asia and Latin America.
Fig.6.1.4:
Children suffering from marasmus
Symptoms of marasmus
o Symptoms can be variable and wide range depending on the
severity of the condition and many other factors.
o Emaciated appearance (body appearing very thin, just like a
skeleton) as seen in fig.6.1.4.
161
o Significant weight loss (body utilizing muscles & tissues also for
survival).
o Chronic diarrhoea or prolonged vomiting which leads to loss of
energy, nutrients and water from the body.
o Lack of energy.
o Outward expansion of abdomen beyond normal size.
o Persistent dizziness.
o Dry skin.
o Loss of bladder or bowel control.
o Full or partial paralysis of lower extremities that is, the legs.
Table 6.1.3: Effects of mineral nutrition deficiency
Nutrient Symptoms of the nutrient deficiency
Calcium  Weak bones and teeth, rickets.
Iodine  Goitre (Enlarged thryroid), Mental and physical

retardation.
Iron  Anaemia (shortage of blood).
Vitamin  Poor eye sight/ night blindness, respiratory tract

A infections, dry and scaly skin, reduced resistance to
diseases.
Vitamin  Prolonged bleeding, scurvy (bleeding of gums), poor

C healing.
Vitamin  Rickets in children and Osteomalacia (softening of

D bones) in adults.
162
Fig.6.1.5:
Some common disease which result from mineral deficiency
B. Over nutrition
 It is a form of malnutrition whereby the intake of nutrients is
oversupplied. The amount of nutrients exceeds the amount required for
normal growth, development, and metabolism.
Effects of over nutrition
1. Obesity
 It is a condition beyond overweight where a person has accumulated too
much body fat that it might have a negative effect on their health.
 Too much of food containing fats can cause obesity (very fat) as shown
in fig.6.1.6 below.
 If you eat a lot food, the excess energy is stored as fat inside your body
and eventually you grow too big in size for your age and height.
 Obese people are more likely to get heart diseases, stroke and diabetes.
163
 Fast foods contain a lot of fat (junk food) so it is not advisable to eat a
lot of them.
 Obese people have body mass index (BMI) above 30kg/m2.
 BMI is defined as the body mass (kg) divided by the square of the body
height (m2), and is universally expressed in units of kg/m2.
Symptoms of obesity
o Breathlessness.
o Increased sweating.
o Snoring.
o Difficulty in sleeping.
o Inability to cope with sudden physical activity.
o Feeling tired everyday.
o Back and joint pains.
o Coronary heart diseases resulting from high blood pressure
(hypertension) and accumulation of cholesterol in blood vessels
and/or around organs.
o Development of diabetes type 2.
o Skin problems caused by moisture that accumulates in the folds of
your skin.
164
Fig.6.1.6:
An obese person
Prevention of obesity
o Eat a balanced diet with low energy and fat levels.
o Exercise regularly.
2. Heart Disease
 A lot of saturated fats in the diet puts one at risk of developing heart
diseases.
 Saturated fats contain, or are used to make cholesterol which gets stored
in the lumen of blood vessels.
 An excess of this deposition of cholesterol results in less blood being
transported around the body and there is an increased blood flow
resistance.
 An extra strain is applied on the heart as it needs to work harder in order
to overcome this resistance and supply enough blood to the body.
 If the vessels lining the vessels supplying the heart are lined by
cholesterol, then less blood gets to the heart muscles rendering it less
165
effective in pumping blood (cardiac muscles will be starved of oxygen and
glucose).
 Too much salt in the diet increases blood pressure above normal
(hypertension) also leads to heart diseases.
 Unsaturated fats and oils do not cause heart diseases.
 People who smoke are at a greater risk of developing heart disease than
non-smokers.
 Excessive intake of alcohol has been linked to increasing chances of one
developing heart diseases.
 Heart disease increases the chance of an individual getting a stroke.
Prevention of heart disease
o Chicken skin should be removed because it is very rich in saturated
fats and cholesterol.
o Fish and white meat do not contain saturated fats so more of these
and less of red meat may help reduce risk of heart diseases.
o Eat a balanced diet with low salt, energy and fat levels.
o Take limited volumes of alcohol.
o Do not smoke.
166
Content
ANIMAL SCIENCE
DIGESTION AND ASSIMILATION

1. Identify the main regions of the human alimentary canal

and associated organs and state functions of parts of the
alimentary canal.
2. Define mechanical digestion and describe peristalsis.
3. Discuss chemical digestion and explain its importance.
4. Explain how different parts of the alimentary canal are
adapted for their specific functions.
Alimentary canal
 Alimentary canal is a two open-ended continuous tube that takes in,
digests and absorbs food, and expels undigested food material.
 It is also called digestion system or the gut.
 It is muscular and its internal parts are lined by glands that secrete various
enzymes, juices and other chemicals that facilitate digestion.
 The digestive system is made up of several different organs as shown in
fig.6.2.1.
167
Fig.6.2.1:
The human alimentary canal
Table 6.2.1: Parts of the alimentary canal
Organ Function
Mouth  It is the opening through which food enters the

alimentary canal.
 This is the site where food is mechanically
digested by teeth.
 Saliva is also secreted to begin chemical digestion
of starch.
Salivary  Produce saliva

glands
Pharynx  It forms the common passage for food and air.
Epiglottis  Prevents food from entering the trachea.
168
Oesophagus  Food bolus (ball) moves along this muscular tube
by a process called peristalsis from the mouth to
the stomach.
Stomach  It is a flexible muscular bag which temporarily

stores food.
 Secretes protein digesting enzymes and
hydrochloric acid which also kills bacteria.
 Its muscular walls help to mix food.
Duodenum  It is the first part of the small intestine.

 Food is mixed with digestive enzymes and bile.
 It receives pancreatic juice containing several
digestive enzymes for chemical digestion of food.
Pancreas  Secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum.
Liver  Produces bile.
Gall bladder  Stores bile before releasing it into the duodenum.
Ileum  Region where digested food is absorbed into the

blood and lymph.
Colon  Water is reabsorbed in this region
Rectum  This is where faeces are stored.
Anus  This is where faeces leave the alimentary canal.
Digestion
 It is the breaking down of large complex organic substances into smaller
simple organic and inorganic substances that can be used by the body.
 Digestion can occur either mechanically or chemically.
169
1. Mechanical digestion
 Mechanical digestion is the breakdown of large pieces of food into
smaller pieces of food without changing the food molecules.
 It can also be defined as the physical breakdown of food particles to
increase their surface area.
 Mechanical digestion occurs in two regions in the alimentary canal:
o By chewing in the mouth.
o By churning in the stomach.
2. Chemical digestion
 Chemical digestion involves the breakdown of food by enzymes.
 Enzymes break down food into small, soluble molecules that can be
absorbed.
A. Digestion in the mouth

 Ingestion is the taking in of the food into the gut through the mouth.
 The mouth is where food is initially physically broken down into smaller
particles by teeth.
 The teeth work by cutting, shredding or tearing, chewing, crushing and
grinding breaking down food mechanically into smaller pieces that can
be swallowed.
 Food is chewed by the teeth to reduce the food particles and increase
surface area for enzymes to act on.
 The tongue mixes food with saliva to moisten it and rolls it into a ball or
bolus.
 Salivary glands produce saliva which contains mucus which lubricates
the passage of the food bolus down the throat, and amylase which
catalyses the breakdown of starch to maltose.
 The food bolus then passes through the pharynx into the oesophagus.
 The epiglottis covers the opening to the trachea after swallowing so that
food does not go the wrong way.
170
B. The oesophagus
Fig.6.2.2:
Peristalsis in oesophagus
 Food moves down the oesophagus (gullet) from the mouth to the
stomach by a wave of muscular contractions called peristalsis.
 These movements is characterised by:
o Contraction of circular muscles while longitudinal muscles relax
behind the food bolus to push it down to the stomach.
o Relaxation of circular muscles in front of the bolus, and contraction
of longitudinal muscles to widen the oesophagus to allow the bolus
of food to move along.
C. Digestion in the stomach
 The stomach walls secrete gastric juices containing proteases pepsin and
renin.
 Rennin is secreted in babies and young children and clots protein in milk.
 Pepsin breaks down proteins into more soluble compounds called
peptides.
171
 Stomach wall also secretes hydrochloric acid which creates acidic
conditions suitable for pepsin to work at optimum level.
 Hydrochloric acid also kills many bacteria taken in together with food.
 Rhythmic peristaltic movements of the stomach occur in about every 20
seconds, helping to churn and mix the food and gastric juices to form a
creamy liquid called chyme.
 When the pyloric sphincter (lower stomach muscle) relaxes part of the
chyme is pushed into the duodenum.
 No absorption takes place here except that of alcohol.
D. Digestion and absorption in the small intestines
 The small intestines are relatively long (5m) and are divided into
duodenum and ileum.
1. Duodenum
o In this first section, alkaline pancreatic juices (sodium hydrogen
carbonate) which neutralise the acid from the stomach are secreted
from the pancreas.
o Pancreas is a digestive gland lying just below the stomach and it
produces three types of enzymes together with pancreatic juice.
o Pancreatic amylase: converts starch into maltose.
o Lipases: break down fats into glycerol and fatty acids.
o Trypsin: breaks down proteins and peptides into amino acids.
o Bile is also secreted from the gall bladder.
o Bile is a green watery fluid containing bile salts that emulsifies fats.
o Emulsification is the breaking down of fats into very small droplets
thereby increasing the surface area for lipase activity.
2. Ileum
o This second part specialises in absorption of completely digested
food.
o Absorption is the uptake of digested food molecules into the
bloodstream from the gut.
o All digestible materials are changed to soluble compounds which
can pass through the lining of the ileum into the blood stream.
172
o The lining cells can break down remaining peptides into amino
acids, maltose is broken down to glucose and these substances can
enter the capillaries.
o The lining of the alimentary canal has goblet cells which secrete
mucus that prevents digestive enzymes/juices from reaching and
digesting the walls of the alimentary canal.
o Mucus also helps undigested food to slide along the gut.
o All digested food is highly concentrated in ileum than in blood and
is absorbed in this section of the gut by diffusion.
o Active transport is used to absorb digestion products which are
more concentrated in blood than in ileum.
Fig.6.2.3:
Location and structure of villi
173
Structural adaptations of ileum for absorption of soluble products of digestion
 Ileum is best adapted for absorption because;
a. It is long (because of the folding and coiling) as shown in
Fig.6.2.1, so it presents a large surface area for absorbing
the digested food
b. Its internal surface area is significantly increased by
thousands of finger-like projections called villi shown in
fig.6.2.3.
c. The villi is lined with special (absorptive) cells with microvilli
(folding of the membrane shown in fig.6.2.3) that increase
membrane surface area for soluble substances absorption.
d. The epithelium is very thin which reduces the distance
travelled by digestion products from the gut to blood in
capillaries hence fluids can pass through it rapidly.
e. There is a dense network of capillaries in each villus to ensure
a rich supply of blood that transports absorbed soluble
products to the liver and around the body.
 The lacteals inside the villi absorb most of the fatty acids and glycerol in
the ileum as chyle. Chyle is a milky fluid consisting of lymph and
emulsified fat extracted from chyme in the ileum. Fatty acids and glycerol
absorbed by lacteals are transported via the lymphatic system not the
blood circulatory system.
Experiment: Investigating the effect of amylase on a starchy foodstuff
 Investigate enzyme action on a foodstuff
 See that food must be digested before it can be absorbed in the digestive
system
Materials
o amylase solution
o rice
o 3 boiling tubes
o 3 Test tubes
174
o syringe
o visking tubing
o spatula
o thermometer
o distilled water
Procedure
1. Label 3 boiling tubes 1, 2, 3.
2. Label 3 test tubes 1, 2, 3.
3. Set up 3 model guts: take a wet piece of visking tubing, tie a knot
in one end, place the sawn off syringe barrel in the other end and
secure with an elastic band. These may have been set up for you
(see diagram).
4. Use the spatula to add rice to each of the model guts until they are
half full.
175
5. Rinse the outside of each piece of visking tubing under a running
tap.
6. Place the rice-filled model gut in a labelled boiling tube half-filled
with warm water (see diagram below)
7. Immediately withdraw one drop of the water you have added and
test it with iodine on a dimple tile.
8. Add 5ml of water to model gut 1.
9. Add 5ml of amylase to model gut 2.
10. Add 5ml of boiled amylase to model gut 3.
11. Place all the boiling tubes containing the model guts in the water
bath at approximately 37ºC.
176
12. Leave for at least 15 minutes.
13. While you are waiting:
o Place a grain of rice in a well on the white tile and add a drop of
iodine solution. A blue-black colour indicates that starch is
present.
o Put some rice in a test tube. Add 2ml of water, 2ml of Benedict’s
reagent and place into a large beaker of boiling water. Check the
colour after 2-3 minutes. An orange (or greenish-yellow) colour
indicates that glucose or a similar sugar is present.
o Record your results in a suitable table.
14. After 15 minutes, use a teat pipette to remove some of the water
surrounding the model gut in boiling tube 1.
15. Place one drop of this water in a well of the white tile and add a
drop of iodine. Record the result.
16. Place the rest (around 2ml) of the water from boiling tube 1 into
test tube 1. Add 2ml of Benedict’s reagent and place test tube 1
177
into a large beaker of boiling water. Check the colour after 2-3
minutes. Record the result.
17. Repeat steps 14, 15 and 16 with water from boiling tubes 2 and
3. Record the results.
Summary of the digestive enzymes found in the human gut
Table 6.2.2: Digestive enzymes and their specific action in the gut
Part of gut Digestive Substrate Enzyme Product

gland
Mouth Salivary Starch Salivary Maltose

glands amylase
Stomach Gastric Proteins Pepsin Peptides

glands (protease)
Milk Rennin Clotted

protein (protease) milk
protein
Duodenum Pancreas Proteins Trypsin Amino

acids
Starch Pancreatic Maltose

amylase
Fats Lipase Fatty

acids and
glycerol
Ileum Ileum Maltose Maltase Glucose

lining
Sucrose Sucrose Glucose
glands
and
fructose
178
Lactose Lactase Glucose
and
galactose
Peptides Peptidase Amino

acids
Fats Lipase Fatty

acids and
glycerol
E. Large intestines
1. Colon
o It absorbs water from the undigested food (roughage/fibre).
o The undigested material is largely cellulose, lignin, vegetable fibres
mucus and dead cells.
o Note: Humans cannot digest cellulose.
o No enzyme secretion occurs but colon contains bacteria that can
digest part of the fibre.
o Bacterial fermentation of fibre releases vitamins including vitamin
B which is absorbed by the walls of the colon.
2. Rectum
o It collects the semi-solid matter from the colon called faeces.
o The faeces are temporarily stored here for 12 - 48 hours and are
expelled by peristaltic movements when the anal muscles relax.
3. Caecum and appendix
o These are small parts of the gut which have no known function in
humans.
o However in rabbits they are larger and they play a significant part
in cellulose digestion.
179
4. Anus
o A circular muscular opening, that allows faeces to come out when
the sphincter muscles relaxes a process called egestion.
o Egestion is the removal of undigested food mainly roughage from
the body through the anus.
o It is the end point of digestive system.
Assimilation
 All food absorbed into the bloodstream from the ileum is transported
directly to the liver through a blood vessel called hepatic portal vein for
initial assimilation.
 Assimilation is the incorporation or absorption of absorbed food
molecules into various cells and tissues for energy, defence, growth and
development of the body.
 Completely digested food substances can pass through the membranes
of different cells where glucose can be used for respiration to release
energy and amino acids can be joined together to form different proteins
required by the cell.
Note: Assimilation takes place in the cell only.
 The liver is the first point of assimilation in the body.
Functions of the liver
 Some functions of the liver include;
o Converts excess glucose into glycogen (short term storage) and
fats (long term storage) in blood glucose regulation process.
o Stores vitamin A and D.
o Joins amino acids to synthesise plasma proteins found in blood.
Fibrinogen is an example of a plasma protein which functions in
blood clotting.
o Breaks down excess amino acids into carbohydrates and urea a
process called deamination.
180
o Breaks down toxins which would have been absorbed together with
food, including drugs and alcohol to harmless substances which
will be excreted in urine, a process called detoxification.
o Also breaks down worn out red blood cells to make bile.
o Storage of iron from the breaking down of haemoglobin in red
blood cells.
o From the liver the food can now be distributed to various parts of
the body for further assimilation.

Content
6: ANIMAL SCIENCE
CARE OF TEETH
1. Describe the structure of a tooth.

2. Describe functions of different types of teeth.
3. Identify causes of tooth decay.
4. Describe the proper care to teeth.
181
Structure of a tooth
Fig.6.3.1:
General structure of tooth
Table 6.3.1: Parts of a tooth
Part Description
Crown  Exposed part of the tooth which projects from the

gums.
Neck  Marks the boundary between crown and root.
Root  Part embedded in the jaw and it anchors the tooth in

its bony socket.
Enamel  Outer biting surface and is the hardest substance in

the body.
182
 Non-living substance containing calcium salts.
 Deposited on the outside of the crown of the tooth
by cells in the gum before the tooth reaches the
surface.
Dentine  Main section of the tooth and bone-like in structure.

 Not as hard as enamel, forms the bulk of the tooth
and can be sensitive if the protection of the enamel
is lost.
Pulp  Soft tissue which contains blood and nerve supply to

cavity the tooth.
 Blood vessels carry oxygen and nutrients in for cells
and move waste products.
 The pulp extends from the crown to the tip of the
root.
Cementum  A layer of connective tissue that binds the roots of

the teeth firmly to the gums and jawbone.
Types of teeth and their main functions

 Adult humans have 32 teeth which have different shapes for performing
different functions.
183
Fig.6.3.2:
Arrangement of human teeth
1. Incisors
o Incisors are used to take bites of food.
o These chisel-shaped teeth are adapted for cutting and biting soft
food.
o They are located at the front and centre of the jaws.
o An adult has a total of eight incisors, four on each jaw.
2. Canines
o They are pointed, sharp and strong for piercing and tearing food
substances like tearing off a piece of tough meat.
o They are located between incisors and premolars.
o An adult has four canines, two on each jaw.
3. Premolars
o They are used for tearing, crushing and grinding solid and semi-
solid food substances.
184
o Premolars have flattened surfaces with two cusps (slightly raised
sharp surfaces) to increase surface area for grinding and chewing.
o They have one or two roots.
o They have features of both canines and molars.
o They are located between canines and molars near the back of the
jaws.
o An adult has eight premolars, four on each jaw.
4. Molars
o They are used for crushing, grinding and chewing solid and semi-
solid food substances for example bones and tough fruits or seeds
like nuts.
o Molars have broad flattened surfaces with three or four cusps to
increase surface area for grinding and chewing.
o They have two or three roots.
o They are located between canines and molars near the back of the
jaws.
o An adult has twelve molars, six on each jaw.
185
Tooth decay
Fig.6.3.3:
Decayed tooth
 Tooth decay is damage that occurs when bacteria inside the mouth
produce acids that eat away at a tooth.
 It can cause a permanent hole in the tooth called a cavity.
 If not treated, tooth decay can cause pain, infection, and tooth loss.
How tooth decay occurs
 Plaque is a thin sticky film of bacteria which constantly forms on teeth
and gums.
 After a meal, particles of sugary food may be left between the teeth and
the bacteria in the plaque converts sugar into acid.
 The acid attacks the enamel and this sets off tooth decay creating a tooth
cavity.
 When the enamel is worn away, the acid will attack the dentine.
 Eventually, the cavity may reach the pulp cavity where the nerves are
located: this is very painful and causes severe toothache.
186
 If patients do not take action at pulpal decay, the infection travels deeper
into the tooth, all the way to the root tip causing severe pain, swelling,
and inflammation (tooth abscess).
Fig.6.3.4:
Stages of tooth decay
Experiment: Action of acid on tooth

Materials
o animal teeth
o concentrated acid
o carbonated drink
o pH paper or indicator
Procedure
1. Place one tooth into each of the following liquids- water, concentrated
acid and a carbonated drink. Check the pH of each.
187
2. Leave the teeth for several days, checking daily any changes in the teeth.
What happens to the teeth?
 The enamel of the teeth is eroded in both solutions.
 Carbonated drinks also contain acid which causes teeth to decay.
Caring for teeth

 Proper care of teeth to prevent tooth decay involves three main concerns:
Removal of plaque
o This can be done by regular brushing of teeth and flossing which
also helps to remove food particles stuck within teeth.
Neutralisation of acid
o This can be done by using alkaline substances to clean the mouth
such as basic toothpaste or rinsing regularly with dissolved
bicarbonate of soda or ash.
Destruction of bacteria
o This can be achieved by using toothpaste containing antibacterial
agents which inhibit the growth of bacteria inside the mouth.
o Other ways of maintaining healthy teeth are:
 Avoiding sugary foods
 Using fluoride toothpaste to strengthen teeth
 Visiting the dentist regularly for check-ups.
Experiment: Testing pH of cleaning agents for teeth
Materials
o different tooth pastes

o pH paper
o microscopes
o salt
o bicarbonate of soda
o suitable containers for tooth paste samples
188
Procedure
1. The pH of each tooth paste can be tested by dissolving a very small drop
of toothpaste in distilled water.
2. Dip a strip of pH into the solution.
3. Read off the pH on the colour code.
4. Test the pH of bicarbonate of soda by dissolving in some water and
testing with pH paper.
5. Write a report on your findings. Give recommendations with reasons for
the best toothpastes in your opinion.

Content
ANIMAL SCIENCE
GASEOUS EXCHANGE
1. Identify parts and state the functions of the parts of

the respiratory system.
2. Describe the mechanism of breathing and factors which
increase the efficiency of gaseous exchange.
3. Describe the structure and role of the alveoli.
4. State the difference between inhaled exhaled air.
5. Explain the effects of physical activity on breathing and
blood circulation.
Introduction
 Humans and other mammals require oxygen in order to breakdown and
utilise glucose in a process called respiration.
189
 This process of releasing of energy results in the liberation of carbon
dioxide as a waste product.
 The respiratory system also known as the gaseous exchange system
helps in the supply of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide in
mammals.
The human respiratory system
 The human respiratory system is located inside the thoracic cavity or
chest.
 It comprises of a pair of lungs and several unique structures.
Fig.6.4.1:
Structure of the human respiratory system
1. Nasal Cavity
o It cleans, moistens and warms the air.
o The cavity has hairs and mucus which help to trap small particles
such as dirt, dust and pathogens from entering into the respiratory
system.
190
o As one breathes in, air from the atmosphere moves into the nasal
passages via the nostrils.
2. Larynx / Voice Box
o Contains the vocal cords which vibrate for sound production.
3. Trachea (Windpipe)
o It carries air towards the lungs.
o C-shaped rings of cartilage support the trachea from collapse
during inhalation.
o It is lined with mucus membranes and cilia.
o Cilia are tiny cytoplasmic projections which act as defence
mechanisms against the entry of foreign substances.
o They are constantly beating in a wave-like form (like wipers on a
car) hence pushing trapped substances towards the throat.
o When mucus reach the throat, it will either be spit out through the
mouth or swallowed into the stomach.
Fig.6.4.2:
191
The lining in respiratory passage. Cilia move the trapped dirt particles up to the throat and the mucus
is swallowed.
4. Bronchus (Plural: Bronchi)

o It is the first branch from trachea and also has cartilage rings.
o There is one in each lung.
o Like all other respiratory passages, it is lined with ciliated cells and
mucus-producing cells.
5. Bronchiole(S)
o Extends from the bronchus.
o It is a fine branch leading to the alveolus but has fewer cartilage
rings.
o It has internal structure similar to trachea and bronchi.
6. Alveoli (Singular: Alveolus)
o Numerous microscopic air sacs lined with membranes where
gaseous exchange takes place.
o They are surrounded by a network of microscopic blood vessels
called capillaries for efficient gas exchange in and out of the blood.
7. Diaphragm
o It is a dome-shaped muscular sheet of tissue which separates the
thorax from the abdomen.
o It is the main muscle in respiration and has a vital role during the
breathing process.
8. Ribs/Rib Cage
o It is a set or series of slender curved bones articulated in pairs to
the spine (twelve pairs in humans), protecting the chest cavity and
its organs.
o Ribs are attached to the backbone (spine) and the breastbone
(sternum) in the back and front, respectively.
Pleural membrane
 It is a lining covering the outside of lungs and inside of thorax.
192
 It produces pleural fluid which lubricates the surfaces of the regions of
contacts between lungs and thorax during breathing movements.
Intercostal Muscles
o They are muscles that run in between the ribs.
o These muscles help expand and shrink the size of the chest cavity
to facilitate breathing.
Breathing
 Breathing is a set of muscular movements which regulates gaseous
exchange and ventilation of the lungs.
 It involves two processes which are; inhalation and exhalation.
Fig.6.4.3:
Breathing process
193
Fig.6.4.4:
Breathing mechanism
Experiment: Model of chest cavity

Materials:
o Apparatus for model of chest cavity (Fig.6.4.5)
194
Fig.6.4.5:
Model of chest cavity
Procedure
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
2. Pull the holder on the rubber sheet down and then push it up.
3. Do this a few times and observe what happens to the balloons.
Expected Observations:
 This model shows how movement of the diaphragm changes the volume
and pressure in the thorax (bell jar).
 As the diaphragm (rubber sheet) contracts and moves down, the lungs
(balloons) inflate as a result of an increase in volume and decrease in
pressure in the space around the lungs.
Gaseous exchange and the alveolus

 Gaseous exchange takes place in the alveoli in the lungs.
195
 It is the diffusion of oxygen into the blood capillaries from the air in the
blood alveoli while carbon dioxide simultaneously diffuses out of the
blood into the alveoli (Fig.6.4.6).
 It takes place via the membrane or gas respiratory surface in the
alveolus.
 The alveoli have many characteristics which make them suitable to
function as efficient respiratory surfaces for gas exchange.
 These are:
1. Large Surface Area
o Even though alveoli are so small, there are huge numbers of them
within the lungs which results in a large surface area for gas.
2. Thin
o The walls of the alveoli are made up of a single layer of thin cells
and so are the capillaries; this creates a short diffusion distance for
the gases, thus allows rapid gas exchange.
3. Close To A Blood Supply
o The alveoli are covered by a dense network of blood capillaries
which have low oxygen and high carbon dioxide concentrations.
o This allows oxygen to diffuse into the blood and carbon dioxide to
diffuse out of the blood.
4. Moist
o Cells in the alveolar walls secrete a fluid which keeps the inner
surface of the alveoli moist, allowing gases to dissolve.
o This fluid also contains a natural detergent that prevents the sides
of the alveoli from sticking together.
5. Ventilation
o Ventilation of the lungs ensures that the air in the passages is
changed.
o This helps to maintain the gas concentration gradients between the
air and the alveoli.
196
Fig.6.4.6:
Gaseous exchange in the alveolus
 A summary of these characteristics is given in Table 6.4.1.

Table 6.4.1: Factors which increase efficiency of gas exchange
Property of respiratory Explanation

surface
Thin (one cell thick)  Gases diffuse over a small

distance.
Large surface area  Increases simultaneous

(spherical shape of alveoli) diffusion of gas molecules.
Moist  Dissolve gases.
Ventilation  Maintains concentration

gradients for gaseous
exchange.
197
Close to a blood supply  Efficient transport of gases to
and from cells.
Composition of inhaled and exhaled air

 Atmospheric air is inhaled, gaseous exchange occurs in the alveoli and
the air is exhaled back into the atmosphere.
 The composition of air breathed in is therefore different from that of
exhaled air as shown in table 6.4.2.
Table 6.4.2 Composition of inhaled and exhaled air
Inhaled Explanation
Component Exhaled%
%
 Oxygen diffuses into

Oxygen 21 16
blood.
Carbon  Carbon dioxide diffuses

0.04 4
dioxide from blood.
 Nitrogen not used in the

Nitrogen 78 78
body.
Water  Evaporates from alveolar

Varies Saturated
vapour surface.
 Internal body
Temperature Varies 37oC temperature lost from
lung surface.
Experiment: Comparing amount of carbon dioxide in inhaled and exhaled air
Materials
o Carbon dioxide indicator (limewater)
o Apparatus shown in fig.6.4.7.
198
Fig.6.4.7:
Comparing inhaled and exhaled air
Procedure
1. Set up the apparatus as shown below in fig.6.4.7.
2. Breathe in and out gently into the apparatus for several times and
observes changes to the limewater.
 Inhalation causes air to be drawn into the apparatus through tube C.
 Exhalation causes air to go through tube E.
 The lime water turns milky first in B.
 The limewater in A will eventually become milky as one continues to
breathe through the apparatus.
Breathing and exercise

 The rate and depth of breathing increases with exercise.
 Exercise causes respiration in muscles to increase.
199
 Consequently, there is oxygen demand and increased carbon dioxide
production in muscles.
 Increasing the rate and depth of breathing allows for more oxygen to
enter the blood and for carbon dioxide to be removed from the blood.
 There is also an increase in the pulse rate as the heart beats faster in
order to deliver more blood to the muscles.
 Normally, the pulse rate remains high after exercise as muscles continue
to respire after exercise.
Fig.6.4.8
Effect of exercise on breathing and blood circulation
Experiment: Measuring the effect of exercise on breathing and blood circulation

Procedure
1. Measure your breathing rate by counting your chest movements.
o To measure your pulse rate, gently press your right hand index and
middle fingers on your inner left wrist and count the number.
200
2. Count the number of pulses and the number of breaths in one minute:
o while at rest;
o after walking for 3 minutes and;
o after running for 3 minutes.
3. Tabulate your results.
4. Repeat measurements and calculate the averages.
 Observe the increase in the breathing rate and depth of breathing after
doing exercise.
Effects of smoking on the respiratory system

 Tobacco smoke contains several harmful chemicals which may cause
detrimental effects on the body.
 Examples of these toxins include carbon monoxide, tar and nicotine.
 These dangerous chemicals can either have immediate or long term
effects on the body.
Short Term Effects
o Smoke irritates the lining of the respiratory tubes and this slows
down the sweeping action of cilia: this reduces the ability of the
respiratory system to defend against the entry of harmful foreign
substances.
o The irritation from tobacco smoke also causes the abnormal
tightening of the airways of the lungs making airways smaller and
leads to wheezing.
o Excess mucus is also produced by the lining and accumulates,
clogging the air passageways.
Long Term Effects
1. Chronic Bronchitis
o As one continues to smoke, cilia are eventually destroyed and
mucus then accumulates within the lungs.
201
o Congested lungs promote the growth of pathogenic organisms
that are normally removed allowing them easier access to the
respiratory surfaces.
o Accumulation of mucus leads to the development of a “smoker’s
cough” in order to remove this mucus.
o The tobacco smoke and coughing inflames the lining of the bronchi
and bronchioles, and they become constricted (smaller) and get
infected leading to the development of chronic bronchitis.
o Chronic bronchitis causes shortness of breath, coughing and pains
within the chest.
2. Lung Cancer
o Tar and other chemicals in tobacco are carcinogenic (cancer -
causing).
o Hence, accumulation of tar from smoke over a long period in
alveolar tubes and sacs can lead to lung cancer.
o Lung cancer is ten times more likely to develop in smokers than
non-smokers.
3. Emphysema
o Gradual and continued exposure to tobacco smoke irritants will
result in the deterioration of alveolar walls and cause them to break
down.
o This reduces surface area for gaseous exchange and leads to the
development of emphysema (Fig.6.4.9).
o People suffering from emphysema struggle with breathing
(shortness of breath and noisy breathing) because of the reduced
surface area for gas exchange.
202
Fig.6.4.9:
A long term effect of smoking
203
Content
ANIMAL SCIENCE
RESPIRATION
1. Define respiration and list uses of energy in the body.

2. Define aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.
3. State the equation for aerobic respiration and
anaerobic respiration in plants and in animals.
4. Describe the production and effect of lactic acid on
muscles during exercise.
Introduction
 Respiration is the breakdown of food in cells to release energy.
 It is a process catalysed by enzymes.
 Energy released from respiration is required for various metabolic
processes in the body which include;
o Movement (muscle contraction)

o Homeostasis
o Growth
o Cell division
o Active transport
o Excretion
o Digestion
o Protein synthesis
 There are two forms of respiration which are; aerobic and anaerobic
respiration.
204
Aerobic respiration
 It is the complete breakdown of glucose to release a relatively large
amount of energy in the presence of oxygen, in a cell.
 Glucose is oxidised to release energy, carbon dioxide and water.
 The word equation for the process is:
Glucose + oxygen → Carbon dioxide + water + energy
 Aerobic respiration process occurs in two stages.

 The site of the first stage is the cytoplasm and does not require oxygen
but it releases small amount of energy.
 The site of the second stage is the mitochondria and it requires oxygen.
 Aerobic respiration is completed in the mitochondria and it releases
large amount of energy
Experiment: Release of energy in germinating seeds in a vacuum flask
Materials
o 2 vacuum flasks
o 2 supporting stands
o 2 thermometers
o pea seeds soaked (24hours)
o cotton wool
o mild disinfectant
Procedure
1. Boil half of the seeds and allow them to cool.
2. Soak both the boiled and unboiled seeds separately in the mild
disinfectant for 15 minutes.
3. Rinse the seeds and place them in the flasks.
4. Set up the apparatus as shown below.
5. Record temperatures immediately and then every day for 4-5 days.
205
Fig.6.5.1:
Energy release by germinating seeds
 After a few days, the temperature in flask A will be considerably higher
than in the control.
Experiment: Production of carbon dioxide
Materials
o flask
o 3 boiling tubes
o glass or rubber tubing
o suction pump
o potassium hydroxide
o soaked pea seeds
o disinfectant
o carbon dioxide indicator solution
206
Fig.6.5.2:
Respiration in germinating seeds
Procedure:
1. Disinfect seeds and set up the apparatus as shown in Fig.6.5.2.
2. Set up the control with boiled seeds.
3. Examine the indicator after a few hours and after a day or two.
 Potassium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide from the air entering the
respiration chain.
 Lime water in tube B ensures that there is no carbon dioxide present in
the air supplied to the seeds.
 The air in tube C will turn the lime water milky.
Experiment: Uptake of oxygen
Materials
o test tube
o rubber cork
207
o capillary tube
o soaked pea seeds
o soda lime
o gauze
o ruler
o water with dye
Procedure:
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram below.
Fig.6.5.3:
Oxygen uptake in germinating seeds
2. Set up a suitable control of the experiment by replacing germinating

seeds with boiled seeds in the test tube.
3. Observe.
208
 The bubble of coloured water in the capillary tube will move towards the
test tube in about 20 minutes due to oxygen uptake by the respiring
seeds.
 Soda lime absorbs carbon dioxide produced by the respiring seeds.
Anaerobic respiration
 It is the release of a relatively small amount of energy in cells by the
breakdown of glucose in the absence of oxygen.
 It occurs in the cytoplasm of a cell.
Anaerobic respiration in muscles
 Anaerobic respiration happens in muscles during hard exercise.
 The equation for the process is:
Glucose → Lactic acid + energy
 Glucose is not completely broken down hence less energy is released

than during aerobic respiration.
 Lactic acid builds up in the muscles during vigorous exercise.
 It is poisonous and inhibits muscular contractions when it builds up.
 This leads to fatigue.
 There is need to oxidise lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water.
 This creates an oxygen debt - known as excess post-exercise oxygen
consumption (EPOC).
 Oxygen debt is a temporary shortage of oxygen in the body tissues
arising from increased demand of oxygen during exercise.
 EPOC causes continued fast and heavy breathing minutes after exercise
has ceased.
 The lactic acid diffuses from the muscles into the blood where it is
transported to the liver.
 The liver thus oxidises the lactic acid to a carbohydrate which can be
used to release energy by aerobic respiration.
209
Anaerobic respiration in plants and yeast
 Anaerobic respiration occurs in plant cells (especially cells in roots of
plants in waterlogged soils) and in some microorganisms (like yeasts).
 In yeast, it is used during brewing and bread-making (fermentation).
 The word equation is:
Glucose → Carbon dioxide + alcohol + energy
 Bubbles of carbon dioxide gas produced during bread-making expand

the dough and make it lighter.
Experiment: Fermentation in yeast
Materials
o sugar
o yeast (dried or fresh)
o water
o glassware
o cooking oil
o limewater
210
Fig. 6.5.4:
Apparatus to show that carbon dioxide is produced when yeast respires anaerobically
Procedure
1. Boil and cool water about 50ml of water.
2. Add yeast to the cooled water and steer or shake to make a solution.
3. Add sugar and mix well.
4. Set up the apparatus as shown in fig.6.5.4.
5. Set up a control experiment using boiled yeast suspension which will not
ferment.
6. Leave the apparatus in a warm place overnight.
Expected Results:
 Boiling the water expels all the dissolved oxygen plus, the oil layer also
ensures that the anaerobic conditions are maintained.
 Bubbles of carbon dioxide will escape through the limewater turning it
milky.
 Alcohol produced can be distilled off, collected and identified by its
taste, odour and capability to burn.
211
Content
ANIMAL SCIENCE
TRANSPORT
1. Describe the human circulatory system and state the

functions of the circulatory system.
2. Identify of parts of the heart and describe the cardiac
cycle.
3. Relate the structure of vessels of their function and
pressure difference in the dual circulatory system to
the functions of the two circuits.
4. Identify possible causes of high blood pressure,
coronary heart disease and describe the effects of high
blood pressure and coronary heart disease.
5. List components of mammalian blood and describe the
movement of materials between capillaries and tissue
fluid.
The circulatory system

 The human circulatory system is a channel followed by fluids around the
body.
 It is made up of lymphatic system and the cardiovascular system.
 The lymphatic system is a network of tissues and organs that help to
remove unwanted material inside the body.
 The cardiovascular system comprises of three major components:
o Blood – fluid medium which transports materials around the body.
212
o Blood vessels - comprises of arteries, veins and capillaries which
carry the blood.
o Heart - this is the pump which forces blood to flow around the
body.
 The cardiovascular system is very efficient because it has a double
circulation: blood is pumped through the heart twice during a complete
trip around the body.
1. Pulmonary circulation: Blood is first pumped from the heart into
the lungs where it becomes oxygenated.
Blood is pumped to the lungs at low pressure to prevent rupturing
of delicate lung respiratory surface (alveoli).
2. Systemic circulation: Blood is pumped from the heart to the rest of
the body.
Blood is pumped to the rest of the body at high pressure since the
blood travels to long distances.
Functions of the circulatory system

 Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide
 Distribution of nutrients (glucose, amino acids, ions)
 Removal of metabolic wastes (urea, toxins)
 Maintenance of body temperature
 Circulation of hormones
 Immunity (by transporting white blood cells)
 Blood clotting
213
Fig.6.6.1:
The human circulatory system
214
The Heart
Fig.6.6.2:
The human heart
 It is a four-chambered pump made of cardiac muscle which contracts

and relaxes continually throughout life.
 The left hand side of the heart contains oxygenated blood while the right
hand side has deoxygenated blood.
Parts of the heart
1. Atria
 Thin-walled chambers that receive blood from veins.
o Left atrium: receives oxygenated blood from lungs through the
pulmonary vein.
o Right atrium: receives deoxygenated blood from vena cava.
2. Ventricles
 Thick-walled chambers that receive blood from the atria.
o Left ventricle receives deoxygenated blood from the left atrium and
pumps it into the aorta.
215
The muscular walls of the left ventricle are much thicker than those
on the right side because blood has to be pumped to the systemic
circulatory system.
o Right ventricle: less muscular than left ventricle and receives blood
from the right atrium and pumps it into the pulmonary artery.
3. Septum
 This is a wall between the left and right hand side chambers of the heart.
 It separates oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood.
4. Pulmonary Vein
 The pulmonary vein brings oxygenated blood from the lungs into the left
atrium.
5. Aorta
 Aorta is the main and largest artery of the body and carries oxygenated
blood from left ventricle of the heart to the body tissues.
6. Vena Cava
 Vena cava is the largest vein that brings deoxygenated blood from body
tissues into the right atrium of the heart.
7. Pulmonary Artery
 Pulmonary artery transports deoxygenated blood from right ventricle of
the heart to lungs.
8. Semilunar Valves
 Semilunar valves are located in the pulmonary artery and aorta to prevent
back flow of blood into the ventricles.
9. Atrio-Ventricular Valves
o Bicuspid (mitral) valve is two flaps that come together and close
the channel to prevent blood from the left ventricle from returning
into the left atrium during ventricular contraction.
o Tricuspid valve is three flaps that prevent back flow of blood from
the right ventricle to the right atrium during ventricular
contraction.
216
10. Tendons
 Tendons are tough threads attached to the bicuspid and tricuspid valves
and prevent the valves from being turned inside out.
Cardiac cycle
 The cardiac cycle is the rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the
chambers of the heart that corresponds to one heartbeat.
 Coordinated contraction of cardiac muscle around atria and ventricles is
controlled by a patch of specialised muscle cells in walls of the right
atrium, called pacemaker.
Phase 1
o The atria and ventricles are relaxed and the atrio-ventricular valves
are open.
o De-oxygenated blood from the vena cava flows into the right
atrium.
o The open atrio-ventricular valves allow blood to pass through to
the ventricles.
o The right atrium then contracts and pushes blood into the right
ventricle.
o The tricuspid valve prevents the blood from flowing back into the
right atrium.
Phase 2
o The right ventricle contracts and the atrio-ventricular valves close
and the semilunar valves open.
o De-oxygenated blood is pumped into the pulmonary artery which
carries blood to the lungs.
o In the lungs, blood picks up oxygen and is returned to the left
atrium of the heart by the pulmonary vein.
o The pulmonary valve prevents the blood from flowing back into the
right ventricle.
217
Phase 3
o The semilunar valves close and the atrio-ventricular valves open.
o Blood from the pulmonary vein fills the left atrium. (Blood from the
vena cava is also filling the right atrium.)
o The left atrium contracts and forces blood into the left ventricle.
o The bicuspid valve prevents the oxygenated blood from flowing
back into the left atrium.
Phase 4
o The atrio-ventricular valves close and the semilunar valves open.
o The left contracts and oxygenated blood is pumped into the aorta.
o The aortic valve prevents the oxygenated blood from flowing back
into the left ventricle.
Fig.6.6.3:
Cardiac cycle
218
Blood vessels
Fig.6.6.4:
Blood vessels
219
Fig.6.6.5:
Sections through three types of blood vessels
Table 6.6.1: Functions and structure of blood vessels
Arteries Veins Capillaries
 Carry blood  Carry blood to the  Supply cells with

from the heart. heart. oxygen, glucose,
amino acids.
 Carry  Carry  Distribute oxygenated

oxygenated deoxygenated blood to the tissues
blood except blood except and to feed
pulmonary pulmonary vein. deoxygenated blood
artery. from the tissues back
into the veins.
 Narrow lumen  Wide lumen  Very narrow lumen just

big enough for red
220
blood cells to squeeze
through.
 Blood flows at  Blood flows at low  Blood travels at low

high pressure. pressure. pressure to allow
substance exchange
with tissues.
 Do not have  Have valves  Do not have valves.

valves.
 Blood has  Blood has no  Blood has no pulse.

pulse. pulse.
 Walls are thick  Walls are thin  Walls are one cell thick.
with a lot of with little muscle
muscle and and elastic fibre.
elastic fibre.
 Divides into  Merging of  Between arterioles and

smaller vessels smaller vessels venules.
called called venules to
arterioles. form veins.
221
Fig.6.6.6:
How valves in veins work
Relationship between structure and function of vessels

1. Arteries
o Thick fibrous tissue withstands high blood pressure.
o Thick smooth muscle and elastic tissue enables arteries to expand
and recoil, squeezing the blood to move forward along the artery.
o Narrow lumen increases blood pressure which in turn helps the
blood travel long distances.
o Narrow lumen to reduce surface area of friction with blood.
2. Veins
o They have valves to prevent backflow of blood.
o Have wide lumen which provides channel for easy movement of
blood without resistance.
o Less elastic and muscle fibre since blood flows at low pressure.
222
3. Capillaries
o Thin (one cell thick) to reduce distance diffusion between blood
and cells/tissues.
o Have pores to facilitate diffusion.
o Very narrow lumen to be able to supply/collect from delicate parts
of the body (arteries are too big and they have high pressure/speed
which is not suitable for substance exchange).
Blood pressure
 This is a measure of the force of blood pushing against the walls of the
arteries as the heart pumps blood.
 It is measured in terms of:
o Systolic Pressure: blood pressure when the heart beats while
pumping blood.
o Diastolic Pressure: blood pressure when the heart is at rest
between beats.
 Normal blood pressure for adults is generally defined as a systolic
pressure around 120 mmHg and a diastolic pressure around 80 mmHg.
 If blood pressure is too high (hypertension), it puts extra strain on the
arteries (and the heart) and this may lead to heart attack and stroke.
Causes of high blood pressure (hypertension)

 There may be no single cause for high blood pressure in most people.
 However, there are factors that increase the chances of developing high
blood pressure.
1. Diet - Eating foods rich in animal fat results in fatty deposits inside
the blood vessels. These deposits containing cholesterol called
plaque restrict blood flow and increase blood pressure.
A high salt diet makes an individual prone to developing high blood
pressure.
223
2. Weight - Both overweight and obese people are more likely to
develop high blood pressure, compared to people of normal
weight.
3. Age - Risk of having high blood pressure increases with age.
4. Mental stress - Some levels of stress which are not managed
properly can raise the risk of hypertension.
5. Genetic predisposition - If one has close family members with
hypertension, their chances of developing it are significantly
higher.
 Other causes include alcohol intake, lack of exercise, smoking,
pregnancy and diabetes.
Coronary heart disease (CHD)

 Coronary heart disease is usually caused by a build-up of fatty deposits
on the walls of the arteries around the heart (coronary arteries)
 Deposits of a fat (cholesterol) are laid down in patches in the lining of
arteries.
 This can narrow the artery and slow down the flow of blood, a condition
called atherosclerosis.
 The artery walls can become rough, which causes the blood to clot and
block the vessel (thrombosis).
 If the clot blocks the coronary artery, the heart muscles are starved of
oxygenated blood and the heart may stop beating causing severe heart
attack from coronary thrombosis.
 In early days of coronary heart disease, the coronary artery may be
partially blocked and reduce the blood supply to the heart.
 This can lead to angina, which is pain in the chest that occurs during
exercise or exertion.
 This is a warning that an individual is at risk and must take precautionary
measures; it may lead to a heart attack.
224
Fig.6.6.7:
Atherosclerosis - Illustrations shows how fatty deposits block coronary arteries
Possible causes of coronary heart diseases

1. Smoking
o Carbon monoxide damages the lining of arteries thereby causing
atheroma to form.
o Nicotine causes blood in blood vessels to become thick/ viscous or
clot hence increasing the blood pressure and heart rate.
o The clot may cause thrombosis.
2. Fatty Diet/Excessive Eating
o Atheroma deposits contain cholesterol combined with lipids and
proteins in the blood.
o Diet containing a lot of saturated fats (meat, butter, egg yolk, milk
and cream) is likely to increase cholesterol levels than vegetable
oils (unsaturated fats).
225
o Excess food in our bodies is converted to fats and cholesterol.
o Cholesterol is deposited in the lumen of arteries (arteries become
narrow) thus reducing the amount of blood that can pass through
the arteries.
3. Stress
o Emotional stress can lead to high blood pressure.
o High blood pressure may cause the rate which atheroma is formed
due to increased friction between blood and artery lumen.
4. Lack Of Exercise
o A sluggish blood flow resulting from lack of exercise may allow
atheroma to form in the arterial lining.
o Cholesterol easily settles in the lumen of arteries if there are no
exercises done.
5. Alcohol Abuse
o Drinking too much alcohol can raise the levels of fats in the blood.
o It can also lead to high blood pressure, heart failure and an
increased calorie intake. Consuming too many calories can lead to
obesity and a higher risk of developing diabetes.
o Excessive drinking and binge drinking can lead to stroke and
sudden cardiac arrest.
Effects of high blood pressure and coronary heart disease
o The combination of hypertension and CHD can be lethal.
o The coronary arteries may burst or become blocked under high
pressure.
o This may result in a heart attack or heart failure.
o If small arteries in the brain are blocked or burst, this may result
in a stroke.
o People suffering from strokes become totally dependent on health
care.
o The ultimate effect of both heart and stroke is death.
Preventive measures against high blood pressure and coronary heart disease
o A diet containing less saturated fats but more vegetable oils.
226
o Avoid over eating.
o Avoid smoking/smoking environment.
o Avoid emotional stress.
o Avoid excessive drinking of alcohol.
The blood
 Blood is the circulatory medium and makes up 7-8% of the human body
weight.
 On average, the human body contains about 5 litres of blood.
 The main functions of blood include:
o regulation(homeostasis: water and pH)
o protection (immunity and clotting)
o transportation (nutrients, gases, wastes, heat and hormones)
o support (erection of penis)
Composition of blood
 Blood is made up of cells and cell fragments suspended in fluid called
plasma.
 The blood cells are made in the bone marrow, but may mature in other
parts of the body.
 The main components of blood can be listed as:
o Plasma
o Red blood cells
o White blood cells
o Platelets
227
Fig.6.6.8:
Blood components
1. Plasma
o This is the fluid component of blood and contains approximately
92% water.
o It is pale yellow in appearance and holds the blood cells in
suspension.
o Plasma transports ions, nutrients, such as glucose and amino
acids, carbon dioxide and hormones, urea, vitamins, antibodies,
fibrinogen and plasma proteins.
2. Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
o These are disc shaped cells which consist of a spongy cytoplasm in
an elastic membrane.
o They have no nucleus and are very small and flexible in order to
squeeze through capillaries.
228
o They are made in the bone-marrow and their major function is to
carry oxygen from the lungs and then release it in the body tissues
for respiration.
o Red blood cells contain haemoglobin (iron-containing), a protein
with a high affinity for oxygen which binds to oxygen forming oxy-
haemoglobin.
3. White Blood Cells (Leucocytes)
o They are made in the bone-marrow, lymph nodes or the spleen.
o There are two groups of white blood cells: phagocytes and
lymphocytes.
a. Phagocytes
o These are large white blood cells which remove any harmful
microorganisms which invade the body.
o They destroy pathogens and dead cells by flowing around,
engulfing and digesting them.
o They have an irregularly shaped nucleus which allows cells to
squeeze through capillary walls, and a cell membrane able to
detect pathogens.
b. Lymphocytes
o These have a large nucleus and produce antibodies against
invading pathogens.
o Antibodies are proteins which identify and neutralise harmful
microorganisms.
4. Platelets (Thrombrocytes)
o These are tiny, colourless cell fragments which cause blood to clot.
o When a blood vessel is damaged, platelets release blood clotting
enzymes to change the soluble protein fibrinogen into fibrin an
insoluble protein which forms a meshwork of fibres.
o Red blood cells get trapped in these threads to make a clot.
o This prevents blood loss.
229
Capillary exchange
 It is the movement of substances between blood and tissue fluid in the
body.
 Capillaries are adapted to allow the effective exchange of substances
between the blood and the tissues of the body.
 As blood flows through the arteriole into the capillaries within tissues,
blood pressure forces some of the plasma to escape through the tiny
clefts between the cells in the walls of the capillaries.
 This filtered plasma enters into the spaces between the cells of the
tissues and is known as tissue fluid (interstitial fluid).
 Tissue fluid is similar in composition to blood plasma but contains fewer
protein molecules than blood plasma.
 Protein molecules and red blood cells are too large to pass through the
small gaps in the capillary walls as a result blood in the capillaries
becomes more concentrated.
 Some white blood cells however, can squeeze through and move around
freely in the tissue fluid.
 The tissue fluid bathes every living cell in the body and supplies them
with nutrients and oxygen.
 Oxygen and nutrients are normally present in higher concentrations in
blood thus they diffuse down their concentration gradients into tissue
fluid and then into body cells as shown in fig.6.6.9.
 Some materials move in low concentration in the blood move by active
transport into the interstitial fluid.
 Tissue fluid also removes carbon dioxide and waste products from cells
by diffusion; these wastes released by body cells which are present in
higher concentrations in tissue fluid then diffuse into blood.
 Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood in three ways:
o dissolved in solution;
o carried as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-);
o bound to haemoglobin.
230
 Blood pressure decreases as blood flows along the capillaries and
towards the venule enabling tissue fluid to move back in to the highly
concentrated blood in capillaries by osmosis.
 Some of the tissue fluid gets absorbed into the lymphatic system.
Fig.6.6.9:
Movement of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid
231
Content
ANIMAL SCIENCE
IMMUNITY
1. Explain how the body protects itself against disease.

2. Describe events leading to active and passive immunity.
3. Describe the effect of the human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV) on the body.
4. Discuss the significance of immunisation.
Introduction
 Immunity is the ability of the body to resist a particular pathogen or toxin
by the action of specific antibodies or white blood cells.
 Pathogen is a disease causing organism, for example; bacteria, virus,
fungi and protists.
 When foreign substances enter the body, complex chemical and
mechanical activities occur, to defend and protect the body's cells and
tissues.
Body barriers and protection mechanisms

 The body protects itself from pathogens and toxic substances using two
main methods which are mechanical and chemical barriers.
A. Mechanical barriers
 They are lines of defence that physically exclude pathogens and/or their
products from invading the body.
 The mechanical barriers on the surface of the body play a significant role
in slowing or blocking pathogen invasion.
232
 The barriers include;
1. Skin
o It is the largest organ that covers the body and forms a barrier
between invaders and body.
o Skin forms a waterproof barrier such that microorganisms that live
all over the skin cannot get through the skin unless it is broken.
o Broken skin automatically repairs itself by forming a clot or scabs
that keeps pathogens out of the body.
2. Hairs
o Very fine hairs (cilia) lining the windpipe move mucus and trapped
particles away from lungs towards the throat.
o Particles can be pathogens (bacteria, viruses or fungi) or material
such as dust or smoke.
o Hairs within the nose filter and traps microorganisms, dust and
pollutants.
o The ear also has hairs and wax that trap pathogens and protects
the inner ear from infection.
B. Chemical barriers
 These methods produce chemicals that react with or exclude pathogens
that invade the body.
 These barriers include;
1. Tears
o It is a watery substance that is secreted by the eyes.
o It washes and keeps the surface of the eye clean.
o Tears contain an enzyme called lysozyme that kills bacteria by
breaking down their cell wall.
2. Mucus
o It is a sticky and slimy substance produced by mucous membranes
on respiratory surface, gastro-intestinal surface, nose or vagina.
o Mucus has chemicals which can trap and kill pathogens invading
the body.
233
3. Blood Clotting
o When skin is wounded, platelets are able to release chemicals that
cause soluble fibrinogen proteins to form a mesh or net of
insoluble fibrin fibres across the wound.
o Platelets also stick together to form clumps that get stuck in the
fibrin mesh.
o Red blood cells also get stuck in the fibrin mesh, forming a clot.
This develops into a scab, which protects the wound from
pathogens as it heals.
o A clot also prevents excessive bleeding from the wound.
4. Phagocytosis
o Phagocytes are a type of white blood cells that protect the body by
ingesting, engulfing or “eating” harmful foreign particles,
pathogens and dead or dying cells.
o They can squeeze through gaps between cells of capillaries to go
and ingest pathogens invading an injured part of the body.
o Phagocytes at the site of the wound ingest harmful bacteria and
stop them from entering the general circulation.
o Phagocytes engulf pathogens or foreign bodies to form vesicles
and use digestive enzymes to digest them into amino acids,
carbohydrates and soluble waste material.
o Useful substances will be absorbed into cytoplasm whilst waste
material will be expelled from the phagocyte.
o The process of engulfing and digesting pathogens or foreign
bodies is called phagocytosis (fig.6.7.1).
234
Fig.6.7.1:
Phagocytosis
5. Production Of Antibodies
o Antibodies are specialized chemicals or proteins produced by white
blood cells called lymphocytes.
o They function in the following ways;
a. Label or attach to the surface of pathogens and make it easier
for phagocytes to digest them.
b. Immobilise or kill foreign substances in the body.
c. Clump pathogens or foreign bodies together to prevent
spreading of an infection.
d. Neutralise toxins produced by bacteria
o Each type of antibody is specific, meaning that an antibody is only
effective to a specific pathogen for example antibodies that attack
typhoid bacterium cannot affect a pneumonia bacterium.
235
6. Acidic Secretions
o Stomach walls secrete weak hydrochloric acid that kills bacteria
ingested together with food or swallowed from the trachea when
clearing the throat.
o Vaginal walls have acidic secretions which destroy bacteria that
may invade the vaginal cavity.
Fig.6.7.2:
Physical and chemical mechanisms against pathogens
Types of immunity
A. Active immunity
 It is immunity which results from the production of antibodies by the
immune system in response to the presence of a pathogen.
 It is acquired when the body comes into contact with the actual pathogen
or its antigen.
236
 A relatively long time is required for its development, it does not occur
immediately after the body is exposed to the pathogen or its antigen.
 These antibodies stay in the blood for life and if the same pathogen
enters the body later it is destroyed immediately by producing the same
antibodies.
 Antibodies are produced within the body of an individual exposed to the
infection or vaccine.
 There are two types of active immunity, which are:
1. Natural acquired active immunity
o This type occurs when a person is exposed to a live pathogen,
develops the disease, and body produces antibodies specific for
the pathogen.
o When the person recovers, lymphocytes specific to that pathogen
are kept in the lymph nodes as memory cells.
2. Artificial acquired active immunity
o It is when the body is induced to produce antibodies through non-
natural means, by introducing a vaccine to stimulate the body’s
immune response.
o Vaccine is an attenuated or weakened form of a pathogen.
o Vaccination is the process of administering (orally or intravenously)
a vaccine into the body.
o In Zimbabwe new-born babies are vaccinated (fig.6.7.4) against
eight killer diseases:
 Polio
 Diphtheria
 Tuberculosis
 Gastroenteritis (inflammation of stomach and intestines)
 Pertussis (whooping cough)
 Measles
 Tetanus
 Pneumococcal infections (pneumonia, meningitis)
237
o The world immunisation programme has eradicated smallpox by
vaccinating large numbers of people to prevent the spread of this
killer disease.
B. Passive immunity
 It is a short-lived immunity which is a result of the introduction of
antibodies from another person.
 It can be acquired even when there is no direct contact between the body
and pathogen.
 A very short time is required for its development and it protects the body
immediately after its introduction to a body.
 There are two types of passive immunity, which are:
1. Natural acquired passive immunity
o This type occurs when a person receives already made antibodies
without deliberate involvement of human manipulation.
o Infants gain immunity from their mothers before or after birth.
o During pregnancy certain antibodies are passed from mother to
foetus.
o Natural acquired passive immunity also occurs when a baby
breastfeeds on antibody rich colostrum from its mother. This is the
main reason why paediatricians recommend breastfeeding.
o Colostrum is yellowish milk rich in antibodies which is secreted by
mammary gland of pregnant females a few days before and after
the birth of their young.
2. Artificial acquired active immunity
o Antibodies are produced in body of one person and are extracted
by humans to work in a body of another person.
o It occurs when serum is taken from one person and injected to
someone else who urgently needs antibodies.
o Some people who survived Ebola virus in Sierra Leone and Liberia
assisted doctors with serum from their blood to help control the
disease outbreak.
238
o Serum is an amber-coloured, protein-rich liquid used to provide
immunity to a pathogen or toxin.
o The immunity is very fast but it is also short-lived.
Fig.6.7.3:
Immunity
Effects of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) on the body

 HIV attacks and destroys white blood cells (lymphocytes) called CD4 T-
cells which are responsible for producing antibodies against infections.
 The virus constantly changes itself, avoiding attack by the antibodies and
immune cells that normally control infections.
 HIV kills CD4 T-cells in the lymph nodes and in other sites and the
immune system is gradually compromised and eventually disrupted.
 Each generation of viruses is slightly different and this constant
evolution helps HIV keep one step ahead of the immune system.
 Immune cells can only look for viruses that resemble the previous
generation of HIV, so the virus constantly ‘dodges’ the immune system.
239
 Virus levels in the blood and the lymph nodes increase because the CD4
T-cells cannot keep up with the amount of virus constantly produced
and leads to development of AIDS.
 AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) is a condition where the
immune system or CD4 T-cells have been destroyed by HIV such that the
body cannot defend itself from opportunistic infections.
 Opportunistic infection is an infection caused by pathogens that take
advantage of an opportunity not normally available, such as a weakened
immune system.
 People suffering from HIV/AIDS usually die from opportunistic infections
such as tuberculosis (TB), pneumonia and candida (thrush).
Significance of immunisation
 A successful immunisation programme depends on the co-operation of
every person and it has a lot of merits.
1. Vaccines promote health
o Vaccinations prevent individuals from getting diseases for which
there are often no medical treatments; these illnesses can result in
serious complications or death.
o In Zimbabwe all new-born babies must be immunised as per
government policy.
o Record of vaccines administered is recorded on the child health
card similar to the one shown on fig.6.7.4.
o A small number of people may be susceptible to diseases, such as
those with impaired immune systems; such people may not be able
to get vaccinations or may not develop immunity even after having
been vaccinated and their only protection against certain diseases
is for others to get vaccinated so the illnesses are less common.
o Unlike many other health interventions, immunisation help healthy
people stay healthy, removing a major obstacle to human
development.
240
2. Vaccines prevent spread of diseases
o If exposure to a disease occurs in a community, there is little to no
risk of an epidemic if people have been immunised.
3. Vaccines are a safe and effective way to prevent diseases
o All vaccines that are given to children are completely safe and
effective, as various medical professionals have tested them.
o The only discomfort can be pain, redness or tender feeling among
few.
4. Vaccination help to eliminate diseases
o Immunisation has helped to eradicate small pox and polio to some
extent.
o If we keep on practicing immunisation, in near future we may be
able to eradicate most of the diseases completely.
5. Vaccines have a wide reach
o Vaccines have an extensive reach because they protect individuals,
communities and entire populations.
o Vaccines have rapid impact on communities and populations for
example, between 2000 and 2008, vaccination reduced global
deaths from measles by 78% (from 750 000 deaths to 164 000
deaths per year).
241
Fig.6.7.4:
Specimen of a Child Health Card in Zimbabwe
242
Content
ANIMAL SCIENCE
REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS
1. Describe the structure and function of the human

reproductive system.
2. Describe the human menstrual cycle.
3. Describe fertilisation, the early development of a zygote
and how the embryo is maintained and protected by the
placenta.
4. Explain causes of infertility and outline various methods
of contraception.
5. Explain factors affecting rate of human population
growth.
6. Describe symptoms and effects of sexually transmitted
infections.
7. Discuss the spread of sexually transmitted diseases and
the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and methods by
which it may be controlled.
Introduction
 Humans like other mammals, reproduce sexually.
 In sexual reproduction, genetic information from the male and female is
combined to form a new individual.
 This transfer of genes occurs naturally through reproductive organs
found in both males and females.
The male reproductive system
 There are three main functions of the male reproductive system:
o To produce male gametes (sperm).
243
o To transport male gametes to the site of fertilisation.
o To produce hormones.
Fig.6.8.1:
Male reproductive system
 Several different organs and structures make up the male reproductive

system.
 These include:
1. Penis
o It functions to pass urine out of the body from the bladder and to
pass semen into the vagina of a female during sexual intercourse.
o Urethra is the tube inside the penis which transports the urine or
semen.
o Erectile muscles make the penis erect and stiff (hard) to facilitate
ejaculation of semen into vagina.
o A ring of muscle on the bladder ensures that urine and semen do
not get mixed up.
244
2. Testes
o These are the male gonads which produce gametes or sperm cells
through meiosis.
o They also produce the male hormone testosterone.
o Testosterone stimulates developmental changes in males during
puberty.
3. Scrotum
o This is an external sac or bag of skin which holds the testis.
o It keeps the sperm at a temperature lower than that of the body
(2-3 o C below).
4. Epididymis
o This is a tightly-coiled tube which connects with tubes in the testis.
o Sperm is stored and matures in this region.
5. Prostate Gland
o It secretes fluid in which sperm cells swim.
o The mixture of the fluid and the sperm cells constitute part of the
semen.
o The prostate gland also produces the force necessary to push the
sperm out of the epididymis at ejaculation.
6. Seminal Vesicles
o They produce a fluid which also make up the semen and contains
sugars to nourish the sperm.
o The fluid is alkaline in order to protect sperm from the acidic
nature of the female vagina.
7. Sperm Duct
o It connects the epididymis to the urethra.
The female reproductive system

 There are four main functions of the female reproductive system:
o To produce female gametes (ova).
o To receive sperm for fertilisation.
o Site for growth and development of the zygote.
245
o To produce hormones.
Fig.6.8.2:
Female reproductive system
 The main structures which constitute the female reproductive system

are:
1. Ovaries
o These are the female gonads which produce the female gametes or
the ova (ovum - singular) via meiosis.
o They also produce the female hormone oestrogen and
progesterone.
o Oestrogen stimulates developmental changes during puberty and
prepares the uterus for pregnancy.
o Progesterone maintains the uterus during pregnancy.
2. Uterus (Womb)
o This is a muscular bag with a lining rich in blood capillaries.
246
o The inner uterine walls (endometrium) can develop extra capillaries
to support the embryo development after implantation.
o Implantation of a fertilised egg (zygote) takes place in this organ.
o It is the site of embryo development and growth until birth.
3. Oviducts (Fallopian Tubes)
o These tubes connect the ovaries to the uterus.
o They are lined with cilia which help move ova to the uterus.
o They are also the site of fertilisation.
4. Cervix
o This is a ring of muscle which separates the vagina from the uterus.
o It helps to maintain the baby in position during pregnancy.
o It is the opening through which sperms enter the uterus.
5. Vagina
o This is a muscular tube which leads from the cervix to the external
area of the female body.
o It receives sperm from erect penis during intercourse and gives
passage for childbirth.
o Secretes acidic fluids to kill infectious bacteria that may invade the
canal.
o Vaginal walls also secrete mucous fluid to lubricate the vagina
during copulation (sexual intercourse).
Formation of gametes (Gametogenesis)

 Male and female gametes are produced via a process called meiosis.
 Meiosis produces haploid gametes (cells have half the number of genes).
 In males, the process of gamete production is known as
spermatogenesis.
 During spermatogenesis each dividing cell in the testes produces four
functional sperm cells, all approximately the same size.
 In females, the process of gamete formation is called oogenesis.
 Oogenesis produces only one surviving egg cell from each original
parent cell.
247
 The cytoplasm and organelles are concentrated into only one of the four
daughter cells—the one which will eventually become the female ovum
or egg.
 The other three smaller cells, die and are reabsorbed shortly after
formation and this increases the egg's chance for survival, should it
become fertilised.
Male and female gametes
Fig.6.8.3:
Structure of the male and female gametes
 The male gamete is called the sperm and the female gamete is called the
ovum or egg (fig.6.8.3).
 Both the sperm and ovum are haploid cells.
 The sperm and ovum are highly specialised and adapted for fertilisation
to form a diploid zygote (Table 6.8.1).
Table 6.8.1: Comparing male and female gametes.
Feature Sperm Egg
Size  Relatively small.  Relatively large: much

larger than sperm cell.
Mobility  Has tail for swimming.  Non-mobile: moved

by cilia and peristalsis
in the oviduct.
248
Food store  Has very little energy store to  Has a large food store
support respiration. in cytoplasm to
support the zygote.
Numbers  Millions are released during a  Only a single egg is

produced single ejaculation to increase produced per
chances of fertilisation. menstrual cycle.
Menstrual cycle
 This is the cycle of producing and releasing mature ova (fig.6.8.4).
 From puberty (about 12 years of age), females begin to release an ovum
each month (every 28 days) in anticipation of fertilisation until they reach
menopause (about 50 years of age).
 During the reproductive phase, ovaries and uterus go through a number
of stages in preparation for fertilisation and implantation (fig.6.8.5).
 Every 28 days, one of the ovaries releases a mature ovum, a process
called ovulation.
 Ovulation is normally accompanied by a slight increase in body
temperature.
 When this process occurs, the lining of the uterus walls thicken and
develop extra capillaries.
 The released ovum can survive for 12-24 hours inside the female body.
 If the egg is not fertilised, the lining disintegrates (breaks down).
 Both the lining and the unfertilised (dead) ovum are shed through the
vagina over a period of about three to five days.
 This gradual break down of the uterus lining is called menstruation.
 The menstrual flow comes out in form of blood and mucus.
 The hormones oestrogen and progesterone regulate the changes within
the uterine wall (fig.6.8.4).
 Oestrogen helps to build up the lining after menstruation and
progesterone maintains the lining of the uterus in case fertilisation
occurs.
249
 Chances of fertilisation are higher a few days before or after ovulation.
 This is the fertile period.
 The infertile or safe period is usually the premenstrual and the menstrual
phases (fig.6.8.5).
Fig.6.8.4:
Events in human menstrual cycle
250
Fig.6.8.5:
The human menstrual cycle (left) and fertility phases (right)
Copulation (sexual intercourse)

 This is a process in which sperms are deposited from the penis into the
vagina.
 An increase in blood flow to the male penis from sexual stimulation
causes the penis to become hard and erect.
 The penis can then be inserted into the vagina.
 During copulation, the walls of the vagina secrete lubricating fluids.
 Eventually, sexual intercourse causes a reflex action which results in the
release of sperm.
 The sperm which are stored in the epididymis are then moved along the
sperm ducts past the seminal vesicles and prostate gland where fluid is
added to make semen.
251
 Semen is squeezed out of the urethra and deposited just below the
cervix.
 The release of semen through peristaltic movements is called
ejaculation.
 The released sperm (ejaculate) begins to swim towards the ovum which
releases chemicals that guide sperm towards it.
 The sperm swim through the cervix and along the lining of the uterus
into the oviducts where fertilisation will occur with the ovum.
 The sperm is estimated to live in the female reproductive system for 2-
3 days.
Fig.6.8.6:
Events leading to fertilisation
Fertilisation
 It is the fusion of the nuclei of a sperm and the nuclei of an ovum forming
a zygote.
252
 It occurs in the oviduct.
 The sperm cell penetrates the membrane surrounding the ovum by
releasing enzymes.
 Once fertilisation occurs, the ovum membrane changes to form a barrier
against entry of other sperm cells to avoid multiple fertilisation of the
ovum.
 The newly formed zygote then begins to divide by mitosis to become a
ball of cells called the embryo.
 The developing embryo obtains nutrients from the cytoplasm of the
ovum before implantation.
 It takes a few days for muscular peristaltic contractions of the oviduct
and beating cilia in the oviduct move the embryo down the oviduct to
the uterus for implantation.
Fig.6.8.7:
Fertilisation in the oviduct
253
Fig.6.8.8:
Implantation of the embryo
Implantation and the placenta

 Implantation is when the embryo becomes attached or embedded to the
wall of uterus (fig.6.8.8).
 The embryo then grows finger-like projections called villi into the uterus
wall to obtain food and oxygen.
 The villi develop into a disc-shaped structure called the placenta.
 After, a few weeks the embryo grows into a foetus which is attached to
the placenta by the umbilical cord.
 The umbilical cord contains two types of vessels umbilical artery which
carries deoxygenated blood with metabolic waste from the foetus to the
placenta and umbilical vein which transports oxygenated blood and
necessary nutrients (glucose, amino acids, water and vitamins) to the
foetus.
254
 The placenta allows for many substances to be exchanged by diffusion
between mother’s blood and the foetus’ blood.
 The functions of the placenta include:
1. Barrier (Protection):
 Prevents entry of toxins and pathogens from mother.
o However, some pathogens are known to cross the placenta like the
viruses Rubella (causes measles) and HIV (causes AIDS).
o Substances such as nicotine and carbon monoxide from tobacco
smoke are toxic and can cross the placenta and can result in
premature or underweight babies during pregnancy.
o Some drugs including alcohol can pass through the placenta to the
foetus and may cause mental retardation or birth defects.
 Allows entry of antibodies from mother (passive immunity).
 Separates mother’s blood from the foetus’ blood.
o This protects the embryo from the mother’s higher blood pressure.
o It also prevents exchange of red blood cells which can result in the
cells clumping together (agglutination).
2. Nutrient Supply:
o Delivers nutrients such as dissolved glucose, amino acids, fats,
mineral ions and vitamins for growth of foetus.
3. Gas Exchange:
o Carries oxygen from the mother to the foetus and removes carbon
dioxide from foetus to the mother’s blood.
4. Excretion:
o Removes metabolic wastes from foetus including urea and carbon
dioxide.
5. Endocrine Organ:
o Secretes hormones oestrogen, progesterone and other hormones.
o These hormones maintain the lining of the uterus and also
stimulate growth of mammary glands in the mother’s breasts.
o They also prevent any further release of eggs from the ovaries.
255
Fig.6.8.9:
Human foetus and the placenta
 The foetus is surrounded by a membrane called the amniotic sac/

amnion.
 The amniotic sac secretes a fluid called the amniotic fluid.
 The amniotic fluid helps to:
o Hold up the foetus and allows for free foetal movements.
o Cushions or protects against mechanical shock.
o Protects against drying out (dehydration).
o Protects against temperature fluctuations.
Foetal growth and development

 The beginning of the development of a new individual or the initiation of
pregnancy is called conception.
 Conception begins after fertilisation of ovum by sperm to form a zygote.
256
 The time required for the full development of the implanted embryo, that
is time from implantation to birth, is called gestation period or
pregnancy.
 Gestation period in humans is approximately 36-40 weeks or 9 months.
 During this time the embryo passes through several developmental
stages until ready for birth (fig.6.8.10).
Table 6.8.2: Growth and development stages in humans
Time period Foetal appearance and developments
1 month  Rapid cell division of zygote to become embryo.

 Embryo moves to uterus and implants on uterus wall.
2 months  Embryo has a fish-like appearance.

 The circulatory system develops and embryo has a heartbeat.
3 months  Embryo has human appearance.

 Most organs formed including face, limbs, arms and legs.
 Rapid development of nerves and muscles.
 Foetus begins to increase in size (mass increase).
5 months  Foetus has perfectly formed eyebrows, fingernails, fingerprints and

body hair.
 Mother can feel foetal movements.
 Continued mass increase in foetus.
7 months  Most features are developed.

 Rapid mass increase in foetus.
9 months  Foetus is ready for birth.

 Head of foetus faces downwards towards the vagina.
257
Fig.6.8.10:
Stages of foetal development
Infertility in humans
 Males and females who have the ability to conceive are regarded as
fertile.
 However, individuals who cannot produce babies are termed infertile.
 Infertility can be caused by a number of factors:
A. In Males
1. Sperm quality and quantity
o When few sperms are produced at ejaculation (low sperm count),
chances of fertilisation are reduced as there is little possibility of
sperm reaching the ovum.
o Sperm with decreased mobility reduces the ability for sperm to
swim to the ovum.
258
o Sperm can sometimes be an abnormal shape, thus affects their
capacity to move and fertilise an ovum.
2. Physical problems on reproductive system
o Blockage of tubes carrying the sperm prevents sperm from being
ejaculated.
o If testes are damaged, this can seriously affect the quality of the
semen produced.
3. Health problems
o Medical problems such as prostate cancer will result in the prostate
gland not functioning properly.
o Sexually transmitted infections such as gonorrhoea may cause
scarring and blockage in tubes which carry sperm.
B. In Females
1. Hormonal problems
o Hormonal problems may cause the female failure to produce
mature ova or to ovulate.
2. Physical problems on reproductive system
o Physical damage to the fallopian tubes (scarring from surgery) may
result in failed ovulation causing difficultly in natural conception.
3. Health problems
o Premature menopause, cervical cancer and sexually transmitted
infections may cause infertility in women.
o Fibroids (non-cancerous tumours) may develop inside the uterus
prevent an embryo from implanting itself.
Control of fertility
 Humans have the capacity to control their ability to conceive through
contraception or birth control methods.
 These methods vary in form but are designed in such a way that they can
function to prevent any one of the following scenario:
259
o Sperm from reaching the ovum.
o Ova being produced.
o Zygote from being implanted.
 Some methods are very effective and safe while others are less reliable.
Table 6.8.3: Some common birth control methods

Method Form Descriptio Advantages Disadvanta
n ges
Natural Abstinence  This is  This  None
when method is
there is no 100%
sexual effective.
intercours  No side
e engaged effects.
in.
Rhythm  A couple  It is used  This is a
method engages in by people very
sexual who do unreliable
intercours not want method
e during to use one especially
the of the to women
infertile other who do not
period of contracepti have a
the female ve regular
menstrual methods. menstrual
cycle and cycle.
avoids  It does not
copulating protect
during the against
fertile STIs.
period.
Withdrawal  This is  It is used  Very
when the by people unreliable
male who do
260
removes not want because of
his penis to use one timing.
from the of the  It does not
vagina other protect
during contracepti against
intercours ve STIs.
e just methods.
before he
ejaculates.
Barrier Condom (in  A thin  Easy to  Unreliable
/Mechani males) / rubber use. not 100%
cal Femidom (in sheath  Safe when effective.
females) placed used  Condoms
over erect correctly. may break
penis  It prevents or come
before transfer of off during
intercours STIs. intercourse
e. In .
females it
is inserted
inside the
vagina
with the
smaller
ring and
the larger
ring rests
on the
outer
surface of
the
vagina.
 It prevents
sperm
from
261
entering
the
vagina.
Cap/Diaphra  A rubber  An  Some
gm dome effective semen may
placed method if seep or
over used escape into
cervix correctly. the uterus
before around the
intercours edges of
e. the cap.
 It should  It does not
be used protect
with a against
spermicid STIs.
e.
IUD (Intra-  It is a  It is a very  The loop
Uterine- small effective may cause
Device)/ plastic method discomfort
(loop/coil) device which lasts in some
wrapped for a long women.
in copper time.  It does not
or protect
contains against
hormones. STIs.
It is fitted
inside a
woman’s
uterus and
it prevents
embryo
from
implanting
.
262
Chemica Spermicides  These are  Quite  Only
chemicals easy to effective if
which kill use. used in
sperm. combinatio
They are n with
applied another
just before method
intercours such the
e. cap.
 It does not
protect
against
STIs.
Hormonal The pill (oral  The pill  This can  The pill
contraceptiv contains be a can have
e) or female sex reliable unpleasant
injection hormones and side effects
oestrogen effective on some
and method as women
progester long as the such as
one. pills or weight
These injections gain and
hormones are taken painful
can also at the right period
be time. pains.
injected.  It does not
They work protect
by against
preventing STIs
ovulation.
The pills
are taken
daily while
the
injections
263
can be
administer
ed once a
month.
Surgical Sterilisation  In males,  An  It is
sperm extremely permanent
ducts are effective and usually
cut or tied method for not
(vasectom contracepti reversible
y) to on. hence
prevent suitable
them from when one
being has
ejaculated. decided
In not to have
females, any more
the children.
oviducts  It does not
are cut or protect
tied (tubal against
ligation) STIs
preventing
them from
travelling
down the
oviducts.
Sexually transmitted infections

 Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) are infections caused by some
bacteria and viruses which are transferred from one individual to another
through body fluids during sexual intercourse.
 They are also known as Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs).
264
 The body fluids which are highly infectious are vaginal fluids, blood and
semen.
Symptoms of STIs
 People with STIs can display some symptoms of the infection but,
symptoms are not particularly indicative of the presence of an STI, hence
testing is required.
 However, some people are asymptomatic (without symptoms): this can
result in continued transmission of infection to others or worse, cause
long-term problems such as infertility.
Other ways of transmitting STIs

 Besides being transmitted sexually, STIs can be passed in others ways
such as;
o blood transfusions,
o during pregnancy and
o via child birth.
 Other social behaviours such as alcohol and drug taking lower inhibitions
and puts individuals at risk of contracting STIs.
Preventative measures
 The transmission of STIs can be reduced by taking preventative measures
in sexual behaviour such as:
o Practising safe sex (use of condoms).
o Abstinence.
o Being mutually faithful to one uninfected partner by avoiding
multiple sexual relationships.
o Long-term and stable relationships.
o Contact tracing: This is the identification and diagnosis of people
who may have come into contact with an infected person.
265
 Chances of contracting new STIs increase if an individual has been
previously infected by another STI.
 Some common STIs include chancroid, gonorrhoea, syphilis and AIDS
(Table 6.8.4).
Table 6.8.4: Examples of STIs

Disease Pathogen Symptoms Treatment
Males Females
Chancroid Bacteria  Open  Same  Antibiotics

sores/ symptoms as
ulcers on in males.
sex Sometimes
organs pain during
which urinating
develop a because of
few days open sores.
after
exposure
to
infection.
Ulcer may
bleed or
produce
fluid.
Gonorrhoe Bacteria  Sores on  Watery  Antibiotics

a (Neisseria penis days discharge
gonorrhoeae) to weeks from vagina.
after  Pain when
infection. urinating.
 Yellow  Abdominal
discharge pains.
and pain  Symptoms
when are less
passing noticeable in
urine. females.
Long-term
266
 May result complication
in sterility s may result
if not if left
treated. untreated
such as
blocked
oviducts.
Syphilis Bacteria  Painless  Same  Antibiotics

(Treponema ulcer on symptoms as
pallidum) sex in males but
organs 3- sores can be
6 week difficult to
after notice in
infection. females. For
A rash, pregnant
sore women,
throat and bacteria may
headaches be
are some transmitted
of the to the foetus
symptoms and can
which may damage the
follow baby.
later. If it
remains
untreated,
bacteria
will
spread
throughou
t the body
destroying
organs.
One may
become
blind or
paralysed.
267
Acquired Virus (Human  It may take weeks before  No cure. But
Immuno- Immunodeficienc symptoms appear. The early there is anti-
Deficiency y Virus) symptoms include flu-like viral
Syndrome symptoms, fatigue, fever, treatment
(AIDS) swollen glands and weight which slows
loss. Immune system begins down
to fail as the virus attacks multiplicatio
white blood cells. One n of the
becomes susceptible to virus hence
opportunistic infections such slows the
as fungal and bacterial disease from
infections. The later stages of progressing
infection which can occur to full blown
after years, are usually fatal AIDS.
because the virus would have
 destroyed the immune system
leading to full blown AIDS
allowing for more
opportunistic infections to
invade the body . In females,
HIV can be passed to unborn
babies, during birth and
whilst breastfeeding.
Genital Virus  Warts may  Symptoms  Visible

warts (Human be same as in genital warts
papillomavirus) invisible males. Warts often go
or may be may exist on away with
very small the vulva time but the
and the (lips around virus cannot
colour of the vagina), be
the skin or cervix eliminated
slightly (entrance to once it is in
darker. the uterus), the
The top of upper thighs, bloodstream
the inside the . Treatment
growths vagina, on is aimed at
may the anus, and getting rid
resemble inside the of the visible
a anus. warts and
cauliflowe Additional lowering the
268
r and may symptoms number of
feel include viruses
smooth or vaginal present. This
slightly discharge, includes
bumpy to itching, application
the touch. bleeding and of topical
An burning. creams on
infected Complication warts or
person s include surgery to
may have cervical remove the
a cluster cancer as warts.
of warts, HPV is the
or just main cause
one wart. of cancer in
 Warts may the cervix.
exist on
the penis,
scrotum
(sack
which
holds the
testes),
urethra
(tube that
carries
urine),
upper
thighs, on
the anus,
and inside
the anus.
Genital Herpes Simplex  Symptoms  Symptoms  Antiviral

herpes Virus (HSV-1) appear as same as in drugs may
and (HSV-2) early as 2 males help speed
days or blisters up the
late as 30 around or healing time
days after near the of the sores
infection. vagina, anus, and reduce
 Blisters on and pain.
the penis, buttocks. Treatment
269
scrotum,  Virus may be can reduce
buttocks passed to the
(near or baby during outbreaks,
around delivery but it cannot
the anus) causing cure the
or ulcers on the disease.
anywhere face, body,
else that and genitals
came into or
contact complication
with the s such as
infected blindness,
areas. brain
 The damage or
blisters death.
may
become
ulcerated
(open
sores) and
ooze fluid.
 A crust
may
appear
over the
sores
within a
week of
the
outbreak.
 Lymph
glands
may
become
swollen.
HIV/AIDS
 The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a pathogen which leads to
the development of Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
270
 AIDS refers to a collection of diseases resulting from the weakening of
the body’s immune system.
 HIV infects the lymphocytes in the human body thus the ability to fight
infections in the body is reduced.
 Like other STIs, HIV is transmitted through sexual intercourse via body
fluids.
 It can also be transmitted through:
o Pregnancy
o Birth
o Breastfeeding
o Infected needles
o Infected blood transfusions
 People infected with HIV are described as HIV positive while those who
are not infected are described as HIV negative.
 A person who is HIV positive is prone to infection by other diseases such
as tuberculosis and pneumonia.
Social implications of HIV/AIDS

 Over the years HIV/AIDS has become a cause for concern globally due to
several reasons including the fact that it is incurable and that it has many
social implications.
 People who are HIV positive can face many challenges including stigma
and discrimination from society if their status is exposed.
 Other social implications associated with this pandemic are illustrated in
fig.6.8.11.
271
Fig.6.8.11:
Some problems among children and families affected by HIV/AIDS
7: MICROBIOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
MICROBIOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY

1. State the main characteristics of viruses, bacteria and

fungi.
2. Outline the economic importance of microorganisms.
272
Viruses
 Viruses are the smallest of all microorganisms (hundred times smaller
than bacteria).
 They are non-living microorganisms (have no cells).
 They are parasites which survive and reproduce by living inside of a host
organism.
 They are made up of a protein coat (capsid) which encloses the viral
genetic material (DNA or RNA).
 When found outside the host, viruses are sometimes surrounded by a
lipid envelope around the capsid.
Fig.7.1.1:
Structure of viruses
Reproduction in viruses
o Viruses can lay dormant for long periods of time until conditions
are right to begin to reproduce within the host cell.
o They reproduce at incredible rates and can spread rapidly through
groups of cells.
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Bacteria
Fig.7.1.2:
Structure of a bacterium
 These are the smallest and simplest living organisms about 1µm in
diameter (0.001mm).
 They are often unicellular organisms which are able to respire aerobically
or anaerobically.
 They have no nucleus and they lack membrane-bound organelles like
mitochondria and chloroplast.
 The genetic material (DNA) is found in the cytoplasm in a region known
as nucleoid, as a single circular chromosome.
 Bacteria also contain many plasmids which are small circles of DNA.
 Plasmids are used to exchange DNA between the bacterial cells.
 Bacteria have rigid (peptidoglycan) cell walls which enclose the cell
membrane.
274
 Some have a slime capsule; a protective coating outside bacterial cell
walls.
 Other bacteria have a tail-like structure called a flagellum used for
locomotion.
 Pili are short protein appendages found on the surface of bacteria which
help to fix bacteria to surfaces and also helps in reproduction during
conjugation.
 Bacteria have many shapes; the most common shapes are:
o Rod-shaped (bacilli)
o Sphere-shaped (cocci)
o Spiral-shaped (spirochetes)
Fig.7.1.3:
Bacterial shapes
Nutrition in bacteria
 There are two basic modes of nutrition in bacteria.
275
1. Autotrophs
o These are bacteria that are able to make food (organic molecules)
from inorganic raw materials by photosynthesis or
chemosynthesis.
2. Heterotrophs
o These are bacteria which obtain their food from other organisms.
Reproduction in bacteria
o Bacteria mostly reproduce asexually by binary fission.
o Binary fission results in the formation of two genetically identical
bacterial cells.
o Conjugation is a form of sexual reproduction which occurs in
bacteria.
o During conjugation, one bacterium connects itself to another
through the pilus and DNA is transferred from one bacterium to
the other via this tube.
o Under unfavourable conditions, some bacteria form highly
resistant spores with thickened coverings, within which the living
material remains metabolically inert until conditions improve.
276
Fig.7.1.4:
Binary fission in bacteria
Economic importance of bacteria

1. Recycling and bioremediation
 Putrefying bacteria
o These decompose complex organic matter from dead plants,
animals and their waste into simpler compounds which can be
absorbed by plants.
o Large molecules like proteins are broken down into ammonium
compounds.
 Nitrifying bacteria
o These oxidise ammonium compounds into nitrates.
 Nitrogen fixing bacteria
o They fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and make it available for
plants to use.
 The ability of bacteria to decompose complex organic molecules makes
them useful in bioremediation such as sewage works.
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2. Industry
 Bacteria are involved in a number of industrial (fermentation) processes
such cheese and yoghurt making.
 In both cheese and yoghurt production, starter bacterial cultures such as
Lactobacillus are used to ferment milk sugars (lactose) into lactic acid.
 Lactic acid causes a decrease in pH of milk making it clot or form curds.
 These curds can be further processed to enhance flavour or texture of
the cheese and yoghurt.
3. Hormone production
 Synthetic insulin is made by bacteria through genetic engineering (a set
of technologies used to change the genetic make-up of cells for the
benefit of humans).
 The gene for human insulin is isolated from a human cell.
 The insulin gene is inserted inside a bacterial plasmid with aid of
enzymes to form recombinant DNA.
 The bacterial cells with insulin gene are cultured in a sterile medium with
nutrients, oxygen, and optimum temperature and pH
 The bacterial cells divide and multiply in this optimum environment
(fig.7.1.5).
 The gene makes the bacteria to produce insulin hormone in solution
 Insulin can then be extracted from the solution, purified and bottled for
commercial purposes.
278
Fig.7.1.5:
Insulin production through genetic engineering
Fungi
 These are cellular microorganisms found in the environment especially
in soil, plant material and aquatic environments.
 They include unicellular fungi called yeasts, multi-cellular filamentous
moulds and macroscopic filamentous fungi that form large fruiting
bodies called mushrooms.
 Multicellular fungi have thread-like filaments called hyphae (one-cell
thick).
 These form a network of fibres known as mycelium.
 Fungi have cell walls which are composed of chitin (a complex
carbohydrate for strength and flexibility).
 They are non-photosynthetic microorganisms and are non-motile.
279
 Fungi require oxygen for respiration but are also capable of anaerobic
respiration.
 Most fungi are 2–10 µm in diameter and up to several centimetres in
length (average size of the hyphae are 5-50 micrometres).
 Many fungi are saprophytes; however, some are parasitic and cause
infections in plants and animals.
Fig.7.1.6:
General structure of fungi
Experiment: Growing fungi

Materials
o bread
o suitable container with a lid
o magnifying lens
o microscope
o slides
280
Procedure
1. Take a slice of bread.
2. Place it on a variety of surfaces like the floor, table or shoe.
3. Put the bread in a plastic box with a lid and add a drop of water and close
the lid tightly.
4. Leave the box in a warm place for few days.
5. Check it for growths of fungi.
6. Observe the growths with a magnifying lens.
7. Remove a small amount of fungus using a needle and place it on a
microscope.
8. Add drops of iodine solution.
9. View under low power and then high power under the microscope.
 The first fungus to grow is usually bread or pin mould which is identified
by its white threads and white or mature black spore cases.
281
Fig.7.1.7:
Bread mould
Fungal nutrition
 Fungi are heterotrophic microorganisms and are mostly saprophytic.
 They obtain their food by absorption from the external environment.
 Nutrients must be in solution before they can be absorbed.
 Simple molecules such as sugars and amino acids in solution can be
easily absorbed directly across the fungal wall and cell membrane.
 Larger and more complex such as carbohydrates and proteins are first
broken down into smaller molecules by extra-cellular enzymes
(exoenzymes) released by the fungi.
 Since water is essential for the diffusion of extra-cellular enzymes and
absorption of nutrients, actively growing fungi are usually restricted to
relatively moist (or humid) environments.
282
Fig.7.1.8:
Nutrient uptake by fungus
Reproduction in fungi
o Fungi can reproduce both sexually and asexually.
o Single-celled yeasts reproduce asexually by budding and a single
yeast cell can produce up to 24 offspring.
o Fungi that make hyphae can reproduce asexually in two ways:
o parts of the hyphae can break off and continue to grow as separate
bodies,
o or can form stalks containing seed-like structures called spores.
o Spores are microscopic, tough and resistant bodies which are
round in shape and can grow into a new plant under suitable
conditions.
o Spores are produced within sacs called sporangia.
o The sporangia are knob-like structures which are found at the top
of hyphae.
o When the sporangia fully mature, they burst.
283
o The spores may simply drop in the same area, or be carried by the
wind or rain to new spots.
o Where they land on an ideal environment, the spores will
germinate.
o However, if conditions are unsuitable, the spores can survive in a
dormant state for extended periods, waiting for more favourable
conditions or to be carried to a better spot.
o Occasionally, fungi can produce spores sexually.
o Two mating cells from hyphae of different strains of fungi can mate
by fusing together and forming a spore stalk.
Fig.7.1.9:
Budding in yeast
284
Fig.7.1.10:
Spore formation in Rhizopus (bread mould)
Economic importance of fungi

1. Recycling and bioremediation
o Saprophytic fungi utilise dead organic materials as sources of
nutrients and are responsible for the biodegradation of organic
materials in the environment, such as wood and dead leaves.
o Some fungal species are responsible for removing toxic waste
materials from the environment using their saprophytic role.
2. Industry
o Yeast is used in various industrial fermentation processes in
particular, bread making and brewing.
o In bread making, flour is used to make bread dough (mixture of
flour, water, sugar, salt and yeast).
o Yeast ferments sugar to produce carbon dioxide and alcohol.
o Trapped carbon dioxide bubbles makes the dough airy and gives
texture to the bread after it has been baked.
285
o The heat from baking causes alcohol to evaporate.
o In brewing, alcoholic fermentation is used to convert sugars into
carbon dioxide and ethanol by yeast (fig.7.1.11).
3. Antibiotic production
o Antibiotics are substances which kill or inhibit the growth of other
microorganisms.
o They are usually derived from other microorganisms.
o Penicillin can be isolated from certain species of fungi Penicillium
through industrial fermentation process.
o Penicillin is a secondary metabolite of fungi (a substance not
necessary for fungal growth) and is produced when fungal growth
is inhibited by unfavourable environmental conditions.
o The fermenter is inoculated with the fungus under certain
conditions which include:
 A supply of nutrients such as sugar or starch as a
source of carbon for respiration.
 Ammonia or urea as a source of nitrogen to make
proteins.
 Vitamin B complex for respiration.
 A constant temperature of about 30oC.
 A constant pH of about 6.5.
286
Fig.7.1.11:
Role of microorganisms in industry

Content
GENETICS
CHROMOSOMES AND GENES

1. Define terms chromosome and gene.

2. Describe complete dominance and explain codominance.
3. Predict possible outcomes of monohybrid crosses.
4. Explain how sex is determined in mammals.
5. Describe genetic and chromosomal mutations and discuss
factors that increase rate of mutations.
287
Chromosome
 It is a long molecule of DNA, tightly coiled around proteins called
histones.
 Chromosomes are located in the nucleus and they carry hereditary
material called DNA.
 They can only be seen under a high resolution electron microscope as a
mass of dark material on the centre of the nucleus of a cell.
 Chromosomes are normally visible in the nucleus during cell division as
shown in fig.8.1.1.
 Their shapes and sizes vary depending on the function and number of
genes they contain.
Fig.8.1.1:
Structure of a chromosome
288
 A complete (diploid) set of chromosomes in a nucleus of
a somatic or body cell of a human is made up of 23 pairs or 46
chromosomes.
 Each pair of similar chromosomes is called homologous chromosomes,
one chromosome from each parent brought together at fertilisation.
 However nuclei of gametes or sex cells are made of 23 chromosomes
(half the number in nucleus of body cells).
 During mitosis homologous chromosomes copy themselves to produce
identical chromosomes.
 The nucleus will then divide into two, forming genetically identical nuclei
and cells as shown in fig.8.1.2 below.
Fig.8.1.2:
Behaviour of chromosomes during mitosis
 During meiosis homologous chromosomes copy themselves and appear

as four chromatids that can exchange parts of DNA.
289
 Each of the four chromatids will separate from the rest to form a nucleus
that contains half (haploid) the number of chromosomes than the parent
cell.
 This type of cell division produces four gametes with genetically different
nuclei as shown in fig.8.1.3 below.
Fig.8.1.3:
Behaviour of chromosomes during meiosis
Gene
 It is the functional and structural unit of heredity.
 It is a specific part or length of DNA that is responsible for controlling a
specific function or characteristic for example eye colour, height, and
skin colour.
 It is a length of DNA that codes for production of a specific protein that
is different enzymes are controlled by different genes (fig.8.1.4).
290
Fig.8.1.4:
Genes at various loci (positions) on a chromosome
Important terms in genetics

1. Allele
o It is any of two or more alternative forms of the same gene, for
example A, B, and O are alternative forms of a gene that controls
blood type.
o Alleles exist in pairs in humans because each of the homologous
chromosomes contains one allele of the same gene on the same
locus. (fig.8.1.5).
o Every person has maximum of two possibilities
either homozygous (both alleles are identical)
or heterozygous (the two alleles are different).
o “Homo-“refers to same and “Hetero-“refers to different.
291
Fig.8.1.5:
Homozygous and heterozygous alleles on homologous chromosomes
2. Dominant
o It refers to an allele that is always expressed in phenotype if it is
present.
o The allele masks the effect of a recessive allele in the phenotype.
o It is always represented by capital letters for example T, G.
3. Recessive
o It is an allele that is only expressed in phenotype when there is no
dominant allele of that particular gene.
o It also refers to an allele that is only expressed in phenotype when
it is paired with another of the same type.
o The effect of the allele on phenotype is masked by presence of a
dominant allele.
o It is always represented by small letters for example t, g.
292
4. Genotype
o It is the genetic makeup of an organism.
o It is usually represented by a pair of letters in monohybrid genetic
diagrams for example TT, Tt or tt.
5. Phenotype
o It the physical or other features exhibited by an organism due to
effect of both its genotype and environment for
example colour or height.
6. Homozygous
o It is a condition of having two identical alleles of a particular gene
on homologous chromosomes.
o There are two types of homozygous alleles;
a. Homozygous dominant occurs when two dominant alleles occupy
the same locus on homologous chromosomes for example TT.
b. Homozygous recessive occurs when two recessive alleles occupy
the same locus on homologous chromosomes for example tt.
o Two identical homozygous individuals that breed together will
be pure breeding and will produce a pure breed (individual with
identical alleles for a specific characteristic).
7. Heterozygous
o It is a condition of having two different alleles of a particular gene
on homologous chromosomes for example Tt.
o This condition produces hybrids (combination of different
genotypes).
8. Monohybrid Inheritance
o Monohybrid inheritance is a single-factor inheritance or
inheritance with interest to one characteristic.
o “Mono-“ refers to one or single.
o Inheritance is the transmission or passing on of genetic
information from parent to offspring.
o There are many types of inheritance but this section will focus
on complete dominance and codominance only.
293
Types of inheritance
1. Complete dominance
 It is a kind of inheritance where one (dominant) allele completely
overshadows or masks the effect of the other (recessive) allele in
heterozygous condition.
 Phenotypes of homozygous dominant and heterozygous are similar
amongst individuals.
Predicting possible outcomes in monohybrid using genetic crosses
 A certain school in Zimbabwe rears animals including rabbits for an
Agriculture project.
 Fur (hair) colour in rabbits show complete dominance, rabbits can have
either black or white fur.
 This implies that fur colour is determined by a gene which comes in two
different alleles; for black and for white.
 A black pure breed and white pure breed rabbits were allowed to mate.
 Let black hair be controlled by a dominant allele represented by B and
white by a recessive allele presented by b.
 There are three possible combinations of the alleles (genotypes):
o BB (homozygous dominant) – Black.
o Bb (heterozygous) – Black.
o bb (homozygous recessive) – White.
 The genetic cross in fig.8.1.6 below shows possible outcomes of a cross
between the two pure breed rabbits.
Note: Bear in mind that these are theoretical and probability studies.
294
Fig.8.1.6:
Genetic cross diagram of first generation monohybrid inheritance of fur colour in pure breed
(homozygous) rabbits
 A Punnet square can also be used to show possible outcomes of a cross.
295
Fig.8.1.7:
Punnet square diagram of first generation monohybrid inheritance of fur colour in pure breed
(homozygous) rabbits.
 If any two offspring of F1 (first filial generation) in fig.8.1.6 or fig.8.1.7

are crossed they will show different outcome from the one shown above.
 The parents will now change from pure breeds (homozygous) to hybrid
(heterozygous) as shown ireproduction
 n fig.8.1.8.
296
Fig.8.1.8:
Genetic cross of second generation monohybrid inheritance of fur colour in hybrid (heterozygous)
rabbits
 Important hints to note when doing genetic diagrams are:

o Alleles are represented by letters;
o Alleles controlling the same characteristic are given the same later;
o The dominant allele is represented by a capital letter and recessive
allele by a small letter, and;
o In case where the question has not instructed you to use specific
letters to represent alleles, choose to use letters in which the
capital letter is different from the small letter for example Rr, Bb,
Gg, Aa not Cc, Ww, Oo, Ss, because they are difficult to distinguish.
The Recessive Test Cross
o It is also referred to as the back cross.
o When you want to determine the genotype of a black rabbit which
may either be homozygous dominant or heterozygous you must
cross it with a homozygous recessive (white) rabbit.
297
o The white rabbit will produce gametes with recessive allele b only.
o A black homozygous rabbit will produce gametes with dominant
allele B only.
o If the black rabbit is homozygous dominant (BB) all the offspring
from the cross will be black heterozygous (Bb) rabbits.
o Half the gametes from a black heterozygote would carry B and half
would carry allele b.
o So if a rabbit is heterozygous black, half of the offspring from the
cross will be black Bb and half will be white bb.
2. Codominance
 It is a condition where paired alleles of a gene completely produce their
effect or are fully expressed in phenotype of an individual.
 This means that neither allele is dominant over the other for example
human blood groups A and B.
 Alleles of blood groups A and B are codominant.
 If a person inherits alleles for blood group A and B then the individual’s
red blood cells will carry both antigen A and B which results in blood
group AB.
 However alleles for groups A and B are both completely dominant over
the allele for group O.
Table 11.3.1: Phenotype and genotype of human blood groups
Blood group (Phenotype) Genotype
A IAIA or IAIO
B IBIB or IBIO
AB IAIB
O IOIO
 Since alleles for blood group A and B are dominant over group O, a
person with blood group A can have a genotype IAIA (homozygous) or
IAIO (heterozygous) and a person with blood group B can have genotype
IBIB or IBIO.
 There are no alternative genotypes for groups AB and O.
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 A cross between a heterozygous blood group A and heterozygous blood
group B results in offspring with all possible human blood types as
shown in fig.8.1.9.
Fig.8.1.9:
Genetic cross showing codominance in human blood groups
Sex determination in mammals

 Sex is determined by sex chromosomes and there are two
types; X and Y chromosomes.
 Combination of two X chromosomes from sperm and ovum results in a
female (XX) but a combination of X and Y chromosomes results in a male
(XY).
 Structurally the Y chromosome is shorter than the X chromosome.
 During meiosis in ovaries, each ovum receives one of the two X
chromosomes.
299
 During meiosis in the testes one sperm receives X chromosome and the
other receives Y chromosome.
 This implies that male individuals determine the sex of offspring in
mammals.
 If a sperm containing X chromosome fertilises an ovum the zygote will
be XX and will develop into a female.
 If a sperm containing Y chromosome fertilises an ovum the zygote will
be XY and will develop into a male.
 There is an equal chance of a sperm containing X or Y chromosome to
fertilise an ovum, meaning that there is equal chance of having a male
or female offspring as shown in fig.8.1.10.
Fig.8.1.10:
Genetic cross representing sex determination in mammals
300
Pedigree
 It is a diagram that shows genetic relationships between members of a
family.
 It is used to analyse patterns of inheritance for specific genetic
characteristics.
 It is also called family tree diagram.
 Information from a genetic cross can also be represented on a pedigree.
Rules for presenting a genetic diagram
 The pedigree below shows the inheritance of recessive gene that causes
albinism across two generations in a family.
301
Fig.8.1.11:
Pedigree showing inheritance of allele for albinism
 From fig.8.1.11 it can logically be concluded that;

o Albinism is controlled by a recessive allele because parents without
albinism (1 and 2 or 6 and 7) produce offspring with the condition.
o Individuals 1, 2, 6 and 7 are heterozygous or carriers of the
recessive genes because they show a normal phenotype but their
offspring has albinism.
o Individuals 8 and 9 are heterozygous or carriers because their
father (4) is homozygous recessive so he can only pass on recessive
alleles to his offspring.
o Individual 4 and 11 are homozygous recessive and they have
albinism.
o Parents 1 and 2 have three offspring, one son and two daughters.
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Mutations
 Mutation is a random and rare change in sequence of nucleotides in a
DNA molecule.
 These changes result from error(s) in the copying and/or division of DNA
during process of cell division.
 These errors can be divided into gene and chromosomal mutations.
Gene mutation
 It occurs when there is a change in the structure of the DNA in a gene,
for example in case of sickle cell anaemia the structure of haemoglobin
has been altered resulting in deformed (sickle-shaped) red blood cells.
 Gene mutations are mainly divided into two sub-groups, which are:
Point Mutation
o It is a change in one DNA base pair at a specific locus that results
in the substitution or replacement of one amino acid for another in
the protein made by a gene.
o Absence of a specific base pair in a specific portion of DNA may
result in a faulty protein.
Frameshift (Insertion/Deletion) Mutation
o It occurs when the addition or loss of DNA bases changes a gene's
reading frame.
o A reading frame consists of groups of 3 bases that each code for
one amino acid.
o A frameshift mutation shifts the grouping of these bases and
changes the code for amino acids.
o The resulting protein is usually non-functional. Insertions,
deletions, and duplications can all be frameshift mutations.
o An insertion changes the number of DNA bases in a gene by adding
a piece of DNA such that the protein made by the gene may not
function as expected.
o A deletion changes the number of DNA bases by removing a piece
of DNA.
303
o Small deletions may remove one or a few base pairs within a gene,
while larger deletions can remove the whole gene or several
adjacent genes.
o Absence of a certain portion of DNA may result in faulty protein(s).
Genetic disorders caused by gene mutations in humans
1. Sickle Cell Anaemia
o It is a hereditary condition in which a mutated form of haemoglobin
distorts the red blood cells from smooth biconcave to a crescent
shape that is inefficient in transporting oxygen.
o This occurs when there is an error in the gene that instructs the
production of normal haemoglobin and its starts to command for
the production of abnormal haemoglobin that malfunctions.
o Red blood cells become distorted or "sickle-shaped" if oxygen
concentration falls and they tend to interrupt blood flow in small
blood vessels like capillaries, as shown in fig.8.1.12.
o The allele that causes sickle cell anaemia is recessive (HbS) to the
allele that codes for normal (HbA) haemoglobin.
o Heterozygous (HbAHbS) individuals do not usually exhibit any
symptoms but because their offspring may inherit the disease, the
heterozygotes are called carriers.
o Under conditions such as high elevation and intense exercise, a
carrier of the sickle cell allele may occasionally show symptoms
such as pain and fatigue.
o Presence of the sickle cell allele results in resistance to malaria,
because the parasites that cause this disease are killed inside
sickle-shaped blood cells.
304
Fig.8.1.12:
Structure and behaviour of normal and sickle shaped red blood cells
2. Albinism
o It is an inherited disorder characterised by the absence of pigment
in the eyes, skin and/or hair.
o Albinism is caused by an error in one of several genes that produce
or distribute a black pigment called melanin.
o The defect may result in the absence of melanin production or a
reduced amount of melanin production as shown in fig.8.1.13.
o Albinism is caused by a recessive allele meaning that it is only
expressed in individuals who are homozygous recessive for the
gene that produces melanin.
o People with albinism show the following symptoms:
 Absence of color in the hair, skin, and/or eyes.
 Lighter than normal coloring of the hair, skin, or eyes.
305
 May have patches of skin that have an absence of color.
 Vision problems.
Fig.8.1.13:
An individual with albinism
o It has no cure but individuals with albinism are advised to protect

themselves from the sun.
Chromosomal mutation
 It occurs when one or more chromosomes fail to separate properly
during cell division meiosis.
 Chromosomal mutation can result in change in the number of
chromosomes in a cell or in the structure of a chromosome.
 Unlike a gene mutation which alters a single gene or larger segment of
DNA on a chromosome, these mutations change and impact the entire
chromosome.
306
Genetic disorder caused by chromosomal mutation in humans
Down’s Syndrome
o It is a genetic disorder caused by an error in meiosis that results in
the presence of an extra copy of chromosome number 21.
o When a cell divides in meiosis, pairs of chromosomes and
chromatids are separated so that one of the pair goes to one cell
and the other from the pair goes to the other cell.
o Sometimes an error may occur in females resulting in failure of
chromosomes to separate.
o Both chromosomes from one pair will go into one egg or ova and
no chromosomes for that pair will go into the other cell.
o If an egg containing an extra chromosome is fertilised by a normal
sperm (with 23 chromosomes), the zygote and consequently
embryo with have cells containing 47 chromosomes instead of 46.
o Individuals with this disorder may have a shorter expected life span
than normal because they are susceptible to infectious diseases
and heart defects.
307
Fig.8.1.14:
A child with Down’s syndrome
o Symptoms of Down’s syndrome include:

 Distinctive facial features, such as a flat face, small ears,
slanting eyes, and a small mouth as seen in fig.8.1.14.
 A short neck, arms and legs.
 Low muscle tone and loose joints. Muscle tone usually
improves with age.
 Below-average intelligence.
o Risk of having a baby with Down syndrome is high if:
 A woman is old approximately the age 35 and older.
 An individual has a brother or sister who has the disorder.
 A person had another baby with Down syndrome.
Factors that increase rate of mutation

 Mutations are caused by mutagens.
308
 Mutagen is anything, physical or chemical that can cause a change in the
structure of DNA or sequence of nucleotides within a DNA molecule.
 Most common mutagens are genetic predisposition, carcinogens and
radiation.
1. Genetic Predisposition
o A genetic predisposition (also called genetic susceptibility) is an
increased likelihood of developing a particular disease based on
the interaction between genetic makeup and lifestyle factors.
o A genetic predisposition results from specific genetic variations
that are often inherited from a parents.
o Cancers that run in families can be caused by an abnormal gene
that is passed from generation to generation.
o Although this is often referred to as inherited cancer, what is
inherited is the abnormal gene that can lead to cancer, not the
cancer itself.
o Only about 5% to 10% of all cancers are thought to result directly
from gene defects (called mutations) inherited from a parent.
2. Carcinogens
o Carcinogen is any chemical substance that causes cancer.
o Common substances that are classified as carcinogens include tar
(from tobacco or coke, a product of coal), asbestos, aflatoxins,
alcoholic beverage consumption, mercury and benzene
o However, simply because a substance has been designated as a
carcinogen does not mean that the substance will definitely cause
cancer if present in an individual.
o Many factors influence whether a person exposed to a carcinogen
will develop cancer, including the amount and duration of the
exposure and the individual’s genetic background.
o Cancers caused by involuntary exposures to environmental
carcinogens are most likely to occur in subgroups of the
population, such as workers in certain industries who may be
exposed to carcinogens on the job.
309
3. Radiation
o Radiation is the emission of energy as electromagnetic waves or as
moving subatomic particles, especially high-energy particles which
cause ionization.
o Exposure to UV, gamma, alpha and X-ray radiation can damage
DNA through DNA fragmentation or other means.
o DNA fragmentation is the separation or breaking of DNA strands
into pieces.
o Spontaneous or accidental DNA fragmentation gradually
accumulates in a cell and it can disrupt the normal functioning and
disrupts cell division regulation process.
o Sources of radiation can be sun, medical X-rays, radiotherapy,
mobile cell phone and data base stations, domestic microwaves
and nuclear or uranium radiation.
o In Zimbabwe, Radiation Protection Authority of Zimbabwe (RPAZ)
has put regulations in place to reduce exposures to known
carcinogens in the workplace.
o RPAZ performs examinations by review of documents, observation,
measurement and tests during any stage of the regulatory process
to ensure compliance of a facility to legal requirements.
o RPAZ also provides the national dosimetry service for all the
radiation workers in Zimbabwe and issues standards and norms
governing exemption, notification, registration and licensing of
radiation sources and radiation protection and safety; and to issue
authorizations for the possession and use of radiation sources.
o Outside of the workplace, people can also take steps to limit their
exposure to known carcinogens, such as quit smoking, limiting sun
exposure, or maintaining a healthy weight.
310
Content
9: BIODIVERSITY
CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS
BY THE END OF THIS SUB-TOPIC, LEARNERS SHOULD BE ABLE T
1. State the five kingdoms of living organisms.
2. State characteristic features of the five kingdoms.
Classification of organisms
 Biodiversity is the existence of many various kinds of living organisms
within an ecosystem, this includes variety within species and among
species.
 Classification of organisms is the act or process of putting living things
into groups based on ways that they are; alike, recognized, differentiated
and understood.
 The branch of science concerned with classification and naming of
organisms based on their natural characteristics is called taxonomy.
 In 1969, an American taxonomist called Whittaker Robert. H, classified
all organisms into five kingdoms as shown in fig.9.1.1, using the
following criteria:
a. Complexity of cell structure,
b. Complexity of body organization,
c. The mode of nutrition,
d. Life style (ecological role) and
e. Phylogenetic relationship.
 Living organisms are classified into five kingdoms, which are;
o Monera (Prokaryotae)
o Protoctista (Protista)
o Fungi
311
o Plantae
o Animalia
Kingdoms of living organisms
Fig.9.1.1:
Classification of living organisms into kingdoms
Monera
 This kingdom is also called Prokaryotae.
 Kingdom Monera believed to be the earliest inhabitants of the Earth, has
Archaebacteria and Eubacteria as the subgroups.
 Examples of organisms that belong to this kingdom are shown in
fig.9.1.2.
312
Fig.9.1.2:
Examples of organisms in kingdom Monera
 The members of this kingdom are microscopic prokaryotes.

 Prokaryotes are a microscopic, single-celled (unicellular) organisms
which neither have a distinct nucleus with a membrane nor other
membrane-bound specialised organelles.
 Organisms in this kingdom are mostly single-celled but some are
mycelial (as in some fungi) or filamentous.
 Genetic material is naked DNA (without histone proteins) that lies coiled
near the centre of the cell called nucleoid or nuclear region.
 Cell wall is usually present in most organisms.
 Independent circular DNA called plasmid may be present, floating in the
cytoplasm of most cells.
 Flagella used for movement in liquid substances can be present in some
species as shown on the general structure of bacteria in fig.9.1.3.
313
Fig.9.1.3:
General structure of a bacterium
 Nutrition may be autotrophic (some organisms have chlorophyll),

saprotrophic, parasitic or symbiotic.
 Reproduction mainly occurs by binary fission. Sexual reproduction is
absent but in some cases genetic recombination occurs.
 They are important in decomposing organic substances and help in
recycling of nutrients in the ecosystem.
 Organisms in kingdom Monera live almost anywhere, that is;
atmosphere, deep ocean floor, hot deserts, hot springs and even inside
other organisms.
 These organisms can form spores (resistant form of a bacterial cell in
adverse conditions) in extreme conditions like desiccation.
 Spores are dormant or ‘sleeping’ and have a very low rate of respiration
to save reserve energy within the cells.
314
 Spores can grow again and reproduce when the environmental
conditions normalises.
 Spores enable bacteria to live for a very long time (some years) in dry soil
or on rocks.
Protoctista
 This kingdom is also called Protista.
 The members are mostly unicellular and few multicellular organisms that
are eukaryotes.
 Eukaryotes are organisms consisting of a cell or cells in which the genetic
material is DNA that is contained on chromosomes within a nucleus.
 Most of these organisms are aquatic and constitute plankton as shown
in fig.9.1.4.
Fig.9.1.4:
Examples of organisms in kingdom Protoctista
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 Their eukaryotic cell body contains membrane bounded cell organelles
like nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts.
 Some species have cells that lack a cell wall.
 Movement of some species may be effected by cilia or flagella.
 On the basis of nutrition, the protoctists are grouped as:
a. Photosynthetic protoctists also known as phytoplanktons use light
to make their own food, for example Paramecium, unicellular algae
and kelps (multicellular giant algae).
b. Saprophytic protoctists feeds on decomposing material, for
example slime moulds (not to be confused by bread moulds in
fungi).
c. Parasitic protoctists feed on food in the system of other organisms
or directly feed on other live organisms, for example Amoeba, uses
phagocytosis to engulf bacteria and other unicellular organisms
and Protozoans Plasmodium that cause malaria in humans.
 Reproduction is mainly asexual but sexual reproduction may also occur
in some species.
Fungi
 This Kingdom is also called Mycota.
 Fungi include: Rhizopus (bread moulds), Penicillium and mushrooms.
 These are non-motile organisms which are spore-bearing eukaryotes
lacking chloroplasts.
 It is composed of unicellular yeasts and multi-cellular mycelial forms
(but not slime moulds).
316
Fig.9.1.5:
Examples of organisms in kingdom Fungi
 Their cells have cell walls that are composed of protein called chitin not
cellulose as in plants.
 The main fungus body is called mycelium as shown in fig.9.1.6.
 It consists of a branching network of threads called hyphae, which will
grow over the surface of its food source.
 The hyphae releases enzymes that digest the food outside the fungus
and the digested food material is then absorbed by the hyphae.
317
Fig.9.1.6:
Reproductive structures of bread mould Rhizopus sp.
 Fungi do not have chlorophyll hence they cannot photosynthesise.

 Their mode of nutrition is heterotrophic and they can either be
saprophytic or parasitic.
 However, fungi can live in mutualistic relationships, with algae
as lichens and with roots of higher plants as mycorrhizae.
 In mycorrhizae fungi colonize the root system of a host plant, providing
increased water and nutrient absorption capabilities while the plant
provides the fungus with carbohydrates formed from photosynthesis.
 They help in decomposition of organic matter and help in recycling of
minerals.
 Vegetative reproduction takes place by fragmentation, fission and
budding.
 Asexual reproduction takes place by spores.
 Sexual reproduction also occurs in some species.
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Plantae
 They are non-motile multicellular organisms.
 Cells of organisms in this kingdom are eukaryotic and leaf cells have
chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll.
 Root cells absorb water and mineral salts that can be used to make
plants’ own food through photosynthesis.
 Nutrition in this kingdom is autotrophic.
 The cells contain starch granules as food reserves.
 Cells of plants contain a cellulose cell wall and a large sap-filled vacuole.
 Plants are commonly subdivided into two main groups which are:
o Spore-bearing plants
o Seed-bearing plants
 Spore bearing plants reproduce using reproductive cells called spores.
 Examples of these plants are liverworts, hornworts, mosses, and ferns
 Seed bearing plants (Spermatophytes) can be subdivided
into Gymnosperms (plants bearing seeds not enclosed in an ovary or
fruit) and Angiosperms or flowering plants (plants bearing seeds
enclosed in an ovary or fruit).
 Angiosperms can further be divided into monocots and dicots as
summarised in fig.9.1.7.
 Plants can also be divided into two main groups;
o Vascular plants
o Non-vascular plants.
 Vascular plants absorb mineral salts, water, and other essential nutrients
through special tissue called xylem and phloem.
 Non-vascular plants do not have this specialty, but they can absorb
mineral salts, water, and other essential nutrients through their entire
body.
 Examples of non-vascular plants are moss and hornwort, and of vascular
plants are ferns, conifers and sunflower.
319
Fig.9.1.7:
Classification of kingdom Plantae
 Some plants reproduce asexually by vegetative reproduction and others

sexually leading to the formation of seeds.
 Plants’ level of organisation is both organ and organ system.
 Some lower plants like mosses and ferns reproduce without using seeds,
and higher plants reproduce using seeds for example conifers and
flowering plants.
 There is a wide variety of organisms in the kingdom Plantae and fig.9.1.8
shows some examples of plants.
320
Fig.9.1.8:
Examples of organisms in kingdom Plantae
 Life cycle of plants exhibit alternation between diploid sporophyte and

the haploid gametophyte a phenomenon called alternation of
generation.
 Plants inhabit seas, fresh water and on land.
Animalia
 Organisms in this kingdom are multicellular eukaryotic heterotrophic
consumers.
 Animals ingest food, and digestion takes place in the internal cavity like
the digestive system in higher animals and in primitive animals digestion
occurs in vacuoles.
 The cells contain glycogen as reserve food but lack cell walls.
 These organisms move with the aid of either cilia, flagella or muscular
organs.
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 All animals have nervous systems that coordinate their responses to
stimuli and their movement.
 Animals inhabit seas, fresh water sources and even on land as evident in
fig.9.1.9.
Fig.9.1.9:
Examples of organisms in kingdom Animalia.
 Generally animals reproduce sexually by the fusion of sex cells like the
egg and sperm but some primitive animals like sponges can also
reproduce asexually by budding.
 Animals are divided into two main groups; invertebrates and vertebrates
as shown in fig.9.1.10.
322
Fig.9.1.10:
Classification of organisms in kingdom Animalia
 Invertebrates are animals that do not have a backbone.

o Some invertebrates like crabs have shells on the outside whilst
others like worms, do not have anything like a shell to protect
them.
 Vertebrates are animals that have a backbone and they are divided into
five groups;
o Fishes
o Amphibians
o Reptiles
o Birds
o Mammals
 Characteristics of different groups of vertebrates is summarised in table
9.1.1.
323
Table 9.1.1: Summary comparison of the five groups of vertebrates
Characteris Groups of vertebrates
tics
Fish Amphibia Reptiles Birds Mammals
ns
Habitat Water Both Both water Land Most live

water and and land on land
land
Respirator Gills Gills and Lungs Lungs Lungs

y organ lungs
Temperatu Poikilothe Poikilothe Poikilother Homeother Homeother

re mic mic mic mic mic
regulation
Type of External External Internal Internal Internal

fertilisatio
n
Type of Soft eggs Soft eggs Eggs with Eggs with

eggs laid a hard a hard
shell shell
Body Scales Smooth Scales Feathers Hair or fur

covering skin
Other Wriggle They have Suckle

about a beak their
when young
moving ones
Examples Shark, Frogs Snake, Eagle, owl, Human,

bream, lizard, chicken, lion, cat,
tilapia crocodile dove whale
Characteristics of different kingdoms is summarised in table.9.1.2.

Table 9.1.2: Summary comparison of the five kingdoms
Characteri Monera Protoctist Fungi Plantae Animalia
stic a
324
Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryoti Eukaryoti Eukaryoti Eukaryotic
c c c
Cell wall Present Present or Present Present Absent

absent (Chitin) (Cellulos
e)
Chloroplas Present in Present in Absent Present Absent

t some genus some
genus
Cell Unicellular Unicellula Mainly Multicell Multicellul

organisati r or multicellu ular ar
on multicellu lar
lar
Mode of Asexual Asexual Asexual Asexual Asexual or

reproducti or sexual sexual
on
Mode of Autotrophs, Autotroph Heterotro Autotrop Heterotrop

nutrition heterotroph s, phs by hs hs by
s by heterotro absorptio ingestion
phagocytosi phs by n
s phagocyt
osis
Motility Movement Movement Non- Non- Highly

by flagella by cilia, motile motile motile
flagella or
amoeboid
Examples Archaebacte Protozoa, Bread Mosses, Invertebra

ria, algae, moulds, ferns, tes,
Eubacteria slime yeasts, conifers, vertebrate
moulds mushroo seed s
ms plants
325
Content
ECOSYSTEM
ECOSYSTEM
BY THE END OF THIS SUB-TOPIC, LEARNERS SHOULD BE
ABLE TO:
1. Define and list components of an ecosystem.
2. Identify soil as a key component of ecosystems and
compare properties of clay, loam and sandy soils.
3. Identify biological components of soil and state the role
of the biological components.
Introduction
 An ecosystem is a self-contained system of interdependent organisms
and their physical environment.
 An ecosystem is propelled by energy from the sun which enters the
system through the green plants (photosynthesis), and is later passed on
to animals.
 The flow of energy is fundamental in maintaining a balanced ecosystem
where there is adequate energy transfer from the sun to the plants and
to the animals.
 An ecosystem consists of physical and biological components.
1. Physical Components
o They are also referred to as the non-living or abiotic factors.
o Abiotic factors include climatic factors such as light, temperature
and humidity.
o Examples of physical components are; atmospheric gases, light,
soil, and water.
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2. Biological Components
o These are also known as living or biotic factors.
o Examples of biological components include plants, animals and
microorganisms.
The Soil
 It is a key component in an ecosystem in which plants and animals
interact.
 Its functions include:
o Supplying mechanical support.
o Supplying water, nutrients and oxygen to plants.
o Storing the heat from the sun and supplying it to roots of plants.
o Habitat for various plants and animals.
o It is an important material for the study of the origin of life.
Components of Soil
 The soil is made up of physical and biological components.
 Physical components of soil are solid particles, mineral salts, air and
water.
 The biological components include soil organisms, soil litter (dead plant
material) and humus.
1. Mineral particles
o The mineral constituents of the soil are derived from the parental
rocks.
o The minerals make up about 90% of the total weight of the soil.
o They may be found in the form of particles of different sizes.
o Elements which are found include are silicon, iron, nitrogen,
calcium and phosphorous.
2. Dead organic matter or humus
o Humus: organic remains derived either from dead remains of
plants and animals or through metabolic activities of living
organisms in the soil.
o Humus plays many important roles in the soil, such as:
327
 Improves soil fertility.
 Provides nutrients to the plants and microorganisms.
 Humus makes the soil porous, thus increases the aeration
and drainage (percolation) which makes the soil more
suitable for the plant growth.
 It also acts as weak cement that binds the soil particles.
3. Soil atmosphere/air
o The spaces between soil particles and soil organisms are called
pore spaces.
o These are filled with air in varying quantities which account for
approximately half of the total volume of soil.
o The soil atmosphere contains three main gases, namely oxygen,
carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
o Oxygen in the soil is absorbed by plant roots and soil
microorganisms in respiration, and carbon dioxide is given out
which accumulates in spaces.
o Nitrogen can be absorbed by nitrogen fixing bacteria in root
nodules of legumes.
4. Soil water
o Water affects the plant growth and regulates the physical, chemical
and biological activities in the soil.
o Soil water maintains the soil texture, arrangement and
compactness of soil particles.
o It is good solvent for minerals and it makes the concentration of
nutrients low so that nutrients may be absorbed by plants easily.
5. Soil organisms
o Soil organisms include macro-organisms and micro-organisms.
o Macro-organisms include insects (ants, beetles, termites), worms
(flatworms, earthworms, nematodes) and some fungi (moulds).
o Micro-organisms include bacteria and fungi.
o Soil organisms take part in a number of processes:
328
 Decompose the dead organic matter and increase plant
nutrients.
 Production of growth stimulating substances.
 Production of alkaline substances which reduce acidity in
soil.
 Nitrogen fixation in the soil.
 Mixing of soil.
 Improves soil aeration.
 Improves soil binding (crumb structure).
Extraction of soil organisms

 To understand the role of soil organisms, the organisms must be
extracted from the soil and then examined carefully.
 The extracted organisms must be put in water or fresh soil where they
will continue living before they are examined.
 Great care must be taken not to damage the organisms.
 Exercise great precaution, some organisms are very dangerous.
1. Extracting soil organisms by hand picking
o Large, visible organisms can be picked by hand from the plant,
beneath the stones, wood, and on the soil surface.
2. Extracting soil organisms from ground holes
o Extraction should be done preferable from small holes of about
1cm diameter.
o Large holes should be avoided as they may contain dangerous
animals like snakes.
o A solution of warm water and detergent is poured into the holes.
OR,
o A large area that contains a lot of organisms is flooded with water.
o The water suffocates soil organisms and this forces them to come
to the surface.
o The water also softens the soil particles allowing for the soil to be
extracted easily without damaging them.
329
3. Extracting soil organisms using light
o The type and amount of soil organisms extracted varies with the
source and quality of soil.
o The richer and littered the soil the wider variety of soil organisms
it contains.
Experiment: Extracting soil organisms using light
Materials
o fresh soil sample

o beaker containing a third of water/ alcohol
o funnel
o gauze
o light bulb
Fig.10.1.1:
Extracting soil organisms using light (Tullgren funnel)
330
Procedure
1. Set up the apparatus as in fig.10.1.1.
2. (The light bulb provides the heat that forces the organisms to move
downwards where it is cooler).
3. Allow the soil to dry so that all the organisms fall into the water.
4. Collect the organisms and examine with a hand lens or magnifying glass.
 After some minutes the heat dries the soil, and the organisms fall into
the water through the gauze. (The gauze prevents the soil from falling
into the water).
 The organisms are trapped and kept alive in the water.
 Alcohol can be used as a better preservative alternative to water.
 Worms, woodlice and insects are collected.
 Micro-organisms in soil respire releasing carbon dioxide which can be
tested by using lime water or bicarbonate indicator.
 Lime water changes from colourless to milky in the presence in carbon
dioxide.
 Change from red to yellow when using bicarbonate indicator also shows
that carbon dioxide is present.
Experiment: Investigating the presence of micro-organisms in soil

Materials
o 100g fresh fertile garden soil

o 100g baked fertile garden soil
o lime water or bicarbonate indicator solution
o 2 jars with lids
o mutton cloth
o string
331
Procedure
1. Tie each soil sample in mutton cloth and then suspend in jars containing
equal amounts of lime water or bicarbonate indicator solution.
(Both jars must be tightly closed to prevent exit or entrance of any gas.)
2. Leave the jars in a warm place and observe after one or two days for any
colour changes.
 In jar A: lime water turns milky. The bicarbonate indicator solution turns
red.
 The colour change indicates that carbon dioxide is present, released by
the respiring organisms in the soil.
 In jar B: lime water remains clear. The bicarbonate indicator solution
remains red.
 Therefore carbon dioxide is absent; the roasting of the soil killed the soil
micro-organisms.
Properties of soil
 Soils have many different properties that make soils useful for a wide
range of purposes such as farming.
 These properties determine the type of plants that grow in a soil or in a
region
 Some properties of soils are:
o Size of particles
o Air content
o Water holding capacity
o Drainage
o Leaching
o pH
332
 In Zimbabwe, there are three major soils namely; clay, sandy and loam
soils.
Clay Soil
o Clay soils have the smallest particles of any soil type.
o They have a smooth texture and a very dense structure because
particles stick together.
o They have small pore spaces thus are poorly aerated and have poor
drainage.
o Clay soils have a high water holding capacity and are nutrient rich.
o They are very difficult to cultivate, however, adding organic
material to clay soil helps separate the fine particles.
o This improves drainage, helps unlock nutrients and helps keep the
soil from compacting.
Sandy Soil
o Sandy soils have large particles with large pore spaces in between
them.
o This causes them to have a light texture and loose crumb structure.
o They drain water quickly and cannot hold water well.
o Sandy soils are easy to cultivate but they have low fertility, which
makes them unsuitable for growing crops.
o Addition of some compost or manure improves soil texture and
increases fertility.
Loam Soil
o Loam soils are a mixture of clay, silt, and sand particles.
o They contain humus and have a good texture and a moderate
crumb structure.
o Loam soils are usually well drained, well aerated and can hold
moisture.
o They are suitable for growing crops because they are fertile and
easy to till.
o A comparison of the properties of these soils is shown in Table
10.1.1.
333
Table 10.1.1: Properties of loam, sandy and clay soils
Properties Loam soil Sandy soil Clay soil
Size of particles medium Large very small
Air content medium high low
Water holding medium low high

capacity
Leaching reduced very high low
Drainage medium high low
pH less acidic than more acidic generally

sandy soil than clay alkaline
Experiment: The soil sedimentation test

Materials
o 50g sandy soil

o 50g clay soil
o 50g loam soil
o 3 glass jars (about 30cm tall)
o water
Procedure
1. Put each soil in a glass jar up to a quarter of the container's height.
2. Add water to the soil up to almost three quarters of the container’s
height, and mixed well.
3. Allow the mixture to settle.
4. Observe after an hour and after a day.
 Different layers of sand particles are formed: larger and heavier ones at
the bottom.
 Litter (small leaves and twigs) float on top.
 The clay soil particles take a longer time to settle.
334
 The layers of the soil particles are different in the three soils.
Fig.10.1.2:
Soil sedimentation test
Comparing clay and sandy soils

 A number of experiments are carried out to compare the following
physical properties of clay and sandy soils:
o Water holding capacity and drainage
o Air content
o Leaching of nutrients
Experiment: Comparing water holding capacity and drainage of clay and sandy soils
Materials
o 10g sandy soil

o 10g clay soil
o 2 funnels same size
335
o 2 measuring cylinders
o 200ml water
o 2 equal size cotton plugs or filter paper
Fig.10.1.3:
Water holding capacity/ drainage of soil samples
Procedure
1. Set up the experiment as shown in fig.10.1.3.
2. Place each soil sample in a cotton plugged funnel.
3. Add 100ml of water to each soil sample.
4. Measure the volume of filtrate from each soil sample and calculate the
amount of water retained by applying the formula:
W a t e r r e t a i n e d = Vo l u m e o f w a te r p o u r e d − Vo l u m e o f f i l t r a t e
 More filtrate is collected from the sandy soil, and much less from the
clay soil.
336
 Sandy soil drains more and retained little water.
 Clay soil drains less water and retained more water.
Experiment: Comparing air content of clay sandy soils

Materials
o 2 measuring cylinders (250ml each)

o 100ml sandy soil
o 100ml clay soil
o 200ml water
Procedure
1. Measure out 100ml of each soil sample into two separate measuring
cylinders.
2. Add 100ml of water to each soil sample and wait for about 15 minutes.
3. Record the final volume in each cylinder.
 More bubbles are released in the sandy soil than in the clay soil as water
is poured; this indicates that sandy soil has more air spaces.
 The final volume of water recorded in sandy soil is less than that of the
clay soil. (Water molecules fill in the air spaces).
Calculations
o Volume of each soil sample = 100ml
Volume of added water = 100ml
Expected total volume (soil + water) = 200ml
Final volume in clay soil = 190ml
Therefore volume of air content = 200ml - 190ml = 10ml
Final volume in sandy soil = 165ml

Therefore volume of air content = 200ml - 165ml = 35ml
337
o Water displaces the air present in each soil sample.
o The more the air spaces the more the air is displaced, resulting in
lowering of final volume, (sandy soil).
o The fewer the air spaces, the less air displaced and this results in
higher final volume, (clay soil).
Leaching in soils
 Every type of soil contains a certain degree of mineral salts which are
dissolved in the soil water or combined with soil particles, especially the
clay particles.
 As water drains through the soil it carries dissolved salts through the
soil, this process is called leaching.
 Areas with porous soils and of high rainfall are prone to leaching.
 Minerals elements that are needed for plant nutrition are washed away
by leaching.
 It is important for farmers to reduce leaching.
 This can be done by applying compost and manure to the soil regularly
which improves the texture and water retention.
Experiment: Comparing leaching in soils
Materials
o 10g sandy soil

o 10g clay soil
o 2 equal size cotton plugs
o 2 funnels
o 2 measuring cylinders
o beaker
o tripod stand
o burner
338
Fig.10.1.4:
Apparatus to demonstrate leaching
Procedure
1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in diagram Fig.10.1.4.
2. Allow the water to completely filter through the soil sample.
3. Collected filtrate and heated in a beaker over a burner to evaporate the
water.
4. Compare the amount of residue (salts), either by observing with eye or
by weighing on a very sensitive scale.
 Sandy soil contains more residue than clay soil, meaning that there is
higher leaching in sandy soil than in clay soil.
Experiment: Determining the water content (moisture) in a soil sample
Materials
o evaporating dish
o beaker (containing about a third of water)
339
o tripod stand
o burner
o fresh garden soil sample
Procedure
1. Weigh and record the mass of the evaporating dish.
2. Place the fresh soil sample on the evaporating dish, measure the weight
and recorded again.
3. Calculate the mass of the soil sample.
4. Heat the soil over a water bath. This prevents burning of humus.
5. Remove the evaporating dish from the heat, allow to cool, weigh, and
reheat until a constant mass is obtained.
Calculations
 Mass of evaporating dish = 2g
Mass of evaporating dish + fresh soil = 17g
Therefore mass of fresh soil =17g - 2g = 15g
Mass of evaporating dish + dried soil = 10g
Therefore mass of water in soil sample = 15g - 10g = 5g
Therefore % of water in soil sample = 5g/15g × 100 = 33.3%
o The amount of water in the garden soil varies with composition of
particle size, and the amount of organic matter it contains.
Experiment: Determining the amount of organic matter in a soil sample
Materials
o dried soil
o evaporating dish
o tripod stand
o gauze
o burner
o stirring rod
340
Procedure
1. Weigh and record the mass of an empty evaporating dish.
2. Add the dried soil to the evaporating dish, and re-weigh the evaporating
dish with the soil together.
3. Calculate the mass of dried soil.
4. Heat the dried soil over a burner, stirring the soil regularly.
5. Allow the soil to cool and re-weigh repeatedly until a constant mass is
obtained.
6. Calculate the percentage of organic matter in the soil.
Calculations
 Mass of evaporating dish = 2g
Mass of dish + dried soil = 12g
Mass of dried soil = 12g - 2g = 10g
Mass of dish + heated soil = 7g
Mass of organic matter = 12g - 7g = 5g
% organic matter in soil sample = 5g/10g × 100 = 50%
o The amount of organic matter in soil reflects the fertility of the soil.
The higher the percentage the more fertile the soil is.
pH
 Soil pH is a measure of the acidity and alkalinity in soils.
 Maintaining the correct pH balance is important to soil micro-organisms
and plant roots which are sensitive to pH.
 The optimal pH range for most plants is between 5.5 and 7.0.
 Mineral salts in the soil cause the soil to be acidic or alkaline.
 Lime can be added to the soil to neutralise acidic soils.
 Compost or manure can be used to neutralise alkaline soils.
 Testing soil pH is important to farmers; this enables them to choose
crops most suited to their crops.
341
Experiment: Testing pH of soil sample
Materials
o soil sample, (about 10 ml)
o distilled water
o universal indicator/litmus paper/digital pH meter
Procedure
1. Place the soil sample in a test tube, and add water to the soil.
2. Add a few drops of universal indicator, shake well, allow to settle and
read the pH on the colour scale. OR,
3. Dip the litmus paper into the soil solution, read the pH on the paper
colour code. OR,
4. Use the digital meter to read the pH.
 Most soils have a pH range of 6 - 7.
Fig.10.1.5:
Digital pH meter
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Content
10: ECOSYSTEM
NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL ECOSYSTEMS

1. Construct simple food chains and explain the loss of

energy in food chains.
2. Interpret food webs and pyramids.
3. Describe carbon and nitrogen cycles and explain the
importance of nutrients recycling.
4. Describe natural and artificial ecosystems and compare
biodiversity in natural and artificial ecosystems.
5. State problems caused by limited biodiversity.
A. Natural ecosystems
 Natural ecosystem is an ecosystem that occurs as it would without
interference from man.
 Natural ecosystems are capable of functioning and sustaining
themselves without influence from human beings.
 The organisms feed upon one another in a sequence of food and
consequently energy transfer, forming a food chain.
 Food chain can be defined as a simple passage of energy from one
trophic level to another as a result of one organism consuming another.
 Trophic level is the feeding level in a food chain such as producers,
consumers and decomposers.
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Fig.10.2.1:
Energy flow through different trophic levels
Food chains
 In a food chain there is one organism in each trophic level.
 Green plants are autotrophs or the producers of food for the ecosystem.
 Producers also include parts of the plant such as fruits, seeds, or dead
leaves.
 The producers convert energy from sunlight into chemical energy in
food.
 Organisms that cannot synthesise their own food and feed on other
organisms are called heterotrophs or consumers.
 Consumers obtain their energy from the food they eat which contains
chemical energy.
 Organisms that feed on plants are called primary consumers or
herbivores for example locust, cow, aphid and goat.
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 Organisms that eat primary consumers are called secondary consumers.
 Secondary consumers can be carnivores (meat-eaters) for example a
snake, seal and spider, or omnivores (both plant and meat-eaters) for
example eagle and mouse.
 Organisms that feed on secondary (or all organisms from producers to
secondary) consumers are called tertiary consumers.
 Tertiary consumers can also be carnivorous like lion, hawk, shark and
crocodile, or omnivorous like baboon and human.
 Animals that are tertiary consumers are called apex predators.
 When the organism dies, it is broken down by detrivores or
decomposers.
 Decomposers are usually saprophytic (feeds on dead organic matter)
microorganisms like bacteria or fungi but the group also includes some
insects like termites.
 The nutrients that are trapped in the organism are released back into the
soil by decomposers.
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Fig.10.2.2:
Temperate deciduous forest food chain
 The arrows in a food chain indicate the direction of energy in food flow
from one organism to another.
 The food chain in fig.10.2.2 shows the inter-relationships in a forest.
o The food chain begins with a producer, grass.
o The locust (primary consumer) feeds on the grass.
o The mouse (secondary consumer) eats the locust.
o The mouse is then eaten by the snake (tertiary consumer).
o Decomposers like fungi feed on the dead organisms and in the
process release nutrients back into the soil.
Pyramids of numbers
 Energy is used and lost by organisms at each trophic level; this limits the
number of organisms in a food chain because there will be less and less
energy available.
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 Energy may be lost as heat (respiration), excretion, (sweat, faeces, urine),
and during movement.
 Only about 10% of the received energy is passed on to the next trophic
level.
 Food chains do not usually have more than four trophic levels.
 The numbers at each level can be represented as pyramid of numbers.
Fig.10.2.3:
Energy loss by an organism (beetle)
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Fig.10.2.4:
Pyramid of numbers in three food chains
 Pyramid of numbers shows number of organisms at each trophic level

per unit area of ecosystem.
 The area of each box is an approximation of how many living organisms
there are at each trophic level.
 The size of the organism is not indicated in the pyramid of numbers.
 The pyramid of numbers in fig.10.2.4b shows that the producers, lettuce
plants are more numerous than the number of the primary consumers,
caterpillars. The birds are least in number. Moving up the pyramid, the
number of organisms generally decreases but the size of each individual
increases.
 However, other food chains have unique pyramids of numbers
(fig.10.2.4a &c), pyramids may be inverted particularly if the producer is
very large or if parasites feed on the consumers.
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Pyramid of biomass
 Biomass is the amount of living materials in plants and animals; it is the
mass of a living organism.
 The pyramid of biomass informs of the size, the actual weight or mass
of the organism, this gives a more accurate relationship between the
trophic levels.
Fig.10.2.5:
Pyramid of biomass
Food webs
 A food web shows feeding interrelationships between plants and animals
in an ecosystem.
 One organism feeds on several organisms and can be food for more than
one type of organism.
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Fig.10.2.6:
Food web in the savannah
Nutrient recycling
 Decomposers or detrivores (e.g. bacteria, fungi) use the energy trapped
in organisms to recycle components or nutrients.
 Carbon and nitrogen are common nutrients of all living organisms.
 Carbon and nitrogen are recycled in an ecosystem as the nutrients are
reabsorbed by the living organisms and then re-enter the food chains
and food webs.
The Carbon Cycle
 Carbon cycle can be defined as a continuous re-cycling process of
carbon compounds through plants, animals, decomposers, and their
environment.
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Fig.10.2.7:
The carbon cycle
 Carbon, a composition of all organic compounds, is the essential

element of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
 During photosynthesis, green plants take in carbon as carbon dioxide
and combine with water to form carbohydrates.
 The carbohydrates are used to make proteins and fats in plants.
 Animals as they feed on the plants obtain their carbon.
 The proteins are used by the animals for growth and repairing worn out
tissues.
 During respiration carbohydrates and fats are used for energy, releasing
carbon dioxide and water into the atmosphere.
 Dead plants and animals decompose releasing carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.
 Combustion of fossil fuels, for example coal, oil, and gas also release
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
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Nitrogen Cycle
 Nitrogen cycle can be defined as a continuous natural cycle by which
nitrogen and nitrogenous compounds in the soil are converted by
nitrification, nitrogen fixation, into substances that can be utilised by
green plants, the substances return to the air and soil as a result of the
decay of the plants and denitrification.
 About 80% of the atmospheric air is nitrogen.
 Nitrogen is crucial to both plants and animals, as it is an element if
important biological elements such as amino acids, chlorophyll,
proteins, and DNA.
 However the nitrogen is unreactive; it just diffuses in and out of the cell
unutilised.
 The nitrogen gas must be converted into a more reactive state, like
nitrates and ammonia.
 Nitrates are formed by nitrogen fixation and by nitrification.
353
Fig.10.2.8:
The nitrogen cycle
1. Nitrogen Fixation
o Nitrogen fixation is a chemical process that combines nitrogen and
hydrogen to form ammonium ions, which then form nitrates.
o Nitrogen fixation occurs in three ways:
a. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
o Nitrogen is converted to ammonia by the nitrogen-fixing bacteria
that live in the root nodules (swellings) of leguminous plants such
as beans, peas, clover, and tropical trees.
o The leguminous plants use the ammonia to make amino acids for
protein synthesis.
b. Lightning
o Lightning causes a natural combination of nitrogen and oxygen
gases at high temperature in the atmosphere.
o The formed nitrogen oxides dissolve in rain and when they reach
the soil they form nitrates.
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c. Haber process
o The ammonium nitrate fertilisers are manufactured from ammonia
in the Haber process.
o The fertilisers directly increase the nitrate content of the soil.
o Farmers also use natural fertilisers (manure) which release nitrates
through the action of the decomposers.
2. Nitrification
o Nitrification is the oxidation of ammonia and ammonium ions to
form nitrites and nitrates.
o The proteins in the dead plants and animals are gradually turned
back to ammonia or nitrates.
o The process is done naturally by the nitrifying bacteria which are
found in the soil and water.
o Decomposers (such as bacteria and fungi) breakdown the remains
of dead plants and animals releasing nitrates into the soil.
3. Denitrification
o Denitrification can defined as the conversion of nitrates into
nitrogen gas which is then released into atmosphere.
o Denitrifying bacteria are anaerobic, reversing the action of the
nitrifying bacteria.
o The denitrifying bacteria convert ammonia and nitrate back to
nitrogen gas again which escapes into the atmosphere, completing
the nitrogen cycle.
o Denitrification occurs most readily in waterlogged soils (clay soils):
such soils are prone to great loss of nitrogen.
Importance of nutrients recycling

1. Transformation of matter from one form to another.
o Nutrient cycles allows the transformation of matter to different
specific forms that enables the utilisation of that element in
different organisms. (For example, although nitrogen is abundant
in the atmosphere, plants can only take up nitrogen in two solid
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forms, namely ammonium and nitrate. Without the transformation
of nitrogen into these forms, plant growth would be limited.)
Therefore, nutrient cycles enable the provision of elements to
organisms in forms that are usable to them.
2. Transfer of elements
o Nutrient cycles allows the transfer of elements from one place to
another.
o Some elements are highly concentrated in an areas that are
inaccessible to most living organisms, such as nitrogen in the
atmosphere.
o Nutrient cycles allow these elements to be transferred to more
accessible locations such as the soil (for the case of nitrogen).
3. Functioning of ecosystems
o The ecosystem which requires the state of equilibrium to function
properly, restore to the equilibrium state through the nutrient
cycles.
4. Storage of elements
o Nutrient cycles facilitate the storage of elements.
o Elements that are carried through the nutrient cycles are stored in
their natural reservoirs and are released to organisms in small
amounts that are consumable. (For example, through the nitrogen
cycle, plants are able to use nitrogen in small suitable amounts
even though it is abundant in the atmosphere.)
5. Link organisms
o Nutrient cycles link living organisms with living organisms, living
organisms with the non-living organisms and non-living
organisms with non-living organisms.
o This is essential because all organisms depend on one another and
is vital for the survival of living organisms.
o These organisms are linked by the flow of nutrients which is
engineered by the nutrient cycles.
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6. Regulate the flow of substances
o Nutrient cycles regulate the flow of substances.
o As the nutrient cycles pass through different spheres (biosphere,
lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere), the flow of elements is
regulated as each sphere has a particular medium and rate at which
the flow of elements is determined by the viscosity and density of
the medium.
o Therefore, the elements in the nutrient cycles flow at different rates
within the cycle and this regulates the flow of elements in those
cycles.
B. Artificial ecosystems
 An artificial ecosystem is a man-made ecosystem which is designed for
human benefit.
 These artificial ecosystems are operated and highly influenced by human
activities.
 Human activities in the artificial ecosystem result in limited species
diversity.
 Examples of artificial ecosystems include plantations, fields and gardens
which are all intended for high productivity (fig.10.2.9).
 Some of the most commonly practised activities are:
o monoculture (agricultural practice of growing one type of crop on
a farm or field)
o selective breeding of livestock
o deforestation
o use of pesticides
o use of organic fertilisers
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Fig.10.2.9:
(a) Flower garden and (b) Maize field
Comparing biodiversity in natural and artificial ecosystems

 A biodiversity comparison can be conducted using a quadrant survey
method.
 A quadrant survey is an area of determined size delimited for sampling
vegetation, plants, and physical factors of an environment.
 A quadrant is a frame made of metal, wire or wood, can be circular,
rectangular, square, or irregular shaped.
 The quadrant is placed on the ground and the numbers of organisms
within its area are counted.
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Fig.10.2.10:
(a) Rectangular quadrant (b) Irregular shaped quadrant
Experiment: Survey activity-Comparing biodiversity in natural and artificial ecosystems

Materials
o string/tape measure/metre rule
o magnifying glasses or hand lens
Procedure
1. Choose a natural ecosystem (e.g. forest), and an artificial ecosystem
(crop field, garden).
2. Use a metre rule/tape measure or string to measure and mark quadrants
of an area of 250cm2.
3. Count and record the total number of plants in each ecosystem.
4. Count and record the number of each plant species observed.
5. Count and record the total number of animals in each ecosystem.
6. Count and record the number of each animal species observed.
7. Look for and record evidence of animals (e.g. eaten leaves, droppings,
footprints, anthills)
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8. Use the magnifying glasses or hand lens to observe smaller organisms.
9. Observe the size of the organisms in each ecosystem.
10. Identify the dominant animal and plant species in each ecosystem.
11. Record your observations on a recording sheet. An example is given in
table below.
Natural Artificial
Ecosystem Ecosystem
Total number of plants
Number of plant species and names

(known ones)
Dominant species
Total number of animals.
Number of species and names (known

ones)
Dominant species
Evidence of animals
 There are more plant and animal species in a natural ecosystem than in
an artificial ecosystem.
Problems with artificial ecosystems

 In artificial ecosystem specific plants and animals are deliberately
introduced into an ecosystem.
 This narrows biodiversity and creates a number of problems namely:
1. Poor soil fertility
o Monoculture leads to poor soil fertility as same type of crop use
same nutrient from the soil.
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o Prolonged practice of mono-culture results in significant land
mineral decrease as nutrient cycling is low, soil deterioration
increases.
o Extensive use of chemicals can reduce fertility of the soil as these
chemicals infiltrate the soil.
2. Increase in plant and animal diseases
o Plant diseases increase due to lack of crop rotation. The pathogen
adapts to the soil and easily attacks the crops.
o Plants and animals become vulnerable to diseases caused by pests
which multiply and spread easily and fast.
o Soil pathogens may become resistant to pesticides and stronger
chemicals have to be used.
3. Overstocking and overgrazing
o Rearing of large numbers of same type of animals leads to
overgrazing, depleting soil fertility eventually desertification.
4. Limited food resources for other organisms
o Availability of food for other animals is very limited as production
of food is meant for human consumption only.
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Content
HEALTH AND DISEASES
HEALTH
1. Define what is meant by the term ‘health’.

2. Discuss levels of hygiene.
3. Define a disease.
4. State the causes of diseases and classify them into
infectious and non-infectious diseases.
5. State the causative agent, mode of transmission also
signs and symptoms of infectious diseases.
6. Explain ways of preventing and treating infectious
diseases.
Introduction
 Health is the state of physical, mental, emotional and social well-being and
not just the absence of disease.
a. Physical health: a good body because of regular physical activity
(exercise), good nutrition, and adequate rest.
b. Mental health: a state of being, related to the brain or mind and
thoughts, feelings, and behaviours; it ranges from normal functioning
to paralysing mental illness.
c. Emotional health: an extension of mental health: it is the way someone
views, and lives, a life of wellness or a state of positive mental
functioning.
d. Social health: how one gets along with other people, how other people
react to them, and how one interacts with society.
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Hygiene
 Hygiene refers to a set of practices or habits that help to maintain health
and prevent the spread of diseases.
 There are different levels of hygiene:
1. Personal Hygiene
o This is maintaining cleanliness and grooming of the external body.
o It involves proper living habits, cleanliness of body (hand-washing,
bathing and cutting hair/nails.) and cleanliness of clothing.
Fig.11.1.1:
Examples of good personal hygiene
2. Domestic Hygiene
o This is maintaining cleanliness in the home.
o It includes sanitary preparation of food, general cleanliness (sweeping,
washing floors, washing clothes and washing cooking utensils) and
ventilation.
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Fig.11.1.2:
Examples of good domestic hygiene
3. Community Hygiene
o These are hygiene practices to prevent disease outbreaks and death in
the community.
o These include:
 provision and protection of clean water sources (taps, boreholes
and protected wells),
 waste management that is, proper disposal of solid waste and
excreta (public toilets, bins and refuse collection),
 provision of health facilities such as clinics and hospitals,
 general sanitation such as wastewater (sewage) drainage and
market hygiene.
Fig.11.1.3:
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Community hygiene (a) general sanitation e.g. clean-up campaign in the streets (b) refuse collection (c)
borehole and (d) public toilets
Activity: Cleaning campaign

Materials
o brooms
o rakes
o pokers
o bin liners
o gloves
o face masks
o water for participants and any other equipment needed for a safe
clean-up
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Procedure
1. Organise a clean-up campaign in your school or around your community.
2. Choose to host a one-time event or implement a weekly, monthly or
seasonal clean-up campaign.
3. Registering the event (to the Environmental Management Agency) and
acquiring a police clearance is necessary if the event is to be hosted outside
the school area.
4. Find volunteers and supervisors for the event.
5. Make sure there are proper facilities for waste disposal.
6. Make a report on the success of the event.
Diseases
 A disease is an abnormal condition of the body which interrupts normal
bodily functions.
 It can affect part of the body or the whole body.
 A disease usually results in associated signs and symptoms which may
include feelings of pain and weakness.
Causes of diseases
 Diseases may be caused by a single factor or by many factors.
 There are a number of different causes of disease in humans.
1. Pathogens
o Pathogens are disease causing microorganisms such as bacteria,
viruses and fungi.
o Examples of such diseases include cholera, malaria and AIDS.
2. Genetic Disorders
o These are rare diseases which result from abnormalities in the genes.
o They can be passed down from parents (hereditary) or result from
mutations in the genes (non-hereditary).
o Examples of such diseases include sickle-cell anaemia, Down
syndrome and diabetes.
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3. Chemical
o Exposure to certain chemicals may result in disease.
o Lung cancer is usually as a result of carcinogenic chemicals found in
tobacco smoke.
4. Radiation
o Radiation (such as X-rays) may increase a person's chance of
developing diseases like cancer.
5. Degenerative Diseases
o Degenerative diseases refer to health problems that worsen over time.
o These degenerative diseases may affect the central nervous system
(brain and spinal cord), bones, blood vessels or heart.
o Most degenerative diseases have no cure but certain medications and
therapies can treat some degenerative diseases.
o Such diseases include Alzheimer’s (brain cell death), osteoporosis
(bone weakening) and heart disease.
6. Malnutrition
o Poor diet or malnutrition may cause an individual to develop diseases
as the body becomes deprived of certain essential nutrients (deficiency
diseases) or receives too much of such.
o These include marasmus, kwashiorkor, scurvy and obesity.
Classification of diseases
 Diseases can be classified into two main classes; infectious and non-
infectious.
1. Infectious Diseases
o These are caused by pathogens.
o They can spread from person to person and are said to be
contagious.
Examples include:
 Cholera
 Malaria
 Tuberculosis
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 Typhoid
 Bilharzia
2. Non-Infectious Diseases
o These are not caused by pathogens and are not transmitted from one
person to another.
Examples include:
 Deficiency diseases
 Genetic disorders
 Cancer
Cholera
 Cholera is an infectious disease caused by a comma shaped bacterium.
 This disease is mostly occurs in crowded places with poor sanitation and
unsafe drinking water sources.
 It is transmitted by the faecal - oral route which means that it can be
transmitted by eating food or drinking water which is contaminated by the
cholera bacteria.
 The source of contamination is usually faeces or vomit of an infected person
or water contaminated with sewage.
 Houseflies, soiled hands and utensils can serve as a mode of transmission
of the bacteria.
 Fruits and vegetables washed with contaminated water can be a source of
infection.
 When a person consumes the contaminated food or water, the bacteria
release a toxin in the intestines that causes severe diarrhoea.
Signs and symptoms of cholera
o Symptoms of cholera can occur a few hours or as long as five days
after infection.
o The main symptoms include severe watery diarrhoea (rice water),
vomiting, fever and dehydration symptoms such as:
 Muscular cramps
 Rapid heart rate
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 Thirst
 Loss of skin elasticity
 Dry mucous membranes (mouth, tongue, throat, nose)
 Sunken eyes
o Sustained diarrhoea and vomiting will cause mild dehydration
symptoms to become moderate to severe.
o In infants, symptoms such as sunken fontanel, low blood pressure and
a weak pulse may result from severe dehydration.
o Dehydration can lead to shock and death in a matter of hours if not
treated.
Treatment of cholera
a. Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT)
o It is a form of fluid replacement by mouth to prevent or correct the
dehydration caused by diarrhoea.
o Oral rehydration therapy is the main treatment of cholera due to the
increased loss of fluids in the body.
o It is the preparation of salt and sugar solution.
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Fig.11.1.4:
Salt and sugar solution
o Water replaces the water that is lost through vomiting and the watery
stools.
o Salt sends electrical signals throughout the body and it causes the
body to become thirsty forcing the person to drink more water.
o The sugar contained in ORS solution enables the intestine to absorb
the fluid and the salts more efficiently.
o A patient with diarrhoea should receive oral rehydration salts (ORS)
solution and a daily supplement of zinc tablets for 10- 14 days.
o The basic oral rehydration solution is made up of 6 level teaspoons of
sugar and 1/2 level teaspoon of salt dissolved in 1 litre of clean water.
o It is very important to mix the correct amounts; too much sugar can
make the diarrhoea worse and too much salt can be extremely harmful
to the patient.
o Making the mixture a little too dilute is not harmful but it is less
effective.
370
o Even after using the ORS solution medical advice should be sought.
o Antibiotic treatment is also necessary to act on the cholera bacteria.
b. Antibiotic treatment
o Antibiotics such as Tetracycline and Ciprofloxacin have been used to
effectively kill cholera bacteria.
o Antibiotic treatment is usually used for hospitalised patients but
always in combination with ORT solution.
o Antibiotics along with zinc tablets, reduce the duration and amount of
cholera related diarrhoea.
c. Intravenous therapy
o This is when rehydration fluids are filtered directly into a vein of the
body.
o In severe dehydration cases, intravenous administration of fluids may
be required to save the patient's life.
Some ways to reduce the spread of cholera
1. Practicing good personal, domestic and community hygiene such as:
 Drinking water from safe sources.
 Eating foods that have been thoroughly cooked and are still hot.
 Use latrines or bury your faeces, do not defecate in any body of
water or open spaces.
2. Notification: to allow health officials to organise effective ways of
controlling the disease and avoid rapid spreading.
3. Immunisation against cholera, though cholera vaccines are not very
effective.
4. Good settlement planning as overcrowding has an effect on the water
and sanitation load of the community.
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Fig.11.1.5:
How cholera affects the body
Malaria
 Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease caused by a single-celled protozoan
parasite.
 These parasites are transmitted from one person to another by female
Anopheles mosquitoes which feed on blood.
 Other possible ways of transmission include blood transfusions and in
congenital malaria, where malaria can be transmitted from mother to child
before and or during birth.
372
Fig.11.1.6:
How malaria affects the body
Symptoms of malaria
o Shaking chills that can range from moderate to severe

o High fever
o Profuse sweating
o Headache
o Nausea
o Vomiting
o Diarrhoea
o Anaemia
Treatment of malaria
o The type of drugs and length of treatment will vary depending on:
 Which type of malaria parasite a person has.
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 The severity of the symptoms.
 The age of the person.
 Whether the person is pregnant.
o Effective treatment is enabled through correct drug intake and dosage
which is determined by a health practitioner.
o In Zimbabwe, Chloroquine was the commonly used drug for effective
malaria treatment.
o However, over the years, it has become increasingly difficult to use
Chloroquine for malaria treatment as the parasite has developed
resistance to the drug.
o Fortunately, scientists are constantly developing other drugs for
malaria treatment.
o The most common anti-malarial drugs include:
a. Coartem
b. Quinine sulphate
c. Mefloquine
d. Malarone
e. Hydroxychloroquine
Prevention against malaria
o Vaccination of malaria has not been successful because the malarial
parasite does not produce antitoxins and antigens in the human host.
o Nonetheless, the most effective way to prevent malaria is to take a
prophylactic drug against the parasite.
o Most commonly used anti-malarial drugs include Norolon, Deltaprim,
Paludrine and Malasone.
o Prophylactic drugs must be taken on a regular basis over a
recommended period of time.
o Usually, the dosage occurs before, during and after exposure to the
parasite.
o Other preventative measures are aimed at protection against the
mosquito bite such as:
 Wearing protective clothes.
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 Use of repellents on exposed skin.
 Sleeping under mosquito nets.
 Use of mosquito coils and indoor aerosols which kill adult
mosquitoes.
Control of malaria
o Malaria can be controlled by managing the Anopheles mosquito
population.
o This can be done by disrupting several stages of the mosquito cycle.
o These methods can be physical (environmental), chemical or
biological.
a. Physical methods
o Decreasing or removing the mosquito breeding sites for example, not
permitting water to accumulate in places, proper drainage system and
filling of ditches.
o This disrupts the early stages of the mosquito life cycle.
b. Chemical methods
o These include application of oil (diesel or kerosene) and synthetic
insecticides in stagnant water to kill larvae.
o Oil inhibits the larvae from acquiring oxygen for breathing.
o Adult mosquitoes can be killed by spraying of DDT
(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) applied 1 to 3 times in a year.
o Application of space spray in the form of mist or fog such as Pyrethrum
extract also kills adult mosquitoes.
c. Biological methods
o Introducing fish in ponds or breeding places which feed on the
mosquito larvae.
Tuberculosis (TB)
 Tuberculosis is an infectious disease caused by bacteria that usually affects
the lungs.
 It can also affect other parts of the body, including kidneys, spine or brain.
375
 TB is transmitted from person to person through microscopic droplets
released into the air by an infected person when they cough, speak, sneeze,
spit, laugh or sing.
 People nearby may inhale these bacteria and become infected.
 There are two kinds of tuberculosis infection: latent and active.
1. Latent TB
o The bacteria remain in the body in an inactive state.
o They cause no symptoms and are not contagious, but they can become
active.
2. Active TB
o The bacteria cause symptoms and can be transmitted to others.
o People with compromised immune systems, such as people living with
HIV, malnutrition or diabetes, or people who use tobacco, have a much
higher risk of having active TB.
Symptoms of TB
o Coughing that lasts three or more weeks

o Coughing up blood
o Chest pain, or pain with breathing or coughing
o Unintentional weight loss
o Fatigue
o Fever
o Night sweats
o Chills
o Loss of appetite
Treatment of TB
o TB disease is treated with antibiotics.
o Antibiotics are taken for at least 6-9 months.
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o The exact drugs and length of treatment depend on age, overall health,
possible drug resistance, the form of TB (latent or active) and the
infection's location in the body.
Prevention of TB
o A few general measures can be taken to prevent the spread of active
TB such as:
 Avoiding other people by not going to school or work, or
sleeping in the same room as someone.
 Wearing a mask, covering the mouth, and ventilating rooms can
also limit the spread of bacteria.
o TB vaccination: BCG injections are given to children in order to
vaccinate them against tuberculosis.
Typhoid
 Typhoid is a bacterial infection.
 The bacterium lives in the intestines and bloodstream of humans.
 It is spread between individuals by through ingestion of contaminated food
or water.
 Contamination is usually from faeces which contain a high concentration of
the bacteria.
 The bacteria can survive for weeks in water or dried sewage.
Symptoms of typhoid
o Symptoms normally begin 1-3 weeks after exposure to the bacteria.
o These are:
 Fever starts low and increases as high as 40oC
 Headache
 Weakness and fatigue
 Muscle aches
 Sweating
 Dry cough
 Loss of appetite and weight loss
 Abdominal pain
377
 Diarrhoea or constipation
 Rash
 Extremely swollen abdomen
 The duration of the illness is about four to six weeks.
Treatment
o The effective treatment for typhoid is antibiotics like Ciprofloxacin.
o Drinking clean water is also recommended in order to rehydrate the
body.
Prevention
o General rules to minimise the chance of typhoid infection in high risk
areas include:
 Drinking boiled or bottled water.
 Avoiding eating anything that has been handled by someone
else.
 Avoiding eating from street food stalls.
 Only eating hot food.
 Avoiding raw fruit and vegetables.
 Vaccination against typhoid can be achieved by oral medication
or a once-off injection.
Bilharzia
 Bilharzia is a disease caused by a fluke parasite or worm.
 Infection occurs through contact with contaminated water bodies.
 The parasite swims freely in open bodies of water or lives on an alternate
host, a bilharzia snail.
 On contact with humans, the parasite burrows into the skin, matures before
it migrates to the lungs and liver, where it matures into the adult form.
 The adult worm then migrates to its preferred body part: the part of the
body that is affected depends on the species of parasite.
 These areas include the bladder, intestines and spleen.
378
Fig.11.1.7:
Bilharzia cycle
Symptoms of bilharzia
o Symptoms vary with the species of bilharzia worm and the phase of
infection.
o Initial infection of the skin by the parasite may cause itching and a rash
(swimmer's itch) which normally settles spontaneously.
o Heavy infestation (many parasites) may cause fatigue, fever, chills,
lymph node enlargement, and liver and spleen enlargement.
o Intestinal symptoms include abdominal pain and diarrhoea (which may
be bloody).
o Urinary symptoms may include frequent urination, painful urination
and blood in the urine.
Treatment
o This infection is usually treated with the oral drug Praziquantel.
379
Prevention
o Avoid swimming or bathing in contaminated or potentially
contaminated water.
o Avoid bodies of water of unknown safety.
o Snails are an intermediate host for the parasite: getting rid of snails in
bodies of water used by humans would help prevent infection.
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Form 3 (O-Level) / Biology

SAFETY, CAREERS AND BRANCHES IN BIOLOGY

SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY

1. Identify causes of accidents in the laboratory

Examples of electrical hazards

Laboratory safety rules

Illustration of some common unsafe laboratory practices

Handling of laboratory apparatus and equipment

Safety fire equipment

 Fire extinguishers: used to extinguish or control small fires in emergency

Note: According to the Environmental Management Authority (EMA), a

Fire guard construction around the lab

3. Continue to maintain the fire guard by regularly slashing or hoeing any

First Aid Kit

Table 1.1.1: Basic First Aid Kit contents

Sterile dressings  Plasters  For dressing small cuts

 Sterile gauze pads  To provide more

 Sterile wound dressing  To apply more pressure

 Triangular bandages  Used as either a bandage

Protective items  Disposable gloves  Reduces the risk of

 Face shields or pocket  These are designed to

Other items  Cleansing wipes, alcohol  To clean the skin around

 Sticky tape (adhesive  To hold dressings in

 Pins and clips  To fasten the loose end

 Scissors, shears and  To cut sterile pads,

Useful extras  Kitchen film or clean  To dress burns and

 Alcohol gel  To sterilise hands.

 Cold packs  To place on wounds and

 Survival bags  To keep someone warm

 Torch  To help when visibility is

 Whistle  To help attract attention

  Activated charcoal  To treat poisoning.

 In case of emergencies, local emergency contact numbers (table 1.1.2)

All emergencies (landlines) 999

Fire brigade 993

All emergencies (mobile phones) 112

SAFETY, CAREERS AND BRANCHES IN BIOLOGY

BRANCHES & CAREERS IN BIOLOGY

1. Identify various branches of biology.

Table 1.3.1: Careers in Biology

CONSTITUENTS AND IDENTIFICATION OF CHEMICALS OF LIFE

1. State the constituent elements of water, carbohydrates, proteins,

Model of a water molecule

Properties of water in relation to its functions

General structures of various carbohydrates.

Experiment: Testing for glucose (Benedict’s solution test)

Testing for glucose

Expected results of Benedict’s test for reducing sugars

Steps of testing for starch using a potato

Food Colour change Is starch present?

Model structure of a lipid

Experiment: Testing for fats (Alcohol emulsion test)

Model structures of proteins

Model structures of nucleic acids and a nucleotide

 Table 2.1.2 summarises the element constituents of organic compounds.

Form 3 (O-Level) / Biology

PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

Respire to obtain energy

Table 3.1.1: Parts and functions of a microscope

Slide preparation-onion epidermis