SCSI Journal Jan-March 2014 13

JOURNAL OF
SOIL AND WATER

CONSERVATION NEW SERIES
Vol. 13, No. 1 ISSN 0022–457X JANUARY-MARCH 2014
Contents
Land capability classification and land resources planning using remote sensing and GIS 3
– A.K. Pali, S. Suryavanshi, B.L. Sinha and Jitendra Sinha
Morphometric analysis of chanavada micro-watershed using remote sensing and GIS 10
– Sujata Dhabale, P. K. Singh and R.S. Singh
Use of high RSC water for sustainable crop production under sprinkler irrigation system 16
in Thar desert of Rajasthan
– Yogesh Sharma, A.K. Singh, N.K. Pareek and B.L. Verma
Water balance study of upper kolab command of Odisha for effective crop planning 24
– B.K. Dash, B. Panigrahi, J.C. Paul and B.P. Behera
Status of major nutrient in relation to soil properties of Jaipur district of Rajasthan 31
under groundnut cultivation
– Pradeep Kumar, B.L. Yadav and S.G. Rajput, Brijesh Yadav and K. Singh
Evaluation of rice establishment methods with nutrient and weed management options 36
under rainfed farming situations of Bastar plateau
– D. S. Thakur, G.K. Sharma, R.K. Naik, D. Khalkho, J.L. Chaudhary and S.K. Patil
Effect of Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) on quality parameters and nutrient balance 42
under rainfed maize-gobhi sarson sequence
– Rahul Gupta, M.P. Sharma, K.R. Sharma, V. Sharma, B.C. Sharma and Vishal Sharma
Assessment of infiltration rates and models under high and low input crop management 47
system in inceptisols of eastern Uttar Pradesh
– Chandrabhan Patel, Y.V. Singh, Y.A. Garde, D.K. Verma and S.M. Singh
Evaluation of large-scale subsurface drainage system in the Indira Gandhi Nahar Pariyojana 53
Command Area, Rajasthan, India
– Rohitashw Kumar and Mukesh Kumar
Soil moisture release behaviour and iIrrigation scheduling for Aravalli soils of eastern Rajasthan uplands 58
– R.P. Sharma, R.S. Singh and Sanjay Arora
Use of plastic mulch for enhancing water productivity of off-season vegetables in terraced land in 68
Chamoli district of Uttarakhand, India
– Vijay P Singh, P.K. Singh and Lalit Bhatt
Effect of sequential tillage practices and N levels on soil health and root parameters in 73
maize (Zea mays)–wheat (Tritium aestivum) cropping system
– R.L. Choudhary and U.K. Behera
Soft computing approach for optimal reservoir operation 83
– Ashish Sonawane, Sujeet Desai, Gajanan Rajurkar and Deepak Singh
Effect of different farm holding size on cropping pattern and soil characteristics of 89
farmer’s field of Meerut district
– M.P. Sharma, J.P. Singh and Prem Singh
Optimum size of agricultural land holdings for economic sustainability-Policies on 93
land utilization & succession laws on inheritance
– C.M. Pandey and R.A.S. Patel
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Pledge
J.S. Bali
I pledge to conserve Soil,

that sustains me.
I pledge to conserve Water,
that is vital for life.
I care for Plants and Animals and the Wildlife,
which sustain me.
I pledge to work for adaptation to,
and mitigation of Global Warming.
I pledge to remain devoted,
to the management of all Natural Resources,
With harmony between Ecology and Economics.
January-March 2014] LAND CAPABILITY CLASSIFICATION 3
Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 13(1): 1-9, January-March 2014

ISSN: 022-457X
Land capability classification and land resources

planning using remote sensing and GIS
A.K. PALI1, S. SURYAVANSHI2, B. L. SINHA3 and JITENDRA SINHA4
Received: 4 November 2013; Accepted: 29 January 2014
ABSTRACT
Land capability classification and land resources action plan were developed for Malegaon
watershed in the district of Nasik, Maharashtra; using remote sensing and GIS techniques. The
watershed comprises of 5th order drainage stream, having different soil series. Various thematic
maps including soil series, hydrogeomorphology and ground water potential, slope, land use
capability and land cover maps were generated. Based upon the land capability classification, land
resources development plan was formulated. The study revealed that the Malegaon watershed
comprises of III, IV, VI and VII land capability classes. About 21% area was found under class III,
41% under class IV, 34% under class VI and only 4% under class VII. Land resources development
plan map prepared by making unique combination of land capability map with the land use map
suggested that 4.3% area of the watershed was under intensive agriculture 10.3% for double cropping,
23% for horticulture, 25.2% for agro-horticulture and 18.6% for silvi-pasture. Besides this a total of
about 18.5% was planned for afforestation and fuel wood plantation and only 0.05% area was
considered for water bodies.
Key words: Malegaon, fluvial origin, Godavri catchment, Dissected plateau,
Hydrogeomorphology
INTRODUCTION four classes are considered suitable for cultivation

Land use and land cover is of dynamic nature depending on the degree of the risk involved, while
and needs proper monitoring for the sake of the last four classes are considered unsuitable for
optimum utilization of land resources (Farooq et crop cultivation.
al. 2008). In classifying land-use capability, answer Planning with conventional data base often
to these questions is first sought: Is the land suited becomes difficult by virtue of time required for
for the production of crops? Can it be cultivated collecting and collating data especially when it is
without controlling soil erosion? Is it safe and to be dealt with spatial data (Selvi, et al. 2008). The
permanent use limited to the production of use of remote sensing and geographic information
perennial vegetation? Land use and conservation system (GIS) can prove to be very effective and
of land are influenced by the nature of the soil, the rapid techniques to classify the land as per its land
degree to which it has been affected by erosion, capability potential. These techniques are the
the slope, the wetness of the soil or its doughtiness scientific tools to measure the various earth
and climate. Land capability classification is then resources maps and its potential. Using satellite
developed as a method to assess the extent of based remote sensing data, various resource maps
limitation such as erosion risk, soil depth, wetness can be generated and by the use of GIS, these maps
and climate that create problems in agricultural can be further analyzed to derive composite maps
activities for crop production. The objective of the with numerous information, which finally derives
classification is to recognize the land into a unit new maps like land capability and land suitability
with similar kinds and degree of limitations and maps.
potentials. The method recognizes the whole land The present study was conducted at Malegaon
into eight classes from class I to class VIII. The first watershed in district Nasik of Maharashtra with
1Professor, Soil and Water Engineering, F. A. E., Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, Chhattisgarh
2M.Tech., Soil & Water Engineering, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, Chhattisgarh
3 & 4Assistant Professor, Soil & Water Engineering, FAE, IGKV, Raipur, Chhattisgarh
3
4 PALI et al. [Journal of Soil & Water Conservation 13(1)
an objective of generating and interpreting the climate and receives an average annual rainfall of
various thematic maps of the watershed using 1100 mm. Heavier rainfall is experienced in the
remote sensing and GIS techniques and thereby western part the study area whereas it gradually
preparing land capability classification map for decreases towards the eastern part.
developing effective management plan.
Generation of thematic maps
MATERIALS AND METHODS Using both interactive digital and visual
techniques of remote sensing, various thematic
Physiography and climate of the study area maps of the watershed area were generated on
1:50,000 scale. The remote sensing satellite data of
The study area covered the Malegaon
IRS-1B (LISS-II) for three seasons viz. Nov. 1993,
watershed in Nasik district of Maharashtra, which
Jan. 1994 and May 1994 were obtained from
is located in south-western part of the district
Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres
(Fig. 1). The study area falls in Agro-climatic Zone
(RRSSCs), Nagpur. The ground truth data were
No. 6 and lies between 720 28’ to 730 37’ E longitude
collected and used for preparing thematic maps.
and 200 00’ to 200 05’ N latitude. The Malegaon
Base maps and derived maps were prepared using
watershed is physiographically divided into
the collateral and satellite data. The base maps were
alluvial plain, local valleys, undulating upland,
then converted into digital maps with the aid of
plateau plain, high plateaus and foothills followed
screen digitizer software.
by the hill slopes. The boundary map of the
Malegaon watershed is shown in Fig. 2. The area Reconnaissance soil mapping
comes under sub-tropical, semi-arid monsoon
Soil mapping of the study area was carried out
to study the characteristics, quality and classes of
different soils, their locations and spatial
distribution using IRS 1B (LISS-II) data. The soil
map was then prepared in the category of soil series
map based on soil depth, texture, slope, erosion
etc. The soil series were termed as Wadholi,
Mahirawani, Adgaon, Dhondegaon, Illunja,
Nasalgaon, Manoli, Talyachiwadi, Kotamgaon,
and Masrut. The existing soil series map of the
study area is shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 1. Location map of Malegaon watershed
Fig. 3. Reconnaissance soil family map
Hydrogeomorhology and groundwater potential map

The hydrogeomorphlogy and groundwater
potential map (Fig. 4) was prepared based on visual
interpretation of IRS 1 B (LISS-II) data of three years
and SOI topographic maps. The geomorphological
units were classified based on the origin of the
landforms and geological process acting upon it.
Fig. 2. Boundary of the Watershed Further, the units have been separated according
4
to relief altitude and structural information. The

geomorphology map was refined and updated
with the field investigation and was broadly
divided into three major units, namely structural
origin, denundation origin, and fluvial origin.
Fig. 6. Land capability class map
Fig. 4. Hydrogeomorphology and ground water potential

map
Slope and land capability/land cover map

The digitized contort information was used for
preparing the slope map in order to get the idea
about the topography of the land and its capability.
A slope map (Fig. 5) on 1:50,000 scales were
generated from DEM grid. In order to prepare the
accurate land capability map, it is necessary to Fig. 7 Land resource development plan map
study the physical characteristics of the soil, which
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The various thematic maps prepared and the
derived layers of action plan and land capability
maps were generated using computer programme.
The results are discussed below.
Drainage map
The base map contains drainage network
information and drainage orders. The highest
drainage order, which flows through the
watershed, was found to be of 5th order. It was also
observed that the drainage pattern was dendritic
Fig. 5. Slope map and flows from west to south-west direction as a
part of Godavari catchment (Fig. 8).
play an important role in land capability
classification (Murthy et al, 2000). The parameters
such as soil depth, texture, erosion, slope and
permeability were taken into account while
generating land capability map (Fig. 6). The
integration of various thematic maps and attribute
data, further manipulation for development of the
land resource action plan (Fig. 7) was carried out.
The action plan map was then prepared by
combining land capability map representing
various characteristics of the soil along with their
limitations with the land use/land cover map,
using GIS techniques. Fig. 8. Drainage network map
5
Land-use/land cover map Table 1. Area under different land use/land cover in
Malegaon watershed
The land use/land cover map (Fig. 9) was
classified in 9 classes (Table 1). It is evident that Land use/land cover Area (ha) Percentage
of total area
the total area of Malegaon watershed was about
5023 ha, out of which about 1761 ha was found Agricultural land: 1761.19 35.06
Crop land (Kharif)
under agricultural cropland in kharif season,
Agricultural land: Crop 216.35 4.31
covering about 35 per cent of the total geographical land (Kharif + rabi)
area of the watershed. Double cropped area (kharif Forest (deciduous + dense) 44.23 0.88
+ rabi) was about 4 per cent. Dense and open forest
Forest (deciduous + open) 343.62 6.84
was covered under less than 1 per cent and about
Forest (scrub forest) 217.18 4.33
7 per cent of the watershed area, respectively.
Forest (forest blank) 267.85 5.33
Forest blank and scrub forest were found to be in
Waste lands + land 2169.58 43.19
about 5 per cent and 4 per cent area, respectively. with scrub
Waste land and land with scrub was the highest, Water bodies 2.18 0.04
comprising of about 43 per cent of the total Others 0.82 0.02
watershed area. Water bodies covered only 4 per Total 5022.97 100.00
cent area of the watershed.
management of soil productivity and sustainable

production. The details of existing soil families
encountered in Malegaon watershed with their
coverage area have been presented in Table 2 and
locations and extent of these soil series are depicted
in Fig. 3. It was found that a combination of
Wadholi-Adgaon-Dhondegaon soil family was
found in an area of about 19 per cent of the total
watershed area. Combination of Mahirawani-
Nasalgaon soil family was found in about 27 per
cent area. Adgaon-Dhondegaon soil series was
encountered in about 2 per cent area, whereas
Dondegaon-Nasalgaon-Manoli soil family was
Fig. 9. Land use/ land cover map found in about 12 per cent of the watershed area.
The area under Illunja-Nasalgaon-Nandgaon soil
Reconnaissance soil family map series was found in about 24 per cent area.
Reconnaissance Soil Family map indicates Nasalgaon-Koptamgaon-Masrul soil family
variation in soil characteristics. Soils vary occurred in only about 0.5 per cent area of the
considerably in physical and morphological watershed and Illunja-Nandgaon soil family was
characteristics and thereby play important role in consisted of about 1 per cent area of the watershed.
Table 2. Existing soil families at the study area

Soil family Cultivability Area (ha) Percentage of total area
Fine loamy mixed isohyperthermic typic ustorthent Cultivable 961.30 19.14
Loamy skeletal mixed isohyperthermic typic ustorthent Cultivable 1356.37 27.00
Fine montmorillonitic isohyperthermic vertic ustorthent Cultivable 98.50 1.96
Fine montmorillonitic isohyperthermic typic ustorthent Cultivable 599.70 11.94
Loamy skeletal mixed isohyperthermic typic ustorthent Uncultivable 1261.92 24.23
Loamy skeletal mixed isohyperthermic typic ustorthent Cultivable 26.64 0.53
Fine montmorillonitic isohyperthermic vertic ustorthent Uncultivable 141.27 2.81
Fine loamy mixed isohyperthermic typic ustorthent Cultivable 76.04 1.51
Total 5022.97 100.00
6
The area under Tayachwadi-Rock was found in Slope map

about 3 per cent of the total area. Dondegaon- The slope categories found in the study area
Nasalgaon-Kotamgaon soil family was comprised are given in Table 4 and spread of these slope
of about 1.5 per cent area and Tayachwadi- categories is shown in Fig. 5. About 50 per cent of
Talegaon soil family was fond in little about less land is having slope less than 5 per cent, which is
than 10 per cent area of the total geographical area suitable for cultivation. For the topography having
of the watershed. slope of about 45 per cent, conservation practices
are necessary for cultivation purpose and on the
Hydrogeomorphology and groundwater potential map
remaining piece of land, different plantations
As regards hydrogeomorphology and should be undertaken. These inferences should
groundwater potential, it was found that most of then be integrated with the soil potential so as to
the dug wells and bore wells were tapping water generate land resource development plan.
from basaltic aquifer, characterized by weathered
material followed by fractured basalt. Table 4. Hydrogeomorphology and groundwater potential
Groundwater was found to be confined along at the study area
fractures, intertrapian beds, joints, vesicles and also
Hydrogeo- Groundwater Area Percentage
in weathered zone. Based on the geological, morphlogy potential (ha) of total area
geomorphological and ground truth data, Fluvial Excellent 353.62 7.04
quantitative assessment of groundwater potential origin VF
was also analyzed (Table 3). The unconsolidated Dissected Poor 792.82 15.78
materials deposited by fluvial activity, mapped as plateau - A
alluvial plains and valley fill are generally known Dissected Moderate 3876.53 77.18
for very good groundwater potential. These areas plateau - B
are recharged by streams and mostly groundwater Total 5022.97 100.00
movement is towards these areas (Das et al, 1997).
The area covered under this category was found
Land capability map
to be about 7 per cent of the total watershed area.
The dissected plateau- A is considered to be poor The land capability map as developed in the
groundwater potential areas, where the water is study is shown in Fig. 6 with different capability
very shallow. This kind of locations were found in classes delineated in the watershed area. The areas
northern most tract and in some portions of under different land capability classes of the study
southern most tract, as also indicated in Fig. 5. It is area are given in Table 5. The results indicated that
mostly occupied by barren land in the higher about 21 per cent and 41 per cent of the total
geographical area of the Malegaon watershed falls
Table 3. Soil series according to land capability class under Class-III and Class-IV classes, respectively
whereas about 34 per cent and 4 per cent area were
Land Capability Classes
under Class-VI and Class-VII categories
III IV VI VII
respectively, which are uncultivable. The land
Wadholi Mahirgaon Illunja Nandgaon
Adgaon Dhondegaon Masrul Talegaon
Kotamgaon Talyachwadi Table 5. Slope categories at the study area
Nasalgaon
Slope category Area) Percentage
(ha of total area
altitudes. The area covered under this category was Nearly level (< 1%) 1022.19 20.35
about 16 per cent of the total watershed area. Very gentle slope (1- 3%) 1047.23 20.85
Dissected plateau- B is considered as moderate Gentle slope (3 – 5%) 498.58 9.93
groundwater potential area due to shallow Moderate slope (5 – 10%) 1009.85 20.10
thickness of weathered zone, moderate recharge Strong slope (10 – 15%) 1251.20 24.90
and mostly in undulating terrain. It is mostly Moderately steep to steep 187.40 3.73
occupied by scrubland and agricultural land. The (15 – 35%)
area covered under this category was found to be Very steep slope (> 35%) 6.52 0.14
about 77 per cent of the total area (Fig. 4). Total 5022.97 100.00
7
capability map (Table 6) shows that the two soil horticulture, which comes to about 23 per cent of
series comes under the Class-III and Class-VI the watershed area. About 25 per cent area falling
whereas four soil series come under Class-IV and under class IV was recommended for agro-
three soil series under Class-VII (Table 6). horticulture. Most of the lands under current fallow
having moderate deep soil and moderate
Table 6. Area under different land capability classes at groundwater potential represented class IV
the study area
category. About 16.5 percent of the total watershed
Class Cultivability Area Percentage area was covered under afforestation with soil
(ha) of total area conservation measures in about 15 per cent. About
III Cultivable 1059.80 21.10 18.6 per cent area falling under land capability
IV Cultivable 2058.75 40.99 class-VI, was planned for silvi-pasture. The land
VI Uncultivable 1701.20 33.87 units (1.1 per cent of the watershed area) presently
VII Uncultivable 203.22 4.04 under fallow, barren and forest plantation with
Total 5022.97 100.00 land capability class-VII were recommended for
plantation of fuel wood/fast growing trees. This
Land resource development plan will serve as fuel stock as well as medicinal and
daily livelihood the people living in the watershed
The land resource development plan was
area. Depending upon the land topography, only
resultant of soils, hydrogeomorphology and slope
about 5 per cent of the total watershed area was
with the present land use categories. Based on the
suggested for water bodies.
capabilities of the composite units and other
determinants such as socio-economic conditions,
the appropriate land resource development plan CONCLUSIONS
was suggested (Table 7 and Fig 7). About 4.3 per The effective land resources development plan
cent area was considered for intensive agriculture needs to be prepared according to its land
under class III, which had fine textured soils with capability classes. These represent various
good groundwater potential and slopping between characteristics of the land alongwith extent of
1 to 3 per cent. About 10.3 per cent area was limitations for different land uses. It also gives an
suggested for double cropping, falling under the strategic idea for better management of the land
same land capability class. Thus in total, about 14.6 for maximizing the output from the watershed. The
per cent area was proposed solely for agriculture. use of Remote sensing and GIS techniques are very
Land falling under class VI and VII was considered effective for developing various thematic maps
for horticultural crops with some soil conservation such as land use/land cover, soil series,
practices as this may provide better economic hydrogeomorphology, slope drainage etc. with
yields besides protecting soil erosion. The existing greater accuracy. Since, the generated maps were
single kharif copped area under shallow soils with validated with the ground truth and base map, the
moderate groundwater potential, having slope remote sensing and GIS technique was found very
varying from 3 to 5 per cent was suggested for suitable for the watershed.
Table 7. Suggested land resources development plan for the study area
Suggested land use plan class Area (h) Percentage of
total area
Intensive agriculture III, IV, VI, VII 216.27 4.30
Double crop III 518.28 10.32
Horticulture with soil conservation VI, VII 1158.21 23.06
Agro-horticulture IV 1265.66 25.20
Conservation measures/forest protection Iv, VI, VII 44.23 0.88
Afforestation III, IV 73.71 1.47
Afforestation with soil conservation III, IV, VI, VII 755.35 15.04
Silvipasture VI 932.99 18.57
Plantation of fuel wood/fast growing trees VII 55.72 1.11
Water bodies - 2.55 0.05
Total 5022.97 100.00
8
REFERENCES District Rajouri: A Geo-Spatial Approach. Journal of

Soil and Water Conservation 7(4): 20-24.
Anonymous, 1996. Technical Reports on Preparation of Murthy, Y. V. N. K., Sinha, A. K., Jeyram, A. Shriniwas
Land Capability Maps for Nasik and Dhule Districts Rao S., Das, S. N., Pandit, D. S., Shrinivasan, D. S.
of Maharashtra, Regional Remote Sensing Service and Rajendar, C. K. 2000. Integrated Watershed
Centre, Nagpur. Developmental Planning Using Remote Sensing and
Das, S. Behra, S. C., Kar A., Narendra, P. and Guha, S., GIS, Souvenir of workshop on Space Technology for
1997. Hydrogeomorphological Mapping in Rural Development- NGOs Perspective, 18th April
Groundwater Exploration Using Remote Sensing 2000, Nagpur.
Data- A Case Study in Keonjher District, Orissa. Selvi, M.S., Kumar, S., Singh, D., Yadav, A.K., Kumar,
Photonivachak; J. Indian Soc. Remote Sensing, M., Saha, S.K., Laghate, P., Sharma, R.K., Meena, R.
25(4):247-260. L. and Das, S.N. 2008. Digital Microwatershed Atlas
Farooq, M., Rashid, G. and Arora, S. 2008. Spatio- – A Tool for Watershed Development Planning.
Temporal Change in Land Use and Land Cover of Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 7(4): 39-43.
9
10 DHABALE et al. [Journal of Soil & Water Conservation 13(1)

ISSN: 022-457X
Morphometric analysis of chanavada

micro-watershed using remote sensing and GIS
SUJATA DHABALE 1, P.K. SINGH 2 and R.S. SINGH 3
Received: 27 July 2013; Accepted: 10 January 2014
ABSTRACT
The present work is an attempt to carry out a detailed study of linear and shape morphometric
parameters in Chanavada micro-watersheds of Udaipur district Rajasthan covering an area of 1475
ha. Topographic maps of Survey of India on 1:50000 scale were utilized to delineate the drainage
system, thus to identify precisely water divides using Geographic Information System (GIS). It has
been found that in Chanavada micro-watershed 81 streams are belonging to different stream orders
with the highest order of 4 are existing. The study has shown that the Chanavada micro-watershed
is in conformity with the Horton’s law of stream numbers and stream lengths.
Key words: Hydrological diagnosis, Morphometric analysis, GIS and Geomorphological analysis
INTRODUCTION
The quantitative analysis of morphometric of the streams, etc. (Chorley 1969, Gregory and
parameters is of immense utility in river basin Walling 1973). Hence, morphometric analysis of a
evaluation, watershed prioritization for soil and watershed is an essential first step, toward basic
water conservation, and natural resources understanding of watershed dynamics. Watershed
management at micro level. Geology, relief, and prioritization is the ranking of different sub
climate are the key determinants of running water watersheds of a watershed according to the order
ecosystems functioning at the basin scale (Frissel in which they have to be taken for treatment and
et al., 1986). Morphometric descriptors represent soil conservation measures. Morphometric analysis
relatively simple approaches to describe basin could be used for prioritization of micro-
processes and to compare basin characteristics watersheds by studying different linear and aerial
(Mesa 2006) and enable an enhanced parameters of the watershed even without the
understanding of the geological and geomorphic availability of soil maps (Biswas et al., 1999).
history of a drainage basin (Strahler 1964). A Remote sensing and GIS are the most advanced
watershed is an ideal unit for management of tools for studies on prioritization of micro-
Natural resources like land and water and for watersheds for their development and
mitigation of the impact of natural disasters for management.
achieving sustainable development. The
morphometric assessment helps to elaborate a Study area
primary hydrological diagnosis in order to predict Chanavada micro-watershed is located in Girwa
approximate behavior of a watershed if correctly tahasil, of Udaipur district in Southern part of
coupled with geomorphology and geology (Esper Rajasthan. The project area lies between 24015’21"
2008). The hydrological response of a river basin to 24017’0.46" N latitude and 73035’39" to 73040’21"E
can be interrelated with the physiographic longitude. The total geographic area of micro
characteristics of the drainage basin, such as size, watershed is 1475 ha. It is at 40 km away from
shape, slope, drainage density and size, and length Udaipur city.
1&2 M.Tech, Department of Soil and Water Engineering, CTAE, MPUAT, Udaipur, Rajasthan
3Principal Scientist and Head, National Buerau of Soil Survey and land Use Planning, Udaipur, Rajasthan
10
January-March 2014] MORPHOMETRIC ANALYSIS 11
Fig.1: Location map of study area
MATERIALS AND METHODS features are the fundamental unit of analysis prior
The Study was carried out on watershed level to adopting any sophisticated tool to monitor the
utilizing SOI toposheets, (1961). All the streams watershed responses in connection to any of the
were digitized from Survey of India Toposheets, hydrologic processes acting on it. The parameters
1961 on 1:50,000 scale. The study was carried out can be conveniently worked out from the toposheet
in GIS environment. The GIS spatial database was using the capability of GIS tools. The dimensionless
composed of a number of thematic information on geomorphological parameters can be presented
topography, soil, vegetation etc. Topography, under different groups as shown in table 1.
drainage patterns and soil information were Table 1. Grouping of geomorphological parameters
scanned using HP design jet copies CC 800 PS
image scanner software. The scanned maps were Groups Geomorphological Parameters
then transferred into Arc INFO 9.1 and edited using Linear Aspects of Stream order, stream number,
Arc tools. These edited maps were used for further Drainage Network bifurcation ratio, stream length
and stream length ratio
analysis.
Areal Aspects Drainage density, form factor,
Geomorphological analysis of Watershed circulatory ratio and elongation
ratio
Geomorphological analysis is the systematic Relief Aspects of Relief ratio, relative relief,
description of watershed’s geometry and its stream Channel Network ruggedness number and
channel system to measure the (I) Linear aspects geometric number
of drainage network (II) Areal aspects of watershed
and (III) Relief aspects of channel network. The Strahler’s system of stream analysis is probably
morphological parameters directly or indirectly the simplest, most used system and same has been
reflect the entire watershed based causative factors adopted for this study. Each finger-tip channel is
affecting runoff and sediment loss. The surface designated as a segment of the first order. At the
11
junction of any two first-order segments , a channel computed using standard methods and formulae
of the second order is produced and extends down given in table 2.
to the point where it joins another second order For morphometric analysis, area, perimeter,
channel ,where upon a segment of third order maximum length, drainage map, stream length of
results. The various morphometric parameters each order, numbers of stream of each order and
such as area, perimeter, stream order, stream watershed relief values are required. These inputs
length, stream number, bifurcation ratio, drainage were derived by using GIS software. Once these
density, stream frequency, drainage texture, length inputs were obtained, then by making use of the
of basin, form factor, circulatory ratio, elongation mathematical formulae as discussed above, all the
ratio, length of overland flow, compactness necessary parameters for morphometric
coefficient, shape factor, texture ratio were characteristics of micro-watershed were computed.
Table 2. Formulae for the Computation of Morphometric Parameters
Sr. No. Parameter Symbol/Formula Description Reference

1. Stream Order Hierarchical Rank Horton (1945)
2. Bifurcation Ratio (Rb) Rb = Nu / Nu+1 Nu = No of streams of order u
Nu+1 = No of streams of order u+1
3. Stream Length Lu = Length of stream of order u
4. Stream Length Ratio (RL) Lu = Average length of stream of Horton (1945)

order u
Lu-1= Average length of stream of
order u-1
5. Area of the watershed (A)
6. Form Factor (Rf) Rf = A / Lb2 Lb = Length of basin
7. Basin Shape Factor (Sb) Sb = Lb2 / A Horton (1932)
8. Circulatory Ratio (Rc) AC = Area of circle having equal
perimeter as the perimeter of
watershed
P = Perimeter of watershed
9. Elongation Ratio (Re) DC = Diameter of circle with the Schumm (1956)
same area as the watershed
10. Drainage Density (Dd) K = Principal order =

highest order stream
11. Constant of Channel Schumm (1956)

Maintenance (C)
12. Stream Frequency (F) Ak = Basin area of principal
order (K)
13. Relief (H) (Elevation of basin
mouth) - (Elevation
of highest point on
the basin perimeter)
14. Relative relief (Rr) Rr = H/Lp×100 H = Watershed relief
Lp = Length of perimeter
15. Relief ratio (Rr) Rr = H/Lb Schumm (1956)
16. Ruggedness number (RN) RN = H×Dd
17. Geometric number G No. = H×Dd / Sg Sg = Slope of ground surface
18. Time of concentration (Tc) Tc = 0.0195 L0.77 S-0.385 L = Length of channel reach
S = Average slope of the
channel reach
12
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Characteristics Estimated value

Bifurcation Ratio (Rb)
Geomorphological analysis B.R.1 3.53
For the geomorphological analysis the B.R.2 5.67
measurement were made from the digitized B.R.3 3
drainage pattern and watershed boundary. Average 4.07
Watershed boundary and digitized drainage Stream length ratio (Lu-)
pattern is shown in Fig. 2. The values of different RL1 0.26
Geomorphological Parameters were calculated by RL2 0.33
using the methodology as discussed in Table 2. The RL3 2.58
calculated values are presented in the Table 3. Average 1.06
Areal aspects
Form factor (Rf) 0.30
Shape factor (Sb) 2.77
Circulatory ratio (Rc) 0.48
Elongation ratio (Re) 0.62
Drainage density (Dd) 6.19 km/Sq km.
Stream frequency (F) 0.042 per ha
Constant of channel maintenance (C) 0.16
Length of overland flow 0.08sq. km/km
Relief aspects
Relief 250 m
Relief ratio (Rr) 0.035
Fig. 2. Digitized drainage pattern of the study area Relative relief (RR) 1.265 %
Ruggedness number (NR) 1.548
Table 3. Morphological characteristics of the watershed Geometric number 11.06
under study Time of Concentration (Tc) 43.08 min
Characteristics Estimated value
Linear aspects Stream analysis
Area 1475 ha
Stream analysis consisted of grouping of stream
Perimeter 19755 m
segment in different orders, measuring stream
Length of basin (aerial) 6970 m
lengths, calculating cumulative stream length and
Maximum length of basin 13555 m
calculating mean stream lengths.
(Sinusoidal)
Highest elevation on watershed 680 m Relation between stream number and stream order
perimeter
According to the Horton’s law, the plot of
Lowest elevation at mouth of 430 m
watershed logarithm of stream number (ordinate) as a
No. of stream order function of stream order (abscissa) should yield a
I 60 set of points lying along a straight line. For the
II 17
III 3
IV 1
Stream length (Lu)
I 39270 m
II 10093 m
III 3361.93 m
IV 8673.05m
Average stream length
I 654.50m
II 593.71m
III 1120.64 m
Fig. 3. Regression of logarithm of number of streams and
IV 8673.05m stream order
13
present study, this graph was plotted for the higher order. This confirms the property of the
watershed. The graph is presented in the Fig 3. The stream order number and their corresponding
graph shows a straight line, satisfying the Horton’s length. The other important property bifurcation
law (Kumar et al., 2001). From the Fig. 3, it is ratio (R b ) reflecting geological and tectonic
evident that the correlation coefficient for the characteristics of the watershed estimated as 4.07
straight line fit for the watershed is 0.993, which is for the watershed which confirms the research of
quite satisfactory. Horton (1945). The value indicates that the
watershed has suffered less structural disturbance
Relation between cumulative stream length and stream and the drainage pattern has not been distorted
order by structural disturbance (Nag and Chakroborty,
In the present study, an attempt has been made 2003). The average stream length ratio estimated
to establish the relation between the stream order is 1.06 and RL1 , RL2- and RL3 are close to each
and the cumulative stream length. The plot of other which confirms the property that length ratio
logarithm of cumulative stream length along tends to be constant throughout the successive
ordinate and stream order along abscissa for the orders of steam segments in the watershed.
watershed is a straight line fit as shown in Fig. 4.
The straight line fit indicates that the ratio between Areal aspects of watershed
cumulative stream lengths is constant throughout Under this aspect, the study gives the
the successive order of a basin and suggests that description of arrangement of area element mainly
geometrical similarity is preserved in basins of watershed shape which affects stream flow
increasing order (Kumar et al., 2001 and Gupta, hydrographs and peak flow. The important
2003). From the Fig. 4, it is evident that the parameters that describe the shape of the
correlation coefficient for the straight line fit for watershed viz. form factor, circulatory ratio and
the watershed is 0.955, which is quite satisfactory. elongation ratio were computed. Referring Table
4.1, it shows that the value of form factor (Rf),
circulatory ratio (Rc) and elongation ratio (Re) are
0.30, 0.48 and 0.62 respectively. The high value of
Re compare to Rc indicates that the watershed is
approaching towards the elongated shape (Singh
et al., 2003). In this case elongated watershed with
low Rf indicates that the watershed will have a
flatter peak of flow for longer duration. Flood flow
of such elongated watershed is easier to manage
than from the circular watershed (Pandey et al.,
2004).
Drainage density (Dd) and stream frequency are
Fig. 4. Regression of logarithm of cumulative streams other important characteristics of watershed. The
length and stream order drainage density of watershed is 6.19 km/sq km
indicates the closeness of spacing of channels, thus
Linear aspects of drainage network providing a quantitative measure of the average
It refers to the analysis of stream order, stream length of stream channel for the whole watershed.
number, bifurcation ratio and stream length ratio. Further, it gives an idea about the physiographical
After analysis it was found that the watershed is properties of the underlying soils. Low value of
of 4th order type and drainage pattern is dendrite Dd indicated that the region is having permeable
(Mittal, 2002). The numbers of stream of 1st, 2nd, subsoil material under vegetative cover and
3rd and 4th order are 60, 17, 3 and 1 respectively watershed relief is low (Strahler, 1964). The value
and their corresponding lengths are 39270 m, 10093 of stream frequency is 0.042 per ha. Further, related
m, 3361.93 m, 8673.05 m respectively. However, in to D d another morphological characteristics
general, the mean length of the stream of the property of drainage basin is constant of channel
particular order increases with the increase in the maintenance which was found to be 0.16 sq km/
order of stream which means the mean length of a km for the study area. It indicates the number of
stream of a given order is greater than that of square meters of basin surface required to maintain
immediate lower order but less than that of the next one linear meter of channel.
14
Relief aspects of channel network Chorley, R.J., 1969. Introduction to Fluvial Processes.
Bungay, UK: Methuen & Co Ltd.
This refers to the analysis of relief aspects of
Esper, A. M. Y., 2008. Morphometric Analysis of
drainage basin and channel networks. Estimated
Colanguil River Basin and Flash Flood Hazard,
value of relief is 250 m, based on which relief ratio SanJuan, Argentina Environmental Geology, 55, 107-
(Rr) and relative relief (RR) were found to be 0.035 111.
and 1.265 respectively. This is an indication of Frissel, C.A., Liss, W.J., Warren, C.E., Hurley, M.D, 1986.
erosion and reflects that the watershed be treated A Hierarchical Framework for Stream Habitat
with soil and water conservation measures. Classification-Viewing Streams in a Watershed
Addition to these properties ruggedness number Context. Environment Management, 10, 199-214.
and geometric number were computed and values Gregory, K.J and Walling, D.E (1973). Drainage Basin
are 1.548 and 11.06 respectively. With low value of Form and Process- a Geomorphological Approach.
London: Edward Arnold.
ruggedness number it is evident that watershed is
Gupta, A. K., 2003. Digital delineation and
having steep slope. Also time of concentration for geomophometry for prioritization of watershed: A
watershed was computed and value is 43.08 min. RS and GIS based approach. M. E. (Ag.) thesis,
CTAE, MPUAT, Udaipur.
CONCLUSIONS Horton, R. E., 1932. Drainage Basin Characteristics.
Trans. American Geophysiacal Union, Vol. 3, pp.
The present study demonstrates the usefulness
350-361.
of GIS for morphometric analysis of Chanavada Horton, R.E, 1945. Erosional Development of Streams and
micro-watershed. The study has shown that the their Drainage Basins: A Hydrophysical Juan,
Chanavada microwatershed is in conformity with Argentina Environmental Geology, 55, 107-111.
the Horton’s law of stream numbers and stream Kumar, R., A.K. Lohani, S. Kumar, C. Chatterjee and
lengths. The graph between logarithm of stream R.K. Nema (2001). GIS based morphometric analysis
number and stream order confirms the validity of of Ajay river basin upto Sarath gauging site of South
the Horton’s law. The low value of bifurcation ratio Bihar. Journal of Applied Hydrology. 15(4):45-54.
(4.07) revealed that the drainage pattern has not Mesa, L. M, 2006. Morphometric Analysis of a
Subtropical Andean basin (Tucuman, Argentina).
been distorted by structural disturbance. High
Environmental Geology, 50, 1235-1242.
value of elongation ratio (0.62) compare to Mittal, H.K. 2002. An evaluatory study on
circulatory ratio (0.48) indicates elongated shape morphological characteristics and groundwater
of the watershed. Low value of drainage density status in selected treated watersheds. Unpublished
(6.19 km/Sq km) shows that the region is having Ph.D thesis, SWE Deptt., CTAE, MPUAT, Udaipur.
permeable subsoil material under vegetative cover Nag, S. K. and S. Chakroborty, 2003. Influence of rock
and watershed relief is low. Relief ratio (0.035) and types and structures in the development of drainage
relative relief (1.265%) reflects that the watershed networks in hard rock area. Journal of Indian Society
be treated with soil and water conservation of Remote Sensing, 31(1):25-35.
measures. Morphometric analysis indicates the fact Pandey, A., V. M. Chowdary and B. C. Mal, 2004.
Morphological analysis and watershed management
that watershed under study is elongated shape
using GIS. Hydrology Journal. 27 (3-4):71-84.
with steep slope. The value found for various Schumm, S.A., 1956. “Evaluation of Drainage Systems
morphological characteristics also reveals that and Slopes in Bad Lands at Parth Ambo, New
watershed is under fairly good vegetation with Jersey”, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 67, pp. 597-646.
permeable subsoil material. Singh, R. K., C. M. Bhatt and V. Hari Prasad, 2003.
Morphological study of a watershed using remote
sensing and GIS techniques. Hydrology Journal.
REFERENCES
26(1-2):55-66.
Biswas, S., Sudhakar S., V. R. Desai, 1999. Prioritization Strahler, A. N., 1964. Quantitative geomorphology of
of sub watersheds based on morphometric analysis drainge basins and channel networks. Section 4-11
of drainage basin - A remote sensing and GIS in Handbook of Applied Hydrology (ed. by V. T.
approach. J. Indian Soc. Rem. Sens., 27(3): 155–166. Chow), Mc Graw Hill, New York.
15
16 SHARMA et al. [Journal of Soil & Water Conservation 13(1)

ISSN: 022-457X
Use of high RSC water for sustainable

crop production under sprinkler irrigation system
in Thar desert of Rajasthan
YOGESH SHARMA1, A.K. SINGH2, N.K. PAREEK3 and B.L. VERMA4
Received: 17 August 2013; Accepted: 19 January 2014
ABSTRACT
Management of poor quality water in ‘Thar desert’ of Rajasthan is a major concern to increase the
area and production of crops in this region. A field experiment was conducted at farmer’s field
having high RSC water (10.2 me l-1) to evaluate the effect of partially neutralized irrigation water
on pearl millet-wheat crop rotation in sandy soils of arid regions of Rajasthan. High RSC water
was treated through gypsum tank before lifting for irrigation through sprinklers. Gypsum as per
GR was added in soil before starting of experiment. Gypsum @ equivalent to 5.0 me/l RSC
neutralization of each irrigation along with FYM @ 10 ton/ha was added in soil before sowing.
Yield parameters (plant height, test weight and ear length) and seed and straw yields of both crops
were increased with the application of gypsum @ equivalent to 5.0 me/l RSC neutralization of each
irrigation along with FYM @ 10 t/ha with treated water (2.0-2.2 me/l RSC neutralization through
gypsum tank). Addition of gypsum and organic matter decreased the pH and ESP of soil.
Key words: RSC neutralization, Gypsum tank, Wheat, Pearl millet, Sprinkler irrigation
INTRODUCTION In ‘Thar’ desert of western Rajasthan soils are

Thar desert extends in Punjab, Haryana, sandy having high infiltration rate and topography
Rajasthan and Gujarat states of India with 650 km is undulating thereby, limiting the use of flood
in length and 160 km in width. 62 per cent of its irrigation system efficiently. Through sprinklers
area comes in Rajasthan and lies west to Aravalis. problem of application of irrigation in these areas
It covers 58 per cent area and 40 per cent population could be met out with regulated amount of water
of Rajasthan with 12 major districts. 4 to 6 km long as per crop need. Ground water is being used for
and 8 to 35 m high sand dunes are main features irrigation through sprinklers at many places in such
of this region. It is mainly characterized by sandy areas has higher amounts of residual sodium
soils, undulated topography, high percolation carbonate. Due to high temperatures and high
rates, low moisture and nutrient retentive capacity wind velocity in the desert, irrigation with these
of soils, extreme of temperature (lowest in winter poor quality saline and alkali waters with sprinkler
and highest in summer) with low RH and annual irrigation causes scorching of leaves particularly
rainfall. Ground water which is very deep and of in day times. In uncommand area of western
poor quality is the only source of irrigation in these Rajasthan with the availability of electricity more
areas. With the availability of electricity more and and more tube wells are being dug for last one
more tube wells are being installed/dug in western decade by the farmers to irrigate the crops.
Rajasthan for last one decade by the farmers to However, the water table in these areas is very deep
irrigate the crops. However, the water table in these and the quality is also poor. Jaisalmer, Nagaur,
areas is very deep and the quality is also poor. In Sikar and Jhunjhunu districts have high residual
Bikaner, Jaisalmer and three tehsils of Churu alkalinity waters. In Bikaner district 16.1% waters
district (Agro-climate zone 1c) the high RSC waters have RSC > 2.5 me/l, whereas in Jaisalmer,
covers an area of 28.1%. Fatehgarh and Pokran tehsils of Jaisalmer district
1Professor, 2-4Assistant
Professor, AICRP on Management of Salt affected Soils & Use of Saline Water in Agriculture,
ARS, RAU, Bikaner-334006; E-mail: yogesh_sharma_2004 @ yahoo.com
16
January-March 2014] USE OF HIGH RSC WATER 17
the high RSC water is 42.9%, 36.2% and 14.1%, in large areas. Therefore, it is the cheapest source
respectively. Likewise in Sardar shahar, Sujangarh of soil amendment for alkali soils in the region. The
and Ratangarh tehsil of Churu district the high RSC Government is also providing subsidy on
water is 46.2%, 11.7% and 34.7%, respectively. In transportation of gypsum to the farmer’s fields.
Nagaur district 31.8% water samples showed RSC Properties of sodic soils are dominated by excessive
> 2.5 me/l, whereas in Fatehpur tehsil of Sikar district exchangeable Na. Ca from gypsum replace
98% waters have RSC >2.5me/l (Lal et al., 1998, Verma exchangeable Na. It decreases pH of sodic soils,
et al., 2003). Areas of north-eastern and southern parts reduces soil crusting, improves water infiltration
of Rajasthan (Jaipur, Kota, Udaipur where rainfall is and percolation. It is a salt to maintain electrolyte
> 500 mm) also have residual alkalinity in the ground concentration at soil surface, thereby, reduces clay
waters in significant amounts. In Punjab bicarbonate dispersion and swelling. It is a source of Ca and S
waters having high residual alkalinity cover nearly for plant nutrition. Its solubility is 2.5g/l, hence,
25% of the total area of the state and pose a serious contributes to ionic strength of soil solution.
threat to sustained agricultural production (Handa, The gypsum requirement for neutralizing
1983 and Sehgal et al.; 1985). residual alkalinity in sodic water is of recurring
High RSC water irrigation leads to development nature and is determined by factors such as current
of high ESP and high pH, which in turn adversely level of soil deterioration, cropping intensity and
affect soil structure, water and air movement the water requirement of the crops to be grown.
through soil. The magnitude of adverse effects is The quantity of gypsum for neutralization of each
variable depending on the magnitude of RSC in me/l of RSC is 86 kg /ha for 10 cm depth of
irrigation water, the mean annual rainfall and irrigation. The gypsum available for agricultural
texture of soils. Irrigation with water containing use is 70-80% pure. Application of gypsum as per
more than 2.5 me/l RSC is considered hazardous GR and RSC neutralization of water has also been
(Eaton 1950; Wilcox et al. 1954). In arid region of suggested by Sharma and Mandal (1982), Minhas
Rajasthan (200-500 mm rainfall) irrigation with et al. (1995) and Tripathi and Sharma (1995).
water containing more than 5 me/l RSC has been Gypsum can be used for mixing in the soil directly
found hazardous. Irrigation with RSC water causes in the powdered form before applying high RSC
sodic conditions in soil. This leads to adverse waters. Even application of gypsum lumps in
physico - chemical properties of soils, poor plant gypsum beds/tanks are found useful in reducing
growth and crop yields. High carbonate and the harmful effects of these waters. Addition of
bicarbonate concentration in irrigation water leads gypsum in conjunction with organic materials is
to precipitation of calcium and magnesium as more effective in reducing the adverse effect of RSC
carbonate and bicarbonate in the soil solution. This of water. The increased partial pressure of CO2 and
results in loss of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions and in increase organic acid produced due to addition of organic
of Na+ ion on the exchange complex. These soils materials mobilize Ca from soil minerals. Applied
become highly sodic. As a result of irrigation with organic matter had a preference for divalent cations
sodic water the soils acquire unusual hardness. than the naturally present organic matter in soils
Even the loamy sand soils, which are otherwise (Poonia et al., 1980). However, addition of organic
quite friable and loose, become very hard and manure to soils may get deteriorated through the
compact. The soil clod attains close packing leaving use of sodic waters, as organic materials are also
little porosity for air and moisture movement. known to increase the dispersion of soil particles
Penetration of plant roots is equally difficult. The at high pH (Gupta et al., 1984). Therefore the
water infiltration rate is greatly reduced. Water addition of organic materials for use of sodic water
applied through irrigation or received as rainfall should better be preceded by gypsum application.
remains ponded on the surface (Joshi and Dhir, 1989). While selecting crops for soils undergoing
Under such situations, specific management sodication irrigation water requirement is as
practices have to be developed, for sustaining soil important as sodicity of irrigation water (Gupta
productivity. To offset the harmful effects of sodic and Abrol, 1990). The efficient strategy should aim
waters on physical and chemical properties of soil at selecting a crop with low water requirement for
and crop yields, application of calcium-containing rabi and a crop that can thrive on rain water for
amendment such as gypsum is commonly kharif. Pearl millet and wheat are the staple food
recommended (Puntamkar et al., 1972, Bajwa et al., crops in the area and are also considered tolerant
1983 Ayers and Westcot, 1985). In western to irrigation with alkali water. Irrigation with
Rajasthan huge natural gypsum deposits are found waters having RSC of 10 me/l can be practiced
17
annually for wheat crop on sandy loam soils, for pearl millet and wheat were 3 and 7,
provided the SAR is low and field was kept fallow respectively. Recommended agronomical practices
during monsoon season which received 500-550 were followed to raise both the crops.
mm rainfall (Gupta, 1980). This rainfall prevented
sodicity build-up in soil to a level that could Treatment evaluation
adversely affect the wheat yields, which is quite The treatments of the experiment were
tolerant to sodicity (Ayers and Westcot, 1985). evaluated by recording yield attributes and grain
Therefore, the present study was undertaken to and straw yields and soil analysis. Five plants
evaluate the effect of high RSC water through selected and tagged randomly at harvest from each
sprinkler irrigation and effect of amendments on plot. Plant height and ear length were recorded
yield of wheat and pearl millet crops. from these plants and were averaged to express as
plant height (cm) and ear length (cm) at harvest in
MATERIALS AND METHODS both the crops. A random sample was drawn from
the produce of each plot, 1000 seeds were counted,
Due to non availability of high RSC water at
weighed and expressed as test weight in both the
research farm, instead of conducting experiment
crops. After harvesting, weight of sun-dried grains
on artificial sodic water making through added
and straw collected from each plot was recorded
salts, it was decided to conduct the experiment with
and the same was converted to express in grain
natural alkali water at farmer’s field. Therefore, the
and straw yield in q ha-1.
experiment was conducted at farmer’s field in
Dheerdesar village of Bikaner district during 2006- Soil analysis
09. Soil of the experimental site was sodic (pH2 9.4, A composite soil sample was taken from the
EC2 0.25 dSm-1 and ESP 29.2) because of high RSC experimental field before starting of experiment
water of existing tube well (pH 8.8 EC 1.44 dSm-1 and analyzed for EC 2 , pH 2 and ESP. After
and RSC 10.2 me l-1) at farmer’s field. harvesting of the experimental crops, soil samples
Design and layout of the experiment were collected from 0-15 cm soil depth from
different treatments and analyzed as per methods
Treatments comprised of two types of RSC
outlined by Richards (1954).
water (W1 - untreated water and W2 - partially
neutralized water) and four levels of amendments Statistical analysis
(S1 - No organic manure, S2 - Organic manure @ 10 The significance of treatment effect was tested
tha-1., S 3 - Gypsum equivalent to 5 me l -1 RSC with the help of ‘F’ test and the difference between
neutralization and S4 = S2 +S3). treatments by critical difference (CD) at 5% level
The water was passed through a gypsum tank of probability as per the procedure given by Panse
kept in the water reservoir (diggi) to neutralize the and Sukhatme (1967). Microsoft Excel 2000 was
RSC of water. After passing through gypsum tank used in statistical processing of the data. The least
only 2.0 to 2.2 me l -1 RSC of water could be significant difference was calculated (p=0.05).
neutralized due to high discharge of tube well. For
remaining RSC (8.0 me l-1) in water the gypsum
was incorporated in the soil before sowing as per
treatments. The quantity of pure gypsum for It is evident from the data presented in table 1
neutralization of each me/l of RSC is 86 kg ha-1 for & 2 that RSC neutralization of water through
10 cm depth of irrigation. Therefore, the amount gypsum tank and application of gypsum and FYM
of agricultural grade gypsum (about 70% pure) for in soil significantly increased the grain and straw
each me/l RSC neutralization for each irrigation yield of both the crops wheat and pearl millet.
of 6.0 cm under sprinkler irrigation is 73.7 kg ha-1. Maximum grain and straw yield of pearl millet 19.2
FYM was also incorporated as per treatments. and 43.1 q/ha and of wheat 31.7 and 43.1 q/ha,
Before starting the experiment gypsum as per 50% respectively was recorded with the addition of
GR was also incorporated in the experimental field FYM @ 10 t/ha along with soil application of
to neutralize the initial sodicity of the soil. Pearl gypsum @ 5.0 me/l RSC neutralization irrigated
millet and wheat crops were sown in fixed plots with treated water (RSC 8.0 me/l). There was an
during kharif (Rainfall) and rabi (Winter) seasons, increase of 54.06 and 39.03 percent in yields of pearl
respectively, in randomized block design with millet and wheat, respectively, in W2S4 treatment
three replication. Depth of irrigation for both the over control. Data on yield attributes of wheat and
crops was 6.0 cm and total number of irrigations pearl millet also indicated maximum plant height,
18
Table 1. Effect of RSC neutralization of water and soil amendments on yield of pearl millet
Treatment Grain yield (q/ha) Stover Yield (q/ha)
2006 2007 2008 Mean 2006 2007 2008 Mean
W1S1 11.1 14.9 12.1 12.7 24.6 31.8 25.0 27.1
W1S2 12.6 16.6 13.3 14.2 27.0 35.3 28.2 30.2
W1S3 15.8 19.9 15.9 17.2 31.3 43.1 32.6 35.7
W1S4 16.5 21.5 17.0 18.3 35.1 45.8 38.4 39.8
W2S1 12.6 16.2 13.3 14.0 28.2 32.7 30.8 30.6
W2S2 14.2 17.9 14.2 15.4 31.8 35.7 33.6 33.0
W2S3 16.0 20.6 16.7 17.8 36.0 45.1 41.3 40.8
W2S4 17.6 22.2 18.0 19.2 37.9 48.5 42.8 43.1
S.Em 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.6 1.2 1.5 1.3 1.3
CD (5%) 1.8 2.2 2.1 2.0 3.7 4.5 3.8 4.0
Table 2. Effect of RSC water and soil amendments on yield attributes of pearl millet
Treatment Plant height (cm) Test weight (g) Ear length (cm)
2006 2007 2008 Mean 2006 2007 2008 Mean 2006 2007 2008 Mean
W1S1 95.9 134.4 98.3 109.5 4.27 7.59 6.98 6.28 25.0 18.4 17.6 20.3
W1S2 105.2 140.5 105.7 117.1 4.83 7.77 7.19 6.59 29.0 23.4 20.3 24.2
W1S3 122.2 148.1 133.0 134.4 5.27 8.02 7.35 6.88 32.0 28.3 25.3 28.5
W1S4 126.5 152.1 143.0 140.5 5.54 8.24 7.48 7.08 33.0 31.8 28.7 31.2
W2S1 110.0 151.7 112.1 124.9 4.76 7.75 7.03 6.50 27.8 24.8 19.4 24.0
W2S2 124.0 156.4 122.0 134.1 5.01 7.93 7.21 6.71 31.2 28.2 22.1 27.2
W2S3 118.6 163.7 135.0 139.1 5.25 8.49 7.61 7.01 35.1 33.9 28.1 32.4
W2S4 136.6 167.8 144.3 149.6 5.42 8.49 7.81 7.24 35.7 36.2 29.3 33.7
S.Em 4.6 5.0 2.6 4.06 0.24 0.19 0.08 1.1 1.5 0.8
CD (5%) 13.9 15.0 7.9 12.3 0.71 0.57 0.23 3.2 4.5 2.3
ear length and test weight in treatment W2S4 (Table grain yields of pearl millet and mustard and there
3 & 4). These results are corroborated with was no further improvement in yield when
Singhania et al. (1991) where superior wheat and gypsum was added @ 100% GR. They further
pearl millet yields were recorded with gypsum reported that pearl millet and mustard can tolerate
applied @ 50% GR as compared to control whereas RSC up to 4.0 me/l. Gupta (1980) reported that
crops did not respond to the application of FYM irrigation with waters having RSC of 10 me/l can
alone @ 25 t/ha. In an another trial a significant be practiced annually for wheat crop on sandy
increase in wheat yield was recorded with gypsum loam soils, provided the SAR is low and field was
application alone or in combination with FYM on kept fallow during monsoon season which received
a soil irrigated with alkali water (EC 1.95 dS/m, 500-550 mm rainfall. This rainfall prevented
RSC 13 me/l and SAR 19.0). That called for the sodicity build-up in soil to a level that could
addition of gypsum on recurring basis. Sharma and adversely affect the wheat yields, which is quite
Manchanda (1989) also reported higher yields of tolerant to sodicity (Ayers and Westcot, 1985). Use
pearl millet and sorghum in presence of gypsum of sodic waters in both seasons, on the contrary,
and FYM with sodic water. Manchanda et al. (1982) leads to faster deterioration of soils. However 15
recommended that water containing 4.5 to 13.8 and 25 percent decline in wheat yields was
me/l RSC could be used on a loamy sand soil for observed when irrigated with waters having RSC
growing tolerant crops like wheat and barley in 15 and 20 me/l, respectively. The reduction in the
areas receiving 400 mm rainfall. In an experiment crop yield was mainly due to reduced no. of tillers.
at Agra, responses of wheat to neutralization of When a soil receives sodic irrigation it
RSC up to 5 me/l with gypsum was reported by experiences reduced infiltration, resulting in salt
Chauhan et al. (1988). Verma et al. (2003) observed and Na saturation in the upper layer. This along
that addition of gypsum to soil @ 50%GR increased with evaporation leaves salt concentrated in the
19
surface. Since in the initial stages of plant growth water table in these areas is very deep and the
the root zone is limited to a few centimeters below quality is also poor. In Bikaner district 16.1% waters
the surface, germination and early seedling have RSC > 2.5 me/l, whereas in Jaisalmer,
establishment are the most critical stages for most Fatehgarh and Pokran tehsils of Jaisalmer district
of crops for sodic irrigation. The other critical the high RSC water is 42.9%, 36.2% and 14.1%,
period is during change from vegetative to respectively. Likewise in Sardar shahar, Sujangarh
reproductive phase. The general tolerance of crop and Ratangarh tehsil of Churu district the high RSC
to salinity or sodicity increases with its age. water is 46.2%, 11.7% and 34.7%, respectively. In
(Minhas and Gupta, 1992). agroclimatic zone 1c covering Bikaner, Jaisalmer
Addition of organic matter and gypsum and three tehsils of Churu district the high RSC
decreased the pH and ESP of soil from 9.44 to 8.93 waters covers an area of 28.1%.
and 29.2 to 18.5, respectively. After harvesting of Due to undulated topography and high
second wheat crop in general pH and ESP of soil infiltration rate in sandy desert soils the only
started increasing from 8.93 to 9.22 and 18.5 to 24.2, efficient method of irrigation is the sprinkler
respectively and thereafter in third year there was irrigation system. Further, due to high
again increase in the pH and ESP of soil to 9.38 temperatures and high wind velocity in the desert,
and 29.2, respectively might be due to the irrigation with these poor quality saline and alkali
remaining 3.0 me/l RSC in irrigation water in both waters under sprinkler irrigation causes scorching
the crops (Fig. 1 & 2). Similar variation in pH and of leaves particularly in day times.
ESP due to gypsum application was also observed High RSC water is characterized by low total
by Singhania et al. (1991) and Verma et al. (2003). salts concentration. The relative proportion of
In un command area of western Rajasthan with calcium and magnesium is much smaller as
the availability of electricity more and more tube compared to sodium. Such waters have carbonates
wells are being installed/dug for last one decade and bicarbonates predominant anions. The
by the farmers to irrigate the crops. However, the prolonged use of such water immobilizes soluble
calcium and magnesium in soil by precipitating
them as carbonates, consequently the concentration
of sodium in soil solution and exchangeable
complex increases and leads to development of
alkali or sodic condition. The magnitude of adverse
effect is variable depending upon the content of
RSC in irrigation water, soil texture, calcium
carbonate and calcium sulphate in the soil, SAR of
water, source of RSC and effect of leaching and
mean annual rainfall. High sodicity in soil induced
by irrigation with alkali water reduced soil water
availability to plants, not for osmotic reasons but
due to lack of infiltration of water into the root
zone. Additionally, high pH leads to reduction in
Fig. 1. Effect of RSC neutralization and soil amendments
on pH of soil
availability of micro-nutrients and some macro
nutrients viz. Calcium and potassium. Irrigation
with water containing more than 2.5 mel-1 RSC is
considered hazardous.
Role of sypsum in reclaiming RSC of water & sodicity

of soil
Properties of sodic soils are dominated by
excessive exchangeable Na. Ca from gypsum
replace exchangeable Na. It decreases pH of sodic
soils, reduces soil crusting, improves water
infiltration and percolation. It is a salt to maintain
electrolyte concentration at soil surface, thereby,
Fig. 2. Effect of RSC neutralization and soil amendments
reduces clay dispersion and swelling. It is a
on ESP of soil source of Ca and S for plant nutrition. Its solubility
20
Table 3. Effect of RSC neutralization of water and soil amendments on yield of wheat
Treatment Grain yield (q/ha) Straw Yield (q/ha)
2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 Mean 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 Mean
W1S1 20.4 23.2 24.8 22.8 29.3 31.6 32.8 31.2
W1S2 23.7 25.9 27.6 25.7 33.1 34.4 36.6 34.7
W1S3 26.8 29.0 29.0 28.3 36.1 37.1 38.0 37.1
W1S4 29.1 30.6 30.2 29.9 38.0 38.8 40.8 39.2
W2S1 22.6 24.4 25.2 24.1 31.3 34.5 34.0 33.2
W2S2 25.4 27.8 28.6 27.3 34.4 36.4 35.8 35.5
W2S3 28.5 30.2 30.7 29.8 37.2 41.5 41.8 40.2
W2S4 30.9 32.6 31.8 31.7 41.1 44.7 43.7 43.1
S.Em 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.9 1.6 1.1 1.3 1.3
CD (5%) 2.9 2.9 2.6 2.8 5.0 3.3 4.0 4.1
Table 4. Effect of RSC water and soil amendments on yield attributes of wheat
Treatment Plant height (cm) Test weight (g) Ear length (cm)
2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 Mean 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 Mean 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 Mean
W 1S1 55.8 70.6 72.0 66.1 33.13 33.87 35.3 34.1 6.3 7.5 8.0 7.3
W 1S2 58.8 74.9 76.0 69.9 36.60 36.62 37.4 36.9 6.9 8.1 8.1 7.7
W 1S3 60.1 80.2 79.6 73.3 38.03 38.75 38.8 38.5 7.0 8.3 8.6 8.0
W 1S4 64.2 82.8 81.8 76.3 39.20 39.94 40.8 40.0 7.5 8.7 8.7 8.3
W 2S1 59.7 74.7 74.0 69.4 35.80 35.97 36.3 36.0 6.8 8.0 8.2 7.7
W 2S2 62.4 78.2 78.1 72.9 38.50 38.63 38.1 38.4 7.3 8.4 8.6 8.1
W 2S3 67.0 85.3 86.2 79.5 39.60 40.07 41.5 40.4 7.6 8.9 9.1 8.5
W 2S4 70.2 89.8 87.8 82.6 39.80 40.34 42.0 40.78 7.6 9.1 9.4 8.7
S.Em 2.4 2.2 2.41 1.26 1.00 1.16 0.4 0.3 0.27
CD (5%) 7.3 6.7 7.30 3.83 3.02 3.53 1.1 0.8 0.83
Neutralization of RSC water through gypsum tank for sprinkler irrigation
Poor pearl millet crop with high RSC water Good pearl millet crop with neutralized RSC water
21
Table 5. Chemical characteristics of soil after harvest
Treatments Pearl millet Wheat Pearl millet Wheat Pearl millet Wheat
pH2 EC2 pH2 EC2 pH2 EC2 pH2 EC2 pH2 EC2 pH2 EC2
(dS/m) (dS/m) (dS/m) (dS/m) (dS/m) (dS/m)
W 1S1 9.44 0.24 9.30 0.17 9.44 0.18 9.42 0.22 9.45 0.14 9.46 0.26
W 1S2 9.37 0.25 9.26 0.18 9.41 0.20 9.40 0.24 9.45 0.14 9.45 0.24
W 1S3 9.17 0.31 9.08 0.21 9.01 0.20 9.35 0.25 9.36 0.18 9.41 0.23
W 1S4 9.09 0.30 8.99 0.22 8.92 0.20 9.29 0.27 9.35 0.19 9.40 0.23
W 2S1 9.37 0.28 9.21 0.20 9.38 0.19 9.38 0.24 9.41 0.15 9.40 0.28
W 2S2 9.28 0.30 9.18 0.21 9.35 0.20 9.35 0.26 9.4 0.16 9.39 0.27
W 2S3 9.05 0.35 8.98 0.25 8.90 0.22 9.24 0.28 9.25 0.20 9.38 0.26
W 2S4 8.93 0.37 8.90 0.25 8.80 0.23 9.22 0.30 9.20 0.20 9.38 0.24
Table 6. Effect of amendments on soil characteristics and yield of wheat

Treatments ECe pHs ESP Yield Nutrient uptake
(dS/m) (t/ha) (kg/ ha)
A* B A B A B A B N P
Control 4.75 5.59 9.3 9.2 30.0 28.9 1.86 2.07 65.3 12.5
FYM @ 25t/ha) 4.53 5.35 8.9 8.9 25.0 23.7 2.31 2.50 73.3 16.3
Gypsum @ 25% GR 4.51 5.30 8.8 8.9 23.4 22.9 2.37 2.45 73.0 16.1
Gypsum @ 50%GR 4.55 5.20 8.7 8.8 21.3 20.4 2.71 2.83 79.5 19.3
Pyrites @ 25% GR 4.56 5.26 8.9 8.9 24.4 24.3 2.10 2.29 69.6 15.5
Pyrites @ 50%GR 4.55 5.28 8.8 8.9 23.4 22.7 2.43 2.51 73.9 16.9
LSD (p= 0.05) NS NS 0.35 0.23 2.5 1.8 0.23 0.25 6.0 1.6
* A :1983-84 B : 1984-85
is 2.5g/l, hence, contributes to ionic strength of soil

solution. not neutralized through gypsum tank, agriculture
grade (about 70% pure) gypsum is mixed in the
Gypsum availability in western Rajasthan soil before sowing at the rate of 73.7 kg for each
In western Rajasthan huge natural gypsum me/l RSC for 6 cm irrigation. The benefit of
deposits are found in large areas. Therefore it is neutralization of RSC through gypsum tank is that
the cheapest source of soil amendment for alkali it reduces the harmful effects of RSC water on
soils in the region. The Government is also foliage of the crops.
providing subsidies on the transportation of the
gypsum to the farmer’s fields. CONCLUSIONS
For sustainable production of Pearl millet-wheat There was significant effect of neutralization of
crop rotation in sandy coarse textured soils with RSC of water and addition of soil amendments on
high RSC water through sprinkler irrigation grain yield of pearl millet and wheat. Maximum
experiments were under taken during 2006-09 at grain yield of both the crops were recorded with
farmers field in Dheerdesar village of Bikaner the application of gypsum @ equivalent to 5.0 me/
district of Rajasthan having pH2 9.4, EC2 0.25 dS/ l RSC neutralization of each irrigation along with
m and ESP 29.2, irrigated with water having pH FYM @ 10 t/ha with treated water (2.0-2.2 me/l RSC
8.8, EC 1.44 dS/m and RSC 10.2 me/l. neutralization through gypsum tank). Addition of
gypsum and organic matter decreased the pH and
Technology developed ESP of soil. Gypsum as per GR, if any, should also
For neutralization of high RSC of irrigation be added before sowing. Further, a periodical
water under sprinkler irrigation system a plastic monitoring of the GR of soil is necessary while using
tank filled with gypsum lumps is put into the diggi such type of high RSC water for irrigation.
itself connected directly with the tube well and It can be also inferred that comparatively good
water is stored in the diggi after passing through yields of pearl millet and wheat crops can be taken
gypsum tank, before lifting for irrigation through with RSC water under sprinkler irrigation up to
sprinklers. Further, for remaining RSC of water, 3.0 me/l in sandy coarse textured soils.
22
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Minhas, P.S. and Gupta, Raj K, 1992. Quality of irrigation

water: assessment and management, p.123, ICAR,
This research was supported by the ICAR grant New Delhi.
under AICRP on Management of Salt affected soils Minhas , P.S. , Sharma, D.R. and Singh Y.P, 1995.
and Use of Saline Water in Agriculture, CSSRI, Karnal Response of rice and wheat to applied gypsum and
at the Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner. Farm yard manure on alkali water irrigated soil.
J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 43:452-55.
Panse, V.G. and Sukhatme, P.V. 1985. Statistical Methods
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Bajwa, M. S., Hira, G.S. and Singh, N.T 1983. Effect of Symp. Salt affected soils, pp 134-42. CSSRI, Karnal.
sodium and bicarbonate of irrigation on water on Puntamkar, S.S., Mehta, P.C. and Seth, S.P., 1972. Effect
sodium accumulation and maize and wheat yield of gypsum and manure on growth of wheat
in northern India. Irrigation Sci. 4: 91-99. irrigated with bicarbonate rich waters. J. Indian Soc.
Chauhan, R.P.S., Bhu-Dayal and Chauhan, C.P.S. (1988). Soil Sci. 20: 281-85.
Effect of residual sodium carbonate in irrigation water Richards, L.A., 1954. Diagnosis and Improvement of
on soil and bread wheat. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 58: saline alkali soils. U.S.D.A. Hand book No. 60
454-58 Sharma, D.R. and Mandal, R.C., 1982. Irrigation of
Eaton, F.M., 1950. Significance ofd carbonates in sodic water and gypsum application on soil
irrigation water. Soil Sci. 69:123-33. properties and crop yields. 12 th International
Gupta, I.C., 1980. Effect of irrigation with high sodium Congress on Soil Science, Feb 8-12, 1982 New Delhi.
waters on soil properties and growth of Sharma, S.K. and Manchanda, H.R., 1989. Irrigation of
wheat. Proceedings of International Symposium on Salt pearl millet and sorghum with sodic water in
Affected Soils, pp. 382-388, CSSRI, Karnal. presence of gypsum and FYM. Indian Journal of
Gupta, R.K. and Abrol, I.P., 1990. Salt- affected soils – Agricultural Science 59: 118-119.
their reclamation and management for crop Sehgal, J.L., Bajawa, M.S. and Sharma, P.K., 1985. Soils
production . Advance Soil Sci. 12 :223-75. of Punjab and their management. (In) Soils of
Gupta, R.K., Bhumbala, D.R. and Abrol, I.P., 1984. India, pp 316-42; FAI, New Delhi.
Effect of soil pH, organic matter and calcium Singhania,R.A., Vyas, K.K. and Singh, G.D., 1991.
carbonate on the dispersion behavior of alkali soils. Minimizing the adverse effect of high RSC water
Soil Sci. 137: 245-51. in plant growth and soil properties. Trans. Indian
Joshi, D.C. and Dhir, R.P. 1989. Mangement of loamy Soc. Desert Technology. 10 : 39-43.
sand soils irrigated with high RSC water. Abstract Tripathi and Sharma, 1995. Eefect of gypsum and
II. Ppp 473-78. In International Symposium pyrites on yield and quality of mustard in salt
Managing Sandy Soils. CAZRI, Jodhpur, India. affected soils of western Uttar Pradesh. Journal
Handa, , B.K., 1983. Hydro-geochemical zones of India. Indian Society Soil Science 43: 291-92.
Proc. Symp. On ground water development- A Verma, B.L., Babel, A.L.,Sharma, Yogesh and
prospective of 2000 A.D., pp. 439-50. Vol.1. Indian Singhania, R.A., 2003. Effect of mitigating the
water Resource Society. Roorkee, U.P., India. adverse effects of soil salinity and high RSC water
Lal, P., Verma, B.L., Singhania R.A. and Sharma, on yield of peal millet and mustard. Research on
Yogesh, 1998. Quality of Underground Water of Crops. 4: 199-205.
Bikaner district of Rajasthan and their effect on Soil Verma, B.L., Sharma, Yogesh and Singhania, R.A., 2003.
Properties. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 46 (1): 119-123. Quality of underground waters of Churu district in
Manchanda, H.R., Verma, S.L. and Khanna, S.S., 1982. Rajasthan. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 51: 214-216
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23
24 DASH et al. [Journal of Soil & Water Conservation 13(1)

ISSN: 022-457X
Water balance study of upper kolab command

of Odisha for effective crop planning
B.K. DASH1, B. PANIGRAHI2, J.C. PAUL3 and B.P. BEHERA4
Received: 27 September 2013; Accepted: 14 January 2014
ABSTRACT
A study was carried out to assess the potential and utilization of water resource of the upper Kolab
Command of District Koraput, Odisha, India. The total cultivable command area of the study site is
about 44,500 ha. The total water resource available through rainwater and canal are estimated.
Irrigation water requirements of major crops grown in the command are also calculated. The results
of the study reveal that the total water available from rainfall and canal in the command is 719.11 x
106 m3 whereas as per the existing cropping pattern, the actual water requirement is 729.44 x 106
m3. Thus, the study shows there is a net deficit of 10.33 x 106 m3. But, computation on monthly basis
indicates that there is surplus in the month of May to September and deficit in the month of October
to April. The surplus months are mostly in the monsoon (kharif) season when there is high amount
of rainfall (total rainfall in monsoon season is 1423 mm) causing large share of rainwater to the total
water availability. On the other hand deficit in the rabi season is caused due to intensive cultivation
of paddy and scanty rainfall which causes less availability. The study suggests harvesting of surplus
rainwater during monsoon (kharif) season through various water harvesting structures including
soil and water conservation measures in the catchment area/command area which can be utilised
in the post monsoon (rabi) season.
Key words: Command area, Water availability, Water demand, Crop water requirement
INTRODUCTION utilization status of water resource of Upper Kolab

Assessment of water availability and demand command area to provide a frame work for
in any command area can be done through water sustainable use of water resources in this
balance application which is based on the principle command.
of conservation of mass. In the Hirakud irrigation Water available in the Upper Kolab command
project, Odisha (India, which is designed both for area is mainly from two sources namely, (i) rainfall
kharif and rabi, estimation of irrigation water supply and (ii) canal system. The study area has hard rock
and demand reveals that at the present level of rice- terrain where well drilling is very difficult and not
based cropping, canal water availability during the economical. Ground water in the area lies at more
monsoon (rainy season) is just sufficient to meet than 50 m depth and is uneconomical for
the irrigation requirements of crops at only 10% exploitation. Therefore ground water is hardly
probability of exceedance (PE) and at higher PE used in the command and hence, in this study it is
levels, the water availability is less than the crop not considered as a potential source.
water requirement. But during rabi (non-monsoon In any command area, farmers grow crop as per
season), irrigation water requirement is more than their choice, regional demand and suitability to the
the canal water availability at all PE levels. At 10% climate. In Odisha, rice is the staple food of people
PE level, irrigation water requirement exceeds and the climate is suitable for growing rice. Farmers
canal water availability by more than 1050 M m3 prefer to grow rice in both kharif as well as in rabi
(Raul et al, 2008). The present study was carried season leading to higher demand for irrigation
out to assess the total water availability and present water.
1 Technical Officer, Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute, Koraput, Odhisa
2 Professor, Department of SWCE, Orissa University of Agriculture & Technology, Bhubaneswar
3&4Associate Professor., Department of SWCE, Orissa University of Agriculture & Technology, Bhubaneswar
Corresponding author email: [email protected]
24
January-March 2014] WATER BALANCE STUDY 25
In addition to crop planning, water balance average pan evaporation occurs during May and
study in an irrigation command area is also used is 195.02 mm and minimum occurs in August that
for developing the strategy of canal operation, is 63.81 mm.
which is linked with the rain water availability. In
this paper, a study is conducted to assess the water Soil
supply from different sources in the command and The soil in Upper Kolab command is mostly red,
water demand of various crops grown in the mixed red and yellow (70.34 x 103 ha) and 21.17 x 103
command and ultimately to estimate the water ha alluvial soil. The texture is sandy loam to sandy
surplus-deficit pattern in the command. clay loam. Soil is poor in fertility and slightly acidic.
It is highly eroded, rich in aluminium and iron and
Physical characteristics of Upper Kolab Command is usually deficient in boron and molybdenum. Iron
toxicity amounts to 14.502 x 103 ha (Anonymous,
Location 2001).
The Upper Kolab Command is situated in
Koraput district of Odisha, India at 180 47’ North Topography
Latitude, 820 37’ East Longitude and 1372 m above The land topography of the command area is
mean sea level. It comprises four blocks of Koraput undulating-with general slope running from south
district namely Jeypore, Kundra, Kotpad and east to north west direction. The hill slopes, locally
Boriguma. The reservoir is constructed on river called as Dongar land, is suitable for cultivation of
Kolab which is a tributary of river Godavari. The niger and ragi cros. Medium land is suitable for
command area comes under South Eastern Ghat varieties of crop, but farmers mainly grow paddy.
Zone of Agro climatic zone. Jeypore, Boriguma and In the low land, paddy is mostly cultivated. Water
Kundra blocks comes under medium rainfall and logging problem of the command area is not
high elevation Agro Ecological situations where as significant. A number of streams originated from
Kotpad block comes under medium rainfall and nearby hills pass through the command and
low elevation Agro Ecological situation. ultimately join the river Kolab, which is a tributary
(Anonymous, 2001). Location map of Upper Kolab of Godavari river (Anonymous, 2004).
command is given in Fig. 1.
Canal network with irrigation scenario
The Upper Kolab irrigation project became
functional during 1987-88. The project has left and
right canal system. Right canal is named as Jeypore
main canal having length 58.83 km and left canal
is called Padampur distribury having length 12.27
km. Total 19 numbers of distributaries having total
length 236.68 km and 250 numbers of minor/sub
minors having length 575.298 km irrigate the entire
command. Design flow in Jeypore main canal and
Padampur distributarys of Upper Kolab irrigation
project are 98.1 and 2.7 cumecs, respectively
(Anonymous, 2004).
Cropping pattern
The cultivable command area of Upper Kolab
Fig.1. Location of Upper Kolab Command Command in kharif season is 44,500 ha, out of which
the command area of Jeypore Main canal is 43,030
Climate ha and Padmapur distributory is 1,470 ha. In rabi
The climate of the command area is sub-tropical, season, the design cultivable command area of the
humid to semi humid and is characterized by hot whole is 26,700 ha which constitutes 60% cultivable
summer. The average annual rainfall of last ten command area of kharif season. On an average
years (2000 – 2009) is 1645 mm. More than 87.5% paddy is cultivated in more than 93% area in kharif
annual rainfall occurs during June to September season and in more than 84% area in rabi season.
by the south west monsoon and rest of the rainfall Paddy-paddy cropping pattern is predominant
occurs during October to May. Maximum monthly in the command. Maize and ragi are also cultivated
25
in some parts of the command area in small Estimation of water availability

patches. Vegetables and sugarcane are the two The two main source of water available in the
important crops after paddy in the rabi season. command are rainfall and canal. As discussed
Among the vegetables in kharif season mainly earlier, ground-water is hardly used in the
tomato and brinjal are cultivated. Tomato, brinjal, command and so is not included in the estimation
cauliflower, cabbage etc are grown in the rabi of water supply. Before estimating the water
season. Among the oil seeds, sunflower is supply due to rainfall and canal, it is important to
cultivated in small patches in the command area. carry out the hydrological analysis of the stochastic
Pulses are mainly grown in rabi season in a very variable like rainfall and canal water and predict
limited area. In addition to the above mentioned the variable at certain probability level.
crops, some other crops are also grown in small
patches. Figs. 2 and 3 represent the area coverage Analysis of rainfall and evaporation data
by the different type of crops in existing cropping There are four numbers of non-recording rain
pattern in kharif and rabi season, respectively. gauge stations situated in the four blocks of
command. Daily rainfall data of ten years (2000 -
2009) for the four blocks have been collected from
the District Agriculture Office, Jeypore, Odisha,
India. From the daily rainfall data, weekly rainfall
of command is computed taking average of the four
blocks. Daily pan evaporation from the nearest
meteorological station of Central Soil and Water
Conservation Research and Training Institute,
Research centre, Koraput, Odisha of last ten years
(2000-2009) have been used for analysis purpose.
Like rainfall, weekly evaporation has been
Fig. 2. Area of crop (%) in existing cropping pattern in calculated from the daily values for each year.
kharif season Values of rainfall and evaporation at different
probability levels for each standard week were
predicted by the best fit model. In the present study
five models i.e linear, logarithmic, power,
polynomial and exponential were tested. The
model which gave maximum value of coefficient
of determination (R2) was considered the best fit
model. Rainfall and evaporation at different
probability levels ranging from 10 to 90 percent
were computed for each week using the best fit
model. Irrigation planning is generally done
considering lower but assured value of water
availability and higher value of crop water
Fig. 3. Area of crop (%) in existing cropping pattern in requirement so that the estimation of the irrigation
rabi season requirement of crops is at the higher side. This will
ensure the availability of irrigation water to the
crops at maximum time in the command. To get
MATERIALS AND METHODS lower but assured value of water availability,
The basic objective of water balance study is to rainfall at 70 percent PE level and to get higher
estimate the surplus and deficit of water in any value of crop water requirement, evaporation at
area. Following are the important parameter used 30 percent PE level are considered in irrigation
for computing water balance study in this paper planning (Doorenbos and Pruitt, 1977; Senapati,
:(i) Estimation of water availability in the command 1988; Panigrahi et al.,1999). Hence, in the present
both from rainfall and canal, (ii) Estimation of study, availability of rainwater at 70 percent
water requirement of different crops as grown probability level of exceedence (PE) for each week
presently in the command, and (iii) Estimation of was considered as dependable value and for
excess/deficit of water supply. computation of crop water requirement,
26
evaporation at 30 percent PE of each standard week calculated by multiplying crop coefficient with
was considered. weekly potential evapotranspiration. Crop water
requirement (ETc) was estimated as:
Analysis of canal discharge data ETc = Kc x PET ………...……………. (1)
Daily canal discharge data both for the Left canal where, Kc = Crop coefficient and PET = Potential
and Right canal for 10 years (2000-2009) have been evapo-transpiration mm/day
collected from the office of the Chief Construction Values of PET of each standard week were
Engineer, Irrigation Division, Upper Kolab Hydro computed from the weekly pan evaporation data
Power Corporation, Jeypore. From the daily at 30% probability level (E30) (calculated by the best
discharge data weekly canal flow computed. Using fit model). The equation used to compute the above
the best fit model (like analysis of rainfall and mentioned values of PET is (Michael, 2008):
evaporation), values of canal discharge at different PET = Kp x E30 ........................................... (2)
probability levels was computed. For irrigation where, Kp = Pan evaporation coefficient
planning in Upper Kolab command of Odisha, assumed as 0.8 (Michael, 2008) and E30 = Pan
average value of discharge are considered towards evaporation at a level of 30% PE for the week, mm
computation of the canal water availability (predicted by the best fit model). The values of crop
(Anonymous, 2004; Senapati, 1988; Panigrahi et al., coefficient for different crops grown in the
1999). The average values of discharge are obtained command were obtained from F.A.O publication
at 50% PE level and so in this study, we have No-56 (Allen et al, 1998).
considered the discharge data at 50% PE level for
deciding the canal water availability. Estimation of water excess and deficit
The canal water available in command was
Assessment of water availability computed by taking the canal water at 50%
As discussed above, rainwater at an average probability level as dependable canal water
value of 70% PE for each week was considered for availability at field level. Conveyance loss has been
computing available rain water resource. Weekly considered (45 percent) while estimating the canal
and monthly predicted data of rainfall and water availability at the field level. The rain water
evaporation at 70 and 30% PE levels along with at 70% probability level was taken as dependable
the canal flow at head regulator predicted at 50% rainfall. Effective rainfall was computed for each
PE level by the best fit models were taken for week from the dependable rainfall as reported
estimation of total water availability and crop earlier. The crop area was multiplied with the
water requirement. Considering the above effective rain fall to estimate the rain water
mentioned predicted flow at the head regulator availability. So total water available in the
and assuming the conveyance losses (45%) in command was the sum of availability of effective
various canal systems including water course , rain water and canal water at field level. Total
availability of canal water at the field level in the water requirement in command was calculated by
command has been estimated on weekly and multiplying the area under each crop and water
monthly basis (Michael, 2008). It is obvious that required by the crop in that month and accordingly
all the water available from rainfall is not used surplus and deficit was computed.
effectively by the crops. So the effective rainfall
from the predicted rainfall (predicted at 70% PE RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
level by the best fit model) for different weeks were
computed by the methods as suggested by Climatic data analysis
Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977). From the weekly
Rainfall
values, monthly and seasonally values of effective
rainfall were computed. The best fit model for prediction of rainfall at
different PE level was found to be polynomial of
Crop water requirement order two with R2=0.98. The study reveals that
Estimation of crop water requirement is one of there is a large difference in weekly rainfall at
the prime factors for crop planning as well as different level of probability. The rainfall analysis
irrigation management in any command area. Crop at 70% probability level shows that the annual
water requirement varies from crop to crop, stages rainfall in the command is 1322.1 mm. The rainfall
of crop growth and climate of location of crop area. analysis shows that at 70% probability level there
Here weekly crop water requirement was is no rainfall in the month of January and December
27
and less than 2 mm in the month of February, month of January and December. In the month of
March and November and less than total 60 mm February, March and November rainwater
rainfall in the month from April, May and October. availability are 0.07 x 106 cum, 0.22 x 106 cum and
Also from weekly data it can be seen that there is 0.43 x 106 cum, respectively. Maximum rainwater
almost no rainfall at 70% probability, in the week available is during the month August i.e 133.85 x
number 1 to 13 and 43 to 52. Maximum rainfall is 106 cum.
found to occur in the standard week number 32
(in the month of August). Monthly analysis also Canal water availability
shows that at 70% probability, maximum rainfall The best fit model for prediction of canal water
occurs in the month of August which is 440.30 mm. availability was also a polynomial of order two
The total annual effective rainfall computed from with R2= 0.94. Weekly canal water released at head
rainfall at 70% PE level is 1322.1 mm. regulator was subjected to probability analysis and
values at 50% were taken as dependable value of
Evaporation canal water available at head regulator. Weekly
For pan evaporation, the data were subjected to canal flow at 50% probability level shows that
probability analysis and weekly values at 10 to 90% maximum canal discharge occurs in the week
probability level were predicted. The best fit model number 5 and minimum in the week number 23.
for prediction at different PE level was a There is no canal water availability in the weeks
polynomial of order two with R2=0.96. At 30% number 22, 24 to 26 and 46 to 51. The monthly canal
probability, annual evaporation (sum of 52 weeks discharge calculated from the standard week
data) is found to be 1291.55 mm. Maximum shows that maximum water availability from canal
monthly evaporation at 30% probability is found network is in the month of March and minimum
to occur in the month of May which is 175.4 mm in June. The annual canal water availability at 50%
and minimum in the month of August i.e. 61.82 probability is 322.23 x 10 6 cum. Total water
mm. The maximum weekly evaporation is availability on annual basis was found 719.11 x 106
obtained in the standard week number 17 which cum.
is 41.38 mm and minimum is obtained in the week
number 31 i.e. 11.39 mm. Fig 4 represent the Crop water requirement
monthly values of rainfall and evaporation at 70 Crop water requirement (ETc) of each crop was
and 30% probability level respectively. estimated and shown in Table 1. It is seen from the
analysis that maximum water is required for paddy
crop in the month of July for kharif season which is
277.62 mm and in the month of April (309.09 mm)
for rabi season.
Analysis of surplus and deficit water for crop

planning
Table 2 presents the water availability and
demand for the existing cropping system with the
existing area under each crop. Fig.5 shows the
water available and demand in the existing
Fig. 4. Rainfall and evaporation at 70 and 30% probability

level, respectively
Rain water availability

The rainwater at 70% PE level was taken as
dependable value. Effective rainfall was computed
from 70% PE level predicted rainfall as suggested
earlier. Effective rainfall volume available in a
particular month is calculated by multiplying the
effective rainfall with command area occupied by
the crop. From the analysis, it was found that there Fig. 5. Water available and demand in existing cropping
was no rain water available in the command in the pattern
28
Table 1. Monthly crop water requirement, mm of different crops grown in command

Month / Name of crop Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Paddy, Kharif 30.00 277.62 228.71 220.94 209.01 24.17
Paddy, rabi 302.9 242.06 308.99 309.69 64.42 10
Ragi 36.87 51.45 69.02 82.21 54.4
Sugarcane 88.92 106.03 144.44 163.38 166.63 103.29 67.77 61.82 70.38 76.52 76.34 111.69
TomatoKharif 61.94 74.56 83.61 25.73
Brinjal kharif 30.0 46.01 74.22 81.63 7.54
Maize kharif 48.22 45.33 66.62 43.27
Maize rabi 75.65 96.44 146.80 67.72
Tomato rabi 75.07 107.81 155.86 71.87
Brinjal rabi 38.10 106.00 156.40 151.89
Cauliflower rabi 38.05 106.00 156.39 153.02
Cabbage rabi 38.05 106.00 156.39 153.02
Chilly rabi 38.05 105.88 156.21 151.62
Sunflower rabi 82.60 102.54 143.49 63.27
Greengram kharif 36.76 53.22 52.63 10.84
Blackgram kharif 36.76 53.22 52.63 10.84
Green gram rabi 81.95 104.87 25.498
Blackgram rabi 81.95 107.87 25.498
Field pea rabi 77.91 108.23 128.93 24.96
Table 2. Water surplus and deficit in existing cropping pattern, x 106 cum
Season Name of crop Month
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Total
Kharif Paddy 12.42 114.94 94.69 91.47 86.53 10.00
Ragi 0.07 0.11 0.14 0.17 0.11
Vegetable 0.62 0.74 0.83 0.25
Maize 0.09 0.09 0.13 0.08
Rabi Paddy 69.66 55.68 71.07 71.23 14.81 2.30
Maize 0.19 0.24 0.37 0.17
Vegetables 0.65 1.82 2.68 2.61
Chilly 0.10 0.29 0.43 0.42
Sunflower 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01
Greengram 0.11 0.14 0.03
Blackgram 0.06 0.09 0.02
Field pea 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.005
Annual Sugarcane 1.49 1.77 2.41 2.73 2.79 1.72 1.13 1.03 1.18 1.28 1.27 1.87
crop
Total 72.29 60.07 77.06 77.18 17.60 14.30 116.27 96.61 93.64 88.75 11.52 4.17 729.44
demand
Available Canal water 37.81 41.22 47.66 45.78 26.01 0.11 16.50 24.06 27.94 43.21 8.78 3.15 322.23
Rain water 0.00 0.07 0.22 2.54 2.80 39.17 120.90 133.85 79.80 17.10 0.43 0.00 396.88
Total water available 37.81 41.29 47.88 48.32 28.81 39.28 137.40 157.91 107.74 60.31 9.21 3.15 719.11
Surplus 11.21 24.98 21.13 61.30 14.10 132.72
Deficit 34.48 18.78 29.18 28.86 28.44 2.31 1.02 143.05
Net deficit 10.33
cropping pattern. From the above table it is seen is surplus in the month of May to September and
that the total water available from rainfall and canal deficit in the month of October to April. The
is 719.11 x 10 6 cum and water required in the surplus months are mostly in the monsoon season
existing cropping pattern is 729.44 x 106 cum and when there is high amount of rainfall causing large
thus there is net deficit 10.33 x 106 cum. However, share of rainwater to total water availability. On
computation of monthly basis indicates that there the other hand in rabi season deficit is caused due
29
to scanty rainfall which causes less availability and Field channels equipped with volumetric
other hand there is intensive cultivation of paddy measuring devices will help to meet the exact water
in rabi (approximately 23,000 ha). requirement of the crops and thereby saving a lot
of costly irrigation water besides enabling crop
CONCLUSIONS diversification possible. The present practice of
continuous flow of water in the canals should also
Water balance study of Upper Kolab Command
be changed to rotational irrigation system.
reveals that there is total available water both from
Furthermore, the paddy crop should be irrigated
rainfall and canal is 719.11 x 106 cubic meter (From
with water saving irrigation technique like
canal 322.23 x 106 cubic meter and from rain water
intermittent irrigation technique instead of
396.88 x 106 cubic meter) and water required in the
continuous submergence which will reduce the gap
existing cropping pattern is 729.44 x 106 cubic meter
between the water availability and demand. Proper
and thus there is net deficit 10.33 x 106 cubic meter
land levelling and grading will also ensure quick
on annual basis. On monthly basis, surplus water
and equitable distribution of water and will save a
available from May to September and deficit in the
lot of precious irrigation water.
month of October to April. The surplus months are
mostly in the monsoon season when there is high REFERENCES
amount of rainfall causing large share of rainwater
to total water availability. However, there is Allen, R. G., Pereira, L. S., Raes, D. and Smith, M. 1998.
scarcity of water in the month of October of 28.44 Crop evapotranspiration. Guidelines for computing
water requirement. FAO Irrigation and Drainage
x 106 cubic metre. The total water required in the
Paper. 56, FAO, Rome
kharif season by the paddy crop is 410.05 x 106 cubic Anonymous, 2001. Strategic Research and Extension
meter and rabi season is 284.75 x 106 cubic meter. Plan of Koraput district, National Institute of
Total water required by the paddy crop in both Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE),
the season is 694.8 x 106 cubic meter which is 95.25% Hyderabad, India.
of total water demand of the command. So paddy Anonymous, 2004. Detailed Project Report on
crop area may be reduced and other low water Command Area Development and Water
requirement crop like vegetables and maize which Management works in Upper Kolab Irrigation
is already grown in the command area should be Project, Jeypore. Directorate of Command Area
replaced with paddy in the kharif season. On the Development , Bhubaneswar, Orissa.
Doorenbos, J. and Pruitt, W.O. 1977. Crop water
other hand in rabi season deficit is caused due to
requirement. Irrigation and Drainage paper No. 24
intensive cultivation of paddy in rabi and scanty (revised), FAO, United Nations, Rome, Italy.
rainfall which causes less availability. Deficit is Michael, A. M. 2008. Irrigation Theory and Practice.
maximum in the month of January i.e. 34.48 x 106 Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., U.P, India
cubic meter followed by March and April i.e. 29.18 Panigrahi, B; Panda, S.N. and Mull, R. 1999. Dry and
x 106 and 28.86 x 106 cubic meter respectively. So Wet Spell Analysis for Planning Supplemental
there is need of change of existing cropping pattern Irrigation. Civil and Environmental Engineering
as per the availability of water resource and need Conference - New Frontiers and Challenges, Vol.
of crop diversification mainly in the rabi season. 5(2), Bangkok, Thailand, pp. IV 53-62.
Raul, S. K., Panda, S. N., Hollaender, H. and Billib, M.
The area grown in the paddy crop in rabi may be
2008. Sustainability of rice-dominated cropping
reduced and less water requiring crop like pulses, system in the Hirakud canal command, Orissa,
oil seeds and vegetables may be grown. India. Irrigation & Drainage, 57(1): 97-104.
The current irrigation water management Senapati, P.C. 1988. Integrated Water Resources
practice which is now followed in the command Planning in Canal Command Areas of Orissa. Ph.D
need to be changed from plot to plot method of thesis submitted to Orissa University of Agriculture
irrigation to irrigation through the field channels. and Technology, Bhubaneswar.
30
January-March 2014] STATUS OF MAJOR NUTRIENT 31

ISSN: 022-457X
Status of major nutrient in relation to soil properties of

Jaipur district of Rajasthan under groundnut cultivation
PRADEEP KUMAR1, B.L. YADAV2, S.G. RAJPUT3, BRIJESH YADAV4 and K. SINGH5
Received: 15 July 2013; Accepted: 20 January 2014
ABSTRACT
Fifty nine surface (0-15 cm) soil samples from Jaipur district of Rajasthan were collected from five
tehsils (Amber, Chomu, Dudu, Jaipur and Phulera) from the Groundnut cultivated farmer’s fields,
and were analyzed for different physico-chemical properties, the soil texture were determined loamy
sand to fine sand; and determined its fertility status. A area is deficient with respect to O.C., available
N and S, the fertility status in terms of available P2O5, K2O, Ca and Mg is medium. Correlations
among the soil properties and major nutrients are significantly negative and positive. Thus, the
constraints of the soil of Jaipur district are low fertility status due to consistency of soil particles.
This information can be useful in developing management practices for the soils of groundnut
cultivated farmer’s field of Jaipur district.
Key words: Macronutrients, Correlation, Physico-chemical propertis
INTRODUCTION mainly based on the widely scattered sampling that

The major nutrients govern the fertility of the is hardly sufficient to bring the inherent variability
soils and control the yields of the crops. Soil fertility in the soils of the area. Therefore, a comprehensive
evaluation of an area or region is an important study was undertaken to know the fertility status
aspect in context of sustainable agricultural of soils occurring in the district and an attempt was
production, particularly for arid region where, also made to correlate micronutrient content of the
sparse and highly variable precipitation, extreme soils with other soil properties.
variation in diurnal temperature, high evaporation
and low humidity, the alluvial and aeolian MATERIALS AND METHODS
landforms have given rise to the variability in soils. The study covers five tehsil (Amber, Chomu,
Besides, acute moisture deficit, wind erosion is Dudu, Jaipur and Phulera) of Jaipur district in
most serious limiting factor limiting biological semi-arid region of Rajasthan. The soils of Jaipur
productivity. The region had extreme fallowing in district are characterized by light textured,
past even during the good rainfall years. But moderate to high pH and low organic matter
because of increase in population and its activities, content. Soil samples (0-15 cm) were collected from
lot of area is being brought under cultivation; even 59 sites covering 59 villages, Jaipur district falling
dunes of several meters heights are also cultivated. under agro-climatic zone III-A (semi-arid eastern
In present era of technological advancement in plain) of Rajasthan, situated between 26º 33' to 27º
agriculture, it is of immense interest to study the 51' N and 74º55' to 75º50' E. It is surrounded by
fertility status of soils. Although the widespread Sawai-Madhopur, Dausa, Alwar, Sikar, Nagour,
deficiency of major nutrients in arid Rajasthan have Ajmer and Tonk districts of Rajasthan. Soil
been reported by Joshi et al. (1989) and Gupta et al. sampling sites are depicted in Map 1, for which an
(2000), the information on availability of major and inventory survey of the area was conducted.
micronutrients of the study area is meager and
1Project Scientist, Division of Soil Resource, Remote Sensing Application Centre-UP, Lucknow
2Associate Professor, Department of Soil Science and Agril. Chemistry, S.K.N. College of Agriculture, Jobner, Jaipur, Rajasthan
3Project Scientist, Division of Water Resource-II, Remote Sensing Application Centre-UP, Lucknow
4Senior Research Fellow, Division of Agricultural Physics, IARI, New Delhi
5Scientist “C“ Division of Soil Resource, Remote Sensing Application Centre-UP, Lucknow
31
32 KUMAR et al. [Journal of Soil & Water Conservation 13(1)
Map 1. Sampling site with locations
The samples were drawn where the land has method (Subbaih and Asija 1956), available P2O5
been put under represent groundnut cultivation by extraction of soil with 0.5M NaHCO3 at pH 8.5,
for more than 5 years, and where surface soils developed colour by SnCl2 and measured coloured
samples (0-15 cm) were collected from 59 villages intensity on spectrophotometer (Olsen et al, 1954),
located at different locations of Jaipur district. and K2O using 1N neutral normal ammonium
Samples were completely air dried and passed acetate solution, and Ca and Mg estimated by using
through 2 mm sieve and stored in properly labeled EDTA solution (Richards, 1954) and available S by
plastic bags for analysis. A list of villages of heat soluble method (Williams and Stainbergs
sampling of Jaipur district site given in Map 1. 1959). Simple correlation coefficient equations were
Soil pH was measured in 1:2 soil water computed relating macronutrient content with
suspensions using pH meter systemic model 322- other physic-chemical properties of the soils as
1 as described in USDA Handbook No. 60. suggested by Panse and Sukhatme (1961).
Electrical conductivity was measured in 1:2 soil
water suspension with help of EC meter as per RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
method (4b) USDA Handbook No. 60. (Jackson,
Data on soil properties showed that the sand
1973) and CEC was determined by method 19
content ranged between 79.0-85.3% with mean
USDA Handbook No. 60 (Richards 1954), and the
value of 82.6%, silt content varied from 7.9-11.4%
soil samples were analyzed for particle size
with mean value of 9.4% and clay content varied
distribution (Piper, 1950). The organic carbon was
from 6.3 to 9.1% with mean value 7.5% (Table 1).
determined by rapid titration method (Walkley
The soils are neutral to alkaline in reaction (pH 7.8-
and Black 1934) and CaCO 3 by rapid titration
8.7). The electrical conductivity (EC2) ranged from
method (Piper 1950).
1.03-4.33 dS m-1, the highest mean (2.95 dS m-1) and
Available N was determined by alkaline KMnO4
lowest mean (2.65 dS m-1) value of soil was found
32
in Chomu and Phulera tehsil, respectively. Organic (-0.743**) of soil (Table 3). The positive relationship
carbon content varied from 0.12-0.40%. The low between available N and organic carbon is due to
organic carbon content in the sandy soils might be the presence of soil nitrogen in the organic forms
due to absence of stable aggregate (Jolivet et al, (Verma et al. 1980) and be due to increased rate of
1997), severe wind erosion (Wu and Tiessen, 2002), determination at lower pH values. Similar results
high microbial decay and high temperature of the were also reported by Meena et al, (2006).
region. The CaCO3 content in soil, which varied The content of available N in soils varied from
from 1.00 to 5.30% with mean value of 2.70% in 110.8 to 140.0 kg ha-1 with an average value of 127.0
arid and semi-arid regions, rainfall is less compared kg ha -1 (Table 2). Data on available N in soil
to annual evapotranspiration, hence, less water in samples indicated that all the soil samples were
available for the leaching of insoluble carbonates deficient in available N content, considering <280
and available for the leaching of carbonates and kg ha-1 as critical limit for N deficiency (Muhr et al,
bicarbonates of calcium. This may have facilitated 1965). The maximum (129.1 kg ha-1) and minimum
the accumulation of CaCO3 in these soils. The CEC mean available N (124.8 kg ha-1) in soils was found
of soils varied between 2.00 to 6.80 cmol(p+)kg-1 of in Jaipur and Dudu tehsils, respectively. The
soil. The highest (4.66 cmol(p+) kg-1 and lowest nutrient index value of available N was (1.00) low
(4.27 cmol(p+) kg-1) mean CEC of soils was found as critical limit.
in Phulera and Jaipur tehsil, respectively. Rather The availability of N increased significantly with
low CEC of these soils might be due to their coarse an increase in CEC (0.557**), organic carbon
texture, low organic matter content, presence of (0.830**) silt (0.717**) and clay (0.767**) whereas,
high amount of CaCO3 and predominance of 1:1 the same decreased with increase in sand content
type clay minerals (Yadav and Meena, 2009). (-0.743**) of soil (Table 3). The positive relationship
The content of available N in soils varied from between available N and organic carbon is due to
110.8 to 140.0 kg ha-1 with an average value of 127.0 the presence of soil nitrogen in the organic forms
kg ha -1 (Table 2). Data on available N in soil (Verma et al. 1980) and be due to increased rate of
samples indicated that all the soil samples were determination at lower pH values. Similar results
deficient in available N content, considering <280 were also reported by Meena et al, (2006).
kg ha-1 as critical limit for N deficiency (Muhr et al, Available P2O5 in the soils samples varied from
1965). The maximum (129.1 kg ha-1) and minimum 12.60 to 30.11 kg ha-1 (Table 2). Considering 20 kg
mean available N (124.8 kg ha-1) in soils was found ha-1 as critical limit for P2O5 deficient (Muhr et al,
in Jaipur and Dudu tehsils, respectively. The 1995), 66% samples were deficient in phosphorus.
nutrient index value of available N was (1.00) low The available P in these soil samples was
as critical limit. significantly and positively correlated with CaCO3
The availability of N increased significantly with (r = 0.340**), organic carbon (r = 0.610**), silt (r =
an increase in CEC (0.557**), organic carbon 0.722**) and clay (r = 0.699**) content of soils
(0.830**) silt (0.717**) and clay (0.767**) whereas, whereas, it was significantly reduced with increase
the same decreased with increase in sand content in sand (r = -0.714**) content. Availability of
Table 1. Physico-chemical properties of the soils of Jaipur district

Tehsils pH EC OC CaCO3 CEC Sand Silt Clay
(1:2) (1:2) (g kg-1) (%) cmol(p+) kg-1 (%) (%) (%)
Amber 8.2-8.7 1.80-3.64 0.18-0.31 1.30-3.0 3.70-6.80 80.6-85.3 7.9-10.5 6.3-8.6
(8.5) (2.73) (0.25) 0(2.26) (4.57) (83.3) (9.0) (7.3)
Chomu 8.2-8.6 2.48-3.50 0.17-0.40 1.80-4.50 3.40-5.70 79.0-85.1 8.0-11.4 6.4-9.0
(8.4) (2.95) (0.27) (2.71) (4.45) (82.4) (9.48) (7.5)
Dudu 8.2-8.7 1.65-3.48 0.19-0.31 1.30-3.80 3.70-5.00 81.4-84.2 8.5-10.1 6.8-8.0
(8.4) (2.80) (0.23) (2.76) (4.29) (83.1) (9.1) (7.3)
Jaipur 8.3-8.6 2.54-3.45 0.22-0.30 2.50-4.50 2.00-5.00 81.3-82.3 9.6-10.1 7.7-8.1
(8.4) (2.90) (0.26) (3.33) (4.27) (81.8) (9.9) (7.9)
Phulera 7.8-8.7 1.03-4.33 0.12-0.31 1.00-5.30 3.00-5.40 81.3-84.9 9.1-10.2 7.0-8.1
(8.3) (2.65) (0.25) (2.58) (4.66) (82.3) (9.6) (7.6)
Overall 7.8-8.7 1.03-4.33 0.12-0.40 1.00-5.30 2.00-6.80 79.0-85.3 7.9-11.4 6.3-9.1
(8.4) (2.80) (0.25) (2.70) (4.46) (82.6) (9.4) (7.5)
*Figures in parenthesis indicate the mean values
33
Table 2. Tehsilwise range and mean of available macronutrients in soils of Jaipur district
Teshils N(kg ha-1) P2O5(kg ha-1) K2O(kg ha-1) Ca(mg kg-1) Mg(mg kg-1) S(mg kg-1)
Amber 120.0-136.8 12.6-25.8 200.0-230.5 340.0-616.0 124.0-166.0 5.5-8.8
(127.6) (18.0) (212.0) (426.0) (141.8) (7.68)
Chomu 118.5-140.0 15.2-25.8 199.0-230.8 340.0-566.0 124.0-152.8 5.5012.5
(128.6) (20.1) (217.71) (440.0) (140.0) (8.38)
Dudu 120.0-138.1 16.5-26.4 202.6-285.2 370.0-504.0 124.0-148.0 5.60-9.00
(124.8) (19.7) (221.3) (426.0) (135.3) (7.20)
Jaipur 124.0-135.6 21.2-28.2 202.4-285.0 400.0-500.0 130.0-156.4 7.00-9.50
(129.1) (24.3) (211.3) (448.0) (137.7) (7.83)
Phulera 110.8-135.6 14.8-30.1 190.8-230.6 370.0-530.0 124.0-152.8 5.30-9.50
(125.4) (23.6) (215.4) (462.0) (141.4) (7.80)
Overall 110-140.0 12.6-30.1 190.0-285.2 340.0-616 124.0-166.0 5.30-12.5
(127.0) (21.3) (203.7) (442.0) (139.5) (7.80)
*Figures in parenthesis indicate the mean values
phosphorous reduced with increased in salinity The content of Ca in soil varied from 340.0 to
hazards of soils on account of the accumulation of 616.0 mg kg-1 with mean value of 442.0 mg kg-1.
soluble salts resulting into precipitation of Considering 300 mg kg-1 as critical limit for Ca
phosphorus as Ca-phosphate thereby reduction deficiency (Tandon 1992), none of the sample was
in P availability . Further more, the availability of deficient in Ca. The available Ca in these soils
phosphorus also increased with increase in organic samples was significantly and positively correlated
carbon due to (i) formation of phosphorus humic with CEC (r = 0.698**), organic carbon (r = 0.735**),
complexes which are easily assimilated by plants. silt (r = 0.737**) and clay (r = 0.723**) content of
(ii) anion replacement of phosphorus by humation soils. Whereas, it was negatively related with sand
and (iii) the coating of sesquioxide by particles of (r = 0.725**) and soil pH (r = -0.017). The results
humus form a protective cover and thus reduced are in close proximity of Gathala et al, (2004) and
the phosphorus fixing capacity of the soils (Gharu Hundal et al, (2006).
and Tarafdar 2004). Available Mg content in soil samples varied
Available K2O content in soil samples varied from 124.0 to 166.0 mg kg-1 with an average value
from 190.8 to 285.2 kg ha-1. None of the samples of 139.5 mg kg-1. None of the sample was deficient
come under the deficient category of K with 125 in available Mg with 120.0 mg kg-1 as critical limit
kg ha-1, as critical limit (Muhr at al, 1965). The (Tandon, 1992). The available Mg increased
available K increased significantly with increase significantly with increase in CEC (r = 0.606**),
in CEC (r = 0.308*), organic carbon (r = 0.342), silt organic carbon (r = 0.286**), silt (r = 0.504**) and
(r = 0.314*) and clay (r = 0.308**). On the other hand, clay (r = 0.515**) whereas, the same decreased
the availability of K2O reduced significantly with significantly with increase in sand content (r = -
sand (r = -0.330*) content. This might be due to the 0.512**). The results are in close proximity of
presence of most of mica in finer fraction (Singh et Gathala et al, (2004) and Hundal et al, (2006).
al, 1985). The S content in soil sample varied from 5.3 to
Table 3. Correlation between soil properties and major nutrients
Soil properties/ N P 2O 5 K2 O Ca Mg S
Major nutrient
pH 0.121 0.054 -0.029 -0.017 0.016 -0.030
EC 0.104 -0.084 0.026 0.028 -0.074 0.126
CaCO3 0.221 0.340** 0.034 0.114 -0.008 0.096
CEC 0.557** 0.487** 0.308* 0.698** 0.606** 0.529**
OC 0.830 0.610** 0.342* 0.725** 0.286** 0.943**
Sand -0.743** -0.714** -0.330* -0.735** -0.512** 0.777**
Silt 0.717** 0.722** 0.314* 0.737** 0.504** 0.757**
Clay 0.767** 0.699** 0.348** 0.723** 0.515** 0.793**
*significant at 5%, **significant at 1%
34
12.5 mg kg-1 with mean value 7.80 mg kg-1. Ninety Joshi, D.C., Arora, B.R., Aggarwal, R.K., Ruhal, D.S. and
six per cent samples were sufficient and only 4% Sharma, B. K. 1989. Forms and content of nutrient
were deficient in available S, with critical limit elements. In Review of Research on Sandy Soils in India,
deficiency of 10 mg kg-1 available S (Tandon 1992). pp. 85-112. CAZRI, Jodhpur.
Kaur, J. and Jalali, V.K. 2008. Forms of sulphur and their
The availability of S increased significantly with
relationship in soil of different Agro-climatic zone
an increase in CEC (r = 0.529**), organic carbon (r of Jambu region. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil
= 0.943**), clay (r = 0.793**) whereas, the same Science 56: 309-312.
decreased with increase in sand content (r = Meena, H.B., Sharma, P.R. and Rawat, U.S. 2006. Status
0.777**) of soil. The negative correlation of available of macronutirent in some soils of Tonk district of
S with sand content indicates that soils dominant Rajasthan. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science
in sand fraction are devoid of S which is in 54: 205-512.
accordance with the observation of Jat and Yadav Muhr, G.R., Datta, N.P., Shanjkara, S.H., Laley, V.K. and
(2006). Organic carbon content and clay content Danahue. R.L. 1965. Soil testing in India, USDA
publication, pp 120.
were positively correlated with available S content
Olsen, S.R., Cole, C.V., Watanabe, F.S. and Dean, L.A.
of soil because organic matter could be a good 1954. Estimation of available phosphorus in soils by
reservoir or source of sulphur. Similar results were extraction with sodium bicarbonate. US Department
also reported by Jat and Yadav (2006), Sarkar et al, of Agriculture Circular, 939.
(2007) and Kaur and Jalali (2008). Panse, V.G. and Sukhatme, P.V. 1961. Statistical
It is apparent from the study that the majority Methods for Agricultural Workers, ICAR, New
of soils are low in organic carbon, available Delhi.
nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur and medium in Piper, C.S. 1950. Soil and Plant Analysis. The university
potassium, calcium and magnesium. Among soil of Aledade, Australia.
properties, CEC, organic carbon, silt and clay Richards, L.A. (1954) Diagnosis and Improvement of Saline
and Alkali Soils. Hand Book No. 60, Oxford and IBH
content had a positive influence on the availability
Pub. Co., Calcutta-16.
of nutrients whereas sand content had negative Sarkar, M., Ghosh, S.K., Mukhopadhyay, P. and Pal,
influence on availability of these nutrients. S.K., 2007. Distribution of sulphur and its
relationship with soil properties in some soil series
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Gathala, M.K., Yadav, B.L. and Singh, S.D. 2004. Mineral Singh, Y.P., Singh, M. and Singh, R. 1985. Forms of soil
nutrient status of Pomegrenate orchard in Jaipur potassium in Western part of Haryana, Journal of the
district of Rajasthan. Journal of the Indian Society of Indian Society of Soil Science 33: 285-291.
Soil Science 52: 206-208. Subbiah, B.R. and Asija, G.L. 1956. A rapid procedure
Gharu, Amita and Tarafdar, J.C. 2004. Influence of for estimation of available N in soils. Current Science
organic acids on mobilization of inorganic and 25: 259-260.
oranic phosphorus in soil. Journal of the Indian Society Tandon. H.L.S. 1992. Fertilizer Guide Fertilizer
of Soil Science 24: 248-253. Development and Consultation Organization, New
Gupta, J.P., Joshi, D.C. and Singh, G.B. 2000. Delhi.
Management of arid agro-ecosystem. In Natural Verma, L.P., Tripathi, B.R. and Sharma, D.P. 1980.
Resources Management for Agricultural Production in Organics as an index to assess the nitrogen status of
India. (J.S.P. Yadav and G.B. Singh, Eds.), pp. 557- soils. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 28:138-
668, New Delhi, India. 140.
Hundal, H.L., Kumar, R., Singh, D. and Manchandra, Walkley, A. and Black, C.A. 1934. An examination
J.S. 2006. Available nutrient and heavy metal status method for determining soil organic matter and a
of soils of Punjab, Nourth-West India, Journal of the proposed modifications of the chromic acid titration
Indian Society of Soil Science 54: 50-56. method. Soil Science 37: 29-38.
Jackson, M.L. 1973. Soil Chemical Analysis. Prentice Hall Williams, C.H. and Stainbergs, 1959. Soil sulphur
of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. interaction as chemical indices of available sulphur
Jat, J.R. and Yadav, B.L. 2006. Different forms of S and in some Australian soils. Australia Journal of
their relationship with properties of Entisols of Agricultural Research 10: 340-231.
Jaipur district (Rajasthan) under Mustard Wu, R. and Tissen, H. 2002. Effect of land use on soil
cultivation. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science degradation in alpine grassland soil of China. Soil
54: 208-212. Society of American Journal 66: 1648-1656.
Jolivet, C., Arrouays, D., Andreux, F. and Leveque, J. Yadav R.L. and Meena, S.C. 2009. Available
1997. Soil organic carbon dynamics in cleared micronutrient status and their relationship with soil
temperate forest Spodosols converted to maize properties of Degana soil series of Rajasthan. Journal
cropping. Plant and Soil 191: 225-231. of the Indian Society of Soil Science 56: 309-312.
35
36 THAKUR et al. [Journal of Soil & Water Conservation 13(1)

ISSN: 022-457X
Evaluation of rice establishment methods with

nutrient and weed management options under rainfed
farming situations of Bastar plateau
D.S. THAKUR1, G.K. SHARMA2, R.K. NAIK3, D. KHALKHO4, J. L. CHAUDHARY5 and S. K. PATIL6
Received: 12 September 2013; Accepted: 9 February 2014
ABSTRACT
This study was conducted during 2006-2009 at Shaheed Gundadhoor College of Agriculture and
Research Station, Kumhrawand, Jagdalpur district Bastar (Chhattisgarh) under different rainfed
farming situations. In upland farming situation, broadcasting (dry aerobic) + biasi + recommended
fertilizer (80-50-30 kg ha-1 of NPK) + In-situ green manuring with sunhemp was found efficient
with respect to significantly higher mean grain yield (1.83 t ha-1), highest benefit cost (B:C) ratio
(1.52 Rs. per Re.) and maximum rain water use efficiency (RWUE) of 1.59 kg/ha-mm. Under medium
land situation, line seeding (dry aerobic) + recommended fertilizer (80-50-30 kg ha-1 of NPK) + in
situ green manure incorporation by paddy weeder and weed control was found effective with
significantly higher mean grain yield (3.08 t ha-1), highest B:C ratio (2.28) and maximum RWUE
(2.51 kg/ha-mm). However, under lowland situation broadcasting + biasi (dry aerobic) + RDF
80:50:30 kg ha-1 of NPK + in-situ green manuring with sunhemp was recorded efficient with a mean
maximum grain yield of 5.76 t ha-1, followed by line seeding (dry aerobic) + RDF 80:50:30 kg ha-1 of
NPK + Post E weedicide with mean grain yield of 5.74 q ha-1 and line seedling (Dry aerobic)+ RDF
80:50:30 kg ha-1 of NPK + in-situ GM incorporation by paddy weeder & weed control with a
marginally lower yield of 5.69 t ha-1. The highest B:C ratio was found in Line seedling (Dry aerobic)+
RDF 80:50:30 kg ha-1 of NPK + In-situ GM incorporation by paddy weeder & weed control. The rice
crop establishment methods did not gave any effect on relay crops because the sowing of relay
crops is done as soon as the free water disappears. This time is almost same for all the treatments.
However, field pea and lathyrus was recorded comparatively higher yields indicating their
effectiveness in soil moisture utilization. Field pea was superior with a yield of 1.47 t ha-1 and B: C
ratio of 6.16.
Key words: Rice establishment methods, nutrient and weed management options, dry aerobic
rice seeding, rainfed farming situations of Bastar plateau
INTRODUCTION development of sustainable rainfed farming

Rainfed agriculture constitutes 80% of global systems dedicated for every agro climate zones
agriculture and plays a vital role in achieving food separately. The production of rainfed rice (Oryza
security. These rainfed areas are vulnerable to sativa L.) in drought-prone areas such as eastern
poverty, malnutrition, water scarcity, severe land India is highly variable and risky due to temporal
degradation and poor physical and social and spatial variability in rainfall. Rice yields in
infrastructure. To eliminate all these severe eastern India only average 1.0–2.4 t ha-1 (Tomar,
problems, it is very important to conduct basic and 2002). Water deficit is however not the only factor
applied research that will contribute to the limiting crop production in rainfed lowlands. The
1Chief Scientist, 2Scientist (Soil Science), AICRP for Dryland Agriculture, S.G. College of Agriculture and Research Station,
Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidayala, Jagdalpur, Chattisgarh
3Assistant Professor, Deptt. of Farm Machinery and Power, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, Indira Gandhi Krishi
Vishwavidayala, Raipur, Chattisgarh

4Scientist (Soil & Water Management), AICRP on Ground Water Utilization, Deptt. of Soil and Water Engineering, Faculty of
Agricultural Engineering, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidayala, Raipur, Chattisgarh

5Senior Scientist, AICRP on AAS, Deptt. of Agrometerology, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, Chattisgarh
6Hon’ble Vice Chancellor, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidayala, Raipur, Chattisgarh
36
January-March 2014] EVALUATION OF RICE 37
low nutrient supplying capacity of soils and low management approach has been a challenge for
fertilizer use also contribute to the large gap widespread adoption of aerobic rice technology.
between potentially attainable yields and current Now a day, people are much bothered about the
yields of farmers (Dobermann and White, 1999).. negative impact of using herbicides on
Farmers’ use of nutrient inputs is constrained by environment and public health (Phuong et al.,
their limited financial resources and risk avoiding 2005). Even no herbicidal control has been found
management strategies. Crop management options so effective against some vegetatively propagated
that efficiently use soil nutrients and moderate weeds like purple nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus L.)
amounts of nutrient inputs while simultaneously (Juraimi et al., 2009b). On the contrary, hand
reducing risk are essential for stabilizing and weeding is highly labor-intensive (as much as 190
increasing rice yields in these areas (Pandey, 1998). person-days/ ha) (Roder, 2001). Due to high wages
Rice is grown in about 3.8 million hectares in as well as unavailability of labor during peak
Chhattisgarh state out of which 80% area is rainfed season, hand weeding is not an economically viable
(20 % area is under protective irrigation) Rainfed option for the farmers. Therefore, what is needed
rice suffers due to drought either at early stage of that adoption of all possible cultural practices in
crop growth or at terminal growth stage (at an integrated way to suppress weeds and reduce
reproductive and maturity). Drought is a recurring chemical dependence.
phenomenon in rainfed lowland rice ecosystem in
the state and due to this the average productivity MATERIALS AND METHODS
is low and ranges between 1.2 to 1.4 t/ha. The
Bastar Plateau agro-climatic Zone in
average fertilizer (N, P, K) use (kg/ha) in all the
Chhattisgarh state comprises of large plateau
three agro climatic zones is very low, especially in
having elevation ranging from 550 m to 760 m from
Bastar plateau and northern hills zones of
mean sea level in between 17°46’ N and 20°34’ N
Chhattisgarh. The ratio of fertilizer N:P:K is not
latitudes and 80°15’ and 82°15’ E longitudes.
balanced. It is envisaged from the study that, the
Almost entire plateau ACZ makes a part of the
rice yield potential under the rainfed upland
large watershed area, receiving annual rainfall
condition is quite high as compared to the current
varying from 1400 mm to 1600 mm. On the basis
production levels. The nutrients are most limiting
of land topography, soil types and its physico-
factor for high productivity. Rice yield of 3 to 3.5
chemical properties, three major farming situations
t/ha which is half of yield potential can be achieved
viz. upland (Marhan and Tikra), medium land (Mal)
simply by applying 60:40:20 kg/ha of NPK. Slight
and lowland (Gabhar) have been identified in this
increase in fertilizer use can pay big dividends.
region. Uplands are sloppy and eroded having low
Aerobic rice is the most promising one in terms
organic matter, fertility and productivity and poor
of water-saving (Anwar et al., 2010). In precise,
water retention capacity, however, medium land
aerobic rice system refers to growing direct seeded
and lowlands have moderate to good water
rice on non-puddled aerobic soil without standing
retention and other physicochemical properties.
water (Bouman, 2003) and rice is managed
Texturally soils are clay loam to loamy sand having
intensively as an upland crop like wheat or maize.
low pH values ranging from 4.2 to 5.6. This study
Aerobic rice is either rainfed or irrigated and soil
was conducted at block Tokapal, District Bastar in
water is maintained around field capacity in the
upland, medium land and lowland farming
root zone. This system eliminates surface runoff,
situations with same set of treatments during 2006-
percolation and evaporation losses (Singh and
2009. In this study following eight treatments were
Chinnusamy, 2006) resulting in twice the water
tested in Randomized Complete Block Design with
productivity of flood irrigated rice (Bouman et al.,
three replications. In lowland situations, four post-
2002). Apart from lower yield, aerobic rice
rice legume crops were also tested in sequence.
experiences higher weed pressure
T1- Broadcasting (dry aerobic) + beushening +
(Balasubramanian and Hill, 2002) compared with
RDF (N80:P50:K30) kg NPK/ha.
flood irrigated rice mostly due to lack of ‘head start’
T2- T1 + In - situ green manure (sunhemp)
over weeds and absence of standing water layer to
suppress weeds. Weed is the major constraint in T3- Line seeding (dry aerobic) + RDF
aerobic system and thus, yield losses is much (N80:P50:K30) + Post emergence weedicide
higher in aerobic rice compared with other T4- Line seeding (dry aerobic) + RDF
production systems (Balasubramanian and Hill, (N80:P50:K30) + in-situ green manure (sunhemp)
2002). Therefore, developing a sustainable weed incorporation by paddy weeder and weed control
37
T5- Broadcasting (moist aerobic) + beushening Under midland farming situation (Table 2) line
+ RDF (N80:P50:K30) seeding (dry aerobic) + recommended fertilizer (80-
T6- T5 + In - situ green manure (Sunhemp) 50-30 kg/ha of NPK) + in situ green manure
T7- Line seedling (moist aerobic) + RDF incorporation by paddy weeder and weed control
(N80:P50:K30) + Post emergence weedicide. was found to be effective with significantly higher
T8- Line seeding (moist aerobic) + RDF mean yield of 3.08 t ha-1 and highest B: C (2.28)
(N80:P50:K30) + In–situ green manure (Sunhemp) and maximum RWUE (2.51 kg ha-1 mm-1) followed
incorporation by paddy weeder & weed control by treatment T1, T2, and T3, while Broadcasting –
The benefit : cost ratio was calculated as a ratio beushening (moist aerobic) + RDF (80:50:30 kg
of gross returns / cost of cultivation; while the rain NPK ha-1) gave lowest yield of 1.18 t ha-1. The
water use efficiency (kg ha-1 mm-1) was calculated above experiment concluded that dry aerobic
as a ratio of grain yield (kg ha-1) and crop seasonal sowing has its advantage of better moisture
rainfall (mm). utilization and conservation for second cropping
under rainfed cropping system. Dickmann et al
1996 reported that green manure increased grain
yield of rice significantly over the untreated
In upland condition (Table 1) T1+ in-situ green control, by 1.3–1.7 t ha –1 . The yields were
manure (Sunhemp) was efficient with significantly comparable to those obtained with 60 kg N ha–1 of
higher mean yield 1.83 t ha-1 and highest B: C ratio urea fertilizer. The apparent release of
(1.52) and maximum RWUE (1.59 kg ha-1 mm-1) exchangeable NH4+ - N in the soils after green
was found to be superior followed by line seeding manuring and the rice grain yield response showed
(dry aerobic) + RDF (80:50:30 kg NPK ha-1) + Post that green manure with S. rostrata may provide
emergence weedicide (T3) while broadcasting (dry sufficient available N throughout the development
aerobic) – Biasi + RDF (80:50:30 kg NPK ha-1) gave of rice crop in the wet season. In the rainfed
lowest grain yield of 1.00 t ha-1. The upland rice marginal soil site, green manure with S.
response to management is poor and there is no rostrata produced even higher rice grain yields than
consistency in the results. Further the B: C ratio is urea. Green manure therefore seems particularly
also low. It seems that more remunerative crops attractive for poor farmers on marginally
like maize, pigeonpea etc or low input crops like productive soils, at least as a temporary strategy
millets (finger millets, kodo millets etc.) should be to improve yield and yield sustainability.
targeted in upland.
Table 1. Effect of establishment method, nutrient and weed management options on grain yield, rain water use and
economics of rice in upland condition.
Treatments Grain Yield of rice (t ha-1) Mean RWUE Mean B:C ratio
2006 2007 Mean (Kg ha-1 mm-1) (Rs. Re-1)
T1 : Broadcasting (dry aerobic) + 1.28 0.71 1.00 0.86 0.52
Biasi + RDF (N80:P50:K30)
T2 : T1+ In - situ green manure 2.71 0.95 1.83 1.59 1.52
(Sunhemp)
T3 : Line seeding (dry aerobic) + 2.16 1.12 1.64 1.42 1.40
RDF (N80:P50:K30)+ Post E weedicide.
T4 : Line seeding (dry aerobic)+ RDF 1.08 1.15 1.11 0.97 0.42
(N80 :P50:K30) + In-situ GM
incorporation by paddy weeder
T5 : Broadcasting (moist aerobic) + 1.00 1.21 1.11 0.96 0.48
beushening + RDF (N80:P50:K30)
T6T5 + In - situ green manure 1.36 1.35 1.35 1.17 0.99
(Sunhemp)
T7Line seeding (moist aerobic) + 1.81 1.21 1.51 1.31 1.16
T8Line seeding (moist aerobic)+ RDF 1.50 0.95 1.22 1.06 0.84
(N80 :P50:K30) + In–situ GM
CD at 5% 0.28 0.33
38
Table 2. Effect of establishment method, nutrient and weed management options on grain yield, rain water use (RWUE)
and economics of rice in medium land condition.
Treatments Grain Yield of rice (t ha-1) Mean RWUE Mean

2006 2007 2008 Mean (Kg ha-1 mm-1) B:C ratio
T1 : Broadcasting (dry aerobic) + 2.81 2.44 3.40 2.88 2.35 2.15
Biasi + RDF (N80:P50:K30)
T2 : T1+ In - situ green manure 3.20 2.15 3.13 2.83 2.30 2.07
(Sunhemp)
T3 : Line seeding (dry aerobic) + 3.40 2.24 3.06 2.90 2.36 2.28
T4 : Line seeding (dry aerobic)+ RDF 3.12 2.65 3.48 3.08 2.51 2.28
(N80 :P50:K30) + In-situ GM
T5 : Broadcasting (moist aerobic) + 0.27 1.43 1.86 1.18 0.96 0.38
beushening + RDF (N80:P50:K30)
T6T5 + In - situ green manure (Sunhemp) 0.28 2.10 2.93 1.77 1.43 0.87
T7Line seeding (moist aerobic) + RDF 0.21 2.12 2.23 1.52 1.24 0.66
(N80:P50:K30)+ Post E weedicide.
T8Line seeding (moist aerobic)+ RDF 0.74 2.18 2.47 1.79 1.46 0.93
(N80 :P50:K30) + In–situ GM incorporation
by paddy weeder & weed control
CD at 5% 0.38 0.60 0.56 -
Dry aerobic seeding (broadcasting or line large regions of eastern India (Sastri and Singh,
sowing) is found better as compared to moist 2000). This is important because drought around
aerobic seeding in the three years result of lowland flowering has the most devastating effect on rice
study (Table 3). The earlier establishment of rice yield (Garrity and O’Toole, 1994). The dry aerobic
with dry aerobic seeding can result in earlier seeding therefore appears to be more efficient in
maturity which can reduce risk by escaping the drought prone and rainfed regions. The earlier
drought at flowering (Fukai, 1999) and avoiding maturity of dry aerobic rice could also contribute
negative effects of late season drought common in to earlier establishment and hence greater
Table 3. Effect of establishment method, nutrient and weed management options on grain yield, rain water use and
economics of rice in low land condition.
Treatments Grain Yield of rice (t ha-1) Mean RWUE Mean

2006 2007 2008 Mean (Kg/ha-mm) B:C ratio
T1 Broadcasting (dry aerobic) + Biasi + 4.89 4.64 6.47 5.33 4.36 4.06
RDF (N80:P50:K30)
T2 T1+ In - situ green manure (Sunhemp) 5.03 5.07 7.19 5.76 4.71 4.27
T3 Line seeding (Dry aerobic) + RDF 4.78 5.36 7.08 5.74 4.69 4.41
T4 Line seedling (Dry aerobic)+ RDF 4.90 5.40 6.77 5.69 4.65 4.63
(N80:P50:K30)+ In-situ GM incorporation
by paddy weeder & weed control.
T5 Broadcasting – beushening 3.18 4.94 7.09 5.07 4.14 4.12
(Moist aerobic) + RDF (N80:P50:K30)
T6 T5 + In - situ green manure (Sunhemp) 2.68 5.10 6.17 4.65 3.80 3.64
T7 Line seedling (moist aerobic) + RDF 2.32 5.12 5.46 4.30 3.52 3.17
T8 Line seedling (Moist aerobic) + RDF 3.16 5.08 5.42 4.55 3.72 3.49
(N80:P50:K30)+ In–situ GM incorporation
by paddy weeder & weed control.
CD at 5% 0.89 0.40 0.97 -
39
productivity of the post-rice food legume and that, cowpea can be effectively incorporated by
therefore, increase opportunities for system spraying 2, 4-D with effective weed control. The
intensification and diversification (Mazid et al., peak nitrogen release from concurrently grown
2002). cowpea coincides with the critical growth stages
The total rainfall was higher in 2006, however of rice, the panicle initiation stage, and thereby
because of better distribution and greater sunshine ensures availability of N at the critical stage. Becker
the yields are higher in 2007 as well as in 2008. The 1995 reported that a quadratic response function
yields of this study were higher as compared to between mineral fertilizer equivalence and green
medium land experiment. Broadcasting – Biasi (dry manure N indicated that up to 75 kg N/ha, lowland
aerobic) + RDF (80:50:30 kg NPK ha-1) with in situ rice uses green manure N more efficiently than
green manure (Sunhemp) was efficient with a mean urea. Depending on season and establishment
maximum grain yield of 5.76 t ha-1, while line method, S. rostrata substituted for 35 to 90 kg of
seeding (dry aerobic) + RDF (80:50:30 kg NPK ha -1) split-applied urea N. Benefit-cost ratios indicated
+ post emergence weedicide was the 2nd best with that pre-rice green manure use in the wet season
mean grain yield of 5.74 t ha-1 closely followed by under the current fertilizer and labor prices in the
line seedling (dry aerobic)+ RDF (80:50:30 kg NPK Philippines was a less attractive economic option
ha -1) + in-situ green manure incorporation by than mineral N fertilizer.
paddy weeder and weed control with a marginally The rice crop establishment methods did not
lower yield of 5.69 t ha-1. The lowest yield of 4.30 t give any effect on relay crops (Table 4). This is
ha-1 were attained by line seedling (moist aerobic) because the sowing of relay crops is done as soon
+ RDF (80:50:30 kg NPK ha-1) + post emergence as the free water disappears. This time is almost
weedicide. The highest B:C ratio was found in line same for all the treatments. However the crop-wise
seedling (dry aerobic)+ RDF (80:50:30 kg NPK ha-1 differences are significant. Field pea and Lathyrus
+ In-situ green manure incorporation by paddy gave highest mean grain yields 1.47 and 1.41 t ha-1
weeder and weed control than followed by line indicating their effectiveness in soil moisture
Table 4. Grain yield (t ha-1) of relay crops after rice in lowland situations
Treatments Grain Yield of rice (t ha-1)Mean RWUE Mean B:C ratio

2006 2007 Mean (Kg ha-1 mm-1) (Rs. Re-1)
Chickpea 650 881.6 765.8 0.63 2.66
Field pea 1565 1366 1465.5 1.21 6.16
Lathyrus 1560 1254.1 1407.05 1.16 3.54
Linseed 331 295.6 313.3 0.26 3.96
seeding (dry aerobic) + RDF (80:50:30 kg NPK ha -1) utilization. The highest B: C ratio was obtained 6.16
+ post emergence weedicide and T1+ in - situ green for field pea followed by linseed (3.96). Field pea
manure (Sunhemp). The maximum RWUE was was superior with a yield 1.47 t ha-1 and B: C ratio
found in line seeding (dry aerobic) + RDF (80:50:30 of 6.16, while linseed gave B: C ratio of 3.96 from a
kg NPK ha-1) + post emergence weedicide (2.69 kg yield of 0.31 t ha-1.
ha -1mm -1) than followed by line seedling (dry
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41
42 GUPTA et al. [Journal of Soil & Water Conservation 13(1)

ISSN: 022-457X
Effect of Integrated Nutrient Management (INM)

on quality parameters and nutrient balance under rainfed
maize-gobhi sarson sequence
RAHUL GUPTA1, M.P. SHARMA2, K.R. SHARMA3, V. SHARMA4, B.C. SHARMA5 and VISHAL SHARMA6
Received: 19 August 2013; Accepted: 21 February 2014
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted to study the effect of integrated nutrient management on quality
parameters and nutrient balance under rainfed maize-gobhi sarson sequence at SKUAST-Jammu
during kharif and rabi seasons of 2006-07 and 2007-08, respectively. The experiment consisted of
fourteen treatment combinations. Maize crop was fertilized with recommended NPK along with S,
Zn and B and 25 percent additional nitrogen through vermicompost (VC) exhibited highest protein
content of 7.39 and 7.85 percent during 2006-07 and 2007-08, respectively. Similarly, in gobhi-
sarson highest protein content was noted where recommended NPK coupled with S, Zn, B and 25
percent additional nitrogen through VC was applied to preceding crop, exhibiting 21.14 and 21.58
percent protein during 2006-07 and 2007-08, respectively. The highest oil content (41.27 and 41.33
percent) of gobhi- sarson was recorded with the residual effect of treatment NPK+S+Zn+B+VC
(50% N replacement) during 2006-07 and 2007-08, respectively. However, the application of
NPK+S+Zn+B+VC (25% N additional) in maize resulted in the highest oil yield of gobhi-sarson
(5.63 and 5.85 q ha-1 during 2006-07 and 2007-08, respectively).
Key words: Maize-Gobhi sarson sequence, rainfed, nutrient balance sheet, protein content,
oil content and oil yield
INTRODUCTION sequence rather than individual crop to utilize

Maize-wheat and oilseed-maize are the residual plant nutrients for their efficient,
predominant cropping systems in the rainfed areas economical and judicious use (Panwar, 2008). The
of Jammu Division of Jammu and Kashmir. emerging multi-nutrient deficiency has decreased
However, yield of wheat in the existing system is the response of yield to fertilizers. This loss of
very low due to its complete dependence on rains mustard productivity is attributed to overall
which is often scanty and erratic during Rabi deterioration in soil health (Sinsinwar et al., 2005).
season. Since rapeseed-mustard can withstand Integrated nutrient management (INM) has been
moisture deficit better than than wheat and also now gaining importance firstly because of the
because of its wider adaptability and suitability for present negative nutrient balance and secondly
early planting to exploit moisture of rainy (kharif) neither the chemical fertilizers alone nor the
season, it has emerged as a potential replacement potential alternative sources of nutrients
for wheat in rainfed situations. Moreover, owing exclusively can achieve the production
to greater yield potential among cereals with sustainability of soils and crops under intensive
multiple uses for food, feed and industries, maize cultivation (Bhat et al., 2005). Under such situation,
has become an important crop in our county vis-a- integration of indigenously available organic
vis in the world. In the present day of intensive sources of nutrients with inorganic sources is of
agriculture, a plant is unable to use all the applied vital significance for sustaining the productivity
nutrients in its short life span, therefore fertilizer and fertility of soil. The adoption of integrated
scheduling is to be done on the basis of cropping nutrient management practice under the rainfed
1Research Scholar, Professor and Head, Division of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, SKUAST-J, Chatha, Jammu
2-4Professor,Professor & Head, Assoc. Prof., Division of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, SKUAST-J, Chatha, Jammu
5Professor, Divison of Agronomy, SKUAST-J, Chatha, Jammu
6Assistant Professor, Department of Agronomy, C.S.K.H.P.K.V.V., Palampur (H.P.)
42
January-March 2014] EFFECT OF INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT 43
condition not only enhances and sustain the of Soxhlet’s extraction method taking petroleum
fertility and productivity of soil but also improve ether as a solvent. Available N, P and K were
the nutrient and water use efficiency besides analyzed by Alkaline KMnO4 method (Subbiah
improving the physical, chemical and biological and Asija, 1956), Olsen’s method (Olsen et al., 1954)
properties of the soil. Therefore, keeping these facts and NH4OAC method (Hanway and Heidel, 1952)
in view the present study was carried out to respectively. Oil yield of gobhi-sarson was
evaluate the effects of Integrated Nutrient calculated by using the following formula:
Management (INM) on quality parameters and
nutrient balance under rainfed maize-gobhi sarson
sequence. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
MATERIALS AND METHODS Protein content in maize and gobhi-sarson

A field experiment was conducted during kharif Direct and residual effects of inorganics and
and rabi seasons of 2006-07 and 2007-08 at Dryland organics showed a significant variation in quality
Research Sub-Station, Dhiansar, SKUAST-Jammu. studies in terms of per cent protein content in maize
The experimental soil was sandy loam and contains and gobhi-sarson during both the years of
0.40 per cent organic carbon, 149.3 kg/ha available experimentation (Table 1). Maize crop fertilized
N, 14.9 kg/ha available P, 117.7 kg/ha available with recommended NPK along with S, Zn and B
K, 9.1 mg/kg available S, 0.54 mg/kg available Zn and 25 per cent additional nitrogen through
and 0.41 mg/kg available B. The field experiment vermicompost (T14) exhibited significantly higher
was laid out in randomized block design (RBD) protein content of 7.39 and 7.85 percent during
with fourteen treatment combinations {T1: NPK; 2006-07 and 2007-08, respectively. Treatment T13
T 2 : NPK+S; T 3 : NPK+Zn; T 4 : NPK+B; T 5 : {NPK+S+Zn+B+FYM (25% N additional)} and T8
NPK+S+Zn; T 6: NPK+S+B; T 7: NPK+Zn+B; T 8: (NPK+S+Zn+B) were found statistically at par with
NPK+S+Zn+B; T9: NPK+S+Zn+B+FYM (25% N the (T14) with respect to per cent protein content of
replacement); T 10 : NPK+S+Zn+B+VC (25% N maize crop during both the years. The significant
replacement); T11: NPK+S+Zn+B+FYM (50% N enhancement in percent protein content of maize
replacement); T 12 : NPK+S+Zn+B+VC (50 %N with these nutrient management practices might
replacement); T13: NPK+S+Zn+B+FYM (25% N be due to improvement in LAI of maize which
additional); T 14 : NPK+S+Zn+B+VC (25% N could have resulted in better interception,
additional)}. Each treatment was replicated thrice. absorption and utilization of radiant energy
N, P, K, S, Zn, and B were applied @ 60, 40, 20, 25, leading to higher photosynthetic rate and finally
10 and 1 kg ha-1 respectively for maize crop. The more accumulation of dry matter by the plants
rate of N, P2O5, and K2O application was 50, 30 & (Meena et al., 2012). The higher protein content
15 kg ha -1 respectively for gobhi-sarson. The under above treatment could also be ascribed to
sources of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium more nitrogen, and vital role of zinc in synthesis
were urea, diammonium phosphate and muriate of protein, indole acetic acid, chlorophyll
of potash, respectively. Sulphur, zinc and boron formation, carbohydrate and auxin metabolism in
were applied through elemental sulphur, zinc maize grain. These findings are in agreement with
oxide and borax. Full amount of P 2 O 5, K 2O, the results obtained by Arya and Singh (2000). A
farmyard manure and vermicompost along with significant and pronounced affect of recommended
50 per cent of nitrogen as per the treatment was NPK along with S, Zn and B and 25 percent
applied as basal and remaining 50 per cent of N additional nitrogen through vermicompost applied
was top dressed after first rain. Full doses of FYM, to preceding maize crop was reflected in per cent
phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, zinc oxide, boron protein content of gobhi-sarson (21.14 and 21.58
and half dose of nitrogen was applied at the time per cent during 2006-07 and 2007-08, respectively).
of sowing. Maize cv. ‘Kanchan-517’ and Gobhi- This combined application of inorganic and organic
sarson (B. napus var. oleracea) cv. ‘DGS-1’ was was significantly followed by treatment T 13
grown during during kharif and rabi season {NPK+S+Zn+B+FYM (25% N additional)} and T8
respectively. Protein content in grain and seeds of (NPK+S+Zn+B) in affecting the percent protein
maize and gobhi-sarson was calculated by content in gobhi-sarson. The higher protein content
multiplying N content with a constant factor of 6.25 under treatment T14: NPK+S+Zn+B+VC (25% N
and expressed in per cent. Per cent oil content in additional) might be due to more nitrogen content
gobhi-sarson seeds was calculated with the help and high seed yield. This was because of higher
43
Table 1. Direct and residual effect of inorganics and organics on protein content of maize (%) and gobhi-sarson (%) under
rainfed maize-gobhi sarson sequence
Treatment Protein content of Protein content of
Maize (%) Gobhi Sarson (%)
2006-07 2007-08 2006-07 2007-08
T1: NPK 3.27 3.66 16.91 17.33
T2: NPK+S 3.91 4.08 17.72 18.16
T3: NPK+Zn 4.27 4.39 17.41 17.85
T4: NPK+B 3.64 3.91 17.22 17.64
T5: NPK+S+Zn 5.95 6.41 19.52 20.02
T6 : NPK+S+B 5.64 5.97 19.22 19.72
T7: NPK+Zn+B 5.35 5.64 18.91 19.39
T8: NPK+S+Zn+B 7.04 7.52 20.66 21.16
T9: NPK+S+Zn+B+FYM (25% N replacement) 5.79 6.60 19.29 19.70
T10: NPK+S+Zn+B+VC (25% N replacement) 5.97 6.66 19.54 20.04
T12: NPK+S+Zn+B+VC (50 %N replacement) 5.66 6.70 19.20 19.83
T13: NPK+S+Zn+B+FYM (25% N additional) 7.20 7.72 20.85 21.29
T14: NPK+S+Zn+B+VC (25% N additional) 7.39 7.85 21.14 21.58
SEm± 0.30 0.34 0.35 0.36
CD (P=0.05) 0.89 0.99 1.04 1.07
residual availability of nutrients under the thereby processes of reductive amination and
treatments receiving organic sources, viz. FYM and transamination to produce more amino acids
vermicompost. Similarly positive residual effect of causing increased seed protein content with
organic sources applied to previous crop was corresponding decrease in seed oil content
reported by Kumar (2008) on wheat. The (Hussain et al., 1998). Premi et al. (2012) were also
vermicompost have been shown to contain reduced of nearly same opinion after evaluating the effects
levels of contaminants and a higher saturation of of mustard straw and green manure on mustard
nutrients than do organic materials before productivity and sustainability. However, the
vermicomposting. Application of vermicompost increase in oil content may be attributed to the
and its subsequent decomposition in soil released increased availability of sulphur, zinc and boron
plant nutrients in slow manner throughout the crop which involved in an increased conversion of
growth period causing better nutrient availability primary fatty acid metabolites to end products of
and thus it increased the value of yield attributing fatty acids. Shankar et al. (2002) and Prasad et al.
characters of gobhi-sarson which ultimately (2003) reported similar results. The oil yield of
reflected in increased yield and quality of gobhi- gobhi-sarson was significantly influenced due to
sarson. residual effects of organic treatments applied in
preceding maize crop. Significantly higher oil yield
Oil content and oil yield of gobhi-sarson of gobhi-sarson (5.63 and 5.85 q ha-1 during 2006-
The different inorganic and organic treatments 07 and 2007-08, respectively) was recorded with
in combination or alone did not show any treatment T 14 {NPK+S+Zn+B+VC (25% N
significant effect on per cent oil content of gobhi- additional)}. Supplementary addition of 25 per cent
sarson seeds during both the years (Table 2). nitrogen through vermicompost in combination
However, the highest oil content of gobhi-sarson with recommended NPK along with S, Zn and B
(41.27 and 41.33 percent during 2006-07 and 2007- in preceding maize crop increased the average
08, respectively) was recorded with residual effect mean oil yield of gobhi-sarson by 36.8% over
of treatment T 12 {NPK+S+Zn+B+VC (50% N recommended NPK. Since, the oil yield as well as
replacement)}. More percent oil content in gobhi- protein yield are the function of seed yield and their
sarson with treatment T 12 over treatment T 14 respective content in the seed, they increased with
{NPK+S+Zn+B+VC (25% N additional)} might be the increase in fertility levels and successive
due to the reason that more available nitrogen with addition of supplementary ingredients. The results
supplementary organics enhance degradation of are in close conformity with the results of Prasad
carbohydrates (tricarboxylic cycle) to acetyl CoA, (2000) and Singh and Kumar (1999). According to
44
January-March 2014] EFFECT OF INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT 45
Table 2. Residual effect of inorganics and organics on oil content (%) and oil yield (q ha-1) of gobhi-sarson under rainfed
maize-gobhi sarson sequence
Treatment Oil content of Oil yield of
Gobhi-Sarson (%) Gobhi Sarson (q ha-1)
2006-07 2007-08 2006-07 2007-08
T1: NPK 40.43 40.46 4.16 4.23
T2: NPK+S 40.57 40.60 4.36 4.42
T3: NPK+Zn 40.49 40.51 4.28 4.33
T4: NPK+B 40.48 40.52 4.21 4.28
T5: NPK+S+Zn 40.63 40.67 5.01 5.07
T6 : NPK+S+B 40.61 40.65 4.93 5.00
T7: NPK+Zn+B 40.50 40.54 4.87 4.97
T8: NPK+S+Zn+B 40.65 40.68 5.53 5.63
T10: NPK+S+Zn+B+VC (25% N replacement) 41.12 41.19 5.09 5.75
T12: NPK+S+Zn+B+VC (50 %N replacement) 41.27 41.33 5.04 5.84
T13: NPK+S+Zn+B+FYM (25% N additional) 40.76 40.83 5.57 5.80
T14: NPK+S+Zn+B+VC (25% N additional) 40.85 40.93 5.63 5.85
SEm± 0.33 0.34 0.19 0.21
CD (P=0.05)
Premi et al. (2012), oil yield is the function of oil Soil nutrient balance studies
content and seed yield. Since variation in oil The result of estimation made to arrive at an
content has genetic and biochemical limitations, the appropriate balance sheet of available N, P and K
oil yield is more influenced by seed yield and thus as affected by different treatment applied to maize-
followed almost similar trend to seed yield. gohi-sarson sequence over the two year period are
presented in Table 3. A comparison of initial status
Table 3. Balance sheet of available nutrients as influenced by inorganics and organics under maize-gobhi sarson sequence
Treatment Available N (Kg ha-1) Available P (Kg ha-1) Available K (Kg ha-1)
Initial Status at Net Initial Status at Net Initial Status at Net
status the end gain+)/ status the end gain+)/ status the end gain+)/
(2006) (2008) (loss (-) (2006) (2008) (loss (-) (2006) (2008) (loss (-)
T1: NPK 151.3 146.15 -5.15 16.75 14.45 -2.3 124.82 112.84 -11.98
T2: NPK+S 151.54 147.43 -4.11 16.92 14.76 -2.16 124.65 114.12 -10.53
T3: NPK+Zn 151.54 146.78 -4.76 15.75 14.62 -1.63 123.86 112.95 -10.91
T4: NPK+B 151.45 147.15 -4.30 16.65 14.53 -1.82 123.62 113.18 -10.44
T5: NPK+S+Zn 151.78 148.27 -3.51 16.55 14.87 -1.68 125.46 115.23 -10.23
T6 : NPK+S+B 150.77 148.13 -2.64 16.22 14.72 -1.50 125.76 115.85 -9.91
T7: NPK+Zn+B 150.58 148.35 -2.23 16.42 14.95 -1.47 123.65 117.12 -6.53
T8: NPK+S+Zn+B 150.74 148.68 -2.06 16.27 15.20 -1.07 123.65 117.27 -6.38
T9: NPK+S+Zn+B+FYM 147.75 153.22 +5.47 15.38 16.85 +1.47 119.15 121.47 +2.32
(25% N replacement)
T10: NPK+S+Zn+B+VC 147.55 153.47 +5.92 15.55 17.18 +1.63 119.67 122.55 +2.88
(25% N replacement)
T11: NPK+S+Zn+B+FYM 148.30 155.75 +7.45 15.58 17.35 +1.77 121.43 124.67 +3.24
(50% N replacement)
T12: NPK+S+Zn+B+VC 148.13 155.87 +7.74 15.87 17.53 +1.96 120.98 124.85 +3.87
(50 %N replacement)
T13: NPK+S+Zn+B+FYM 147.15 152.13 +4.98 15.28 16.47 +1.19 119.16 120.43 +1.27
(25% N additional)
T14: NPK+S+Zn+B+VC 147.34 152.57 +5.23 15.28 16.63 +1.35 119.82 121.37 +1.55
(25% N additional)
45
(2006) and status at the end (2008) revealed positive Meena, S.R., Kumar, A., Jat, N.K., Meena, B.P., Rana,
balance of available soil nitrogen, phosphorus and D.S. and Idnani, L.K. 2012. Influence of nutrient
potassium in cropping sequence which received sources on growth, productivity and economics of
integrated application of inorganic and organic baby corn (Zea mays)-potato (Solanum tuberosum)-
mungbean (Vigna radiata) cropping system. Indian
sources of nutrients. A net gain of 7.74 kg N, 1.96
Journal of Agronomy 57(3): 217-221.
kg P and 3.87 kg K was observed with treatment Olsen, S.R., Cole, V.C., Watanabe, F.S. and Dean, L.A.
T12 where 50% RDF was applied along with 50 per 1954. Estimation of available phosphorous in soil by
cent recommended dose of N through extension with NaHCO3. USDA. Circ. 939: 19-33.
vermicompost followed by T11 where 50 % RDF Panwar, A.S. 2008. Effect of integrated nutrient management
was applied along with 50 per cent recommended in maize (Zea mays) mustard-(Brassica campestris var
dose of N through FYM with gain of 7.45, 1.77 and toria) cropping system in mid hills attitude. Indian
3.24 kg N, P and K, respectively. However, there Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 78(1): 27-31.
was negative balance of available N, P and K in Pathak, S.K., Singh, S.B., Jha, R.N. and Sharma R.P. 2005.
Effect of nutrient management on nutrient uptake
soil when maize gobhi-sarson sequence was
and changes in soil fertility in maize (Zea Mays)-
fertilized with inorganic nutrients alone. The wheat (Triticum Aestivum) cropping system. Indian
positive balance of N, P and K was the result of Journal of Agronomy. 50(4): 269-273.
low uptake over total quantity of N, P and K Prasad, Baldeo. 2000. Performance of mustard varieties
applied to the crops. Vyas et al. (2003) and Tolanur under different fertility levels. Thesis M.Sc. G.B. Pant
and Badanur (2003) also reported similar results. University of Agriculture and Technology,
Hence, it is easily concluded from the present Pantnagar. pp 115.
study that application of inorganics in conjugation Prasad, K., Chaudhary, H.P. and Uttam, S.K. 2003. Effect
with organics in dryland not only increased the yield of N, P, S and Zn nutrition on nutrient uptake,
and quality of maize and gobhi-sarson but also quality and yield of rainfed Indian mustard. Indian
Agriculturist. 47 (1& 2): 45-50.
depicted a positive balance of available soil nitrogen,
Premi, O.P., Rathore, S.S., Shekhawat, K., Kandpal, B.K.
phosphorus and potassium which can be judiciously and Chauhan, J.S. 2012. Sustainability of follow-
used by the succeeding crop and helps in maintaining Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) system as
soil health. This study further strengthens the role of influenced by green manure, mustard straw cycling
organic sources of nutrients in maintaining soil and fertilizer application. Indian Journal of Agronomy
health. Whereas, their combination with inorganic 57(3): 229-234.
sources in appropriate ratios helps to maintain higher Shankar, G., Verma, L.P. and Singh, R. 2002. Effect of
yields. Additionally organic sources also improve integrated nutrient management on yield and
yields through increased moisture retention in these quality of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) and
properties of soil. Indian Journal of Agricultural
moisture deficit kandi soils.
Sciences. 72(9): 551-552.
Singh, R.P. and Kumar, A. 1999. New horizons for Brassica
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46
January-March 2014] ASSESSMENT OF INFILTRATION 47

ISSN: 022-457X
Assessment of infiltration rates and models under

high and low input crop management system in inceptisols
of eastern Uttar Pradesh
CHANDRABHAN PATEL1, Y.V. SINGH2, Y.A. GARDE3, D.K. VERMA4 and S.M. SINGH5
ABSTRACT
An infiltration study was carried out in Inceptisols at six locations under two different levels of
management viz., high input crop management (HM) and low input crop management (LM).
Infiltrometers were setup for taking reading during 2009-10 and its evaluation was calculated in
2010 by different models viz., an empirical infiltration models (Kostiakov, 1932) and two process-
based models (Green and Ampt, 1911 and Phillips, 1957) was evaluated to predict instantaneous
infiltration rates in Eastern U.P. The model parameters were evaluated for efficiency and precision
with respect to effects of management levels. The soil series Nigatpur under HM recorded higher
infiltration rates. Infiltration rates were lower in low management at Khetalpur. These models have
been evaluated with coefficient of determination (R2), root mean square error (RMSE) and coefficient
of residual mass (CRM) parameters. Phillip (1957) model was the best representation of the
infiltration rate and time relationship in Inceptisols at all the locations. Phillips (1957) model had
higher value of R2 (0.97 to 0.99) and lower value of RMSE (0.14 to 1.78) and CRM (-0.598 to -0.143).
Key words: Infiltration rate, Infiltration models, High input and Low input crop management
INTRODUCTION infiltration process (Reddy and Reddi 2010). The

Infiltration is the process of entry of water into infiltration models can be broadly categorized as
the soil through the soil surface (Hillel 1980). empirical models (Kostiakov 1932; Empirical
Infiltration is most responsive to conditions near USSCS 1964 and Holtan 1961) and process-based
the soil surface and changes with management due models (Green and Ampt 1911; Phillip 1957 and
to the adoption of various soil and crop Stroosnijerd 1976). But, the predictive ability of the
management practices (Sarrantonio et al. 1996). infiltration models varies with management and
Moreover, field measurements of infiltration are cultural practices which influence with the soil
often time-consuming and cumbersome. Hence, properties and consequently the water infiltration
the use of different infiltration models offers viable into soil (Shukla et al. 2003). The coefficients of these
alternative to assess the infiltration characteristics models are influenced by soil texture and water
of the soil. India has geographical area about 329 transmission parameter, which in turn are
millions hectare (m ha) and has annual rainfall 1194 functions soil management and land use practices.
mm which contribute total rainfall 400 millions Infiltration can be measured in field or laboratory
hectare meter (m ha-m). About 215 m ha-m, water using the infiltrometer. infiltrometer is a device to
infiltrates into the soil and rest 115 m ha-m water measure the rate of infiltrated water into soil.
flows on the earth surface which produce a hazards Generally, it is used as double ring infiltrometer
runoff and soil erosion and loss of nutrient from or single ring infiltrometer. The purpose is to create
the soil surface. About 165 m ha-m soil moisture one dimensional flow of water from the inner ring
and 50 m ha-m ground water get recharged by in double ring infiltrometer. If water is flowing in
1Ph.D Scholar, Department of Farm Engineering, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
2Sr. Scientist, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
3Scientist, APSRAC, Division of Agriculture & Soils, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh
4Sr. Scientist, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Birsa Agricultural University, Bhagalpur, Bihar
5Sr. Scientist, National Youth project, Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh
47
48 PATEL et al. [Journal of Soil & Water Conservation 13(1)
one-dimensional at steady state condition and a MATERIAL AND METHODS

unit gradient is present in the underlying soil the The infiltration study was carried out at six
infiltration rate is approximately equal to the locations representing three benchmark sites were:
standard saturated hydraulic conductivity Nigatpur, Majhawa Block, Mirzapur (U.P.) (two
(Bouwer 1986). The amount of decayed organic spots), Khanpur, Chiraigaon Block, Varanasi (U.P.)
matter found at the soil surface can also enhance (two spots) and Khetalpur, Aurai Block, Sant
infiltration; organic soils are generally more porous Ravidas Nagar (U.P.) (two spots). The detailed
than mineral soil, which can hold much greater information on location, soil type, bio-climate and
quantities of water. (Sarrantonio et al. 1996). Several land use systems of the study area is presented in
studies have been conducted to validate these Table 1. The twodifferent levels of management i.e.
infiltration models under diverse situations high input crop management (HM) which is high
(Skaggs et at. 1969; Haverkamp et al. 1977; Davidoff input agricultural management and low input
and Selim 1986; Harverkamp et al. 1988; Lal and agricultural management (LM) representing lower
Doren 1990; Sumathi and Padmakumari 2000 and input use were chosen for the study. The HM is
Shukla et al. 2003). In Indian subcontinent, in characterized by application of high dose of NPK
dryland soils, different land use and crop (Location specific), regular application of manures,
management practices such as high input intercropping with legumes; incorporation of
management and low input/farmer’s management residues and adoption of soil moisture
etc. are being followed which may influence the conservation practices. The management practices
infiltration characteristics of the soils. In India, so under LM include low application of manure, sole
far, apart from texture, other inherent properties crop, removal of residues and biomass and no soil
that affect soil infiltration characteristics and moisture conservation practices. Some of physical
different types of models are tested to predict and chemical properties of surface soils (0-30 cm)
cumulative infiltration and infiltration rate (Singh, that influence the infiltration of experimental sites
et al. 1994). However, information on the extent of are presented in Table 2. The infiltration study was
changes in soil infiltrati6n characteristics as carried out in using double ring infiltrometer with
influenced by management systems and suitability 27 cm outer diameter and 15 cm inner diameter
of various infiltration models for a particular soil (Bouwer 1986). Double ring infiltrometers have
type is lacking. Therefore, the present study was been setup to observed infiltration rate during rabi
carried out to study the effect of different land uses season 2009-10 only. Three time infiltrometers have
and management practices on infiltration been setup for each locations. A constant water
characteristics of the Inceptisols of humid sub- head of 8 cm was maintained in the inner ring and
tropical (HST) India and to evaluate different free water was kept in the outer ring at all the time.
infiltration models to predict the infiltration There were used infiltration models viz; an
characteristics of these soils.
Table1. Detail of locations, soil classification, land use pattern under high input and low management system
Place and Latitude Longitude Soil classification Bio-climate Land use

management
Nigatpur (HM) 250 10' 820 60' Ustochrepts Warm and semiarid Agriculture (Lady’s
Order inceptisols to subhumid finger-carrot-sunflower)
Nigatpur (LM) 250 10' 820 60' Ustochrepts Warm and semiarid Agriculture
Order inceptisols to subhumid (Paddy-wheat)
Khanpur (HM) 250 20' 830 00' Ustochrepts Semi-arid and Agriculture
Order inceptisols sub-humid (Chilli- bitter guard)
Khanpur (LM) 250 20' 830 00' Ustochrepts Semi-arid and Agriculture
Order inceptisols sub-humid (Paddy-wheat)
Khetalpur (HM) 250 24' 820 38' Ustochrepts Semi-arid and Agriculture
Order inceptisols sub-humid (Sugarcane-moog)
Khetalpur (LM) 250 24' 820 38' Ustochrepts Semi-arid and Agriculture
Order inceptisols sub-humid (Paddy-wheat)
48
Table 2. Soil physical and chemical properties of different locations.
Place and Sand Clay Silt Bulk Particle Porosity pH EC Organic Calcium Exchangeable
Management (%) (%) (%) Density Density (%) dSm-1 Carbon Carbonate Sodium
(Mg m3) (Mg m3) (%) (%) (%)
Nigatpur (HM) 50.12 38.38 11.50 1.260 2.386 47.19 7.40 0.36 0.50 5.00 15.00
Nigatpur (LM) 48.25 41.50 10.25 1.360 2.420 43.80 7.50 0.38 0.41 7.00 15.50
Khanpur (HM) 56.20 30.80 13.00 1.268 2.400 47.16 7.20 0.34 0.58 4.50 17.19
Khanpur (LM) 55.5 25.50 19.00 1.375 2.324 40.83 7.80 0.35 0.40 5.00 17.00
Khetalpur (HM) 52.5 30.00 17.50 1.300 2.321 43.98 7.50 0.26 0.56 4.00 16.54
Khetalpur (LM) 50.00 31.00 19.00 1.380 2.350 41.27 8.20 0.38 0.43 6.20 17.50
empirical models (Kostiakov 1932) and two process Where,

based models (Green and Ampt 1911 and Phillip SSE = sum of Squares error.
1957) and its evaluation have been done in 2010. SSyy =sum of square of model.
The infiltration rate was determined numerically (b) Root mean square error (RMSE)
from the depth of cumulative infiltration and the
corresponding time interval data in each location
until steady state infiltration rate was reached. The
infiltration rate were fitted into an empirical Where,
models (Kostiakov 1932) and two process based X = observed value.
models (Green and Ampt 1911 and Phillip 1957) Y = modeled value.
as given below: n = no. of predictions/observations.
(1) Kostiakov (1932) model (c) Coefficient of residual mass (CRM)
i = Bt-(n+1)
Where,
i = instantaneous infiltration rate (cm min-1.)
t = time (minute) Where,
‘B’ and ‘n’ are empirical constant Pi = predicted value.
Oi = observed value.
(2) Green and Ampt (1911) model
i = ic + B/I
Where,
I = instantaneous infiltration rate of water
Assessment of Infiltration Rate
(cm min-1)
ic = steady state infiltration rate (cm min-1) The highest infiltration rate (2.6 cm hr-1) in the
B = constant HM systems of Nigatpur (Table 3 & figure 1) could
be explained partly by the high organic carbon
(3) Phillip (1957) model content (Table 2) and the okra-carrot-sunflower
i = 1/2St-1/2 + A based cropping system. The adoption of above
Where, crops which have deep-root system and high
S = sorptivity (cm min-1/2,) carbon sequestration potential resulted in more
A = constant organic carbon in soils (Wani et al. 2003). This
T = time (min.) improved water transmission through soil profile
The infiltration model parameters were is due to better porosity, aggregation, antecedent
estimated by linear and non linear regression soil water content and the presence of macro pore
analysis technique (Gomez and Gomez 1984). The channels (Edwards et al. 1988; Lowery et al. 1996
Assessment of different models was evaluated and Shaver et al. 2002). Among the all location
using coefficient of determination (R2), root mean Inceptisols of Khetalpur areas, the initial as well
square error (RMSE) and coefficient of residual as the steady state infiltration rates were lower in
mass (CRM) parameters (Smith et al. 1996). LM (Table 3 and figure 5 & 6) than in HM
Khetalpur. Earlier research has proved that the
(a) Coefficient of determination
same soil will have different infiltration rates under
various lands uses (Friedman 2003). The variations
in the time taken to reach the cumulative
49
Fig. 1. Infiltration rate and accumulated infiltration at Fig. 2. Infiltration rate and accumulated infiltration at
HM Nigatpur LM Nigatpur
HM Khanpur LM Khanpur
infiltration and steady state infiltration rate all the soils of high management were found to be
location study under different management system higher compared to low management. Other than
(i.e. high and low input management system) could the differences in the soil calcium carbonate
be attributed to the presence of varied amounts of content, the above trend in the infiltration
gypsum crystals along with medium and coarse- parameters could be the result of addition of
sized lime nodules at different depths which may available quantities of organic manures from the
be due to differences in the landscape positions of existing animal source which would have
these sites (Bhattacharyya, et al. 2003). The improved the surface soil properties that influence
infiltration rate in low management at Khatalpur the infiltration.
was relatively lower than the high management
system (Figure 5 & 6). The low management in the Assessment of the infiltration models
present study was characterized by higher bulk The Assessment of the different infiltration
density and calcium carbonate, which might have models at different location under HM & LM
resulted in the formation of impermeable crusts system were evaluated using coefficient of
layer that resulted in low infiltration rate as determination, root mean square error and
compared to the high management systems. coefficient of residual mass parameters values
Among the high management systems in these showed in Table 3. The value of coefficient of
soils, cultivation of deep rooted crops (okra-carrot- determination shows the fit of model and its values
sunflower) resulted in higher initial and steady may varies from 0 to 1. Higher values of coefficient
state infiltration rate over sequential cropping of of determination imply better fit of the model
rice- wheat, which again highlights the advantages whereas lower values of RMSE and CRM. RMSE
of the type of cropping system and its favorable were lower to low management Khetealpur and
relationship with key soil properties that influence Nigatpur with comparison others locations Table
the infiltration rate. In all locations, the initial 3. Because here infiltration rates go to constant at
infiltration rate and steady state infiltration rate in 150 minutes and 120 minutes to low management
50
HM Khetalpur HM Khetalpur
Table 3. Evaluation of different infiltration models under high and low input management systems at different locations
of study area
Place and Infiltration

management Rate Model evaluations parameters
(cm hr-1)
Kostiakov (1932) Green and Ampt (1911) Phillips (1957)
R2 RMSE CRM R2 RMSE CRM R2 RMSE CRM
(cm hr-1) (cm hr-1) (cm hr-1)
Nigatpur (HM) 2.6 0.87 13.42 4.43E-16 0.69 1.59 -2.05 E-16 0.99 1.33 -0.487
Nigatpur (LM) 1.8 0.82 11.21 4.52 E-16 0.79 1.15 -3.24 E-16 0.97 0.15 -0.143
Khanpur (HM) 2.3 0.80 17.86 4.40 E-16 0.61 8.96 -1.69 E-16 0.99 1.71 -0.591
Khanpur (LM) 1.8 0.86 13.35 4.90 E-16 0.68 1.82 -2.15 E-16 0.99 1.33 -0.472
Khetalpur (HM) 2.0 0.84 13.67 4.41 E-16 0.63 2.35 -1.72 E-16 0.99 1.78 -0.598
Khetalpur (LM) 1.1 0.83 10.65 4.25 E-16 0.77 1.15 -2.65 E-16 0.98 0.14 -0.147
Khetealpur and Nigatpur, respectively while rest in better soil conditions that will improve the
four locations infiltration rates were fond constant physico-chemical properties of soils that will
after 150 minutes and 180 minutes. Therefore, low increase the infiltration rate with less runoff. In
management Khetealpur and Nigatpur infiltration HM, the infiltration rate was higher than LM
rate were better fit in all model Kostiakov (1932), because good agricultural practices would help in
Green and Ampt (1911) model Phillips (1957) increasing the infiltration characteristics in
model in comparison to rest four locations Table Inceptisols. The Phillips model (1957) was better
3. R2 values were 0.80 to 0.87 for Kostiakov (1932), performer than Kostiakov (1932) and Green and
0.61 to 0.79 for Green and Ampt (1911) model and Ampt (1911) models in Inceptisols of Varanasi, Sant
0.97 to 0.99 for Phillips (1957) model. RMSE values Ravidas Nagar and Mirzapur district of Eastern
(0.14 to 1.78) of Phillips (1957) were lower than Utter Pradesh. Overall, simple infiltration models
RMSE value (10.65 to 17.86) of Kostiakov (1932) based on Phillips (1957) gave the best
and RMSE values (11.15 to 8.96) of Green & Ampt representation of the infiltration rate and time
(1911) model. Phillips model gives better relationship and also the best fit with experimental
performances in long time (360 min. and 460 min.) information data in Inceptisols for Eastern Utter
(Shahsavar et. al 2010). The overall Assessment of Pradesh. This is suggested that application of
the infiltration models tested in humid sub tropical organic manure, adaptation of deep root system
area of Eastern U.P. can be ranked as follows: may increase infiltration rate. Therefore, more
Phillips (1957) > Kostiakov (1932) > Green and infiltration rate is benefit to reduce runoff and
Ampt (1911) models. increase ground water recharge.
CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Adoption of high management system in The authors are grateful to Dr. V. K. Chandola,
Inceptisols of Eastern Utter Pradesh would results Dr. A. K. Nema and Dr. R. M. Singh, Department
51
of Farm Engineering, Institute of agricultural Lal, R. and Daren, D.M. 1990. Influence of 25 Years of
Sciences, B.H.U., Varanasi (U.P.) for taking their continuous com production by their tillage methods
keen interest and encouragement to carry out the on water infiltration for two soils in Ohio. Soil Till.
research work. Res. 16, pp. 71-84.
Lowery, B., Arshad, M.A., LAL, R. and Hickey, W.J.
1996. Soil water parameters and soil quality. In.
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52
January-March 2014] EVALUATION OF LARGE-SCALE 53

ISSN: 022-457X
Evaluation of large-scale subsurface drainage system

in the Indira Gandhi Nahar Pariyojana Command Area,
Rajasthan, India
ROHITASHW KUMAR1 and MUKESH KUMAR2
ABSTRACT
The present paper describes a large scale field installed subsurface drainage system in the Indira
Gandhi Nahar Pariyojana command area in Rajasthan. Utility of subsurface drainage as an
intervention to reclaim waterlogged saline lands and to ensure sustainability of irrigated agriculture
has been established through experiments and pilot research conducted in waterlogged area. The
subsurface drainage systems were evaluated on the basis of hydraulic characteristics of envelop
materials, different drainage properties of soil and evaluation of drain spacing equations for disposal
of effluent. An attempt has been made to critically review the findings emerging out of such a large
number of pilots and subsurface drainage systems projects with a view to identifying management
strategies requirement at regional scale. Salient findings that could serve as design guidelines or to
operationalize the systems in an effective and eco-friendly manner have been put together for their
application in future. The knowledge generated in this paper would help to design and plan
subsurface drainage activities on which rests the food and nutritional security of India and many
other developing nations.
Key words: Subsurface drainage, design guidelines, pilot research, salinity, waterlogging
INTRODUCTION
terms of soil properties, drainage system
The introduction of irrigated agriculture in arid parameters and boundary conditions (Kumar et al.,
and semi-arid regions of the country has resulted 2009, 2012, 2013). There are numerous
in the development of the twin problem of mathematical solutions, which have been proposed
waterlogging and soil salinization, with for the design of subsurface drainage system under
considerable areas either going out of production steady and non steady state conditions. These
or experiencing reduced yield (Kumar et al., 2009). solutions are arrived at by applying analytical or
It is estimated that an area of nearly 8.5 million ha integration or analog techniques. Utility of
is affected by soil salinity and alkalinity, of which subsurface drainage as an intervention to reclaim
about 5.5 million ha in the irrigation canal waterlogged saline lands and to ensure
commands and 2.5 million ha in the coastal areas sustainability of irrigated agriculture in India has
(Gupta, 2002). The problem of increasing salinity been established through experiments and pilot
caused by the rise of the water table and the lack research conducted for over a century (Gupta,
of drainage is considered as a major environmental 2002). It is felt that large scale drainage projects
problem that threatens the capital investment in would be increasingly implemented in India and
irrigated agriculture and its sustainability (Kumar many other developing countries (Kumar and
et al., 2012). Gupta, 2010). The knowledge generated in this
Agricultural land drainage is a useful century would help to design and plan subsurface
intervention in the overall water management drainage activities on which rests the food and
activities (Kumar et al., 2012). Effective design of nutritional security of India and many other
subsurface drainage system requires that soil water developing nations.
movement during drainage be characterized in
1Associate Professor and Head, Division of Agricultural Engineering, SKUAST- Kashmir, Srinagar (J&K);
E-mail: [email protected]
2Assistant Professor, School of Agriculture, IGNOU, Maidan Garhi, New Delhi
53
This paper presents the case study of the Indira Cultural Command Area (CCA) of 12.44 lakh ha
Gandhi Nahar Priyojana (IGNP) command area consisting of 8.02 lakh ha under flow irrigation and
basin and comments upon the outputs through 4.42 lakh ha under lift canals with irrigation
field experiences of the research organizations and intensity of 80% for flow and around 60% for lift.
line departments that are active in this area. A brief Stage-II provided irrigation to 9.01 lakh ha in the
review of field performance evaluation of districts of Sriganganagar, Hanumangarh, Churu,
subsurface drainage system, unsteady state drain Bikaner, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer and Barmer.
spacing equation, physical properties of soil, and Rise of the water table closer to the surface and
laboratory and field test of envelopes are given. In inundation of the low-lying areas have caused
view of the stated problem at hand, this study seeks submergence of agricultural lands and constraints
to highlight the environmental implications of poor in the choice of crops and loss of production. The
drainage systems in the area and make possible damages have taken place extensively in several
solution and suggestions towards the amelioration areas and about 4,000 ha of agriculture, some
of the problems. The methodology proposed in this waterlogged areas have completely gone out of
paper could be used to investigate drainage cultivation, where the water table is either above
requirements on a regional scale. the ground surface or very close to the surface.
Waterlogged areas have also gone out of
Indira Gandhi Nahar Priyojana cultivation due to salinization. Waterlogging
Indira Gandhi Nahar Project (IGNP) is one of seriously constrains the choice of crops, enhances
the most gigantic projects in the world aiming to expenditure on farm operations and strongly
dedesertify and transform desert waste land into affects the growth and yield of crops. Cultivation
agriculturally productive area. The project in about 4.4% of the area has been abandoned due
objectives include drought proofing, providing to waterlogging and salinity about 5.7% areas in
drinking water, improvement of environment, Stage I and 2.4% in Stage II.
afforestation, employment, rehabilitation, A pilot project on water management in general
development and projection of animal wealth and and subsurface drainage in particular was initiated
increasing agricultural produce. The IGNP in the year 1993 at Lukhuwali area in
Command Area lies between 28°30’ and 30°32’ N Hanumangarh District and at Lunkarnsar of
latitude and 73° 45’ to 74° 46’E longitude in North Bikaner District and called Indo – Dutch drainage
Western Rajasthan, India. The maximum project with the collaboration of Central Soil
temperature goes in month of May-June up to 52 Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana.
0C and minimum temperature goes below freezing
point in winter month. The soil texture is sandy Drainage intervention

and the command area lacked natural drainage.
This led to a massive spread of waterlogging and Several ameliorative interventions have been
salinity, inundation of vast land depressions and attempted on a pilot scale to mitigate waterlogging
fast spread of water- induced animal and human and salinity in the IGNP command. These
diseases (Mandal and Sharma, 2011). interventions, mainly biophysical in nature,
The IGNP was originally approved by the included reduction in water allowance and
Planning Commission in the year 1957 for an drainage pilots for surface drainage, subsurface
estimated cost of Rs.66.43 Cr in a combined shape drainage, tube well drainage, skimming wells and
which was revised with the proposal to execute bio-drainage (Kumar et al., 2009). Most of the
the project components in two stages i,e; Stage-I & interventions faced operational, management,
Stage-ll in 1970. Stage- I consists of a 204 km long financial and institutional challenges and could not
feeder canal, having a head works discharge be upscaled for wider adoption in the command.
capacity of 460 m3/sec, which starts from Harike Kumar et al. (2009) conducted study to evaluate
Barrage (Punjab), 170 km of the feeder canal lie in the performance of synthetic envelopes for sub-
Punjab and Haryana and 34 km in Rajasthan. While surface drainage under the field conditions at
IGNP, Saget-I, with its CCA of 5.43 lakh ha was Lunkarnsar Farm, Indira Gandhi Canal Command
approved by the Planning Commission. The IGNP Area. Three types of synthetic envelopes viz. HG
stage-II starts from the tail of stage-I i.e. from 189 22, SAPP 240 and CAN 2 were evaluated by using
km of IGNP main canal. IGNP, Stage-ll comprises sand tank model and permeability apparatus to
of 256 km long (km189 to km 445) main canal and compare their performances in terms of entrance
the requisite distribution system to irrigate resistance and hydraulic conductivities of soil
54
envelope system. The experiments revealed that intensity will increase and crop yield will be more
the values of entrance resistance for envelope HG than double. However, this technology requires the
22, SAPP 240 and CAN 2 were 1.95 day/m, 1.33 participation of a group of farmers having
day/m and 1.51 day/m, respectively of contiguous land parcels and also issues like
Lunkarnsar soil. The hydraulic conductivities for disposal/reuse of drainage effluent need to be
envelope HG 22, SAPP 240 and CAN 2 of the total addressed before embarking on large-scale
thickness (k-total) were found to be 4.53 cm/hr, adoption.
5.22 cm/hr and 4.91 cm/hr and of the contact layer The already installed successful pilots on
(k-contact) were found to be 3.009 cm/hr, 3.62 cm/ subsurface drainage (SSD) systems may be
hr and 3.27 cm/hr, respectively. The Hydraulic operated and monitored for deriving experience
conductivity for SAPP 240 filter was found to be on these issues (Gupta, 1985; Rao et al., 1986). The
the highest and entrance resistance was found to main objective was to suggest a technology to
be lowest. The SAPP 240 filter is recommended for assess the surface and subsurface drainable surplus
Indira Gandhi Command Area for subsurface so that an integrated drainage system could be
drainage system (Kumar et al., 2009) designed and disposal infrastructure created.
In the command area, through installation of
vertical drainage systems lower down the water Sub-surface drainage system
table significantly. Though the results indicated
that, to some extent, groundwater levels could be Large numbers of drainage theories are available
controlled, Installation of the subsurface to design the subsurface drainage system for given
drainage shows its beneficial effects in area. The physical characteristics of soil play an
reclaiming waterlogged saline soils in a short span important role in the design of SSD. Soil is most
of 3 to 4 years in several subsurface drainage heterogeneous mass for which soil properties may
projects in command area of IGNP. The subsurface vary with respect to location, depth and time. The
drainage projects installed in IGNP also showed most important properties of soil which affect the
similar improvements at Lukhuwali and design and performance of subsurface drainage
Lunkarnsar areas. However, the technology is new system are hydraulic conductivity, drainable
to the area and pilot projects need to be operated porosity and depth of impermeable barrier.
and monitored for evaluating the impact. Bio- Synthetic envelopes play an important role in
drainage with eucalyptus species was also subsurface drainage due to its effectiveness and
attempted along small stretches of the canals. The ease in transportability (Kumar et al., 2009). Poor
bio-plantations may be used in certain waterlogged drainage due to drain clogging is a fairly frequent
wastelands with suitable species and management problems world over which leads to partial to
practices (Kumar et al., 2012). complete failure of costly subsurface drainage
system. Synthetic drain envelopes are being widely
used to protect drainage pipe from sedimentation
Strategy for groundwater management
installed in soils where clogging hazards has been
Provision of canals, the distribution system and diagnosed. The main objective of placing envelope
the application of surface water to such a large area, is to prevent the entry of soil particles into drain
besides providing direct irrigation benefits, also which reduces pipe capacity and to improve
assists in modification of the groundwater regime permeability in the immediate vicinity of the drain
(Gupta, 2002). The planning for integrated use of openings. It is therefore necessary to evaluate the
canal and groundwater will alleviate waterlogging performance of the drainage system and
problems and improve water use efficiency and investigate the drainage properties to be used for
productivity in the command area. Attempts have regional scale design.
been made earlier conjunctive use of groundwater
and canal supplies using simulation modeling Drainage requirement: current status and need
techniques. Some studies have also been made in
IGNP for projecting the problems of waterlogging There is a need to strengthen the capacity of the
and soil salinity and evaluating various options for surface and subsurface drainage network in the
problem amelioration (Kumar et al., 2009; 2012; command area, particularly the on-farm drainage
2013). The pilot projects on subsurface drainage network without which crops suffer from water
lower down groundwater, that salinity in the root stagnation on cropped lands. Since this discharge
zones can be quickly reduced when the cropping would be spread over the whole year, it might not
55
pose much of a problem during critical periods. of the drain spacing equations are the saturated
Operational schedules could be designed to hydraulic conductivity and the drainable porosity.
dispose of this surplus at relatively safe periods.
However, for the design of a horizontal pipe Envelope
drainage system, the maximum value of the In the last few decades maximum emphasis was
drainable surplus, i.e. 2mm day-1, is recommended given over irrigation potential development to raise
(Kumar and Gupta, 2010). Subsurface drainage productivity of land. Many multi-purpose projects
systems installed by automated subsurface were implemented with a huge network of canal
drainage laying machines. In IGNP command area irrigation. But soon it was found that the problems
used large-scale multidisciplinary applied research of water table rise, salinity and waterlogging were
to investigate the use of horizontal subsurface on the rise. Effective design of sub surface drainage
drainage to control the problems of waterlogging system require that soil water movement during
and salinity. Both trenching and trenchless drainage be characterized in terms of soil
machines (equipped with laser-guided grade- properties, drainage system parameter and
control) were used. The performance of the boundary condition while best performance can be
machines was evaluated with respect to the achieved by good quality drainage material and
installation of drain-pipes of different diameters regular maintenance. Continuous attention has
at various depths, during the pre and post- been paid by scientists to evolve theoretical and
monsoon seasons. The overall drain-laying times mathematical solution to determine the structural
for the trencher, V-plough and trenchless plough strength, hydraulic resistance of pipe material and
were 51%, 26% and 30%, respectively, of the total entrance resistance of envelope materials.
installation time (Kumar and Gupta, 2010). Inverse Sedimentation problem in the subsurface drainage
linear relationships were found between drain is the principle cause of failure of drains. The
diameter and drain laying rate, and between drain envelop material has play significant role in success
depth and drain laying rate. The drain-laying rates of any waterlogged soils (Healy and Long, 1972;
during post monsoon season were higher than pre- Mckeys and Broughton, 1974; Rapp and Riaz, 1975
monsoon (Gupta, 2002). and Broughton, 1976). The laboratory tests evaluate
the ability of thin synthetic envelopes to prevent
Evaluation of sub-surface drainage system sediment from entering surface drains (Broadhead
The actual performance of drainage system et al., 1983, Tiligadas, 1988, Kumar et al., 2009, 2012).
designed on the basis of analytical relationship and A variety of materials almost all permeable porous
assumption is evaluated by its effectiveness to material that are available economically in large
control the waterlogging and salinity hazards in quantities have been placed around subsurface
actual field conditions (Schwab et al., 1957). Sewa drains as envelopes.
Ram and Chauhan (1972) verified the applicability The above review paper shows that site specific
of Glover equation (Dumm, 1954) Integrated evaluation of a drainage system should be
Hooghoudt equation (Bouwer and Van conducted to suggest large scale drainage design
Schilfgaarde, 1963), Van Schilfgaarde equation parameters under similar conditions. Regional
(Van Schilfgaarde, 1963) and modified Glover surface and subsurface drainage requirements have
equation (Van Schifgaarde, 1965) in Tarai region been worked out, suggesting that the area is prone
of U.P. They concluded that spacing predicated by to surface stagnation and has been facing a serious
Glover equation increased and Van Schilfgaarde problem of a rising groundwater table over the last
equation performed generally better than others. 30 years. The integrated drainage approach
The hydraulic heads calculated from modified required strengthening of the surface drainage
Glover equations showed minimum deviation network particularly at farm scale and
from observed values (Kumar et al., 2012). The implementation of subsurface drainage in at least
modified Glover equation is best suitable to 16% of the study area. Since farmers are already
evaluate drain spacing equations for disposal of sensitive to the problem, there is no reason why
effluent (Kumar et al., 2012). The proper they would not respond to technologies to reverse
identification of a drainage problem and selection the declining groundwater table with a basketful
of a technically and economically viable solution of alternative technologies being made available
requires detailed investigation of soil condition and by research and development organizations.
other related factors. It is well known that the two Subsurface drainage systems are designed to
main soil properties required equations for many remove excess water from soil quickly enough to
56
minimize crop. The depth and spacing guidelines Gupta, S.K. 2002. A century of subsurface drainage
for installing drainage pipes play very important research in India. Irrigation and Drainage Systems
role. 16: 69–84.
Gupta, S.K. 1985. Subsurface drainage for waterlogged
saline soils. Irrigation and Power Journal 42: 335–344.
CONCLUSIONS Healey, K.A. and Long, R.P., 1972. Prefabricated filter
Soil salinity and waterlogging have been fin for subsurface drains. J. of Irrigation and
brought about by natural or human-induced Drainage. Div. of ASCE. 988(IR-4):543-553.
processes and is a major environmental hazard. Kumar, K. and Gupta, S. K., 2010. Decline of
groundwater tables in the upper Yamuna basin:
Evaluation and installation of subsurface drainage
causes and management strategies. J. Irrigation
system is a difficult task, particularly across a
and Drainage 59: 606–620.
country like India with such a diverse agro-climatic Kumar, R., Bhakar, S.R., Jhajharia, D. and Durbude,
conditions. Present study was aimed to maintain D.G., 2009. Performance of synthetic envelopes in
both adequate aeration as well as moisture in their Indira Gandhi Command Area Rajasthan. ISH
root zone for optimal growth of plants. Either high Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 15(2):1-15.
ground water table and/or excessive irrigation Kumar, R., Bhakar, S.R., Jhajharia, D. and
creates the condition of excess water and Morvejalahkami, B., 2012. Evaluation of drain
consequently results in development of spacing equations in the Indira Gandhi Canal
waterlogged soils. In arid and semi arid region, as command area, India. ISH Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering Vol. 18(3), 186–193.
a result of high water table, salinity also develops.
Kumar, R., Bhakar, S. R. and Singh, P. K., 2013.
Installation of subsurface drainage system improve Evaluation of hydraulic characteristics and
aeration of root zone will further improve the soil management strategies of subsurface drainage
health. The hydraulic conductivity for SAPP 240 system in Indira Gandhi Canal Command. Agric
filter was found highest and entrance resistance Eng Int: CIGR Journal, 15(2): 1-9.
was the lowest. Therefore, SAPP 240 filter is Mandal, A.K. and Sharma, R., 2011. Delination and
recommended for IGNP command area for SSD characterization of waterlogged salt affected soils
installation. Applicability of unsteady state drain in IGNP using remote sensing and GIS. J. Indian Soc.
spacing equations viz. Glover-Dumm, Van Remote Sensing, 39(1): 39-50.
Mckeys, E. and Broughton, R. S., 1974. A laboratory test
Schilfgaarde, Integrated Hooghoudt and Modified
of some drain tube filter materials. J. of Canadian
Glover equations were evaluated (Kumar et al.,
Agricultural Engg., 16:62.
2013). Modified Glover equation has minimum Rao, K.V.G.K., Singh, O.P., Gupta, R.K., Kamra, S.K.,
deviation from actual drain spacing than observed Padey, R.S., Kumbhare, P.S. and Abrol, I.P., 1986.
value to estimate the quantity of drainage effluent. Drainage Investigations for Salinity Control in
Drainage intervention effect socio-economic Haryana. Bull. No. 10. CSSRI, Karnal. (95 pp).
impacts of land reclamation, employment Rapp, E. and Riaz, M. (1975). Comparisons of some filter
generation, improvement in the environment and materials for corrugated plastic drains. J. of
consequent lower allocations to health Canadian Agricultural Engg.,vol 27:106-109.
programmes. Schwab, G.O., Don, K. and Johnson, H.P., 1957. Effect
of the tile drainage on crop yield and water table
level in a planosol soil. Soil Science Society American
REFERENCES
Proceedings. 21:448-452.
Bouwer, H. and Van Schifgaarde, J., 1963. Simplified Sewa Ram, Chauhan, H.S., 1972. Field studies of
method of predicting fall of water table in drained unsteady subsurface drainage. J. Agric. Engg., ISAE.
land. Trans. ASAE. 6(4): 288. IX (4): 1-10
Broadhead, R.G., Schwab, G.O., Reeve, R.C., 1983. Tiligadas, E., 1988. Effect of different parameters on
Synthetic drain envelope and particle size entrance resistance of corrugated plastic drains.
distribution. Trans. ASAE. 26(1) 157-160. Agriculture Water Management 13(2-4):225-232.
Broughton, R.S., 1976. Laboratory tests on commercial Van Schilfgaarde, J., 1963. Design of tile drainage for
envelopes. Proc, Third National Drainage falling water table. J. Irrigation and Drain. Div.
Symposium ASCE. Pub. 1, 1-77: 34-39. ASCE. 89(Jr-2):1-11.
Dumm, L.D., 1954. Drain spacing formulae - Van Schilfgaarde, J., 1965. Design of tile drainage for
Determining depth and sapcing of subsurface drains falling water table. J. Irrigation and Drain. Div.
in irrigated lands. Agric. Engg., ASAE. 35: 726-730. ASCE. 89(Jr-3):71-73.
57

ISSN: 022-457X
Soil moisture release behaviour and irrigation

scheduling for Aravalli soils of eastern Rajasthan uplands
R.P. SHARMA1, R.S. SINGH2 and SANJAY ARORA3
ABSTRACT
Study area consists of the alluvial plains of Kothari River, which is the tributary of Banas and
situated in Eastern Rajasthan Upland. The area surrounded by Aravalli hills where sand constituted
the major part of the soil. This study is concerned with the relationship of the soil moisture retention
and release properties with irrigation scheduling and land use plan along with their texture,
particularly the clay and silt fraction. Twelve pedons representing various topographic positions
and zone of rainfall were sampled to study the soil-plant-water relationship in alluvial soils. viz.,
upper rolling plains, middle sloping plains, lower plains. Soil moisture retention characteristics
explained that the soils of the upper rolling plains have capacity to retain low amount of plant
available water (AWC 7.31cm/m) as compared to the soils of middle sloping plain (AWC 12.87
cm/m) and lower plain (AWC 14.02 cm/m). Volumetric water content at different suction pressures
viz. 33, 100, 500, 800, 1000, 1200 and 1500 kPa were studied in the alluvia of the river. About 75
percent of available water found to be released below the suction pressure of 500 kPa. The amount
of available moisture for plant between 33 to 100 kPa was 59, 55 and 51 per cent while between 100
to 500 kPa it was 16, 20 and 22 per cent in upper rolling plains, middle sloping plains and lower
plains, respectively. Silt and clay fractions were found to be the major factor controlling the available
moisture. Coefficient of variation in moisture retention was noted from moderate (15–35%) to high
(>35%) magnitude within the plains. In present investigation moisture retention of soils depleted
to about 50 per cent at 100 kPa suction pressure so that irrigation should be delivered to replenish
the soil moisture storage at this stage to keep target of maximum economic yield.
Key words: Moisture release, Irrigation scheduling, Land use planning, Alluvial soils, Aravalli
Hills
INTRODUCTION
To obtain better yield from irrigation, requires a combination of crop water use and soil water
appropriate management of all the inputs. Use of estimates.
rational or scientific methods for scheduled It is experienced that alluvial soils of Indo-
irrigations is essential for good irrigation Gangetic Plains with 15-20 per cent clay and larger
management, especially in soils of ‘Eastern portion of the silt are the most productive as these
Rajasthan Upland’ where irrigation is used to soils contain enough of clay to provide an adequate
supplement rain. Good irrigation management surface for interaction with water and nutrients,
begins with accurate measurement of soil moisture to have a friable structure beneficial for tillage and
retention and release behavior and capacity of soil root growth (Pal 2003). It is well known that
to store moisture at the time of vegetative growth without knowing the moisture retention and
and grain feeling stage. Over the years, a number release characteristics of alluvial soils, planning for
of scheduling methods have been developed. irrigation and land use for the area is not possible.
Measurement of soil moisture levels has been the In view of necessity of adequate information the
most common method of irrigation scheduling. present study on alluvial soils of eastern Rajasthan
Method based on soil moisture release for crop use upland has been planned.
1Scientist, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Maharana Pratap
University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur, Rajasthan (e-mail: [email protected])

2Principal Scientist and Head, NBSS&LUP, Regional Centre, Bohara Ganesh ji Road, University Campus, Udaipur, Rajasthan
3Senior Scientist, CSSRI, Regional Centre Research Station, Lucknow, UP; Bharuch, Gujarat
58
January-March 2014] SOIL MOISTURE RELEASE 59
MATERIALS AND METHODS very coarse texture, salinity-alkalinity, moderately

shallow depth and rock out crops.
Location
Geology
The study area as shown in map (fig.1) is
comprised of thirteen geomorphic regions. It is The geology of the study area is quite complex.
almost rectangular in shape. The north and south- The district is almost underlined by Pre-Cambrean
western portion of the district is an open plain rocks, which consist of Bundelkhand gneiss,
marked with a few hillocks rising intermittently. Banded gneissic complex, Aravalli system,
The south and north-eastern portion is occupied composite gneisses, Delhi system and Vindhayans.
by undulating lands and hills. The eastern portion The Bundelkhand gneiss is spread over in extensive
consists of an elevated plateau. There is a distinct area of the district, which comprises granites, and
hill range in the north-east corner which extends schist’s out of which granite type is seen in the
up to Jahazpur town. Aravalli hilly ranges intersect rocky area towards the adjoining Chittaurgarh
the district at several places. These hills are district. The banded gneissic complex also cover
prominent in the south-eastern part in Mandalgarh extensive area in the south-eastern region while
Tehsil. Bijoliya-Mandalgarh region of the district Aravalli system covering a wide area in the district
is termed as Uparmal due to its situation on a is seen in the form of belts and comprises
plateau. The general altitude of the district is about quartzite’s, conglomerates, shale’s, slates, phyllites
380 meters above the mean sea level in plains of and composite gneisses. Composite gneisses are
north. It gradually rises towards the western part classified into erinaceous and calcareous. The Delhi
of the district up to a general altitude of 500 meters system comprises conglomerates occurring in the
above the mean sea level. The general slope of the midst of the Aravalli schists and gneisses. The rock
district is towards north-east. of Vindhyans comprises red, brown hard and
flaggy sandstone, shale and limestone. From the
mineral point of view the area is rich. The
important minerals found in the district are mica,
soapstone, garnet, asbestos, lead, zinc, copper, iron
ore and building materials.
Climate and rainfall

The mean annual air temperature (MAAT)
varies between 25.6 oC and 27.1 oC. January is the
coldest month (7.8 oC) and May is the hottest (41.5
oC). The moisture index (MI) ranges from -59.7 to -
39.5, indicating semi-arid dry to moist condition.

The relative humidity varies between 40 to 80
percent. Average PET is 1380 mm. Water balance
Fig. 1. Location map of study area diagram (fig. 2) of the area indicates small to large
seasonal water surplus varying from 29.1 to 325.4
Morphological features mm annually. The precipitation is found greater
The soils under study are coarse textured, sandy >0.5 PET for 90-105 days. Length of growing period
clay loam to sandy with 3 to 30 per cent gravels (LGP) ranges from 90-135 days in a year. The soil
with very slight to moderate erosion. Lower plains moisture and temperature regimes are Ustic and
are liable to flooding and the surface receives fresh Hyperthermic, respectively. In the present
additions of material, which are laid down in investigation, an alluvial plains of Kothari river of
successive layers, often of different grain sizes. Bhilwara district surrounded by Aravalli hills was
Some alluvial soils are poorly drained, but others selected, having three rainfall zones viz., Upper
on terraces are imperfectly or freely drained. The rolling plains: Moderately sloping hills with a mean
limited water storage capacity of the coarse- annual rainfall <600 mm (P1 to P4), Middle sloping
textured soils is mainly due to their limited water plains: Gentle to very gently sloping plain with a
retention, the extremely high infiltration rate and mean annual rainfall 600-700 mm (P5 to P8) and
hydraulic conductivity. After comprehensive Lower plains: Very gentle sloping plain with a
assessment it has been observed that the soils have mean annual rainfall 700-800 mm (P9 to P12). The
unfavourable hydro-physical characteristics due to area situated between 25001’ and 25058’N latitude
59
Fig. 2. A: water balance diagram of Eastern Rajasthan Uplands.

B: annual fluctuation in temperature and relative humidity of the study area.
and 74001’ and 750 28’ E longitudes. Twelve pedons soils of lower plain but mean pH values were
were selected for the study of water release and recorded maximum (pH 8.49) in the soils of middle
retention behaviour in soils. sloping plains denote secondary accumulation of
All these three groups of profiles were situated calcium carbonate. The EC was found within the
approximately 50 km apart to each other from safe limit and having no effect on crop growth and
higher elevation (upper rolling plains) to lower production in area. Coefficient of variation was low
elevation (lower plains). Four profiles within a (<15 %) in case of pH while high (>35 %) for EC in
group were selected for study and these were soils of all three plains. Data pertaining to general
situated at a distance of 250 m and 500 m left and soil characteristics are presented in table 1.
right side across the direction of river flow channel.
Air dried soil samples were gently crushed with a Moisture retention characteristics of soils
wooden roller and passed through 2 mm sieve and The amount of the water retained at 33 kPa and
analyzed for general soil properties with standard 1500 kPa ranged from 0.06 to 0.264 m3/m3 and
procedures (Jackson 1973) and (Page et al.1982). 0.034 to 0.117 m3/m3 with a mean value of 0.145
Available water capacity (AWC) was calculated and 0.072 m3/m 3 respectively in upper rolling
using the expression suggested by Gardner et al. plains (P1-P4). The amount of water retained in
(1984) and later modified by Coughlan et al. (1986). middle sloping plains (P5-P8) increased over the
upper rolling plains, which was ranged from 0.074
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS to 0.347 (mean 0.220) m3/m3 at 33 kPa and 0.036 to
0.236 (mean 0.097) m3/m3 at 1500 kPa. A maximum
Soil-site characteristics water retention capacity was observed in lower
plains (P9-P12) that were ranged from 0.102 to 0.342
The soils of alluvial plains were sandy loam to
(mean 0.235) m3/m3 at 33 kPa and 0.032 to 0.158
loamy sand. Among the plains, sand fraction was
(mean 0.094) m3/m3 at 1500 kPa (Table 2). The
relatively higher (76.9 %) while silt and clay
increase in water retention from upper rolling
fractions were lower in the soils of upper rolling
plains to middle and lower plains was mainly due
plains. The soils of lower plains contained higher
to increase in silt and clay content. That provides
amount of silt and clay fractions and lower sand
higher surface area to hold moisture. Linear
fractions (65 %). The soils of middle slopping plain
correlation has been reported between moisture
were moderate in sand, silt and clay fractions. An
retention and clay content (Peterson et al. 1968,
increasing trend of silt and clay fractions down the
Khan and Afzal 1993, Nagar et al. 1995, Diwakar
depth was also noted in all three plains but it was
and Singh 1992, Balpande et al. 2007).
more prominent in the soils of lower plains due to
In Ap horizons of upper rolling plains (P1-P4),
the process of eluviation and illuviation of
water retention capacity ranged from 0.095 to 0.145
weathered materials. Soil pH and electrical
with mean value 0.119 m3/m3 at 33 kPa and it
conductivity (EC) was relatively lower (pH 7.29 &
ranged between 0.044 and 0.071 with mean value
EC 0.17 dSm-1) in the soils of upper rolling plain
of 0.058 m3/m3 at 1500 kPa while it increased in
whereas higher (pH 8.10 & EC 0.60 dSm-1) in the
60
Table 1. Physico-chemical properties of soils
Depth Horizon Particle size distribution (%)

(cm) pH EC CaCO3 O.C. * Sand Silt Clay
(2.5:1) (2.5:1) (%) (%) (2.0-0.05 (0.05-0.002 (<0.002
mm) mm) mm)
Upper rolling plains with a mean annual rainfall <600 mm
P1: Baniyon Ka Khera
0-10 Ap 7.85 0.21 0.57 0.47 82.1 10.7 7.2
10_26 Bw1 7.50 0.10 0.95 0.32 74.0 18.5 7.4
26-46 Bw2 7.08 0.09 0.95 0.26 75.3 16.8 7.9
46-65 Bw3 7.12 0.09 1.00 0.34 74.6 18.0 7.4
65-80 Bw4 7.87 0.17 0.95 0.18 78.1 14.8 7.1
P2: Jalamali
0-18 Ap 6.60 0.10 0.52 0.37 82.1 10.0 7.9
18-52 Bw1 6.56 0.05 0.81 0.25 80.0 12.9 7.1
52-90 Bw2 6.70 0.06 1.14 0.25 76.0 15.6 8.5
P3: Kalal Kheri
0-16 Ap 7.05 0.21 1.52 0.34 76.5 15.8 7.7
16-47 Bw1 7.44 0.16 2.00 0.28 76.3 15.5 8.3
47-84 Bw2 7.50 0.16 2.14 0.23 81.0 11.4 7.6
84-140 Bw3 7.63 0.18 3.19 0.14 85.2 7.9 6.9
140+ C 7.65 0.16 1.19 0.09 92.4 1.6 6.0
P4: Dulkhera
0-19 Ap 7.15 0.34 1.52 0.93 77.6 15.0 7.3
19-37 Bw1 7.20 0.26 1.23 0.28 75.1 15.8 9.1
37-75 Bw2 7.25 0.21 1.48 0.29 68.0 23.9 8.1
75-125 Bw3 7.40 0.20 1.52 0.29 65.1 27.7 7.2
125-170 Bw4 7.70 0.25 4.64 0.19 64.7 27.4 8.0
Middle sloping plains with a mean annual rainfall 600-700 mm
P5: Karanwas
0-17 Ap 8.20 0.21 0.90 0.30 82.5 10.1 7.3
17-30 A2 8.21 0.19 0.90 0.29 82.7 9.9 7.5
30-69 Bw1 8.91 0.24 3.76 0.24 68.3 23.8 7.9
69-96 Bw2 9.54 0.36 11.73 0.14 61.1 29.2 9.7
96-120 BC 9.61 0.40 13.25 0.10 59.9 29.9 10.2
120-140 C 9.73 0.48 16.62 0.07 60.8 29.9 9.3
P6: Sarano Ka Kheda
0-18 Ap 8.15 0.59 0.57 0.15 83.1 6.8 10.2
18-50 A2 8.10 0.89 0.38 0.19 87.3 4.6 8.1
50-100 A3 8.06 0.57 0.43 0.15 84.5 4.8 10.7
100-140 A4 8.08 0.58 0.57 0.14 82.9 6.2 10.9
140-175+ A5 8.12 0.53 0.66 0.09 82.2 7.4 10.5
P7: Lasaria
0-18 Ap 8.45 0.45 3.28 1.34 61.5 29.8 8.7
18-42 Bw1 8.54 0.49 3.24 0.71 62.7 29.1 8.2
42-70 Bw2 8.79 0.38 6.16 0.30 60.0 33.0 7.0
70-110 Bw3 8.86 0.38 7.12 0.26 62.2 26.3 11.5
P8: Hamirgarh
0-19 Ap 8.41 0.17 0.57 0.47 78.7 11.9 9.4
19-50 A2 8.13 0.09 0.62 0.28 79.0 12.0 9.1
50-73 Bw1 8.12 0.09 1.04 0.28 66.8 18.1 15.2
73-100 Bw2 8.10 0.10 1.19 0.29 68.0 18.4 13.7
61
Depth Horizon Particle size distribution (%)

(cm) pH EC CaCO3 O.C. * Sand Silt Clay
(2.5:1) (2.5:1) (%) (%) (2.0-0.05 (0.05-0.002 (<0.002
mm) mm) mm)
Lower plains with a mean annual rainfall 700-800 mm
P9: Akola
0-19 Ap 9.31 0.31 1.14 0.53 75.2 18.0 6.8
19-45 A2 8.62 1.42 1.00 0.21 70.1 17.2 12.7
45-85 Bw1 8.49 1.56 1.25 0.17 69.4 21.2 9.4
85-125 Bw2 8.66 1.41 1.46 0.14 67.1 21.3 11.6
125-170 Bw3 8.71 1.24 1.27 0.11 69.1 21.6 9.3
P10: Akola
0-20 Ap 8.82 0.18 0.38 0.19 81.0 8.6 10.4
20-50 A2 8.52 0.52 0.52 0.11 82.1 8.1 9.8
50-90 A3 8.91 0.96 0.95 0.15 76.5 13.1 10.5
90-125 A4 9.55 0.55 0.81 0.07 83.7 6.5 9.8
125-170 A5 9.40 1.22 1.27 0.09 71.5 19.2 9.3
P11: Akola
0-17 Ap 7.56 0.34 1.50 0.67 40.5 50.3 9.2
17-38 Bw1 7.65 0.20 1.52 0.48 36.9 49.8 13.3
38-62 Bw2 7.84 0.20 1.90 0.44 38.7 37.1 24.2
62-100 Bw3 7.35 0.30 2.04 0.38 43.0 33.1 23.9
P12: Akola
0-15 Ap 6.14 0.20 0.57 0.23 77.8 12.8 9.4
15-35 Bw1 6.32 0.16 0.85 0.27 66.0 18.5 15.5
35-75 Bw2 6.89 0.19 1.04 0.21 59.0 20.5 20.5
75-120 Bw3 7.11 0.29 1.09 0.19 60.6 20.8 18.6
* Organic carbon
Bw horizons to the mean value of 0.159 m3/m3 at fractions in soil take a very active part to hold the
33 kPa and 0.079 m 3 /m 3 at 1500 kPa. In Ap water. Maximum water content were recorded at
horizons of middle sloping plains (P5-P8) the mean 33 kPa in BC horizon (0.347 m3/m3) and at 1500
values of water retention were recorded 0.182 and kPa in C horizon in soils of Karanwas (P5) in
0.064 m 3 /m 3 with 37.74 and 33.87 per cent middle sloping plains. The high water retention at
coefficient of variations at 33 kPa and 1500 kPa, 33 & 1500 kPa might be due to higher carbonate
respectively while corresponding values for Bw content of clay size fractions (Massoud 1975; Singh,
layers were 0.293 and 0.128 m3/m3. A similar trend 1999). While minimum water retention was noted
was also recorded in soils of lower plains (P9-P12). at 33 kPa in C horizon of Kalal Kheri soils (P3) and
The mean value of water retained in surface to sub at 1500 kPa it was in A4 horizon of Akola (P10).
surface layers increased from 0.209 to 0.286 at 33 Soil texture is the major soil property that regulates
kPa and from 0.075 to 0.126 m3/m3 at 1500 kPa. the water retention characteristics in alluvial plains.
The above results indicated that water retention
increased down the depth of pedons in the soils of Available water capacity (AWC)
three plains, at both 33 kPa and 1500 kPa suction Available water capacity (AWC) is the difference
pressures (Table 2). The variability, in water of water content at 33 kPa and 1500 kPa suction
retention at low and higher tension is governed by pressures. AWC ranged between 0.031 to 0.150 m3/
clay content and associated soil properties (Nagar m3 (Table 2) and was considerably higher in middle
et al., 1995). sloping plains (0.038 to 0.199 m3/m3) and in lower
The amount of water retained was found to be plains (0.071 to 0.195). AWC increased from Ap
higher in sub surface layer in comparison to surface horizon to Bw horizons were 0.061 to 0.080 m3/m3
layer in all three plains. This followed the in upper rolling plains (P1-P4), 0.118 to 0.166 m3/
distribution pattern of silt and clay fractions in m3 in middle sloping plains (P5-P8) and 0.133 to
vertical direction of pedons. Silt and clay size 0.159 m3/m3 in lower plains (P9-P12). Higher AWC
62
Table 2. Moisture retention and release characteristics of soils
Depth HorizonVolumetric water content at different pressures AWC AWC (100 cm AWC (profile
(kPa) depth) depth)
(cm) deg. 33 100 500 800 1000 1200 1500 (cm/m)
(m3/m3)
Upper rolling plains with a mean annual rainfall <600 mm
P1: Baniyon Ka Khera
0-10 Ap 0.108 0.078 0.070 0.066 0.063 0.059 0.057 0.051 0.51 0.510
10_26 Bw1 0.146 0.107 0.097 0.092 0.088 0.084 0.080 0.065 1.05 1.046
26-46 Bw2 0.139 0.103 0.094 0.088 0.085 0.080 0.077 0.062 1.24 1.241
46-65 Bw3 0.145 0.105 0.096 0.091 0.087 0.082 0.079 0.066 1.26 1.258
65-80 Bw4 0.138 0.095 0.083 0.076 0.073 0.069 0.065 0.073 2.56 6.61 1.10 5.15
P2: Jalamali
0-18 Ap 0.095 0.065 0.057 0.052 0.050 0.046 0.044 0.051 0.92 0.92
18-52 Bw1 0.098 0.073 0.065 0.062 0.061 0.057 0.056 0.042 1.44 1.44
52-90 Bw2 0.127 0.096 0.087 0.083 0.080 0.076 0.074 0.054 2.58 4.94 2.04 4.40
P3: Kalal Kheri
0-16 Ap 0.127 0.086 0.076 0.071 0.067 0.060 0.059 0.068 1.10 1.10
16-47 Bw1 0.131 0.093 0.083 0.080 0.076 0.072 0.068 0.063 1.95 1.95
47-84 Bw2 0.115 0.080 0.073 0.069 0.065 0.060 0.058 0.058 2.13 2.13
84-140 Bw3 0.112 0.078 0.069 0.065 0.061 0.056 0.054 0.058 0.93 6.10 3.25
140+ C 0.065 0.047 0.043 0.041 0.038 0.036 0.034 0.031 0.31 8.73
P4: Dulkhera
0-19 Ap 0.145 0.101 0.089 0.085 0.079 0.074 0.071 0.074 1.41 1.41
19-37 Bw1 0.162 0.117 0.103 0.098 0.094 0.088 0.085 0.077 1.38 1.38
37-75 Bw2 0.249 0.176 0.148 0.139 0.131 0.122 0.117 0.133 5.05 5.05
75-125 Bw3 0.264 0.180 0.150 0.138 0.129 0.119 0.113 0.150 3.75 11.59 7.50
125-170 Bw4 0.247 0.160 0.138 0.129 0.119 0.110 0.102 0.144 6.49 21.83
Middle sloping plains with a mean annual rainfall 600-700 mm
P5: Karanwas
0-17 Ap 0.139 0.090 0.073 0.067 0.061 0.055 0.050 0.089 1.51 1.51
17-30 A2 0.140 0.092 0.074 0.068 0.063 0.057 0.052 0.087 1.14 1.14
30-69 Bw1 0.308 0.218 0.186 0.172 0.160 0.148 0.139 0.169 6.60 6.60
69-96 Bw2 0.330 0.244 0.214 0.199 0.191 0.180 0.173 0.158 4.26 4.26
96-120 Bc 0.347 0.265 0.236 0.225 0.215 0.205 0.198 0.149 0.60 14.12 3.59
120-140 C 0.327 0.277 0.260 0.253 0.247 0.241 0.236 0.091 1.82 18.93
P6: Sarano Ka Kheda
0-18 Ap 0.137 0.095 0.080 0.075 0.070 0.064 0.060 0.077 1.39 1.39
18-50 A2 0.074 0.053 0.046 0.043 0.041 0.038 0.036 0.038 1.22 1.22
50-100 A3 0.119 0.082 0.070 0.065 0.060 0.056 0.053 0.066 3.29 5.90 3.29
100-140 A4 0.129 0.090 0.077 0.072 0.067 0.063 0.060 0.070 2.78
140-175+ A5 0.128 0.088 0.075 0.071 0.067 0.062 0.058 0.070 2.44 11.12
were recorded in Bw horizon of middle and lower layers and low (<15 %) to moderate in case of Bw
plains were mainly due to higher content of clay layers in all the plains and this was due to the
and silt down the depth of pedons. Mean AWC variations in content of clay and silt fractions in
increased linearly with increasing clay content. Ap than Bw layers.
This was indicated that increase in clay and silt
content had contributed marginally towards AWC Available water capacity (AWC) for profile
due to corresponding increase in water retention AWC per horizon was multiplied with thickness
at both the levels i.e. 33 & 1500 kPa (Peterson et of horizons and equated for control section (100
al., 1968; Singh, 1999). Coefficient of variations was cm depth). Mean AWC (100 cm depth) were 7.31,
moderate (15 to 35 %) to high (>35 %) in case of Ap 12.87 and 14.02 cm/m in upper rolling plains (P1-
63
P4), middle sloping plains (P5-P8) and lower plains (P5-P8) and lower plains (P9-P12) respectively.
(P9-P12), respectively. It was maximum 19.24 cm/ Bulk of moisture is released between 33 to 100 kPa
m in Lasaria soils (P7) of middle sloping plains (Diwakar and Singh, 1992). It can be inferred from
followed by 16.55 cm/m in Akola soils (P11) of the above data that approximately 75 per cent of
lower plains. Higher available water holding water of AWC released up to the suction pressure
capacity was also noticed by Maji et al. (2005) in of 500 kPa and only 25 per cent was released
low-lying areas and low to medium in the soils between 500 to 1500 kPa. Comparatively higher
developed on higher elevations. In Ap horizons the quantity of soil moisture was retained between 100
mean value of AWC was 0.98, 2.14 and 2.35 while to 500 kPa in soils of lower plains indicates that
in Bw horizons it was 2.11, 4.25, 4.32 cm/m in the moisture adsorbed on the clay complexes and
upper rolling plains (P1-P4), middle sloping plains also due to increased level of clay. In case of lower
(P5-P8) and lower plains (P9-P12), respectively. It plains (P9-P12) comparatively higher suction
followed an increasing trend down the depth due pressure required to release the water available to
to an increased level of clay and silt fractions. A plants while in upper rolling plains (P1-P4) where
significant positive correlation was found between clay and silt content was low maximum moisture
AWC and clay content (r = 0.354**) and silt content (60 %) released below 100 kPa. While a reverse
(r = 0.782**). The contribution of silt towards AWC pattern of moisture release was noted between
was higher (R2 = 0.61) as compared to clay (R2 = suction pressures of 100 to 500 kPa. Data also
0.13) due to higher percentage of silt in alluvial represented in graphical form in fig. 4. The figure
plains of Kothari river. The regression equations showed that it was curvilinear below 500 kPa but
were also fitted between AWC and silt plus clay became linear above 500 kPa, also indicates that
content, depicted in fig. 3. very little amount of moisture released above 500
kPa of suction pressure.
Moisture release behavior in the soils of alluvial
plains was also studied in vertical direction of the
pedons. There was a similar pattern of moisture
release in Ap and Bw horizons. A higher moisture
content and moisture release at different suction
pressures was noted in Bw horizons due to
relatively larger amount of fine fractions in sub
surface layers. A graphical representation of
moisture release in surface and sub surface
horizons of different alluvial plains showed in
fig. 5. In both the layers of pedons (Ap & Bw)
moisture release graph became linear after 500 kPa
suction pressures. It was observed that relationship
between matric suction and water content
Fig. 3. Plant available water increase with silt plus clay
exhibited an excellent fit to power function as
content compared to linear or exponential and the amount
of clay appears to affect FC and PWP linearly
(Nikam et al., 2006).
Moisture release characteristics
Moisture retention characteristics at different Irrigation planning
suction pressures viz. 33, 100, 500, 800, 1000, 1200 Water stored in the soil (in the crop’s root zone)
and 1500 kPa were studied in the alluvial system is withdrawn by evapotranspiration and deposited
of Kothari river plains. Amount of moisture back into the soil through precipitation and
released between two subsequent suction irrigation. When soil moisture storage falls below
pressures were also calculated on volume basis a given threshold value, irrigation is applied to
considering the value 100 per cent for the moisture restore the moisture. Soil moisture release curve or
held between 33 and 1500 kPa. A mean content of soil moisture retention curve (Figure 4 & 5), is the
moisture held between 33 to 100 kPa were 58.92, relationship of how much water is retained against
55.17 and 50.86 per cent of AWC and between 100 a given pressure potential (suction). It is essentially
to 500 kPa it was 16.31, 19.96 and 22.36 per cent in a representation of energy required to extract water
upper rolling plains (P1-P4), middle sloping plains from the soil over a range of soil moisture
64
Fig. 4. Moisture release curves of soil profiles in three Fig. 5. Moisture release curves of surface and sub-surface
alluvial plains layers in three plains
65
conditions. Critical levels of suction are field capacity established during the rainy season. These should
(33 kPa) and permanent wilting point (1500 kPa). be given proper protection from the grazing
Plant available water is that which is stored between animals. The grasses should be planted in and
field capacity and permanent wilting point. The around rolling topography to check the onslaught
amount of water extracted from soil to the of erosion. After keeping it protected, for some
threshold value is often termed, “allowable years, the landscape will be in a position to produce
depletion”; it is generally between 40% and 60% fodder and fruits for the area and also the major
of the plant available water storage capacity of the constraint, erosion may come closer to the rate of
effective root zone. It is generally accepted that for soil formation. This will definitely help in initiating
optimum growth and development of plants the of pedogenetic development in soils situated on
soil water depletion should not be allowed to higher elevations. Once fruit crops continue to exist
exceed “allowable depletion”. In present for a period of 10-15 years there would be
investigation moisture retention of soils depleted possibility to generate suitable environment in soil
to about 50 per cent at 100 kPa suction pressure so system. In order to meet out the dietary need and
that irrigation should be delivered to replenish the food habit of the people, sorghum, Bajra and pulses
soil moisture storage at this stage to keep target of depending on the onset of monsoon are
maximum economic yield. Slight early irrigation recommended to grow in the soils of middle
will ensure optimum growth and more profit for sloping plains (P5-P8) during Kharif season,
the growers in soils of upper rolling plains as whereas during Rabi, this should be cultivated for
compared to lower plains because the soils of wheat alone or wheat and gram in combination.
elevated area were relatively coarser in texture Maize can also be grown in middle sloping plains
consequently retains the moisture for shorter of the river system. After the harvest of maize,
period of time. The point at which a decision to either mustard or gram alone or in combination
irrigate is made will depend on evaluation of the may be grown in the interspaces. This will
amount of water left in the soil at different depth definitely help to meet out the partial demand of
of the soil profile. For younger plants the top few oil and pluses for the time being and help to reduce
hundred millimeters irrigation is sufficient and soil losses. Later on the planted trees will be ready
amount of water will be based on what is left in for the fodder, fruit and timber. Groundnut, pigeon
the soil to this soil depth. As the plant get maturity pea in Kharif, wheat, mustard and gram
depth of irrigation water should be increased. combination during Rabi, along with the trees of
Because the soil’s moisture holding capacity is mango, guava, papaya, citrus and Aonla may be
limited, excess water applications will result in cultivated in the lower plains (P9-P12) for
deep percolation and/or runoff losses, this will also optimizing land use. The soils of lower plains may
ensure water use in more efficient way. Making be grown for exclusive bajra or maize during Kharif
efficient use of existing water resources through while wheat or barley may be taken in Rabi,
demand management is an economical and depending upon the water available for irrigation
environmentally acceptable way to meet growing to protect the crop from severe water stresses.
demand for water. However, the trees of guava, mango and Aonla
may be planted on the ridges or the boundary of
The optimization of land utilization the fields. These soils require careful application
Soil erosion resistant crops like pulses or grasses of soil water conservation techniques to restrict the
with economically important trees, like; mango, losses through erosion and to maintain soil fertility
guava and Aonla should be planted in the soils of for longer duration.
upper rolling plains (P1-P4). Although, the fertility,
coarse fragments, severe erosion excessive slope REFERENCES
and low AWC, produce the environment that is Balpande, H.S., Challa, O. and Prasad, J. 2007.
not congenial for plantation. However, plantation Characterization and classification of grape-growing
of deep rooted fruit trees could be possible by soils of Nasik district, Maharashtra. Journal of Indian
digging the pit deep up to the rock. The excavated Society of Soil Science 55: 80-83.
material should be mixed with the good soils along Bridges, E. M. 1979. World Soils. 2nd Edition, Cambridge
with proper fertilizing and manuring. The watering University press, Cambridge, pp 91-100.
of trees should be done from time-to-time till their Coughlan, K. J; McGarry, D. and Smith, G. D. 1986. The
establishment. Plantation must be done at the time physical and mechanical characterization of
Vertisols. In First Regional Seminar on Management
of onset of monsoon so that they can easily be
of Vertisols under Semi-arid condition. IBSRAM
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Proc. No.6 Nairobi, Kenya, 89-106. Nagar, R.P., Gupta, P.K. Karkansi, P.T., Sharma, S.P.
Diwakar, D.P.S. and Singh, R.N. 1992. Tal soils of Bihar and Saxena, S. 1995. Soil water characteristics of
III. Aggregation and water retention capacity. different soil series in chambal command area of
Journal of Indian Society of Soil Science 40: 667-673. Rajasthan. Journal of Indian Society of Soil Science 44:
Gardner, E.A; Shaw, R. J., Smith, G. D. and Coughlan, 329-334.
K. J. 1984. Plant available water capacity: concept, Nikam, M.S., Prasad, J., Patil, N.G. and Srivastava, R.
measurement, prediction. In Properties and Utilization 2006. Moisture retention characteristics of forest,
of Cracking Clay Soils. (J.W. McGarity, E. H. Hoult grassland and cultivated non-vertic shallow soils in
and H. B. Co. Ed.), University of New England, Nagpur district of central India. Journal of Indian
Armidale, 164-175. Society of Soil Science 54: 240-242.
Jackson, M.L. 1973. Soil Chemical Analysis. Prentice Hall Page, A. L., Miller, R.H. and Keeney, D. R. 1982. Soil
of India Private Ltd. New- Delhi. Chemical Analysis, Part-2 (Ed.) No. 9, Agronomy
Khan, G.S. and Afzal, T. 1993. Hydaulic characteristics Series ASA- SSSA Publisher, Madison, Wisconsin,
of some important soil series of Pakistan. Soils Fertil. USA.
56: 32. Pal, D. K. 2003. Significance of clays, clay and other
Maji, A.K., Obi Reddy, G.P., Thayalan, S. and Walke, minerals in the formation and management of
N.J. 2005. Characteristics and classification of Indian soils, Journal of Indian Society of Soil Science
landforms and soils over basaltic terrain in sub- 51: 338-364.
humid tropics of central India. Journal of Indian Peterson, G.W., Cunnigham, R.L. and Matelski, R.P.
Society of Soil Science 53: 154-162. 1968. Moisture characteristics of Pennsylvania soils.
Massoud, I.F. 1975. Some physical properties of highly I- moisture retention as related to soil texture. Soil
calcareous soils and related management practices. Science Society of American Proceedings 32: 271-275.
In: Calcareous Soils, pp 75-94. Water resource and Singh, S.K. 1999. Studies on variability in soil properties
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Division, FAO, Rome. thesis submitted to RAU-Bikaner.
67
68 SINGH et al. [Journal of Soil & Water Conservation 13(1)

ISSN: 022-457X
Use of plastic mulch for enhancing water

productivity of off-season vegetables in terraced land in
Chamoli district of Uttarakhand, India
VIJAY P. SINGH1, P.K. SINGH2 and LALIT BHATT3
Received: 29 August 2013; Accepted: 23 February 2014
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was carried out with farmers’ participation to investigate the performance of
black plastic mulch on earliness, yield, water productivity and production economics of summer
squash, tomato and capsicum under mid-high hills of district Chamoli (Uttarakhand) during the
years 2009 and 2010. The mulch advanced the harvesting time by 10 days in summer squash and by
two weeks in tomato and capsicum. Besides extending the harvest duration of crop, the black plastic
mulch increased the total yield by the order of 33.34 percent to 47.60 percent in respective crops. In
vegetable cultivation, the mulch not only reduced 30-40 percent of crop water requirement but also
doubled the water use efficiency (WUE). The economic analysis of the study revealed that the
maximum cost of cultivation was observed with summer squash while the highest gross as well as
net returns were in tomato followed by capsicum and summer squash under both mulch
(Demonstration plot) and without mulch (farmer’s practice). The maximum gain indicated as IBCR
was in summer squash cultivation (above 04) while tomato and capsicum recorded its values in
between 3 and 4 during both the years of investigation.
Key words: Economics, Plastic mulch, Productivity, Water use efficiency, Vegetables
INTRODUCTION recognized since the Early 1960s (Emmert, 1956).

The climatic conditions of Uttarakhand are Amongst the plastic films, Black plastic
conducive for year-round production of vegetables, is the most popular and widely used as mulch
many of which are seasonal in other parts of the because it retards weed growth and raises the soil
northern India. Off-season vegetables have high temperature to feavourable extent in the winters
demand, fetch relatively higher returns per unit (Singh et al., 2005). Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
area and time for the producer and have higher Gwaldam (Chamoli) was the pioneer to do
market growth prospects. Though there has been extensive research work and develop package of
a considerable increase in the area under vegetable practices (POPs) for growing high value off-season
cultivation in the state in the recent past, vegetable crops under plastic mulch in water scarce
nevertheless, various biotic (diseases and insect- situation of Uttarakhand hills. Taking a step ahead
pest) and abiotic (low temperature, drought, rain- Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Chamoli conducted number
fed conditions with high or erratic rainfall etc.) of demonstrations for commercial cultivation of
stresses adversely affect the productivity as well off-season vegetables under rainfed situation of
as quality of the produce (Singh et al., 2011). Uttarakhand hills using plastic mulch technology.
Solution to this problem is being offered by the
MATERIALS AND METHODS
plastic mulch technology, which can partially
combat the adverse natural factors of production. The experiments/demonstrations were
The advantages of using plastic mulches for the conducted in farmers’ participatory mode.
production of high value vegetable crops have been Amongst the villages selected, each had one crop
1Associate Professor, Horticulture, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand
2Professor,Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand
3Junior Research Officer, Vegatable Science, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand
68
January-March 2014] USE OF PLASTIC MULCH 69
i.e. summer squash at Gwaldam, tomato at unmulched plots (FP) from the expenditure on
Malbajwar and capsicum at Talwari. Summer plastic mulch purchase, its installation as well as
squash and tomato were transplanted at an area the cost involved in harvesting and transportation
of 1 ha at selected farmers’ fields, while for of additional yields under mulch. Benefit-cost ratio
capsicum it was 0.5 ha. The demonstration plots (BCR) was also calculated and economic viability
elevation varied from 1600 (Malbajwar- 1600 of the technology was judged by working out
metres amsl; Talwari- 1650 metres amsl) to 1950 incremental benefit-cost ratio (IBCR), which was
meters amsl (Gwaldam) in Pindar valley of district calculated as a ratio of additional returns and
Chamoli (Uttarakhand). The demonstrations were corresponding additional costs incurred.
laid out in two treatments i.e. 1- cultivation under
black plastic mulch (Demonstration plot- DP) and RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
2- cultivation without mulch (Farmers’ practice-
FP) for two consecutive years viz., Spring-summer Earliness and yield
season of 2009 and 2010. The hybrid seeds of Black plastic mulch positively influenced the
summer squash (Ducato), tomato (Avtar) and plant growth as the harvesting was advanced by
capsicum (Tanvi) were supplied to the selected 11 and 10 days in summer squash during the first
farmers for nursery raising. Recommended and the second years of the study compared to the
cultivation practices were followed for both the unmulched plots (farmers’ practice), whereas, in
treatments. Raised beds were prepared and one tomato and capsicum the period was
day before transplanting, all the beds under DP approximately two weeks earlier during both the
were covered by 25 z thick UV stabilized black years of demonstrations. Higher marketable fruit
plastic mulch sheet. Spacing of 100 cm x 75 cm, 60 yields under mulch were also recorded and these
cm x 45 cm and 50 cm x 50 cm were kept for were 565.50 and 585.25 q ha-1 in demonstration
summer squash, tomato and capsicum, plots (DP) against 391.60 and 396.50 q ha-1 (FP) in
respectively, during both the years of summer squash, 410.70 and 398.70 q ha-1in DP
demonstrations. Small holes at appropriate against 308.00 and 305.40 q ha-1 in FP in tomato as
distances were made for transplanting the well as 204.60 and 225.75 q ha-1 in DP against 145.35
respective crops. The summer squash was and 159.00 q ha-1 in FP in capsicum during the first
transplanted on 7th March, tomato on 10th March and the second years of demonstrations,
and capsicum on 19th March during both the years. respectively (Table 1). Higher soil temperature
All three crops were planted under open field under black plastic improved the plant
condition (with or without mulch as per treatment) microclimate leading to early growth and
after the possibility of frost occurrence was over. development which resulted in early harvests
Observations were recorded for days to first (Abdul Baki, 1995). Further mulch films have a
harvest, marketable fruit yield (q/ha), harvest positive effect on plant growth and yields as they
duration during both the years of the are nearly impervious to carbon di-oxide and hence
experimentation. Water use efficiency and water there is also a possibility of creation of ‘chimney
productivity were computed by following the effect’, resulting in abundant CO2 available for
standard procedures (Michael, 2009). photosynthesis to the plants as reported by Singh
In economic analysis, cost of cultivation et al., 2005. Better plant growth and early fruiting
includes the cost of all inputs purchased by the by mulching have also been observed by White
farmers/ supplied by the KVK (in demonstration (2004) in summer squash and Singh et al. (2005) in
plots), wages of labour (including family labour) tomato. The yield increases due to mulch effect
since seed sowing to final picking/harvesting and were 44.41% and 47.60% in summer squash, 33.34%
expenditure on transportation and marketing. The and 30.55% in tomato and 40.76% and 41.98% in
gross and net returns were worked out accordingly capsicum during first and second years of
by taking the average sale price of respective crop demonstrations respectively. This attractive
during the periods of harvesting which were as performance of demonstration fields owed its
Rs. 500.00 q-1 for summer squash, 800.00 q-1 for success to the soil and moisture conservation,
tomato and 1400.00 q-1 for capsicum and cost of suppression of weeds, improved nutrient
cultivation of respective crops into consideration. availability and prevention against drastic
Additional cost in demonstration plots (DP) was variation in soil temperature under plastic mulch.
calculated by deducting the expenditure incurred Reduction in labour requirement and drudgery is
on weeding, hoeing and extra pesticide sprays in the additional advantage of mulch in stress prone
69
Table 1. Effect of black plastic mulch on earliness and yield of summer squash, tomato and capsicum
Crop/ Season / Area No. of Days to Marketable fruit % increase
variety year (ha) farmers first harvest yield (q ha-1) over FP
DP FP DP FP
Summer squash
Ducato 2009 1.0 18 41 52 565.50 391.60 44.41
Ducato 2010 1.0 16 40 50 585.25 396.50 47.60
Tomato
Avtar 2009 1.0 15 68 83 410.70 308.00 33.34
Avtar 2010 1.0 18 71 85 398.70 305.40 30.55
Capsicum
Tanvi 2009 0.5 11 63 77 204.60 145.35 40.76
Tanvi 2010 0.5 08 62 75 225.75 159.00 41.98
hilly conditions of Uttarakhand as crop raising is the fact that mulch film provides a better
labour intensive due to lack of mechanization in environment for root growth and conserves
hill agriculture (Singh and Singh, 2009). Black adequate moisture for the plants (Singh and Singh,
plastic mulch has an additional advantage that the 2010) which helps in maintaining proper cell
absence of light within it did not allow turgidity and higher meristematic activity
photosynthesis under the film and therefore weed eventually leading to more foliage development
growth was depressed (Bhatt et al., 2011). Highest and consequently better plant growth with less
absorption of photosynthetic flux (PPF 400-700 nm) stress to plants.
and increase in soil temperature was reported by
the use of black plastic mulch (Hatt et al., 1994), Water use efficiency and water productivity
while the greatest reflection of PPF and blue light The data presented in Table 2 reveal that the
was observed in white plastic mulch. The greater actual water applied was lower in mulch
availability of PPF enhances the photosynthetic treatments (DP) and water requirement was almost
activity of the plant resulting in increase in yield 30-40% less than unmulched treatments (FP) of all
and quality of produce. Harvest duration was also the three crops. The water saving (%) was recorded
reported to be higher in demonstration plots (DP) highest in tomato (38.51 and 40.40) followed by
as compared to farmers’ practice (FP) in all the summer squash (32.59 and 31.48) and capsicum
three crops under investigation and the harvest (27.82 and 30.12) during first and second years
durations were increased approximately by 3 respectively. It is probably due to the reduced wet
weeks in summer squash and 3-4 weeks in tomato evaporating surface and greater foliage spread of
and capsicum (Table 2). This may be attributed to all three crops which greatly reduced the moisture
Table 2. Effect of black plastic mulch on crop duration and water use efficiency in summer squash, tomato and capsicum
Water conserved
final harvesting
duration (days)
depth of water
transplanting
applied (cm)
productivity
(q ha-1 cm-1)
Actual total
over FP (%)
Water use
efficiency
Dates of
Dates of
Dates of
(lit kg-1)
Harvest
sowing
Water
Crop
Year
DP FP DP FP DP FP DP FP DP FP
Summer squash
2009 01.02.09 07.03.09 07.07.10 01.07.10 80 59 21.1 31.3 32.59 26.80 12.51 37.31 79.94
2010 01.02.10 07.03.10 11.07.09 04.07.09 85 67 22.2 32.4 31.48 26.36 12.24 37.94 81.70
Tomato
2009 01.02.09 10.03.09 12.08.09 04.08.09 87 62 28.9 47.0 38.51 14.21 6.55 70.37 152.67
2010 01.02.10 10.03.10 02.08.10 21.07.10 74 48 26.7 44.8 40.40 14.93 6.82 66.98 146.63
Capsicum
2009 01.02.09 19.03.10 08.08.09 22.07.09 80 50 26.2 36.3 27.82 7.81 4.00 128.04 250.00
2010 01.02.10 19.03.10 28.08.10 15.08.10 97 70 27.6 39.5 30.12 8.18 4.03 122.25 248.14
70
January-March 2014] USE OF PLASTIC MULCH 71
losses from the soil surface. From the data, it is out with the objective to investigate the economic
evident that the use of black plastic mulch has feasibility of this technology (Table 3). Cost of
enhanced the water use efficiency (WUE) and cultivation, gross return, net return and benefit-
water productivity (WP) to a great extent of all the cost ratio (BCR) for all the three crops were
three crops under investigation in DP as compared calculated under both the growing environments
to bare field cultivation (FP). The black plastic i.e. under mulch (DP) and without mulch (FP).
treatment not only reduced the water requirement Among all three important off-season vegetables
but also increased yield significantly thus WUE of Uttarakhand hills the cost of cultivation of
was almost doubled or more in all the three crops summer squash recorded highest i.e. 119250.00/
during both the years of investigation. Overall ha for DP and 97650.00 for FP followed by
water requirement was highest for tomato followed capsicum (110700.00/ha for DP and 85700.00 for
by capsicum and summer squash crops while the FP) and tomato ( 106500.00/ha for DP and
WUE in summer squash was highest followed by 82300.00/ha for FP). However, highest gross and
tomato and capsicum irrespective of the net returns were observed in tomato and it was
treatments. Summer squash, due to its short also evident with the benefit-cost ratio (BCR).
duration and precocious nature with very high Maximum BCRs were recorded with tomato (3.09
yield potential required less water for its cultivation and 2.99 for DP and 2.99 and 2.97 for FP in first
with very high WUE. The increased WUE through and second years respectively) followed by
plastic mulching were also reported by Zotaralli et capsicum (2.59 and 2.86 for DP and 2.37 and 2.60
al. (2008) in summer squash and Mukherjee et al. for FP in first and second years respectively) and
(2010) and Agrawal et al. (2010) in tomato. Water summer squash (2.37 and 2.45 for DP and 2.01 and
productivity (WP) also enhanced under DP as less 2.03 for FP in first and second years respectively).
water is required to produce per kg of summer The additional costs involved in summer squash,
squash, tomato and capsicum. The data as tomato and capsicum cultivated under mulch (DP)
presented in Table 2 suggested that 215, 218 and were 21600.00, 24200.00 and 25000.00 per crop
199 % (after pooling both years’ data) more water cycle respectively. Additional returns and
is required to produce same yield, respectively in incremental benefit-cost ratio (IBCR) were also
summer squash, tomato and capsicum. The similar calculated for the technological intervention
result with increased WP with protected condition (mulch). IBCR values clearly indicated a net gain
was also reported by Madile et al. (2012) in of 4.03 and 4.37 in summer squash, 3.40 and 3.25
capsicum. in tomato and 3.32 and 3.74 in capsicum during
first and second years respectively against the per
Economic analysis rupee invested for the adoption of plastic mulch
The economic analyses of all three vegetables technology. As a whole, the economic analysis
cultivated under black plastic mulch were carried points out that the use of this technology in
Table 3. Economic analysis of the use of black plastic mulch in summer squash, tomato and capsicum production
Additional yield
return (Rs.)
return (Rs.)
return (Rs.)
Additional
Additional
cultivation
BCR (DP)
BCR (FP)
cost (Rs.)
(q ha-1)
Cost of
Gross
IBCR
Crop
Year
(Rs.)
Net
DP FP DP FP DP FP
Summer squash
2009 119250 97650 282750 195800 163500 98150 2.37 2.01 173.90 21600 86950 4.03
2010 119250 97650 292625 198250 173375 100600 2.45 2.03 188.75 21600 94375 4.37
Tomato
2009 106500 82300 328560 246400 222060 164100 3.09 2.99 102.70 24200 82160 3.40
2010 106500 82300 318960 244320 212460 162020 2.99 2.97 93.30 24200 74640 3.08
Capsicum
2009 110700 85700 286440 203490 175740 117790 2.59 2.37 59.25 25000 82950 3.31
2010 110700 85700 316050 222600 205350 136900 2.86 2.60 66.75 25000 93450 3.74
71
off-season cultivation of important vegetable crops Bhatt Lalit, Rana Renu, Uniyal S P, Singh V P. 2011.
would substantially increase the overall income as Effect of mulch materials on vegetative characters,
well as improve livelihood of the resource poor yield and economics of summer squash (Cucurbita
farming community of the Uttarakhand hills. pepo) under rainfed mid-hill condition of
Uttarakhand. Veg. Sci. 38:165-168.
Emmert E M. 1956. Black polythene for mulching
CONCLUSIONS vegetables. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 69(4): 464-469.
The study indicates that in hilly terraces, black Hatt H A, McMahon M J, Linvill D E and Decoteau D R.
plastic mulch is able in conserving the scarce water 1994. Influence of spectral qualities and resulting
soil temperatures of mulch films on bell pepper
resources besides improving the productivity, net
growth and production. Plasticulture, 101:13-22.
gain and socio-economic status. Sincere extension
Madile A K, Singh P K, Sharma H C, Singh R P and
efforts are required to educate the farmers for Joshi Ganga. 2012. Tensiometer based drip irrigation
adopting this technology. Initial cost on purchasing scheduling for enhancing water productivity of
and installation of plastic mulches would be the capsicum (Capsicum annum L.) under polyhouse. Ind.
hindrance in large scale adoption of this technology J. Soil. Cons. 40:41-45.
by the farming community. To overcome this Michael A M. 2009. Irrigation- theory and practices
barrier, the Government of India has provided (2nd ed.). Vikas publishing house, New Delhi p. 768.
subsidy @ 50% under National Horticulture Mukherjee A, Kundu M and Sarkar S. 2010. Role of
Mission (NHM) and Horticulture Mission for irrigation and mulch on yield, evapotranspiration
rate and water use pattern of tomato (Lycopersicon
North East and Himalayan States (HMNEH) for
esculentum L.). Agril. Water Manag. 98:182-189.
adopting this technology. Finally from the above Singh Balraj, Kumar Mahesh and Singh G C. 2005. Effect
investigation, it can be concluded that by the of different plastic mulches on growth and yield of
adoption of this technology by more number of winter tomato. Ind. J. Hort. 62:200-202.
farmers, the off-season vegetable cultivation may Singh V P and Singh P K. 2009. Effect of coloured poly
get wide spread in area resulting in higher and mulches on growth and yield of summer squash
quality production of the vegetables in the state under mid-hill condition of Uttarakhand. In Proc.
and providing premium remuneration to the hill 4 th Uttarakhand State Science and Technology
farmers. Congress, Pantnagar, November 10-12 pp. 20.
Singh V P and Singh P K. 2010. Enhancement of earliness
and productivity in summer squash and tomato
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT using plastic mulches through front line
The authors are grateful to the Nodal Officer, demonstrations in mid-hills of Uttarakhnad. In Proc.
HMNEH and Director, VPKAS, Almora of National Symposium on Conservation
(Uttarakhand) for providing the necessary financial Horticulture-2010, March 21-23, Dehradun pp. 302.
Singh V P, Singh P K, Rai Ratna and Bhatt Lalit. 2011.
assistance for the conduction of demonstration
Enhancing earliness and productivity in summer
under the project “Large scale demonstration of squash through black polymulch in Uttarakhand
vegetable production technology in Uttarakhand”. hills. Prog. Hort. 43:163-165.
White J M. 2004. Summer squash yield and fruit size
when grown on eight mulch colors in central Florida.
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Abdul Baki A A, Spenie C Z and Hoover R. 1992. Black Zotarelli Lincoln, Dukes Michael D, Scholberg Johannes
polyethylene mulch doubled yield of fresh market M, Hanselman Travis, Femminella Kristen Le
field tomatoes. HortSci. 27:787-789. and Munoz-carpena Rafael. 2008. Nitrogen and
Agrawal Narendra, Panigrahi H K, Sharma D and water use efficiency of zucchini squash for a plastic
Agrawal R. 2010. Effect of different colour mulches mulch bed system on a sandy soil. Scientia Hort.
on the growth and yield of tomato under 116:8-16.
Chattisgarh region. Ind. J. Hort. 67:295-300.
72
January-March 2014] EFFECT OF SEQUENTIAL TILLAGE PRACTICES 73

ISSN: 022-457X
Effect of sequential tillage practices and N levels on

soil health and root parameters in maize (Zea mays)–
wheat (Tritium aestivum) cropping system
R.L. CHOUDHARY1 and U.K. BEHERA2
Received: 23 October 2013; Accepted: 5 February 2013
ABSTRACT
Field experiments were conducted at New Delhi during the kharif and rabi season of 2009-10 and
2010-11 with maize (Zea mays L.)–wheat (Triticum aestivum L. emend.) cropping system to evaluate
the effect of different sequential tillage practices and N levels on soil health and root growth
parameters of maize–wheat cropping system. The results revealed that most of the soil health
parameters, except microbial and enzymatic activities were not influenced significantly due to
different sequential tillage practices. However, soil organic carbon (SOC) and available NPK contents
were maximum with ZT-ZT sequence, while minimum values were recorded under CT-CT sequence.
Similarly, microbial biomass carbon (MBC), dehydrogenase activity and FDA hydrolysis activities
were maximum under ZT-ZT, which were significantly higher than CT-CT sequence. At 0-10 cm
soil depth, the mean weight diameter (MWD) and grand mean diameter (GMD) were was 54.20%
and 9.12 % higher under ZT-ZT than CT-CT respectively. The maximum percentage of macro
aggregates was recorded with ZT-ZT (24.40 %), while minimum with CT-CT (16.80 %) at the top 0-
10 cm depth of soil layer. However, reverse was true for micro aggregates. Skipping CT with ZT
practices exhibited higher values of MWD, GMD and macro aggregates than continuous CT-CT
sequence. In contrast to this, the hydraulic conductivity and infiltration rates were recorded
marginally higher with CT-CT sequence. Most of the root growth parameters of both the crops
were found statically similar under all the tillage sequencers, except average root volume density
(RVD) of maize which was recorded significantly higher under ZT-ZT sequence. However, root
growth parameters of both maize and wheat were responded significantly to different levels of N,
while most of soil physical, chemical and biological parameters did not differ significantly with
different levels of N. The soil available N was maximum (156.7 kg N/ha) at 180 kg N/ha, which
was significantly higher than at 0 and 60 kg N/ha, whereas, the maximum values of soil MBC was
recorded at 60 kg N/ha, which was significantly higher than 120 and 180 kg N/ha. The average root
length density and RVD were influenced significantly up to 120 kg N/ha, while average root surface
area and average root diameter were influenced significantly up to 60 kg N/ha of both the crops.
Key words: Maize–wheat cropping system, Nitrogen levels, Root growth parameters, Soil
physical chemical and biological parameters, Sequential tillage
INTRODUCTION biodiversity (Bahrani et al., 2007). Sustaining soil

Appropriate tillage and fertilizer management health is of primary importance in terms of cycling
practices need to be developed for sustainable crop plant nutrients and improving soils physico-
production without jeopardizing the quality of soil chemical and biological properties. Lal (2005)
and the environment. A proper tillage can alleviate calculated that increasing soil organic carbon (SOC)
the soil related constraints while improper tillage by 1 Mg /ha/year can increase food grain
may leads to degradative processes. Intensive production by 32 million Mg/ year in developing
tillage and current agricultural practices results in countries. Tillage is used for creating better
a decrease in soil organic matter leading to soil environment for plant growth but the degree varies
degradation, loss of soil biological fertility and widely with the type of tillage method. Altering
1ARS-Scientist (Agronomy), National Institute of Abiotic Stress Management ICAR, Malegaon Khurd, Tal-Baramati, Pune, MS
2Principal Scientist, Division of Agronomy, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi
73
74 CHOUDHARY et al. [Journal of Soil & Water Conservation 13(1)
the tillage system by sequential tillage practices will and root growth for the system as a whole. Hence,
influence the soil health, root growth of the crops the present investigation was undertaken to study
and weed species composition. The tillage the effect of sequential tillage practices and N levels
sequence within a crop rotation is often on soil health and root growth parameters in maize
unrecognized as a rotational component but like (Zea mays)–wheat (Tritium aestivum) cropping
crop rotations, the sequence may reduce weeds, system.
and other pests if managed properly in annual
cropping systems. Soil health (physical, chemical MATERIALS AND METHODS
and biological properties) is an important criterion
to maintain it under dynamic equilibrium so as to Experimental site, soil and weather
sustain the productivity, improve the resource-use Field experiments were conducted on a fixed site
efficiency of maize–wheat cropping system. While during rainy season (June to October) and winter
there is an abundance of field studies that support season (November to April) of 2009-10 and 2010-
the beneficial impact of zero tillage on soil health 11 at the research farm of Indian Agricultural
(Govaerts et al., 2007; Behera and Sharma, 2011). Research Institute, New Delhi (28.4o N latitude,
Biological activities can be used as practical 77.1o E longitude and 228.6 m above mean sea
biological indicators to apply the more appropriate level). The mean annual rainfall of Delhi is 672 mm
management system for increasing soil and more than 80% generally occurs during the
sustainability. However, impact of resource monsoon season (July-September) with mean
conserving technologies on soil microbial health annual evaporation 850 mm. The soil at site was
indices under tropical conditions is not well sandy loam with bulk density of 1.57 Mg/m3, field
studied. To assure normal plant growth, the soil capacity 17.48 % (w/w) and infiltration rate 1.26
must be in such conditions that roots have enough cm/hr. It had 0.37 % organic carbon, 147.6 kg
air, water and nutrients. Root morphology of any KMnO4 oxidizable N/ha, 11.8 kg 0.5 N NaHCO3
crop is dependent on the soil environment which extractable P/ha, 235.1 kg 1.0 N NH 4 OAc
ultimately governed by the tillage practices. exchangeable K/ha, 7.5 pH and 0.31 dS/m EC at
Interactions between root systems and the start of the experiment.
rhizobacteria affect crop health, yield and soil
quality. Release of exudates by plants activate and Experimental detail and crop culture
sustain specific rhizobacterial communities that The experiment was conducted in split plot
enhance nutrient cycling, nitrogen fixing, design with three replications in a fixed layout with
biocontrol of plant pathogens, plant disease plot size of 17.5 m2 for both maize and wheat crops.
resistance and plant growth stimulation (Sturz and All plots received the same treatment throughout
Christie, 2003). Inspite of immense importance, the period of study. There were four main plot
roots seldom receive due attention of the treatments comprising of sequential tillage
researchers because of underground habitat and practices: conventional tillage (CT) in maize
inherent difficulty in studying them. The followed by CT in wheat (CT–CT); CT in maize
importance of N fertilizers in increasing the crop followed by zero tillage (ZT) in wheat (CT–ZT);
yields is widely accepted and documented. Long ZT–CT and; ZT–ZT, while subplot treatments
term fertilizer experiments revealed that consisted of four nitrogen levels, viz. 0, 60, 120 and
applications of inorganic fertilizers have favorable 180 kg/ha.
effects on soil physico-chemical and biological The CT consisted of two pass of a disc harrow,
properties up to some extent (Haynes and Naidu, followed by two pass of cultivator with planking
1998). This is mainly attributed to the sufficiency in the last pass. The ZT consisted of no-tillage with
of nutrients provided by inorganic fertilizers, minimum soil disturbance and one pass of ZT seed
thereby increasing the above ground and root drill for sowing of crop. The maize crop was
biomass and hence organic matter (Rassol et al., established under flat planting technique of crop
2007). Thus, favourable soil physico-chemical and establishment at a spacing of 67.5 cm from row to
biological properties are important in improving row and 20 cm from plant to plant by dibbling the
soil fertility, agronomic productivity and resource seeds (20 kg/ha). The wheat crop was also sown
use efficiency. Much works were carried out on under flat planting at a spacing of 18 cm from row
continuous zero tillage, for more than decades to row with 100 kg seed/ha. Before sowing, weeds
there is paucity of information in respect to were controlled using tank mix paraquat +
sequential tillage impacts on changes in soil health glyphosate (each 0.5 kg a.i./ha) in ZT practices. In
74
maize, atrazine (50 WP @ 1.kg a.i /ha) was applied Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to
as preemergence to control weeds. In wheat, Tank determine the effect of each treatment. When F ratio
mix solution of isoproturon (75 WP at 1 kg a.i./ha) was significant, a multiple mean comparison was
and 2,4-D sodium salt (80 WP at 0.5 kg a.i./ha) was performed using Fisher’s Least Significant
applied to control grassy as well as broad leaf Difference Test (0.05 probability level). The data
weeds after 35 DAS. Full dose of P (26.2 kg /ha) were analyzed by statistical package MSTAT-C
and K (33.3 kg/ ha) applied at the time of sowing software.
in both the crops. Whereas, N was applied in three
equal splits (at sowing, knee-high and tasseling RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
stages) to maize and in two equal splits (one at
sowing and other after first irrigation) to wheat as Soil physical parameters
per the treatments.
Bulk density
Observations and statistical analysis
In maize–wheat cropping system the bulk
Soil physical and chemical parameters were density (BD) was not influenced significantly due
recorded at end of the research experiments, while to different sequential tillage practices in both
soil biological parameters were recorded at 90 DAS surface (0-15 cm) and sub surface (15-30 cm) soil
(peak flowering stage) of last wheat crop. layers. However, the maximum BD was observed
Physical properties of soil such as bulk density, under ZT-ZT with 1.625 and 1.638 g/cm3 at 0-15
hydraulic conductivity, infiltration rate, soil and 15-30 cm, soil depths, respectively, while
aggregation and soil moisture were calculated by minimum was BD recorded with CT-CT sequence
adopting the following methodologies. Soil bulk (Table 1). It was also observed that skipping of zero
density of surface (0-15 cm) and sub-surface (15- tillage practices either in kharif or in rabi season,
30 cm) soil was determined by the core sampler resulted marginally lower BD than continuous zero
method from three randomly chosen areas of each tillage (ZT-ZT) practices at both the soil depths.
plot. The core sampler method was followed for The BD was increased with increased in the soil
determining the soil bulk density. Hydraulic depth; more BD was recorded in lower layers of
conductivity was estimated by using the formula the soil profile than upper layers under all the
K =QL/HAT where, Q is the quantity of water treatments. The higher value of BD under ZT-ZT
collected, L is the length of sample (cm), H is the sequence with surface and sub-surface layer may
loss in head (cm). Infiltration rate is measured using be due to non-disturbance of the soil matrix for
double ring infiltrometer by recording the change almost two years in the sequence, which may
in the water level in cylinder and it was expressed perhaps, resulted in less total porosity compared
as mm/hr. Soil aggregation stability was measured to tilled plots (Bhattacharyya et al., 2008). Similarly,
by adopting wet sieving techniques. Soil samples Ram et al. (2010) also have reported higher BD
collected from individual plots were separated for values under continuous ZT practices than CT
content of organic carbon by wet digestion method, practice in maize–wheat cropping system from
available nitrogen by alkaline KMnO 4 method, Punjab, India. Scientists hypothesized that
available phosphorous by 0.5 M sodium continued use of reduced, shallow and zero-tillage
bicarbonate extraction method and available would require a shift to short-term CT to correct
potassium by Flame photometry method. soil problems. However, Logsdon and Karlen
Microbial activity in terms of fluoresein diacetate (2004) showed that BD is not a useful indicator and
(FDA) hydrolysis in soil was measured by confirm that farmers need not worry about
procedure described by Green et al. (2006). The increased compaction when changing from CT to
procedure given by Casida et al. (1964) was used NT on deep loess soils in USA. The Soil BD did not
for estimation of dehydrogenase activity. Microbial influence significantly due to different levels of N
biomass carbon in soil samples was estimated by in both the soil layers. However, marginally lower
the method described by Nunan et al. (1998). Root BD values were recorded at higher levels of N,
samples were taken in second year only at tasseling particularly in upper soil surface.
stage in maize and grain filling stage in wheat by
adopting standard procedure (Aggarwal and Hydraulic conductivity
Sharma, 2002) and data on different root The sequential tillage practices did not
parameters were obtained by image analysis of root influence hydraulic conductivity (HC) significantly
samples using the WinRHIZO™ software. at the end of the two year maize–wheat cropping
75
system this was probably due to the short duration Infiltration rate
of the study (Table 1). Buschiazzo et al. (1998) also The data on infiltration rate have been presented
have observed that a period of 2-3 years was not in Table 1, revealed that infiltration rate was not
enough for tillage to affect hydraulic conductivity influenced significantly due to different sequential
of sandy loam and other soils in Argentinean tillage practices. However, CT-CT treatment
Pampas. However, considerably higher values of recorded maximum infiltration rate (12.14 mm/hr)
hydraulic conductivity were observed under CT- which was 8.78 % higher than the infiltration rate
CT (1.091 and 0.934 cm/hr) in both the soil layers, (11.16 mm/hr) recorded in ZT-ZT. Moreover,
respectively, The lower HC in ZT involving skipping of zero tillage either in kharif (CT-ZT) or
sequential tillage sequences was might be due to in rabi (ZT-CT) improved the infiltration rate by
higher BD and compaction in surface as well as 4.03 and 7.08% over continuous zero tillage
sub surface layers which restrict the water flow in practices (ZT-ZT), respectively. Infiltration
the soil. The HC was non-significant with different characteristics of the soil depend on the size
levels of N, however it was recorded marginally distribution, geometry, continuity, and the stability
higher at higher levels of N, and this was might be of the pores. Water transmission through the soil
due to greater root system in N fertilized plots. profile also depends on the antecedent water
Further, decomposing roots of previous crops content, aggregation and the presence of macro-
might have resulted in the channels which act as pore channels. The lower infiltration rate under ZT
macrospores, thereby increasing the saturated HC involving sequential tillage sequences was might
Rasool et al. (2007) were also reported higher HC be due higher BD and lower aggregation at 20-30
in fertilized plots (N120P30K30) than control (no cm soil depth. A lower aggregation results in a
external sources of nutrients were applied). reduction of the infiltration and storage capacity
Table 1. Effect of sequential tillage practices and N levels on soil physico-chemical properties in maize–wheat cropping system
Treatment Bulk density Hydraulic Infiltration Electrical pH Organic Avail- Avail- Avail-
(g/cc) conductivity rate conductivity carbon able N able P able K
(cm/hr) (mm/hr) (dS/m) (%) (kg/ha) (kg/ha) (kg/ha)
0-15 cm 15-30 cm 0-15 cm 15-30 cm 0-15 cm 0-15 cm 0-15 cm 0-15 cm 0-15 cm 0-15 cm 0-15 cm
Tillage practices
CT - CT 1.607 1.624 1.091 0.934 12.14 0.314 7.45 0.385 146.6 10.11 229.9
CT - ZT 1.615 1.631 1.061 0.925 11.61 0.315 7.44 0.392 147.7 10.60 230.5
ZT - CT 1.611 1.627 1.070 0.931 11.95 0.314 7.49 0.389 147.5 10.38 231.4
ZT - ZT 1.625 1.638 1.058 0.922 11.16 0.316 7.42 0.407 148.5 10.85 232.5
SEm± 0.008 0.008 0.140 0.034 0.281 0.006 0.056 0.010 2.525 0.446 5.530
CD (P=0.05) NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS
Nitrogen levels (kg/ha)
0 1.623 1.632 1.063 0.907 11.38 0.313 7.44 0.372 130.3 10.93 239.5
60 1.611 1.629 1.049 0.928 11.68 0.314 7.44 0.395 148.9 10.73 233.9
120 1.617 1.631 1.076 0.940 11.86 0.316 7.45 0.404 154.4 10.41 226.1
180 1.607 1.628 1.092 0.938 11.94 0.316 7.45 0.403 156.7 9.86 224.9
SEm± 0.008 0.006 0.057 0.033 0.171 0.006 0.053 0.010 2.508 0.337 4.771
CD (P=0.05) NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS 7.321 NS NS
Table 2. Effect of sequential tillage practices on soil aggregates in maize–wheat cropping system
Treatment Mean weight diameter Grand mean Percentage of micro Percentage of macro
(MWD) (mm) diameter (GMD) aggregate (<0.25 mm) aggregate (>0.25 mm)
0-10 cm 10-20 cm 20-30 cm 0-10 cm 10-20 cm 20-30 cm 0-10 cm 10-20 cm 20-30 cm 0-10 cm 10-20 cm 20-30 cm
Tillage practices
CT - CT 0.500 0.275 0.208 0.373 0.368 0.363 83.20 78.00 79.56 16.80 22.00 20.44
CT - ZT 0.553 0.281 0.235 0.403 0.375 0.348 77.80 78.16 81.98 22.20 21.84 18.02
ZT - CT 0.545 0.289 0.229 0.399 0.375 0.363 78.74 78.58 80.50 21.26 21.42 19.50
ZT - ZT 0.771 0.314 0.207 0.407 0.363 0.366 75.60 79.30 81.10 24.40 20.70 18.90
76
of the soil by forming a relatively impermeable soil higher MWD under ZT practices than CT practices.
layer by sealing of pores (Le Bissonais, 2003). Zero Madari et al. (2005) from Brazil reported that no-
tillage without residue retention leads to crust tillage with residue cover had higher aggregate
formation, with low aggregation and reduced stability, higher aggregate size values and total
infiltration (Govaerts, et al., 2007). Infiltration rate organic carbon in soil than CT. In case of micro
was also not influenced significantly due to and macro-aggregate percentage, ZT protected the
different levels of N. However, it was increased soil structure from destructive tillage effects
with increased levels of N from 0 kg N/ha to 180 resulting in decreased percentage of micro-
kg N/ha. Marginally higher values of infiltration aggregate while concurrently improving the
rate at higher levels of N might be due to greater percentage of macro-aggregates. The decline in the
root system in N fertilized plots. Further, size of aggregates with CT could be attributed to
decomposing roots of previous crops might have mechanical disruption of macro-aggregates, which
resulted in the channels which act as macro pores might have exposed SOM previously protected
that may facilitate fast entry of water in the soil. from decomposition (Six et al., 2000). Whalen et al.
(2003) reported that improvements in aggregation
Soil aggregation can occur within 2–3 years of establishing
Soil aggregation was analysed at the main plot conservation practices.
level to determine the wet stability of aggregates,
expressed in terms of mean weight diameter Soil chemical parameters
(MWD), grand mean diameter (GMD), micro
aggregate (< 0.25 mm) and macro aggregate (> 0.25 Electrical conductivity and pH
mm), in relation to sequential tillage practices. In Both electrical conductivity (EC) and pH were
most of the soil depths (0-10, 10-20 and 20-30 cm) not influenced significantly due to various
the MWD and GMD were found to maximum with sequential tillage practices (Table 1). Numerically
continuous zero tillage practices (ZT-ZT), while same values of EC were obtained under all the
minimum values of these parameters were sequential tillage treatments. However, the
recorded under continuous conventional tillage maximum value of pH was recorded under ZT-
practices (CT-CT) (Table 2). At 0-10 cm soil depth CT (7.49), while minimum was recorded under ZT-
the MWD was recorded 54.20% higher and GMD ZT (7.42). The non-significant variation in pH
was 9.12 % higher under ZT-ZT than CT-CT might be due to buffering capacity of soil which
treatment. Skipping zero tillage practices also offered resistant against change in pH. Beri et al.
exhibited higher values of MWD and GMD than (1992) concluded from 10 years of experiment that
CT-CT sequential tillage practices. The MWD and pH of soil was not influenced due soil management
GMD exhibited a decreasing trend from top to practices even with the residue application. The
bottom of the soil in all the sequential tillage similar results also reported by Kumar et al. (2004).
treatments. The maximum percentage of micro Similarly, EC indirectly depicts the salt
aggregate was obtained with CT-CT (83.20 %), concentration of the soil which is the native
while the minimum was obtained with ZT-ZT property of soil may not be influenced by any
(75.60 %) at the top 0-10 cm depth of soil layer management techniques within a short period of
(Table 2). Whereas, the maximum percentage of 1-2 years might be the reason for non-significant
macro aggregates was recorded under ZT-ZT values of soil EC. Both parameters were also not
(24.40 %), while minimum was recorded with CT- influenced significantly due to different levels of
CT (16.80 %) at the top 0-10 cm depth of soil layer. N. However, both were increased marginally with
The percentage of macro aggregates exhibited a each increased levels of N from control to 120 kg
decreasing trend from top to bottom of the soil in N/ha.
most of the sequential tillage treatments, while
Organic carbon
reverse trend was observed with percentage of
micro aggregate in most of the sequential tillage Soil organic carbon (SOC) did not change
treatments. Soil structure stability is the ability of significantly due different sequential tillage
aggregates to remain intact when exposed to practices as well as N levels (Table 1). However,
different stresses. The higher values of MWD and sequential tillage practices that include ZT either
GMD under ZT sequential tillage practices might in kharif to maize (ZT-CT) or in rabi to wheat (CT-
be due to non-disturbance of the soil with tillage ZT) or in both seasons (ZT-ZT) were improved the
practice. Meena and Behera (2008) also reported SOC by 1.04, 1.82 and 5.71% over continuous CT
77
(CT-CT) practices, respectively. Moreover, 1998). However, these (available P and K) were
skipping of CT practices either in kharif or in rabi decreased from 0 to 180 kg N/ha, because of less
also improved the SOC over CT-CT, but, lower uptake of nutrients at control by the crops results
than ZT-ZT sequential tillage practices. Zero tillage in higher nutrient in soil. Moreover, N was
resulted in greater accumulation of soil organic deficient at 0 kg N/ha, which played a limiting
matter in surface layers (0–20 cm) than factor role; as the sufficiency of N increased, P and
conventional tillage (Govaerts, et al., 2007). K uptake were also increased because of positive
Surprisingly, in our study the SOC indicated interactions between N, P and K; which resulted
statistically same contents in ZT and CT. Evidently, lower available P and K at higher levels of N. This
the SOC indicated numerically more or less closer continuous withdrawal of K by crops without
with the sequential tillage treatments this may be adequate replenishment from external sources
due breaking and introducing the ZT between might cause K deficiency in the long run (Behera
kharif and rabi seasons where soil is virtually not et al., 2007).
left for development. Similar observation was also
made by Obalum and Obi (2010). Bayer et al. (2000) Soil biological parameters
concluded that no-tillage minimizes SOM losses Soil microbial biomass carbon (MBC),
and is a promising strategy to maintain or even dehydrogenase (DH) activity and fluorescein
increase soil C and N stocks. The SOC content was diacetate (FDA) hydrolysis activity were
marginally higher at higher levels of N (60, 120 and significantly influenced due to different sequential
180 kg N/ha) than no N receiving treatment, this tillage practices (Table 3). The continuous zero
may be attributed due to the sufficiency of tillage system (ZT-ZT) resulted significantly higher
nutrients provided by inorganic fertilizers, thereby MBC over CT-CT, CT-ZT and ZT-CT by 18.75, 15.47
increasing the above ground and root biomass and and 15.60 %, respectively. However, even involving
hence organic matter (Rassol et al., 2007). Shah et ZT practice in one season, viz. CT-ZT and ZT-CT
al. (2003) reported that SOC was increased by N also resulted marginally higher soil MBC over
inputs, from both fertilizer and by residue continuous CT-CT system. Similarly, the maximum
application. DH activity was measured under ZT-ZT (122.8 zg
/g soil/24 hr), which was significantly higher than
Available NPK CT-CT and CT-ZT systems, but was remained non-
At the end of 2 years research study in maize– significant with ZT-CT. Likewise, maximum
wheat cropping system the available NPK status activity of FDA hydrolysis was measured under
in soil was not influenced significantly due to double zero tillage (ZT-ZT) practices, which was
different sequential tillage practices (Table 1). significantly higher than CT-CT and ZT-CT.
Moreover, the status of these nutrients were not Adoption of zero tillage practices in the system,
varied much from the initial status (147.6, 11.8 and viz. CT-ZT and ZT-CT resulted significantly higher
235.1 NPK kg/ha). This might be due to the activity of FDA over CT-CT. The least activity of
richness in application of uniform RFD of P and K FDA hydrolysis was observed under CT-CT, which
and higher doses of N (120 and 180 kg N/ha) which was significantly lower than rest sequential tillage
would have satisfied the requirement of the crop practices. In this study, increased soil microbial and
in terms uptake apart from the various forms of enzymatic activities with ZT involving sequential
losses (volatilisation, runoff and leaching) and tillage systems have showed the consistency with
lower levels of N (0 and 60 kg N/ha) resulted in the results of others researchers (Dong et al., 2009).
fairly the same initial available status. This is in The improvement in soil microbial and enzymatic
agreement with results of Verhulst et al. (2009) activities under zero tillage practices might be due
which indicated the soil was rich in those nutrients to better physico-chemical properties of soil.
or adequate amounts of fertilizers were applied. Furthermore, better soil aggregation helps in
However, soil available N was significantly lower maintaining optimal moisture content as well as
at control (0 kg N/ha) than higher levels of N (60, aeration in the soil. Roldan et al. (2003) showed that
120 and 180 kg/ha), this was due to N was not after 5 years of zero till maize in Mexico, soil wet
applied in control in all the crops leads to more aggregate stability had increased over CT and it
extraction of available N from soil. Available P and had higher soil enzymes, SOC and MBC. They
K in soil were non-significant with different levels concluded that no-till is a sustainable technology.
of N in the system which may get replenished from Soil FDA hydrolysis is a measurement of the
the fixed reserve of fixed sources (Subba Rao et al., contribution of several enzymes, mainly involved
78
in the decomposition of organic matter in soil. Root growth study

Hence, the higher the values of FDA hydrolysis Data pertaining to effect of sequential tillage
are a sign of positive soil health and microbial practices and N levels on root growth parameters
activity. of maize, viz. root length density (RLD), root
Among, the different levels of N, application of surface area density (RSD), root diameter (RD) and
60 kg N/ha had the maximum soil MBC, which root volume density (RVD) has been presented in
was significantly higher than at 120 and 180 kg N/ Table 4. All the root growth parameters were
ha, but was statistically on par with control. similar due to different sequential tillage practices,
However, the differences were not significant for except RVD. However, the maximum values of
DH activity and FDA hydrolysis activity at RLD (2.22 cm/cm3) and RSA (1.37 cm2/cm3) were
different levels of N. Though, maximum activities recorded under CT-CT, while minimum values
were recorded at 60 kg N/ha, while minimum was (2.03 cm/cm 3 and 1.26 cm 2 /cm 3 ) of these
observed at 180 kg N/ha. The FDA hydrolysis parameters were recorded under ZT-ZT system,
activity were decreased at 120 and 180 kg N/ha respectively. Whereas, the most thickly roots were
over 60kg N/ha by the tune of 6.25 and 7.42%, recorded under ZT-ZT (1.35 mm), while most fine
respectively. The microbial and enzymatic roots were recorded under CT-CT (1.30 mm).
activities were improved at lower levels of N (60 Similarly, ZT-ZT system also resulted maximum
kg N/ha), might be due to small doses of N act as RVD (4.27 x 10-2 cm3/cm3), which was significantly
subtract for microbes in soil, resulted in increased higher (17.63 %) than CT-CT system, but was
microbial activity, while at microbial activity remained statistically similar with CT-ZT and ZT-
decreased at higher levels of N (120 and 180 kg N/ CT systems. The minimum RVD was recorded with
ha), might be due to toxic effect of N fertilizers. CT-CT, which was significantly lower than ZT-CT
Singh et al. (2009) have also been reported that 100 and ZT-ZT treatments. All the root growth
and 125% of recommended dose of N (RDN) 120 parameters were significantly influenced due to
kg N/ha for maize and wheat crops, as urea different levels of N. In general all the growth
significantly decreased the soil MBC over 50 and characters of root were exhibited tendency to
75% RDN, the remaining portions were supplied increase with each increased levels of N from 0 to
by organic sources of N. The low DH activity in 180 kg/ha, except RD. However, the maximum
response to higher levels of N may be because of values of RLD and RVD were recorded at 120 kg
interference of nitrate, which serves as an alternate N/ha, which were significantly higher than the 0
electron acceptor resulting in reduction of enzyme and 60 kg N/ha, but were remained statistically
activity (Casida et al., 1964). Similar, results were similar with 180 kg N/ha. Whereas maximum RSD
also reported by Singh et al. (2009). was recorded at 180 kg N/ha (1.53 cm 2/cm 3),
Table 3. Effect sequential tillage practices and N levels on soil biological properties in maize–wheat cropping system
Treatment Microbial biomass carbon Soil dehydrogenase FDA Hydrolysis

( zg /g soil) activity ( zg /g soil/ 24 hr) (mg fl/g soil/ hr)
Tillage practices
CT - CT 176.0 106.5 2.24
CT - ZT 181.3 109.0 2.53
ZT - CT 180.8 119.0 2.48
ZT - ZT 209.0 122.8 2.61
SEm± 3.529 3.413 0.034
CD (P=0.05) 12.21 11.8 0.119
0 191.5 118.0 2.54
60 200.8 119.0 2.56
120 179.8 110.5 2.40
180 175.0 109.8 2.37
SEm± 4.068 3.752 0.056
CD (P=0.05) 11.90 NS NS
79
Table 4. Effect of sequential tillage practices and N levels on root growth parameters of maize and wheat crops at 0-15 cm
depth during 2010
Treatment Maize Wheat

Root Root Average Root Root Root Average Root
length surface root volume length surface root volume
density area diameter density density area diameter density
(cm/cm3) density (mm) (x 10-2 cm3 (cm/cm3) density (mm) (x 10-3
(cm2/cm3) /cm3) (cm2/cm3) cm3/cm3)
Tillage practices
CT - CT 2.22 1.37 1.30 3.63 1.98 0.42 0.48 3.22
CT - ZT 2.19 1.35 1.32 3.99 1.88 0.36 0.51 3.41
ZT - CT 2.13 1.33 1.34 4.11 1.94 0.40 0.46 3.38
ZT - ZT 2.03 1.26 1.35 4.27 1.71 0.30 0.55 3.43
SEm± 0.103 0.045 0.015 0.105 0.066 0.026 0.020 0.092
CD (P=0.05) NS NS NS 0.362 NS NS NS NS
0 1.34 1.14 1.20 3.67 1.53 0.28 0.42 2.98
60 1.94 1.25 1.39 3.83 1.86 0.36 0.54 3.06
120 2.65 1.36 1.36 4.43 2.03 0.40 0.51 3.60
180 2.65 1.53 1.35 4.06 2.09 0.44 0.53 3.81
SEm± 0.089 0.044 0.030 0.141 0.026 0.019 0.016 0.072
CD (P=0.05) 0.261 0.129 0.086 0.412 0.076 0.055 0.047 0.209
which was significantly higher than rest of the N Most of the root parameters of both maize and
levels. The N level 60 kg/ha resulted maximum wheat were similar due to sequential tillage
RD, which was significantly higher than 0 kg N/ practices. However, RD and RVD were recorded
ha, but was remained on par with 120 and 180 kg more under ZT involving sequential tillage
N/ha. The minimum values of all the root growth sequences, while RLD and RSD were recorded
parameters were recorded at 0 kg N/ha. higher under CT-CT practices. These results were
The perusal of data (Table 4) indicated that also similar with the finding of Maurya and Lal
sequential tillage practices did not influence the (1980). They reported that there was more roots
root growth parameters of wheat. However, the density of maize in surface layer (0-10 cm) with
maximum vales of RLD (1.98 cm/cm3) and RSA no-tillage than in conventionally ploughed plots.
(0.42 cm2/cm3) were recorded under CT-CT, while In our study the more thick roots (RD) with ZT
minimum values (1.71 cm/cm3 and 0.30 cm2/cm3) treatment corroborated the findings of Chassot and
of these parameters were recorded under ZT-ZT Richner (2002). Meena and Behera (2008) revealed
system, respectively. Whereas, maximum values that root growth parameters were significantly
of RD (0.55mm) and RVD (3.43 x 10-3 cm3/cm3) influenced due to tillage and residue management
were recorded under ZT-ZT, while minimum RD practices. The root length was significantly lower
(0.46 mm) and RVD (3.22 x 10-3 cm3/cm3) were in zero tillage than conventional tillage, while root
recorded under ZT-CT and CT-CT system, dry weight and root volume were more in zero
respectively. Root growth parameters were tillage than conventional tillage. The RLD and RSD
influenced significantly due to different levels of were lower in zero tillage due to compaction of
N. Most of the root growth parameters were soil, which might be restricted the smooth growth
increased with each successive levels of N from 0 of roots into down layers, resulted more thickly
to 180 kg/ha, except RD. However, the maximum and lateral spreading of roots which ultimately
values of RLD, RSA and RVD were recorded at 180 increase the RD and RVD in surface layers. A
kg N/ha, which were significantly higher than the higher soil BD under ZT practices may reduce root
0 and 60 kg N/ha, but remained statistically similar length (de Freitas et al., 1999). The higher root
with 120 kg N/ha. The N level 60 kg/ha resulted growth parameters with increased levels of N
maximum RD, which was significantly higher than might be due to higher doses of N helped in
0 kg N/ha, but remained on par with 120 and 180 decomposition of roots of previous crops and
kg N/ha. applied residues which leads to improved physical
80
environment in soil and better root growth. These de Freitas, P.L., R.W. Zobel, and Snyder, V.A. 1999. Corn
results are also in agreement with the finding of root growth in soil columns with artificially
Mohanty et al. (2007). They reported that RLD and constructed aggregates. Crop Science 39: 725–730.
RMD (root mass density) were increased Dong, W., Hu, C., Chen, S. And Zhang, Y. 2009. Tillage
and residue management effects on soil carbon and
significantly from no fertilization (0% NPK) to
CO 2 emission in wheat–corn double-cropping
recommend dose of fertilizers (100% NPK) and system. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 83: 27–
maximum at 100% NPK with FYM 4 t/ ha. 37.
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tillage practices involving ZT in conjunction with Deckers, J. 2007. Influence of permanent raised bed
application of 120 kg N/ha may be adopted for planting and residue management on physical and
sustaining the soil health under maize–wheat chemical soil quality in rain fed maize/wheat
cropping system as it favourably influenced the soil systems. Plant and Soil 291: 39–54.
environment. Green, V.S., Ctott, D.E. and Diack, M. 2006. Assay of
Fluorescein diacetate hydrolytic activity–
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82
January-March 2014] SOFT COMPUTING APPROACH 83

ISSN: 022-457X
Soft computing approach

for optimal reservoir operation
ASHISH SONAWANE1, SUJEET DESAI2 , GAJANAN RAJURKAR3 and DEEPAK SINGH4
Received: 3 October 2013; Accepted: 21 February 2014
ABSTRACT
Soft computing techniques have been adopted widely in almost all sectors in decision making because
of the ability to analyze and model the complex problem in the comprehensive manner for which
conventional mathematical techniques have their shortcomings. Soft computing techniques provide
better option for improving management of water resources. Optimal operating policies are very
much essential for sustainable management of reservoir as poor operating policies may leads to
over or under use of water. Due to huge amount of uncertainty involved in real time operation of
reservoir, derivation of optimal operating rules with conventional techniques is tedious job. The
soft computing tools like Fuzzy logic, Neural Networks, Nero-Fuzzy handle the uncertainty and
unpredictability and helps in decision making to develop operating policies of reservoir. This paper
briefly reviews the development of soft computing techniques like Fuzzy Logic (FL), Artificial Neural
Networks (ANNs) and Neuro-Fuzzy System (NFS) and their application in deriving operating
policies for the reservoirs.
Key words: Soft computing, Reservoir operation, Fuzzy logic, ANN, Neuro-Fuzzy system
INTRODUCTION techniques. The applications of soft computing have

Soft computing is an approach to construct two main advantages. Firstly, the nonlinear
computationally intelligent techniques, such as problems can be solved easily, in which the
Fuzzy Logic (FL), Artiûcial Neural Networks mathematical modeling is not possible. Second and
(ANNs), and Neuro-Fuzzy System (NFS). These most important advantage is that, it incorporates
techniques provides by and large inexact solutions human knowledge such as recognition,
of complex problems, unlike the hard computing understanding, learning, and others into the
in which one have to deal with a large set of computing. This leads in to the possibility of
conventional techniques such as mathematical, constructing intelligent systems such as
stochastic and statistical methods. In contrary, soft autonomous and automated designed systems.
computing combines biological structures with Among many natural resources on earth the
computing techniques. FL refers to logical system water is a vital and most important resource. Now
that generalizes classical two valued logical days there is ever increasing stress on available
reasoning with uncertainty (Yen and Langari 2003). water resources as human population is growing
ANNs made up of interconnecting artiûcial at very high rate. Due to this reason, how such a
neurons that has natural property for storing rare and vital resource can best be utilized for
experimental knowledge and making it available human use and how efficiently this can be managed
for use as human brain does. Integration of FL and are the burning questions all over the world today.
ANN with certain derivative-free optimization In India large part of population depends on
technique gives the NFS. agriculture. Under the present situations of its rapid
Soft computing which is proposed by Dr. Lotfi population growth, there is always a heavy pressure
Zadeh is simply a fusion of techniques that were on available water resource, to meet the increasing
designed to model and address the real world demand for food. There is ever increasing need for
problems, which are difficult to model by existing irrigation for better agricultural output. Not only
1Research Scholar, Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, IIT Kharagpur

2,3,4 Research Scholar, Division of Agricultural Engineering, IARI, New Delhi
83
84 SONAWANE et al. [Journal of Soil & Water Conservation 13(1)
in agriculture but water consumption has increased Fuzzy Logic

drastically in all sectors like domestic, industry etc. Fuzzy logic is used in two different senses. In
Under these circumstances there is need to give narrow sense it refers to a logical system which
the great importance to water resource generalizes classical two-valued logic for reasoning
management. This requires to find out better under uncertainty and in broad sense, FL refers to
operating policies of storage reservoirs. It may be all the theories and techniques that employ fuzzy
appropriate to mention here that no water resource sets. It is obvious that broad sense of FL includes
system is free from problems. It may be due to the the narrow sense FL as branch (Yen and Langari.
fact that water is often available at times; the 2003). A fuzzy inference system is the non-linear
amount of water available is not up to the demand. mapping from a given input space to an output
Besides, there is a misdistribution of water in space space. Fuzzy Set theory allows the user to deal with
and time. Precise use of water available in reservoir uncertainties in data. The basic notion of fuzzy
is required for sustainable water management. The systems is a fuzzy (sub) set. In classical
whole reservoir system has been developed by mathematics we are familiar with crisp sets. FL
incurring a huge cost so it should be utilized provides a set of membership values inclusively
optimally to serve its purpose. Many reservoirs between 0 and 1 to indicate the degree of truth
may fail to serve their purpose unless they (fuzzy). The membership function is a graphical
managed properly. This may be due to adopting representation of the magnitude of participation
poor operating policies. From this discussion it is of each input. It associates a weighting with each
clear that a reservoir system with efficient of the inputs that are processed, define functional
management and improved operational policy overlap between inputs, and ultimately determines
would lead to the water and energy conservation an output response. The rules use the input
for sustainable water management. membership values as weighting factors to
Determination of reservoir or pond operating determine their influence on the fuzzy output sets
policies is a complex problem because of of the final output conclusion. Once the functions
uncertainty involve in it. That is why the soft are inferred, scaled, and combined, they are
computing techniques have been used for deriving defuzzified into a crisp output which drives the
operating policies for reservoirs. These techniques system. There are different membership functions
can be gainfully employed to handle such problems associated with each input and output response.
when conditions of the systems are uncertain Triangular shape of the membership is common,
(Mehta and Jain 2009). Many researchers have but bell, trapezoidal, exponential etc. have also
found that soft computing techniques are very been used.
efficient in handling large uncertain data The fuzzy inference system should include the
(Manikumari and Murugappan 2008). Operating following functional steps:
policies developed by using soft computing • A fuzziûcation interface that transforms the
techniques showed very good results. Not only crisp inputs into degrees of match with
water is saved but sustainable water management linguistic values;
can also be ensured. • A knowledge base that includes,
This paper briefly reviews some of the studies — A rule base containing a number of fuzzy
carried to develop operating policies for the ‘IF–THEN’ rules;
reservoir using FL, ANN and NFS with the detail
concepts, methods and applications. The future
development in the same area has also been
discussed.
Methods of soft computing

There are many methods for soft computing like
FL, ANNs, NFS, Evolutionary Computing,
Probabilistic Computing, Belief Networks, Chaotic
Systems and parts of learning theory, Genetic
Algorithm etc. out of which FL, ANNs and NFS
have the significant utility in deriving the reservoir
operating rules. All three are described below. Fig 1: Functional blocks of fuzzy system.
84
— A database that defines the membership actual historic water release and that led to increase
functions of the fuzzy sets used in the fuzzy in irrigation potential tremendously.
rules; It has always been difficult to model the multi
• A decision-making unit that performs the reservoir system using classical Stochastic Dynamic
inference operations on the rules; Programming (SDP), due to curse of
• A defuzziûcation interface that transforms the dimensionality inherently associated with it.
fuzzy results of the inference into a crisp Owing to this, Jairaj and Vedula (2000) made an
output. (Huang et al. 2010). attempt to use Fuzzy Linear Programming (FLP)
to solve such kind of problems. The fuzzy set
Application of FL in reservoir operating rules theory was applied to a multi reservoir system with
Many research has been carried out to derive a number of upstream parallel reservoirs, and one
operating policies of reservoir using fuzzy logic, downstream reservoir through the formulation of
some of them are discussed below. a fuzzy mathematical programming model. The
Panigrahi and Mujumdar (2000) developed the objective of study was to minimize the sum of
model for operation of single purpose reservoir deviations of the irrigation withdrawals from
using fuzzy logic for the Malaprabha irrigation target demands on a monthly basis, over the entire
reservoir in Karnataka. Following steps were year. The SDP and FLP model were applied to three
followed in the modelling process. reservoir systems in the Upper Cauvery River
• Fuzziûcation of inputs, in which the crisp basin, South India and the results obtained were
inputs such as the inûow, reservoir storage and compared. Though the data set and constraints
release were transformed into fuzzy variables, were same in both the cases, fewer efforts
• Formulation of the fuzzy rule set, based on an generated the steady state solution for multi
expert knowledge, reservoir systems using FLP than that of SDP. The
• Application of a fuzzy operator to obtain one results revealed that SDP would not be feasible for
number representing the premise of each rule, large and complex multi reservoir systems because
• Shaping of the consequence of the rule by of dimensional considerations. In the present case,
implication, use of fuzzy linear programming in multi reservoir
• Defuzziûcation. system optimization gave better results than SDP.
Study underlined the advantage of the fuzzy
rule based reservoir operation in which the Artificial Neural Networks
complex optimization procedures were avoided. Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) is very
It was revealed that the linguistic statements such important aspect of soft computing. It is motivated
as ‘low inûow’ ‘poor rainfall’ etc. could be readily by the recognition that the human brain computes
incorporated. As a result of these the operators feel in all the different ways from what the digital
ease in using such models. The fuzzy rule based computer does. Neural network does not have real
model is easy to develop and adopt for operation nerve cells; instead an artificial system of neurons
which was proven to be true in case of study carries out the computational work. So we can say
reservoir (Malaprabha irrigation reservoir). that ANN is an artificial neural system.
Manikumari and Murugappan (2008) carried It is difficult to define the neural network
out similar study on the Veeranam irrigation tank because of its multidisciplinary nature and its
system of Cuddalore district of Tamilnadu to origin in biological science. But in simple way an
derive operating guidelines which earlier was on ANN is a computational structure designed to
adhoc basis. Tank of 41.6 MCM was being used mimic the human neural system. Neurons are the
for the irrigation purpose. The water release policy computational units of ANN, which are connected
derived by using FL was compared with the actual by means of weighted interconnections. Neurons
historic water release. The water release of each have property of storing knowledge and making
month for the years from 1988-89 to 1996-97 was available for use as and when required. The weight
simulated using FL which gave the satisfactory of an interconnection is a number that expresses
result than that of adhoc policies. FL had proven the strength of the associated interconnection. The
to be efficient tool for decision making to meet important characteristic of ANNs is their ability to
irrigation requirements. The model enabled the learn. This learning process is achieved by adjusting
operator to use release policy on day-to-day basis. the weights of the interconnections between neurons
The model had 84% accuracy when compared with according to applied learning algorithms.
85
assess the behavior of different operating rules.

Validation of selected neural networks over seven
year period showed the superiority and also
improved the reservoir performances during
drought conditions. The operating rules based on
an optimization with constraints resembling real
system operation led to a good performance of
reservoir both in normal and in drought periods
by reducing water spill and maximum deûcit.
Chandramouli and Deka (2005) developed the
Decision Support System (DSS) for optimal
operation of Aliyar reservoir in South India using
combination of a rule based expert system and
Fig. 2. Structure of neural network ANN models. The models were trained using the
results from deterministic single reservoir
The structure of neural network consists of three optimization algorithm. The DSS based on trained
basic layers, input layer, hidden layer and output neural network models, used the real time data of
layer. The manner in which the neuron layers are previous time for deciding the operating policies.
structured to learn the algorithm is called as Results revealed that the operating policies
‘Network architecture’. There are three types of developed by ANN improved the reservoir
architecture. 1. Single layer feed forward networks; operation in significant way. It was also found that
it is the simplest structure in which only one hidden the application of ANN was suitable for field
layer is present along with the other layers. 2. problems.
Multilayer feed forward networks; it consists of
Neuro-Fuzzy System (NFS)
more than one hidden layer. 3. Recurrent network;
it can be distinguished from feed forward neural Neuro- Fuzzy refers to combinations of artificial
network in a way that it has at least one feedback neural networks and fuzzy logic. The need of
loop. The flow chart for the working of ANN is combining these two techniques was realized
given in fig. 3. because the neural network can approximate a
The ability of ANN to learn gives the power of function, but the interpretation of results in terms
generalizing the output during training. This main of natural language cannot be obtained. A neural
advantage has made ANN to solve large scale network uses nonlinear regression to model
complex problems that are traceable. Due to this dynamic plant in the discrete time domain. The
advantage many researchers have used ANN for result is a network, with adjusted weights and
deriving reservoir operating rules. approximation. The learning results in a large set
of parameter values which would be very difficult
Application of ANNs in reservoir operating rules to interpret in words. Conversely, a fuzzy rule base
Cancelliere et al. (2002) applied approach of consists of readable IF-THEN statements which are
ANNs for deriving the operating rules for an almost natural language, but drawback is that, it
irrigation reservoir. To determine operating rules cannot learn the rules by itself. To overcome the
a two step process was used. In first step, a dynamic drawbacks of these techniques and to achieve
programming technique in which sum of squared readability and learning ability at the same time,
deficit, assumed as objective function subject to both are combined to give new system of
various constraints, were applied to derive computation called as Neuro-Fuzzy. The fusion of
operating rules. In second step, the water releases ANN and FL in neuro-fuzzy models provides
resulting from the reservoir were expressed as a learning as well as readability. This combination
function of signiûcant variables by neural results in a hybrid intelligent system that has
networks. Neural networks were trained for a long human-like reasoning power, learning and reading
period and also for the period of severe droughts. abilities. Arun Raj Kumar and Selvakumar (2013)
Validation of operating rules determined was have given the architecture of Neuro-Fuzzy system
carried out for different shorter period. which is show in fig. 4. Combination of FL and
Performance indices of the reservoir and crop yield ANN can be observed in the following NFS
through soil water balance model were used to architecture.
86
Mehta and Jain (2009) developed operating

policies for Ramganga multipurpose reservoir
located at Kalagarh, India by using NFS. The study
showed that the developed policies minimized the
damage caused due to ûoods and droughts. The
operating policies also determined the optimum
outflow in response to the demand of water for
domestic supply, irrigation and hydropower
generation for monsoon and non-monsoon
periods. In present study three models based on
Fuzzy rule were developed, each for monsoon and
non monsoon period and same were tested. Actual
releases were used to formulate the general
operation fuzzy. Comparison of the releases
computed from all models using Fuzzy Mamdani
(FM) and ANFIS (Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy
Interactive System) – Grid and Cluster carried out.
The results showed that model developed using
ANFIS gave the best results which had highest
value of correlation coefficient though FM was
more user-friendly. Model efficiency was found to
be more than 90% in both the cases.
Chang and Chang (2006) used a neuro-fuzzy
hybrid approach to construct a water level
forecasting system during flood periods for
predicting the water level. ANFIS was used to
build a prediction model for reservoir management
to test the applicability and capability of ANFIS
for the Shihmen reservoir, Taiwan. Data sets for
132 typhoons and heavy rainfall events with 8640
Fig. 3. Flow chart for ANN
hourly data of past 31 years were collected and
used in model development. The developed neuro-
fuzzy model was tested for accuracy with and
without human knowledge input. The results
showed that the ANFIS could be applied
successfully and can provide high accuracy and
reliability for reservoir water level forecasting
for the next three hours. Also the model with
human decision as input variable was found to
have consistently superior performance with
regards to all used indexes than the model without
this input.
Hasebe and Nagayama (2002) compared the
operation of reservoir using FL and NFS and the
traditional method by using examples of floods
in flood and non flood period. The practical utility
of the system for reservoir operation was
Fig. 4. Architecture of NFS also evaluated. The results showed that the
NFS was very effective than the FL during flood
season, however it was not so effective when water
Application of NFS in reservoir operating rules use was the objective, where FL had its
Very few studies have been carried out to effectiveness.
develop the operating policy using NFS; some of
them are reviewed below.
87
CONCLUSIONS Chang, F. and Chang, Y. 2006. Adaptive neuro-fuzzy

inference system for prediction of water level in
Soft computing techniques are robust and can reservoir. Advances in Water Resources. 29:1-10.
handle uncertainty in cost effective manner. The Hasebe, M. and Nagayama, Y. 2002. Reservoir operation
operation of the reservoir involves huge using the neural network and fuzzy systems for dam
uncertainty as demand and supply are highly control and operation support. Advances in
instantaneous. Therefore the techniques like Engineering Software. 33(5):245-260.
Artificial Neural Network, Fuzzy Logic and Neuro- Huang, Y., Lanb, Y., Thomsona, S. J., Alex, F.A.,
Fuzzy are employed for modeling the reservoir Hoffmannb, W. C. and Lacey, R. E. 2010.
application. Each of the techniques has its own Development of soft computing and applications in
peculiarity to handle the uncertain data. There is a agricultural and biological engineering. Computers
and Electronics in Agriculture. 71:107-127.
huge scope for advancement in the application of
Jairaj, P.G. and Vedula, S. 2000. Multireservoir system
these techniques for the sustainable water optimization using fuzzy mathematical
management. programming. Water Resource Management. 14: 457-472.
Manikumari, N and Murugappan, A. 2008. Fuzzy logic
REFERENCES based model for optimization of tank irrigation.
Arun Raj Kumar, P. and Selvakumar, S. 2013. Detection Journal of engineering and applied science. 3(2): 199-202.
of distributed denial service attacks using an Mehta, R. and Jain, S. K. 2009. Optimal operation of a
ensemble of adaptive and hybrid Neuro-Fuzzy multipurpose reservoir using Neuro-fuzzy
system. Computer Communications. 36:303-311. technique. Water resource management. 23: 509-529.
Cancellirre, A., Giuliano, G. and Rossi, G. 2002. A neural Panigrahi, D. P. and Mujumdar, P. P. 2000. Reservoir
network approach for deriving irrigation reservoir operation modeling with fuzzy logic. Water resource
operating rules. Water resource management.16:71-88. management. 14: 89-109.
Chandramouli, V. and Deka, P. 2005. Neural network Yen, J. and Langari, R. 2003. Fuzzy logic: Intelligence,
based decision support model for optimal reservoir Control and Information. Pearson Education Pvt.
operation. Water resource management. 19: 447-464. Ltd., New Delhi.
88
January-March 2014] EFFECT OF DIFFERENT FARM 89

ISSN: 022-457X
Effect of different farm holding size on cropping

pattern and soil characteristics of farmer’s field of Meerut district
M. P. SHARMA1, J. P. SINGH2 and PREM SINGH3
ABSTRACT
The field survey of farm families was conducted in three villages namely Alipur, Madarpur and
Kulanjanpur of Sardhana Tehsil of Meerut district during December 2011 to study the effect of
different farm holding size on cropping pattern and soil characteristics of farmer’s fields. The results
indicated that large and medium categories of farmers adopting Sugarcane – ratoon - wheat cropping
sequence with mechanized farming whereas small and marginal farmers were practicing diversified
cropping patterns giving more emphasis on vegetables and fodder crops besides cultivation of
cash crop marigold. The Organic Carbon and available N P K of marginal and small farmer’s fields
found 31.62, 20.42, 23.56, 20.72% and 18.81, 28.26, 27.76, 03.70% higher than medium and large
categories of farmer’s fields respectively.
Key words: Farmers categories, Cropping sequences, Holding sizes and Soil Characteristics
INTRODUCTION sugarcane – ratoon – wheat, rice- wheat – sorghum

There are various categories of farmers as per and maize – wheat etc. with proper crop
their holding sizes viz. marginal having land size management practices and improved seeds,
< 1 ha., small (1- 2 ha), medium (2- 4 ha) and large fertilizers, irrigation, plant protection measures and
category (>4 ha). But the numbers of marginal and mechanized farming. The variations in cultural
small farmers are increasing rapidly year after practices for crops and soil management greatly
years due to fragmentation of large families, rapid influence soil health (Sharma et. al. 2000). However,
industrialization, urbanization, and various very meager information is available on this aspect.
development activities viz. construction of dams, Therefore, there is an urgent need to initiate the
roads and railways. Under such situation, marginal study on impact of farm holding sizes, various
and small farmers are compelled to take up some cultural practices and fertilizers use adopted by
other secondary and third enterprises such as different categories of farmers on their cropping
dairy, fisheries, poultry, piggeries, bee keeping, pattern and soil health.
mushroom cultivation, vermicomposting,
horticulture and forestry as per their suitability in MATERIALS AND METHODS
the areas concerned and circumstances in order to The survey of farm families was conducted in
generate employment through out the year and three villages namely Alipur, Madarpur and
increase the overall income and ultimately Kulanjanpur of Sardhana Tehsil of Meerut district
adopting diversified agriculture. As these during December 2011. The climate of area falls in
categories farmers are economically and semiarid subtropical and characterized by hot
technologically poor, the use of organic sources of summer and cold winter. May and June are hottest
nutrient for crop production is a very common and December and January are the coldest months
practice in their limited land resources. of the year. The area is situated at latitude of 29°
On the other hand medium and large farmers 09' N and longitude of 77° 39' E and at an altitude
are taking up remunerating cropping system like of 210.60 m above mean sea level. The average
1Professor, Division of Soil Science and Agril. Chemistry, FOA, SKUAST, Chatha, Jammu- 180009
2Principal Scientist, Agronomy
3Principal Scientist and Programme Facilitator (IFS), Project Directorate for Farming Systems Research,
Modipuram, Meerut (UP) 250110
89
annual rainfall of the areas is approximately 720 adopting fully mechanized farming and 90% taking
millimetres. The July and August are the main Sugarcane- ratoon - wheat cropping sequence and
months of maximum rainfall. There were 6 farmers rest of the 10% area was under forage (Lucerne
selected randomly from each category ie large, Sorghum and Bajra) and other crops like Potato,
medium, small and marginal from each village and Maize, Onion and Marigold. Small and marginal
made total number of 72 farmers. All the farmers farmers were practicing traditional farming and
were systematically interrogated to record the mostly taking vegetable crops such as Potato,
holding size, cropping sequences, fertilizer used Onion, Peas, Chilies, Bhindi ,Cauliflower Cabbage,
and number of animals reared by them and cash crop such as Marigold and fodder crops such
presented in table1. Besides the above information, as Sorghum and Bajra besides Rice, Wheat,
72 composite soil samples were collected from each Mustard and Greengram for their own
category of farmers of all the villages. These consumption in a different cropping sequences
samples were processed and analyzed for various (Table 1). Almost all the categories of farmer’s
physico chemical properties. maintain 5-6 milch animals and using their excreta
The pH was determined by following standard as source of manures in an alternative year but
method prescribed by (Jackson, 1973). The organic quantum of application was higher in categories
carbon content of the soil was measured by the of small and marginal farmers because of their
chromic digestion method (Walkley and Black, small holding size in comparison of large number
1934). The available N was determined by the of animals. Application of nitrogenous fertilizer
method of Subiah and Asija (1956), available P was (Urea) @ 375 kg and phosphatic fertilizer (DAP) @
estimated by the procedure of Olsen et al. (1954) of 150 kg/ha was routine fertilization to each crop
and available K was measured by neutral like Sugarcane, wheat Maize and Rice in
ammonium acetate method. The average value of Sugarcane- ratoon- wheat, Rice-wheat-green gram
all the soil properties and available nutrients of and Maize- potato onion cropping sequences
each location of all the fields were worked out and where as potato crop was cultivated with 250 kg
presented in table 2. Urea and 125kg DAP/ha along with 25.0 tones
FYM while hardly 5-10% farmers applied
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS potassium fertilizer (Muriate of Potash) @ 125 kg
/ha to Potato crop on an average (Table-1).
It was observed from the survey work that
However, there was no systematic fertilization to
100 % large and medium categories of farmers were
Table 1. Survey of Farm families of different categories of farmers
Alipur
Parameters Large categories Medium categories Small categories Marginal categories
Holding Size 12.80 Acre 5.02 Acre 4.80 Acre 0.88 Acre
Cropping Sugarcane- ratoon- Sugarcane- ratoon - Maize-potato- onion- Rice-potato- onion-
Sequence wheat, Rice-wheat, wheat, Sorghum-potato- chilies, Sorghum-peas- chilies, Sorghum -
Sorghum-potato- lucerne, Maize potato- marigold, Sorghum- peas- marigold,
lucerne. marigold. potato-bhindi, Rice- Rice-potato-
wheat-green gram. marigold.
Fertilizers 375 kg Urea, 150kg 375 kg Urea, 150kg DAP/ 375 kg Urea, 150 kg 180 kg urea and 75
Used DAP/ha. for each ha for each cropping DAP/ha for each kg DAP/ha for Rice
cropping sequence in a sequence viz Sugarcane- cropping sequence viz crop and 250 kg
year viz Sugarcane- Ratoon – Wheat and 50% Rice-Wheat-Greengram urea, 125.0 kg DAP
Ratoon – Wheat and doses same fertilizer and 50% doses same and 25.0 tones
Rice – Wheat, 250 kg , were given to Maize fertilizer were given to FYM/. ha for Potato
125.0kg DAP and 25 crop,250 kg urea, 125.0kg Maize crop, 250 kg where as 25-30
tones FYM/ ha for DAP and 25 tones FYM/ urea, 125.0 kg DAP and tones F. Y. M. /ha to
Potato. ha for Potato. 25 tones FYM/ ha for other crops.
Potato whereas 25-30
tones F. Y. M. /ha to
other crops.
Animals Kept. 5.0 5.0 6.0 5.0
90
January-March 2014] EFFECT OF DIFFERENT FARM 91
Madarpur
Cropping Sugarcane- ratoon- Sugarcane-ratoon- Maize-potato- Onion- Maize-wheat-
Sequence wheat, Rice-wheat, wheat, Maize-wheat, chilies,Maize-wheat – dhania,Sorghum -
Sorghum- potato- Sorghum-potato- bajra. (fodder), Rice- wheat-bhindi,Rice-
lucerne. lucerne, Maize-potato- wheat- marigold, potato-marigold,
marigold. Maize-potato-onion. Rice-wheat-marigold.
Fertilizers 375 kg Urea and 150kg 375kg Urea and 150kg 375 kg Urea, 150 kg 375 kg Urea, 150 kg
Used DAP/ha for each DAP/ha for each DAP / ha for each DAP /ha for each
cropping sequence in cropping sequence in cropping sequence in a cropping sequence in
a year viz - Sugarcane- a year viz Sugarcane- year viz Rice- Wheat, a year viz Rice,
Ratoon -Wheat, Rice – Ratoon - Wheat,Maize- Maize-Wheat, 250 kg Wheat, Maize-Wheat,
Wheat, 250 kg urea, Wheat. 250 kg urea, urea, 125.0 Kg DAP 250 kg urea, 125.0 Kg
125.0 Kg DAP and 125.0 Kg DAP and and 25.0 tones FYM / DAP and 25.0 tones
25.0 tones FYM /ha 25.0 tones FYM /ha ha for Potato and 25-30 FYM /ha for Potato.
for Potato. for Potato. tones FYM/ha to other and 25-30 tones F Y
crops M /ha to other crops
Animals Kept. 5.0 6.0 6.0 5.0
Kunjalpur
Cropping Sugarcane- ratoon- Sugarcane- ratoon - Sorghum-potato- Sorghum-potato-
Sequence wheat, Rice-wheat, wheat, Sorghum- potato- marigold chilies,Maize- marigold- chilies,
Sorghum- potato- lucerne, Maize-potato- potato-marigold-bajra Sorghum-potato-
lucerne. onion. (fodder), Maize- marigold-cabbage,
mustard greengram Sorghum -pea-
marigold, Maize-
potato-merigold-
bajra (fodder).
Fertilizers 375 kg Urea and 375 kg Urea and 150kg 250 Kg urea and 125Kg 250 Kg urea,
Used 150kg DAP/ha for DAP/ha for each DAP- and 25 tones 125.0 Kg DAP/ha
each cropping cropping sequence in a FYM /ha for Potato, and 25 tones FYM /
sequence in a year year viz Sugarcane- 120 kg Urea and 75kg ha for Potato. and
viz, Sugarcane – Ratoon- Wheat and 50% DAP/ ha. for Maize 25-30 tones/ha.
Ratoon -Wheat, Rice- doses were given to crop and 25-30 tones/ F Y M to other
Wheat, 250 Kg urea Maize and Onion crops. ha. F Y M to other crops
and 125Kg DAP- and 250 Kg urea and 125Kg crops.
25 tones FYM /ha for DAP- and 25 tones FYM
Potato. /ha for Potato.
Animals Kept. 5.0 crops 5.0 6.0 6.0
any other crops. Anyway, these fodder and other followed by medium farmers field which ranged
miscellaneous crops (except potato) are being from 0.45 to 0.56 %, 216 to 274 kg/ha, 12.5 to 18.2
cultivated with variable (25-30 tones /ha) kg/ha and 130 to 146 kg/ha and small farmers field
application of Farm Yard Manures. varied from 0.46 to 0.58 %, 257 to 285 kg/ha, 13.5
As per soil health of the farmer fields is to 20.50 kg/ha and 130 to 150 kg/ha whereas
concerned, the pH value of all the categories of the marginal farmers field had higher values of organic
farmers fields ranged from 6.34 to 7.16 and attains carbon ranged from 0.56 to 0.68, available N 256 to
the level of neutral range. The status of organic 322 kg/ha, available P2O5 15.2 to 22.5kg/ha and
carbon and NPK of large category of farmers was available K205 145 to 192 kg/ha. It may be due to
lowest and varied from 0.21 to 0.48 %, 137 to 238 more addition of organic manures into the soil
kg/ha, 10.24 to 17.5 kg/ha and 126 to 149 kg/ha which results higher amount of organic carbon and
91
Table 2. Soil characteristics of farmer’s fields under different categories.

Locations Farmers Soil pH O C (%) Available N Available Available
Categories (Kg/ha) P2O5 (Kg/ha) K2O (Kg/ha)
Alipur Large 7.12 0.31 178.0 12.15 128.0
Medium 7.00 0.45 216.0 12.50 130.0
Small 6.50 0.46 257.0 13.50 130.0
Marginal 6.30 0.56 256.0 15.20 145.0
Madarpur Large 6.80 0.21 137.0 10.24 126.0
Medium 7.10 0.55 232.0 15.10 138.0
Small 6.70 0.57 268.0 16.80 140.0
Marginal 6.40 0.62 291.0 18.10 162.0
Kunjalpur Large 7.16 0.48 238.0 17.50 149.0
Medium 6.70 0.56 274.0 18.20 146.0
Small 6.40 0.58 285.0 20.50 150.0
Marginal 6.34 0.68 322.0 22.50 192.0
more availability of N P and K in the soil. These the marginal and small farmer’s fields are better
results are in agreement with the findings of than medium and large categories of the farmers.
Sharma and Bali (2002) The village wise nutrient
status of the farmers field of large category of the REFERENCES
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whereas rest of the categories of farmers recorded 1954.Estimation of available phosphorous in soil by
little bit different trend in respect of organic Carbon extension with NaHCO3. USDA. Circ. 939 : 19-33.
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Management under Rice-Wheat Cropping sequence.
Madarpur and Alipur except in case of small
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CONCLUSIONS integrated Use of Organic Manure, Green Manure
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92
January-March 2014] OPTIMUM SIZE 93

ISSN: 022-457X
Optimum size of agricultural land holdings for

economic sustainability-Policies on land utilization &
succession laws on inheritance
C.M. PANDEY1 and R.A.S. PATEL2
ABSTRACT
Agriculture is and will continue to be the main theme for all strategies for planning of socio-economic
developmental interventions across the country. The rapid growth in this sector is essential to meet
increasing demands of over one billion population, which is feasible by increasing extent of cultivable
land or by enhancing productivity of existing agricultural land on sustainable basis. For enhancing
productivity, the land/soil management, optimum water resource development, soil health
management, reclamation of problem soils, addressing the issues of climate change by adaptation
and mitigation, harnessing the productive potential of rainfed areas, timely availability of inputs,
support for marketing infrastructure, credit flow to the farmers etc. would further boost economic
sustainability. Land holding while undertaking above interventions plays a significant role, therefore,
ensuing optimum size of agricultural land holding becomes a key factor. For this purpose, bringing
suitable statutory reforms/ laws relating to land utilization, policies on prevention of agricultural
land for non-agricultural uses, succession laws of inherent properties etc. need to be analyzed &
modified for economic sustainability of farming systems.
An attempt is made to take a stock of various survey reports in the area of land holding to study the
optimum size of land holding. Outcomes of analysis of data of National Sample Survey Organization
(NSSO) on income and consumption per farm household by size category of farmers, reveals that
national average income per household farmer in case of large farmers is higher and the same is
lower as holdings decrease, whereas difference in income and consumption increases as land holding
increases. In case of marginal and small farmers’ difference in income and consumptions are negative
which reveals that these two categories of farming systems are in loss and not able to sustain until
and unless some non-farm employment opportunities are made available. Difference in income &
consumption only in case of semi-medium farmer’s household is minimum which reveals that if
little efforts with appropriate technologies and packages of practices are extended to this category,
they can sustain with farming systems. Although, empirical studies have demonstrated that
agricultural productivity is size neutral, but analysis of NSSO data reveals that optimum size of
agricultural land holding may be 2 to 4 ha in India.
Key words: Climate change adaptation & mitigation, Succession laws, Intestate, Archaic &
anachronistic, Inheritance, Contract farming
INTRODUCTION challenging task is feasible; firstly by increasing

Agriculture is a way of life, a tradition, which, extent of cultivable land and secondly by
for centuries, has shaped the thought, the outlook, enhancing the present level of productivity of
culture and economic life of the people of India. agricultural land. The structural reforms and
Agriculture, therefore, is and will continue to be stabilization policies introduced in 1991 mainly
central theme for planned socio-economic focused on industry, tax reforms, foreign trade and
development of the country. Growth in agriculture investment, banking and capital markets; however,
sector is essential to meet increasing demands of did not include any package specifically designed
over one billion population of the country. This for agriculture. Real development in terms of
1Additional
Commissioner (NRM); 2Shri R.A.S. Patel, Assistant Commissioner (NRM),
Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture, Deptt. of Agriculture and Co-operation, New Delhi
93
94 PANDEY et al. [Journal of Soil & Water Conservation 13(1)
growth of all sections of the population has not million ha, area under forest cover is 70.01 million
taken place and therefore, problems of poverty, ha, area under non-agricultural uses is 26.51 million
unemployment, inequalities in access to health and ha, barren land is 17.05 million ha, total fallow land
education opportunities and poor performance of is 26.17 million ha (Permanent pastures is 10.30
agriculture sector continue to exit in large section million ha, culturable waste land is 12.66 million
of the population. ha, land under miscellaneous tree crops and groves
Land is a means of earning income and of is 3.21 million ha) and net sown area is about 141.00
providing for one’s needs. Land has meant social million ha.
position and power as well as of great economic Cultivable land has reduced from 185.09 million
advantage. Social systems, laws, and customs are ha(1980-81) to 182.03 million ha (2010-11). During
concerned with one way or other to land. The man- same period, land under non agricultural uses has
land ratio is very adverse and the availability of increased from 19.66 million ha to 26.51 million ha
land per person in India is much below the world During the Eighties (between 1980-81 and 1990-91),
average. Also, land is far less productive than land annual average increase in non-agricultural use
in most of the other countries of the world and is was 0.15 million ha, during 1991-92 to 2000-2001 it
being further degraded due to lack of land uses as is 0.23 million ha whereas during the period, 2001-
per land capabilities. The question of the utilization 02 to 2010-11, the annual average increase in non-
of 328.73 million hectare of the country’s land area agricultural use became 0.26 million ha Thus, pace
in a manner in which the maximum area is brought of conversion is higher above 73% between 2001-
under productive use has to be devised in a 02 to 2010-11 as compared to the period of 1980-81
pragmatic and scientific way. Land use is a multi- to 1990-91.
faceted subject and is the concern of many
disciplines. The higher economic growth of land Objectives
is concern of the scientists, ecologists, planners, The major objectives of the study are as under:
politicians, business and industry, trade and a. Suggest optimum land holding size for
commerce groups, administrators, farmers and all ensuring sustainable farm income;
concern. b. Promotion of crop diversification, changing
The economic, political and social factors are the region-wise cropping pattern based on
root of the land degradation problem. Human location specific needs, including emphasis on
interaction with the land can depend critically on cultivation of short duration high yielding
whether the land is leasehold, freehold or a varieties of seeds & other advance
common property resource and whether technologies;
government regulations or fiscal measures restrict c. Suggest interventions for non- farm activities
or encourage user activities. Land users in India for off season means by development of rural-
are often constrained in their ability to invest in agro industries, road transport and
land improvement for several factors such as (i) communication services to induce more
capital for the development of land may not be income and employment; and,
available and therefore, land users may not d. Statutory amendment for prevention of land
perceive the full economic benefits, (ii) technical fragmentation.
and managerial knowledge may be inadequate,
and (iii) income may not be high enough to serve MATERIALS AND METHODS
the cost of borrowing. The responsibility for Average land holding has reduced from 1.84 ha
ensuring that land is not over-exploited cannot be in 1980-81 to 1.16 ha in 2010-11, resulting increase
left entirely to individuals. Therefore, policies in percentage of operational holders in category of
designed to arrest and reverse the processes of marginal & small by 1% whereas; during same
degradation must be aimed at people who use the period, it has marginally decreased in case of
land and they should have access to the right medium & large holder. The Indian agriculture is
technology to suit their particular economic needs. dominated by small and marginal farmers (80%)
Land serves as storage for water and nutrients and therefore proper management of these
required for different crops, and meet the demand holdings is important for raising agriculture
for food, energy and other human requirements. growth, food security and livelihoods in India.
As per “Land Use Statistics at a Glance(2013) of Above facts, indicate that our country is facing
Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture, New twin problems, firstly, reduction in availability of
Delhi, out of total geographical area of 328.73 cultivable land due to diversion of such land for
94
non-agricultural purposes, secondly reduction in improve productivity and alleviating growth of

average land holding mainly due to fragmentation poverty. State-wise land holding under various
and division in farm families, resulting in increase categories of farmers are given in table 1.
of small and marginal farmers to about 80% of the
total farmers population. As regards the value of Productivity of major crops in selected counties
cultivable land in urban and rural areas is Indian agriculture is overmanned & only few
concerned, value of urban land is now about 15 to farmers are able to produce major agricultural
20 times greater than rural land due to ever commodities and depends on Government policies
increasing demands of land for housing and other to support prices of the commodities. Furthermore,
basic amenities. Therefore, achieving maximum average yields are low not only in comparison to
efficiency in urban land uses have become an many food producing countries, but also yields at
important area needing higher attention to research stations. The productivity of major crops
Table 1. Average size of holdings by size group, in India as on 2010-11 (Area in hectare)
S. N. Name of the States/UTsAverage size of holdings by size group(2010-11)

Marginal Small Semi-Medium Medium Large All Holdings
1. Andhra Pradesh 0.44 1.41 2.63 5.56 15.50 1.08
2. Arunachal Pradesh 0.55 1.34 2.76 5.54 14.90 3.51
3. Assam 0.42 1.38 2.69 5.15 68.11 1.10
4. Bihar 0.25 1.25 2.59 5.09 14.45 0.39
5. Chhattisgarh 0.44 1.42 2.68 5.71 16.30 1.36
6. Goa 0.31 1.40 2.74 5.57 22.91 0.93
7. Gujarat 0.49 1.45 2.77 5.71 19.54 2.11
8. Haryana 0.46 1.47 2.87 6.09 17.95 2.25
9. Himachal Pradesh 0.41 1.39 2.72 5.66 15.44 0.99
10. Jammu & Kashmir 0.35 1.40 2.68 5.43 22.34 0.62
11. Jharkhand 0.41 1.38 2.74 5.63 15.35 1.17
12. Karnataka 0.48 1.41 2.68 5.69 14.71 1.55
13. Kerala 0.13 1.57 2.79 5.32 64.58 0.22
14. Madhya Pradesh 0.49 1.42 2.73 5.76 15.77 1.78
15. Maharashtra 0.47 1.42 2.67 5.62 16.07 1.45
16. Manipur 0.52 1.28 2.48 4.86 11.00 1.14
17. Meghalaya 0.56 1.58 2.75 5.49 17.24 1.37
18. Mizoram 0.60 1.27 2.42 5.13 15.09 1.14
19. Nagaland 0.51 1.14 2.59 6.13 17.54 5.99
20. Odisha 0.57 1.63 2.95 5.99 25.46 1.04
21. Punjab 0.61 1.38 2.64 5.74 14.75 3.77
22. Rajasthan 0.49 1.43 2.83 6.14 17.45 3.07
23. Sikkim 0.37 1.20 2.49 5.44 15.77 1.42
24. Tamil Nadu 0.37 1.39 2.70 5.63 20.13 0.80
25. Tripura 0.27 1.39 2.59 4.81 14.29 0.52
26. Uttarakhand 0.44 1.43 2.71 5.45 23.11 0.89
27. Uttar Pradesh 0.37 1.39 2.72 5.52 15.01 0.75
28. West Bengal 0.49 1.59 2.73 4.85 338.58 0.77
29. A & N Islands 0.44 1.43 2.63 4.34 36.88 1.85
30. Chandigarh 0.46 1.43 2.86 5.70 11.08 1.29
31. D & N Haveli 0.51 1.37 2.77 5.74 15.46 1.38
32. Daman & Diu 0.23 1.36 2.56 6.27 19.97 0.38
33. Delhi 0.42 1.32 2.69 5.56 15.13 1.45
34. Lakshadweep 0.17 1.36 2.50 6.11 24.00 0.27
35. Pondicherry 0.35 1.46 2.86 5.72 16.90 0.66
Total average 0.38 1.42 2.71 5.76 17.37 1.16
Source: Land Use Statistics at a Glance-(2001-02 to 2010-11), Directorate of E&S, DAC, MOA, GOI, New Delhi, April 2013.
95
in different countries of the world compared to implementation of policies designed to conserve

India are as under: natural resources and create the physical
The data on the productivity of paddy, wheat environment in which progress can be enjoyed.
and maize of other countries indicate that there is The thoughtless destruction of productive land
scope to increase the productivity of the cultivated threatens our future and must be brought under
land by intensive cropping with the use of high- control.
yielding varieties and by adopting new production
technologies developed for each region by ICAR Strength of smallholders and their livelihood
and SAUs. More emphasis is also needed for The contribution by marginal and small farmers
horticulture and floriculture development. Land is higher as compared to their share from land
reforms need to be introduced for (i) the output. The share of these farmers is 46.1% in land
elimination of intermediaries between the possessed but they contribute 51.2% to the total
cultivator and the state, (ii) the implementation of output of the country at all India level in 2002-03.
ceilings on individual holdings and (iii) protection In terms of production, small and marginal farmers
of tenants by providing security and fair rents. also make larger contribution to the production of
high value crops. They contribute around 70% to
Land fragmentation and its impact on foodgrain the total production of vegetables, 55% to fruits
production against their share of 44% in land area. Their share
Agrarian problems such as fields being often is 52% in cereal production and 69% in milk
fragmented, loss of fertility of soil by erosion, tilled production. Thus, small farmers contribute to both
for long without replenishment of nutrients diversification & food security. Only in cases of
appears to have reached the ultimate base level of pulses & oilseeds, their share is lower than other
infertility. The rehabilitation of agriculture is by farmers.
far the most pressing problem facing India. Agricultural Census data shows that there has
Scientific soil and water conservation programmes, been debate in India on the relationship between
management of soil to replenish the nutrients, rural farm size and productivity. The results of NSS 2003
credit, agricultural education and advice, Farmers’ survey has empirically established that
regeneration or forests, conservation of fish and small farms continue to produce more in value
wild life resources make it possible to survive from terms per hectare than the medium and large
natural disasters such as droughts and floods. farms. Value of output per ha was Rs.14854 for
Communication Systems in rural areas are marginal farmers, Rs.13001 for small farmers,
inadequate. Market facilities are poor for Rs.11332 for medium & large farmers and Rs.12535
agricultural produce. The farmer, usually have for all holding farmers.
little storage capacity and have no holding power.
They are exploited in the receipt of income for their Policies and succession laws relating to lands
output. The farmers are often without access to Policies on Protection of Agricultural Lands:
reliable market intelligence which is a major factor Following major policy initiatives have been taken
of lower incomes especially from dairy, fruit and by Government of India for protection of prime
vegetable crops. Landless poor and unemployed agricultural land for non-agricultural purposes are
youths of the villages run towards for job as under:
opportunities resulting city slums which are i. National Policy for Farmers, 2007 (NPF 2007):
unhygienic to live. In order to control such National Policy for Farmers, 2007 (NPF 2007)
mindless migration of poor to the urban areas, rural formulated by Ministry of Agriculture (MoA)
development is an essential prerequisite of urban has recommended that ‘Prime farmland must
development in India. be conserved for agriculture except under
While some of the natural resources are not fully exceptional circumstances, provided that the
utilized, others are being dissipated, wasted and agencies that are provided with agricultural
in some cases destroyed. There are strong linkages land for non-agricultural projects should
between soil and water conservation, farm and compensate for treatment and full
livestock production practices, road construction, development of equivalent degraded /
soil erosion, etc. For reversing back the ecological wastelands elsewhere. For non-agricultural
disaster urgent developmental efforts are needed purposes, as far as possible, land with low
on a long term planned measures. The heritage of biological potential for farming would be
future generations depends on the adoption and earmarked and allocated’. State governments
96
have been advised to ‘earmark lands with low Madras and Bombay High Courts. Applicability
biological potential such as uncultivable land, of the Succession law to a person belonging to a
land affected by salinity, acidity, etc., for non- particular community is explained in the following
agricultural development activities, including diagram.
industrial and construction activities.
ii. National Rehabilitation & Resettlement Policy, RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
2007(NRRP, 2007): National Rehabilitation and
Resettlement Policy, 2007 (NRRP, 2007) Optimum size of land holdings
formulated by Ministry of Rural Development, As per available estimates, out of total 120
Department of Land Resources has million farm holdings, about 98 million are of small
recommended that ‘only the minimum area of and marginal farmers. The sustainability of these
land commensurate with the purpose of a farmers is crucial for livelihoods in rural areas and
project may be acquired. Also, as far as for the entire country. It is true that small holdings
possible, projects may be set up on wasteland, have higher productivity than medium and large
degraded land or un-irrigated land. farms, however, it is not enough to compensate for
Acquisition of agricultural land for non- the disadvantage of the small area of holdings. The
agricultural use in the project may be kept to cost of cultivation per hectare is high on small and
the minimum; multi-cropped land may be marginal farmers than medium and large farms.
avoided to the extent possible for such At the all India level, net farm income per hectare
purposes and acquisition of irrigated land, if for small holdings is higher than large holdings
unavoidable, may be kept to the minimum.’ table 2. The data at state level shows that in 9 out
These policies have been sent to States/UTs of 20 states, the reverse is true i.e.net farm income
for implementation. per hectare is higher in large holdings than small
iii. The Right to Compensation, Transparency in holdings.
Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and The cost of cultivation and net farm income per
Resettlement Act: Recently, Parliament passed hectare (table 2), as per Review of Agriculture (June
the Right to Compensation, Transparency in 2011) are as under:
Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and On perusal of value of output, cost of cultivation
Resettlement Act, which encompasses proper and net income, it is evident that small holdings
rehabilitation & resettlement, fair are equal or better than large holdings from
compensation and some extent of restriction efficiency point of view. There are large regional
in diversion of agricultural land. Presently, this variations, in the value of output per hectare. For
Act is in process of Gazette Notification & will marginal farmers, it varies from Rs. 29,448 in
be effective from the date of notification. Punjab to Rs.7,177 in Rajasthan. This is also true
Existing land/ property succession laws for medium and large farmers. It ranges from
Rs.28,983 in Punjab to Rs.4,213 in Rajasthan. In
Succession and inheritance can be of two kinds-
many States, small holdings have higher value of
Testamentary or testate inheritance which means
output per hectare than large farms. However, in
inheritance as per the Will of the deceased and Non
the case of States like, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh,
Testamentary or intestate succession, where the
Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Tamil Nadu,
deceased dies without making a Will. The law on
the large farms have higher productivity (in value
intestate succession for different communities in
terms) than marginal farmers.
India is governed by different succession laws
The information available on input use and
applicable for that particular community i.e. Hindu
other variables and structure of holdings in the
Succession Act (1956), Indian Succession Act (1925)
input survey and agriculture census cannot be used
including succession for Christians, Muslim
to establish the relationship between farm size and
Succession Act(1956) etc. The laws on testate
productivity. However, this type of information
succession are governed by the Indian Succession
is available in the situation assessment survey of
Act, 1925 for all communities except Muslims.
farmers conducted by the National Sample Survey
However, the Muslims shall be bound by the
Organization (NSSO) in 59th round on “Income
Indian Succession Act, 1925 for the purpose of
Expenditure and Productive Assets of Farmers
testamentary succession, if the will relates to
Households”. In this report the average were
immovable property situated within the State of
computed from the unit level data available from
West Bengal and within the jurisdiction of the
97
Table 2. Net farm Income per-hectare of crop area and cultivation
S. N. Name of the State Net farm Income per-hectare of crop area & cultivation
Marginal Small Marginal Medium All
& Small & Large Holdings
1. Andhra Pradesh 4224 5073 4637 5359 5047
2. Assam 15765 14682 15269 15238 15260
3. Bihar 7997 7566 7834 8479 8032
4. Chhattisgarh 5317 5157 5227 4468 4809
5. Gujarat 5717 5875 5806 5536 5630
6. Haryana 9922 9151 9523 8155 8567
7. Himachal Pradesh 7887 11674 9157 11785 9707
8. Jammu & Kashmir 20330 20295 20317 13079 18067
9. Jharkhand 10655 9406 10169 8898 9854
10. Karnataka 5695 6333 6028 5672 5796
11. Kerala 16829 18109 17216 15799 16921
12. Madhya Pradesh 5294 4060 4531 5203 5001
13. Maharashtra 6547 5712 6032 3653 4232
14. Odisha 3448 3096 3306 2939 3204
15. Punjab 18582 15780 16701 16615 16632
16. Rajasthan 2651 1392 1962 1345 1499
17. Tamil Nadu 6088 3658 5120 7723 6295
18. Uttarakhand 11286 8527 10730 64752 21358
19. Uttar Pradesh 6700 7399 6998 8281 7421
20. West Bengal 9528 9444 9503 9512 9503
All India 7809 6955 7414 6080 6694
Cost of Cultivation per ha 6975 6046 6530 5252 5841
Benefit (in %) as compared 112 115 114 116 115
to cost of cultivation per ha
Note: All India includes small States Goa, Delhi, Pondicherry, NE-States & Uts.
Source: Computed using NSS unit level data 59th Round on Situation Assessment
Survey of Farmers-Ministry of Statistics & Programme Implementation, New Delhi.
NSSO. Value of output per household was divided lower per capita availability of land.
by average size of holding to arrive at the value of As per the nationwide surveys of farm
output per hectare for various size classes. Situation households conducted by NSSO, it is evident that
Assessment Survey, NSSO 59 th Round, Report the lower size of holdings in India have been using
No.497 indicates that land productivity was higher dose of inputs, making more intensive use
inversely related to farm size class. Per hectare of land and adopting new technology on a much
value of crop output was Rs.25,173 at holdings larger scale compared to farms in the larger size
below 0.4 ha and Rs.18,921 at holdings of size 0.4 categories. These patterns of negative association
ha to 1 ha As the farm size increased towards 2 ha between farm size and productivity enhancing
productivity declined to less than Rs.17,000 per variables have not diluted over time with the
hectare. In large farms (4 ha to 10 ha) the value of advancement of technology or modernization of
aggregate crop production declined to Rs. 13,500 agriculture. The negative relationship between
per hectare. Farmers operating on landholdings farm size and aggregate productivity is quite
above 10 ha (the very large size category) were pronounced even in the recent years. It seems that
found to have very low productivity (Rs.7,722) emerging changes in labour market and the rising
which was about half of the productivity at large demand for labour will further increase advantage
holdings and less than one third of the productivity of smallholders over large size holdings. The much
in the bottom farm size category. Productivity in vaunted scale advantage has not provided any
marginal and small holdings was found to be much edge to larger size holdings, nor has it constrained
higher than the average productivity for all size production in marginal and smallholdings. On the
categories. Per capita output is low on contrary, the available evidence suggests that
smallholdings despite higher productivity, due to productivity of Indian agriculture may rise
98
significantly if land inequality is reduced in favour check the growth in population of smallholders.
of lower size holdings. Based on these experiences and those of other
Despite a strong advantage in land productivity countries in Asia, the option of raising the income
and much better production performance, of smallholders by increasing the land-man ratio
smallholders earn an awfully low amount of was not found workable. Another strong factor
income from agriculture on a per capita basis against the first option is that an increase in the
primarily due to very adverse land man ratio. As size of land holdings results to lower productivity.
per available estimates (2010-11), per capita Therefore, there is need to create employment
availability of land in marginal holdings (<1 ha) is avenues for smallholding cultivators outside
0.38 ha, small holdings (1 to 2 ha) it is 1.42 ha, agriculture within the countryside itself so that
medium (4 to 10 ha) is 5.76 ha and large (10 ha and workforce in smallholder households partly works
above) is 17.37 ha As such, there is a need to work on the farm and partly outside farm. This model of
out whether such a tiny piece of land can generate development has helped China to improve livelihood
enough income to take care of the livelihood needs and eliminate poverty in small farm households.
of a farm family.
The average consumption per farmer household Driving elements for sustaining land holdings and
per month in all categories is Rs.2,770 which is foodgrain production
higher than income (Rs 2,115), leading to shortfall The major natural resources/ inputs required
of about Rs.655 in India. As such there is high need for enhancing agricultural production are land/soil
to create employment outside agriculture sector in management, water resource development, soil
rural areas itself for sustaining income of farmers health management, reclamation of problem soils,
and also to support their livelihoods. Taking into addressing the issues of climate change adaptation
account the size of the family, average net farm and mitigation, capacity building & training for
income per hectare from agriculture per hectare of harnessing the productive potential of rainfed areas
land comes to Rs. 6,694. “This income was compared along with timely availability of inputs, support
against the Planning Commission norm of poverty line for marketing infrastructure, increase in flow of
for rural areas which shows that a farmer operating less credit particularly to the farmers may further boost
than 0.64 ha area will be under poverty, while as per economic sustainability.
the Tendulkar Committee norms, a minimum 0.8 ha of
Agrarian reforms
land area is needed to keep a farm family above the
poverty line, if this family lives only on agricultural
Identification of need-based technological interventions
income. This implies that 62% of farmers in India, who
own less than 0.80 ha of cultivable land, would be under Previous agrarian reforms have lessened the
poverty if they do not have an opportunity to earn inequality in access to land, water, credit,
income outside agriculture”(Chand et al, 2011, p.10). knowledge, and markets, and in income
It is also evident that with the present level of distribution; simultaneously, they have increased
productivity three-fourths of the population of agricultural productivity. Such reforms must be
smallholders cannot meet their livelihood from adopted to the widest possible extent. Secure access
farm income alone. There are mainly two ways to to natural resources encourages sustainable
improve their income and livelihoods. Firstly, an production; it also helps in insulating the small-
increase in the land-man ratio, which is possible holders against displacement from their holdings
only if a sizeable segment of smallholders is moved as a result of encroachment by agricultural or non-
out of agriculture and secondly, to provide agricultural entities. There are, however,
alternative sources of employment to smallholders opportunities in Indian agriculture where
in or around their habitation to supplement their investment to gain benefit from economies of scale
farm income. The experience of past six decades is both feasible and worthwhile. Notable such
in India and China show that the strategy of raising opportunities arise in processing, value-addition,
the land-man ratio by shifting a sizeable number and distribution of produce. There are successful
of farmers cultivators away from agriculture has experiences of large-scale (co-operative) milk
not worked in the Asian region. Despite the rapid processing in Gujarat and of sugarcane processing
growth of the economy during the last three in Maharashtra. Such examples should be
decades, the size of landholding in China is only replicated in other states, and the methodology
0.6 ha similarly, the acceleration in India’s adopted for should be adopted for other
economic growth after the early 1990 could not commodities and products.
99
Farming education and awareness Contract farming

It is correspondingly significant that almost one- Contract farming system may help the small and
half of the heads of India’s farm households lack marginal farmers to overcome constraints in
formal education and awareness; it is pertinent that accessing inputs, credit, extension and marketing.
more than four-fifths of India’s child labour work In recent years, there has been some form of
in the agricultural sector, and that most of those contract arrangements in several agricultural crops
children belong to small-holder families. such as tomatoes, potatoes, chilies, baby corn, rose,
Educational attainment is similarly important in onions, cotton, wheat, basmati rice, groundnut,
helping narrow the yield gaps and productivity flowers, and medicinal plants and is spreading
gaps that persist throughout much of India’s throughout India in states like Andhra Pradesh,
agriculture, and correspondingly in helping raise Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Punjab and Maharashtra.
total factor productivity. There are indeed proven Contract farming in India is neither backed up by
methodologies for meeting the some of those gaps law nor by an efficient legal system. This is the
and for raising factor productivity; adoption of single most constraint to widespread use of
those methodologies shall be more rapid when the contract farming in India. The legal system may
agricultural population is better educated. improve with legislative measures like the model
contract and code of practice, registration of
Development and diffusion of appropriate technologies contracts with marketing committees and tribunals
Improved agricultural technologies are “size- for efficient, speedy and corrupt-free dispute
neutral”; however, some of them are not “resource- resolutions.
neutral”. Hence in generating improved
agricultural technologies, small-holder-oriented On farm water management
research and extension should emphasize “cost The availability of water for irrigation is
reduction without yield reduction”. This might be decreasing, and therefore, there is need for
pursued through integration of non-monetary improving water use efficiency to make best use
inputs, low-cost technologies such as integrated of available water resources for enhancing water
pest management, integrated plant nutrition productivity. With this in view a Centrally
systems, water harvesting and recycling, and Sponsored Scheme on micro-irrigation was
monitoring of efficient use of natural and launched in January, 2006 during the XI Plan for
purchased resources. There shall thus be need for implementing drip and sprinkler irrigation system,
enhanced and sustained investment in research, which is now transform as National Mission on
technology development, human-resource Micro Irrigation (NMMI). As NMMI enhances
development, and especially extension. These scope for area coverage with same quantum of
investments have diminished in recent years, and conserved water leading to saving of irrigation
there is urgent need for re-invigoration and for a water, fertilizers & electricity and increases
paradigm shift towards farmer participation - production & productivity, therefore, highest
particularly in relation to non-monetary thrust has been given for NMMI under National
technologies. Livestock have a major and increasing Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)
role in small-holder mixed-farming systems. To during XII Plan to address the issues of enhancing
enhance labour productivity on small-holdings, water using efficiency.
priority needs are tools - small, but perhaps
mechanized - wherewith drudgery can be lessened Co-operative farming and farming co-operatives
but employment maintained. Such tools will add India has a long and successful history of
value to the work hours. In post-harvest handling, farmers’ co-operatives, through which small-
agro-processing, and value-addition activities, the holders increased their bargaining power as buyers
priority intervention has to be to disseminate more of inputs and sellers of products. Such bargaining
widely various available, proven technologies. power shall become increasingly important as
These available technologies serve not only to trade globalization expands. A newer development
reduce post-harvest losses, but also to improve is the co-operative group-farming enterprise, wherein
product quality through effective storage, households retain their land-ownership rights, but
packaging, handling, and transport, such that pool and share their farming resources, operations,
export-quality items can be marketed. and benefits. In appropriate circumstances, such
100
group-farming has potential to transform SUMMARY & RECOMMENDATIONS

subsistence agriculture to demand-driven, Analysis of various data and survey reports on
commercial agriculture, and perhaps to increase ensuring economic sustainability of the farmers
rural-community post-harvest enterprise, with various type land holdings in the present
employment, and income. statutory provisions lead to following
Institutional and infra-structural supports recommendations:
Difference in income and consumption of
As discussed in the preceding para, the
different category of farmers reveals that semi-
proposed large-scale rural co-operatives would
medium farm householders are having little loss
expect to provide a cost-effective “single-window-
and are efficiently managing the available
delivered” array of technical and financial services.
resources for sustaining their income. Therefore,
For the individual small-holder producers of
optimum size of agricultural land holding could
primary products, the technical services would
be about 2.0 hectare to 4.0 hectare (semi-medium
expect to include custom-hire facilities and
farm holding) for economic sustainability of
operators wherewith to undertake timely and
farmers, adoption of mechanization, conservation
efficient pre- and post-harvest field-crop-production
agriculture, micro irrigation systems etc.
activities, and on-farm guidance and assistance in
Policies and strategies, existing and new, must
horticultural and in livestock husbandry. For
help to diversify on-farm and off-farm activities
contiguous small-holdings, community services
and thereby enhance sustainability and
would include crop- and livestock-marketing
productivity. Small farmers are engaged in off-
support, and irrigation-water supply - in
farm paid work in Peri-urban areas and such work
partnership with water-users’ associations where
may be in the tourism and eco-tourism industry,
appropriate. It is thus re-confirmed that
or in various agriculture or non-agriculture-related
institutional and initial financial support - from
enterprises. In comparison to rural area, the peri-
national or/and state agencies – need to be provided
urban areas are usually better endowed with road,
to the embryonic large-scale co-operatives.
transport, market and other infra-structures; they
Non-farm employment for ensuring economic thereby have easier access to off-season
sustainability employment opportunities, and poor people are
less poor than the rural poor. Under this situation
On the perusal of the various data and its
for the rural poor, strengthening rural infra-
analysis, it is observed that with present level of
structures would facilitate in development of small
land holding and system of cultivation, majority
enterprises, agro-based activities leading to
of the farmers are not getting proper income. This
increase in off-farm employment opportunities.
calls for the introduction of other various
Various Succession Acts for transfer of
interventions for creation of additional
inheritable of properties reveals that Hindu
employment, outside agriculture sectors for
Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 passed by the
livelihood support. Such interventions may include
Parliament, has comprehensive systems for
off-farm employment. For this purpose small-
transfer of parental properties with special
holders who are under continuous pressure to
empowerment of Hindu females, who have been
increase production from their limited land
allowed to be absolute owner of the inheritable
resources. Policies and strategies, existing and new,
properties and can dispose it by will as they like.
must help to diversify on-farm and off-farm
However, large scale capacity building and
activities and thereby enhance sustainability and
awareness amongst the stakeholders, monitoring
productivity. The income from off-farm and non-
of such provisions besides ensuring easy
farm employment assists the small-farm
assessment of such land records of Indian Farmers
households to become or remain hunger-free. For
will create higher transparency and adoption.
the rural poor, strengthened rural infra-structures-
As per Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of
particularly connections to major roads and
India, land including transfer and alienation of
highways-would facilitate the development of
agricultural land, falls under the purview of the
small enterprises, agro-based activities, and
State Governments and, therefore, it is for the State
markets, and increase off-farm and non-farm
Governments to frame suitable Policy / enact
employment opportunities.
101
Legislation to prevent diversion of agricultural like, model contract & code of practice, registration
land for non-agricultural purposes which also of contracts with marketing committees and
results in land fragmentation and reduction in size tribunals for efficient, speedy dispute resolutions.
of land holding. Government of India role, in these
areas are limited to advisory and accordingly REFERENCES
National Policy for Farmers, 2007 (NPF-2007) and Anonymous, “Land Use Statistics at a Glance, 2001-02
National Rehabilitation and Resettlement Policy, to 2010-11. Directorate of E&S, DAC, MOA, GOI,
2007(NR&RP-2007) have been formulated and New Delhi, April, 2013”.
circulated to the States for adoption. These policies Anonymous, “Computed using National Sample
envisage, minimum acquisition of agricultural land Survey Organization (NSSO). 59 th Round on
for non-agricultural purposes. Besides, there is Situation Assessment Survey of Farmers.
need for effective implementation of various Chand, R., P.A. Lakshmi Prasanna and Aruna Singh,
2011. “Farm Size and Productivity: Understanding
provisions of these policies and its online
the strengths of smallholders and improving their
monitoring for ensuring optimum size of land livelihoods”, Economics and Political Weekly, Vol.
holdings for economic sustainability of farmers. 46, Nos. 26 and 27.
National Mission on Micro Irrigation (NMMI) Dev, S. Mahendra, “Small Farmers in India, Challenges
which is mainly for enhancing large area coverage and Opportunities”-Indira Gandhi Institute of
with minimum water leads in improvement of Development Research, Mumbai June, 2012.
water and chemical fertilize use efficiencies, Lipton, M., 2006. “Can Small Farmers Survive, Prosper,
besides, enhancement in production & or be the Key Channel to cut Mass Poverty”. Journal
productivity. Therefore, during XII Plan has to be of Agricultural and Development Economics, Vol.3,
No. 1, 2006.
accorded for adoption of NMMI to address the
Rao, CH, Hanumatha, 2005. Agriculture, Food Security,
issues of climate change adaptation and mitigation.
Poverty and Environment” Oxford University Press,
Contract farming in India is neither backed up New Delhi.
by law nor by an efficient legal system, which is Singh, Ajit Kumar, “Income and Livelihood Issues of
the single most constraint in widespread use of Farmers: A Field Study”, Agricultural Economics
contract farming in India. As such, improvement Research Review, Vol. 26-2013 pp 89-96.
in legal system with suitable legislative measures
•
102
103
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Our sincere thanks are placed on record to the

Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi for the grant
of financial support for the publication of journal of the association.
104

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JOURNAL OF

SOIL AND WATER

Vol. 13, No. 1 ISSN 0022–457X JANUARY-MARCH 2014

I pledge to conserve Soil,

Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 13(1): 1-9, January-March 2014

Land capability classification and land resources

Received: 4 November 2013; Accepted: 29 January 2014

INTRODUCTION four classes are considered suitable for cultivation

Fig. 1. Location map of Malegaon watershed

Fig. 3. Reconnaissance soil family map

Hydrogeomorhology and groundwater potential map

to relief altitude and structural information. The

Fig. 6. Land capability class map

Fig. 4. Hydrogeomorphology and ground water potential

Slope and land capability/land cover map

management of soil productivity and sustainable

Table 2. Existing soil families at the study area

The area under Tayachwadi-Rock was found in Slope map

REFERENCES District Rajouri: A Geo-Spatial Approach. Journal of

Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 13(1): 10-15, January-March 2014

Morphometric analysis of chanavada

Received: 27 July 2013; Accepted: 10 January 2014

Fig.1: Location map of study area

Table 2. Formulae for the Computation of Morphometric Parameters

Sr. No. Parameter Symbol/Formula Description Reference

4. Stream Length Ratio (RL) Lu = Average length of stream of Horton (1945)

10. Drainage Density (Dd) K = Principal order =

11. Constant of Channel Schumm (1956)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Characteristics Estimated value

Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 13(1): 16-23, January-March 2014

Use of high RSC water for sustainable

Received: 17 August 2013; Accepted: 19 January 2014

INTRODUCTION In ‘Thar’ desert of western Rajasthan soils are

Role of sypsum in reclaiming RSC of water & sodicity

Neutralization of RSC water through gypsum tank for sprinkler irrigation

Table 5. Chemical characteristics of soil after harvest

Table 6. Effect of amendments on soil characteristics and yield of wheat

is 2.5g/l, hence, contributes to ionic strength of soil

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Minhas, P.S. and Gupta, Raj K, 1992. Quality of irrigation

Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 13(1): 24-30, January-March 2014

Water balance study of upper kolab command

Received: 27 September 2013; Accepted: 14 January 2014

INTRODUCTION utilization status of water resource of Upper Kolab

Corresponding author email: [email protected]

in some parts of the command area in small Estimation of water availability

Analysis of surplus and deficit water for crop

Fig. 4. Rainfall and evaporation at 70 and 30% probability

Rain water availability

Table 1. Monthly crop water requirement, mm of different crops grown in command

Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 13(1): 31-35, January-March 2014

Status of major nutrient in relation to soil properties of

Received: 15 July 2013; Accepted: 20 January 2014

INTRODUCTION mainly based on the widely scattered sampling that

Map 1. Sampling site with locations

Table 1. Physico-chemical properties of the soils of Jaipur district

*Figures in parenthesis indicate the mean values

Table 3. Correlation between soil properties and major nutrients

Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 13(1): 36-41, January-March 2014

Evaluation of rice establishment methods with