UNIT II

RESEARCH PROBLEM, HYPOTHESIS AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Research Problem: Meaning and characteristics of a problem - ways in which a
problem is manifested - Types of Problems, Hypothesis: Meaning and
characteristics of a good hypothesis – Types - Sources and Functions of Hypotheses,
Reviewing the Literature: Purpose of Review - Sources of Review.

Research Problem: Meaning

Research problem is a specific and well-defined issue or question that a researcher
seeks to investigate through research. It is the starting point of any research project, as
it sets the direction, scope, and purpose of the study.
Research Problem Examples in Psychology are as follows:
Exploring the impact of social media on adolescent mental health.
Investigating the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy for treating anxiety
disorders.
Studying the impact of prenatal stress on child development outcomes.
Analyzing the factors that contribute to addiction and relapse in substance abuse
treatment.
Examining the impact of personality traits on romantic relationships.
Characteristics of a problem –
1 The problem can be stated clearly and concisely.
2 The problem generates research questions.
3 It is grounded in theory.
4 It relates to one or more academic fields of study.
5 It has a base in the research literature.
6 It has potential significance/importance.
7 It is do-able within the time frame, budget.
8 Sufficient data are available or can be obtained.
9 The researcher’s methodological strengths can be applied to the problem.
10 The problem is new; it is not already answered sufficiently.
Ways in which a problem is manifested –
A problem is said to exist when we know enough that there is something we do not
know really. There are atleast three ways in which a problem is said to be manifested:
Gap in knowledge: A problem is manifested when there is a noticeable gap or absence
of information. Suppose a community or group intends to provide psychotherapeutic
services, two questions arise, viz., (i) What kind of psychotherapy they should offer
and (ii) Which one of the different forms of therapeutic methods is most effective for

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a given type of mental disease. In this 24 Scientific Research and Empirical Methods
in Behavioural Research example, there exists a noticeable gap in the knowledge, and
hence the collection of necessary data and their explanation are needed for filling the
gap in knowledge. Contradictory results: When several investigations done in the
same field are not consistent and therefore, at times, contradictory, a problem is to
find out a new answer and settle the controversy. Explaining a Fact: Another way in
which we become aware of a problem is when we are in possession of a ‘fact’, and we
ask ourselves, “Why is this so ?” When the facts in any field are found in terms of
unexplained information, a problem is said to exist.
Types of Problems,
There are FOUR general conceptualizations of a research problem in the Psychology:
 Uni-variable Problem : When the problems are formulated to deal with a
single independent variable after certain assumptions are followed. The
researcher focuses her/ his work only on that independent variable, not on
any other variable. After undergoing analysis, the formulated hypothesis
is either accepted or rejected.
 Bi-variables Problem : Where the hypothesis implies inference, two
distinct independent variables responsible for the existence of the
problem, are called the Bi-variable problem. At the same time, on these
two variables , the researcher has to focus his/her attention.
 Multi-variables Problem : Where more than two variables are seen in
hypothesis accountable for, then the problem is called Multivariables,
Problem. Researchers must pay careful attention to all factors equally. 26
Scientific Research and Empirical Methods in Behavioural Research
 Opponent variables Problem: Where there is a question between two or
more independent and dependent variables, then the problem is called as
opponent variables, problem for example : ‘‘to find out whether
schizophrenia is the cause of heredity or environment’’.
Hypothesis: Meaning
A hypothesis is an assumption that is made based on some evidence. This is the initial
point of any investigation that translates the research questions into predictions. It
includes components like variables, population and the relation between the variables.
A research hypothesis is a hypothesis that is used to test the relationship between two
or more variables.
Characteristics of a good hypothesis –

a. The hypothesis should be clear and precise to consider it to be reliable.

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 b. If the hypothesis is a relational hypothesis, then it should be stating the
relationship between variables.
c. The hypothesis must be specific and should have scope for conducting more
tests.
d. The way of explanation of the hypothesis must be very simple and it should
also be understood that the simplicity of the hypothesis is not related to its
significance.
Types –
There are six forms of hypothesis and they are:

 Simple hypothesis
 Complex hypothesis
 Directional hypothesis
 Non-directional hypothesis
 Null hypothesis
 Associative and casual hypothesis
Simple Hypothesis
It shows a relationship between one dependent variable and a single independent
variable. For example – If you eat more vegetables, you will lose weight faster. Here,
eating more vegetables is an independent variable, while losing weight is the
dependent variable.
Complex Hypothesis
It shows the relationship between two or more dependent variables and two or more
independent variables. Eating more vegetables and fruits leads to weight loss, glowing
skin, and reduces the risk of many diseases such as heart disease.
Directional Hypothesis
It shows how a researcher is intellectual and committed to a particular outcome. The
relationship between the variables can also predict its nature. For example- children
aged four years eating proper food over a five-year period are having higher IQ levels
than children not having a proper meal. This shows the effect and direction of the
effect.
Non-directional Hypothesis
It is used when there is no theory involved. It is a statement that a relationship exists
between two variables, without predicting the exact nature (direction) of the
relationship.
Null Hypothesis
It provides a statement which is contrary to the hypothesis. It’s a negative statement,
and there is no relationship between independent and dependent variables. The
symbol is denoted by “HO”.

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Associative and Causal Hypothesis
Associative hypothesis occurs when there is a change in one variable resulting in a
change in the other variable. Whereas, the causal hypothesis proposes a cause and
effect interaction between two or more variables.
Examples of Hypothesis
Following are the examples of hypotheses based on their types:

o Consumption of sugary drinks every day leads to obesity is an example of a

simple hypothesis.
o All lilies have the same number of petals is an example of a null hypothesis.
o If a person gets 7 hours of sleep, then he will feel less fatigue than if he sleeps
less. It is an example of a directional hypothesis.
Sources of Hypothesis

 The resemblance between the phenomenon.

 Observations from past studies, present-day experiences and from the
competitors.
 Scientific theories.
 General patterns that influence the thinking process of people.
Functions of Hypotheses,

 Hypothesis helps in making an observation and experiments possible.

 It becomes the start point for the investigation.
 Hypothesis helps in verifying the observations.
 It helps in directing the inquiries in the right direction.
Reviewing the Literature:
A literature review surveys books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant
to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a
description, summary, and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the
research problem being investigated. Literature reviews are designed to provide an
overview of sources you have explored while researching a particular topic and to
demonstrate to your readers how your research fits within a larger field of study.
Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to
Paper. Fourth edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2014.
A literature review involves researching, reading, analyzing, evaluating, and
summarizing scholarly literature (typically journals and articles) about a specific
topic. The results of a literature review may be an entire report or article OR may be
part of a article, thesis, dissertation, or grant proposal. A literature review helps the
author learn about the history and nature of their topic, and identify research gaps and
problems.

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Purpose of Review –

 Literature reviews allow you to gain familiarity with the current knowledge in
your chosen field, as well as the boundaries and limitations of that field.
 Literature reviews also help you to gain an understanding of the theory(ies)
driving the field, allowing you to place your research question into context.
 Literature reviews provide an opportunity for you to see and even evaluate
successful and unsuccessful assessment and research methods in your field.
 Literature reviews prevent you from duplicating the same information as others
writing in your field, allowing you to find your own, unique approach to your
topic.
 Literature reviews give you familiarity with the knowledge in your field, giving
you the chance to analyze the significance of your additional research.
Sources of Review.
Sources
of Characteristics Examples
literature
Reports
Theses
Emails
Conference
High level of proceedings
Primary
detail Company
sources
Little time reports
for the
needed to Unpublished
literature
publish manuscript
sources
Some
government
publications
Secondary Medium level Journals
sources of detail Books
for the Medium time Newspapers
literature needed to Some
publish government
publications

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 Articles by
professional
associations
Indexes
Databases
Catalogues
Encyclopaedia
Low level of
s
Tertiary detail
Dictionaries
sources Considereable
Bibliographies
for the amount of time
Citation
literature needed to
indexes
publish
Statistical data
from
government
websites
Sources for literature review and examples

Generally, your literature review should integrate a wide range of sources such as:

Books. Textbooks remain as the most important source to find models and theories
related to the research area. Research the most respected authorities in your selected
research area and find the latest editions of books authored by them. For example, in
the area of marketing the most notable authors include Philip Kotler, Seth Godin,
Malcolm Gladwell, Emanuel Rosen and others.

Magazines. Industry-specific magazines are usually rich in scholarly articles and they
can be effective source to learn about the latest trends and developments in the
research area. Reading industry magazines can be the most enjoyable part of the
literature review, assuming that your selected research area represents an area of your
personal and professional interests, which should be the case anyways.

Newspapers can be referred to as the main source of up-to-date news about the latest
events related to the research area. However, the proportion of the use of newspapers
in literature review is recommended to be less compared to alternative sources of
secondary data such as books and magazines. This is due to the fact that newspaper
articles mainly lack depth of analyses and discussions.

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Online articles. You can find online versions of all of the above sources. However,
note that the levels of reliability of online articles can be highly compromised
depending on the source due to the high levels of ease with which articles can be
published online. Opinions offered in a wide range of online discussion blogs cannot
be usually used in literature review. Similarly, dissertation assessors are not keen to
appreciate references to a wide range of blogs, unless articles in these blogs are
authored by respected authorities in the research area.
Your secondary data sources may comprise certain amount of grey literature as well.
The term grey literature refers to type of literature produced by government,
academics, business and industry in print and electronic formats, which is not
controlled by commercial publishers. It is called ‘grey’ because the status of the
information in grey literature is not certain. In other words, any publication that has
not been peer reviewed for publication is grey literature.
The necessity to use grey literature arises when there is no enough peer reviewed
publications are available for the subject of your study.