SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN EARLY

MEDIEVAL INDİA

M.S. KHÂN*

As the periodization o f history is controversial, there m ight be a dif-

ference of opinion regarding the date when the ancient period of the
history of India ends and the medieval one begins but the period under
consideration is actually the late ancient and early-medieval. Prithwiraj
lost the second battle o f Tarain in 1192 A.D. and this is considered a turn-
ing point in the history of India as it led to the conquest of northern In-
dia by the Turko-Afghans between 1192 and 1206 A.D.
India already had commercial and cultural relations with Greece, Iran,
Afghanistan and Central Asia since pre-historic times. A characteristic
feature of this period is that with the advent of the Muslims, seeking ser­
vice and opportunity in India, it came into close contact with the Müslim
intellectual world and the cross fertilization o f scientific ideas started.
Muslims started migrating to India more and more after 1258 A.D. due
to the Mongol invasion o f Iran, Iraq and Central Asia; some of them were
also astronomers, mathematicians and physicians.
“With the establishment o f the Ghaznavid and Mughal rule in India
the Greek or rather more advanced Ptolemic astronomy in Arabic ver­
sion reached India and began to be studied and taught at first exclusively
among the Muslims and gradually among the selected Hindu astronomers
who appreciated its merit.”1 Al-Bîrünî (d. 1050 A.D.) claims that he had
translated the Elements o f Euclid and the Almagest o f Ptolemy into Sanskrit
but these translations are not available.2 In any case, the Arabic version
of these two books were first introduced by the Muslims in India. It is stated

* Professor o f History o f Science, India.

1 S.N. Sen, D.M. Bose and B.V. Subbarayappa, A Concise History of Science in India, (New
Delhi: Indian National Science Academy 1971), pp. 689 at p.135. (Henceforth, CHSI).
1 DG. Boilot, L’Oeuvre d’al-Btrünî, Essai Bibliographique, in the MIDEO, Vol. II (Cairo 1955)
Nos. 175 and 176, pp. 238-239; Ahmad Saeed Khan, A Bibliography of the Works of Abu’l-Raihân
al-Birünt, (New Delhi 1982), pp. 55; M.S.Khan, “A Select Bibliogragraphy o f Soviet Publica-
tions on al-Blrfinî”, in the Janus (Amsterdam) Oct. 1975, pp. 279-288; M.S. Khan, “A Classified
Bibliography o f Recent Publications on al-Blrfinl”, in the Müslim World Book Revieıu, Vol. X/3,
(Leicester 1990), pp. 65-77.
718 M.S. KHÂN

“towards the close of the 12th Century A.D. mathematical books in Arabic
began to trickle into India. One o f the most important o f these treatises
was an Arabic recension of Euclid’s Elements: Tahrir Kitâb Üşül al-Handasa
zva’l-Hisâb al-Mansüb ilâ TJqüdas (commonly called Tahrir Uqüdas) compos-
ed by Naşîr al-Dîn Tüsî (d. 672/1274) belonging to the Marâgha School of
Astronomy. During Tüsı’s life time itself Qutb al-Dîn (d. 710/1311) prepared
a Persian translation.”3
Some Indian Müslim mathematicians and astronomers settled in In-
dia knew these Arabic translations and they translated them into Persian.
These translations and several commentaries mostly in Persian on the
works o f Euclid, Archimedes, Theodosius, Apollonius and Ptolemy are
available in manuscripts in the different libraries of India and abroad.
Thus the Greco-Arab astronomy and mathematics were introduced into
India and studied. Some o f them were taught as text books in the educa-
tional institutions in late medieval India from the time o f Akbar (d. 1605
A.D.) who made astronomy and mathematics compulsory subjects to be
studied.4
Another characteristic worth m entioning is that the first substantial
contact between the Ayurveda and Unânî (Greco-Arab) systems o f m edicine
started during this period which resulted in the mutual enrichm ent of
both in therapeutics, materia medica and pharmacology.5 These two
systems of m edicine flourished because they brought relief to the suffer-
ing and the sick. The two main causes o f the developm ent of chemistry
and alehemy were the practice of Ayurveda and the need of textile industry.
Among other characteristics m ention may be made of the develop­
ment of the Rasacikitsâ school o f m edicine with emphasis on mercurial
and other inorganic preparations and the development of Tantras and the
knowledge of nervous system as developed by them .6

3 C.A. Storey, Persian Literatüre, A Bibliographical Survey, (London 1972), Vol. II, pt 1, p.
1, Jagannatha (b. 1652 A.D.) translated the Elements of Euclid and the Almagest of Ptolemy into
Sanskrit and they were entitled as Rekhâganita and Samrât-Siddhânta respectively, see CHSI,
p. 171.
4 M.S. Khan, “The Teaching o f Mathematics and Astronomy in the Educational institu­
tions o f Medieval India” in the Müslim Education Quarterly, Vol. VI, (Cambridge 1989) Note
21 quoting Abu’l-Fadl ‘AllSml’s Â’tn-ı Akbart, ed. by H. Blockmann (Calcutta 1872), Vol. II,
p.202.
5 “Medicine as it Evolved in Ancient and Medieval India” by Priyadaranjan Ray in the
Indian Journal of the History of Science, Vol. V, (New Delhi 1970), pp. 86-100. (Henceforth JIHS).
6 S. C. Banerjee, A Brief History ofTantra Literatüre, (Calcutta 1988), pp. 660, pp. 13-17;
Human Body: A Microcosm.
 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA 719

Mathematic and Astronomy

Both Mathematics and Astronomy were used by the Hindus and
Muslims for religious purposes.7 Mathematics specially was studied for its
practical utility, as for example, for the construction of religous and secular
buildings and monuments. Later, geometry was much developed in India
for this purpose. It was used also for technological development.

Mathematics, astronomy and astrology were not seperate subjects as

they ara to-day. More often than not, the mathematician, astronomer and
astrologer were ali com bined in one and the same person. The outstand-
ing mathematician-astronomers of this period were Srîdharâcârya (ca. 991
A.D.); Sripati (1039-1056 A.D.), Satânanda (fi. 1099 A.D.) Bhâskarâchârya
II (1150 A.D.), the majör and minör mathematicians and astronomers can-
not even be m entioned here and their contribution cannot be discussed
due to shortage o f space. “For m ultiplication, he uses a new term Pratyut-
parma (reproduced) and discusses the Kapâta-Sandhi (door-junction, Gelosia)
m ethod which became very popular among later Hindu writers and was
transmitted to the West through Arabic works. It is known from Bhâskara
that Srldhara was the discoverer of a m ethod o f solving quadratic equa-
tions in which the two sides require to be m ultiplied by four times the
coefficient o f X2”.8
There was at least one foreign scientists al-Bîrünî (d. 1050 A.D.) who
studied the indian sciences in original Sanskrit texts and translated some
o f them into Arabic. He had a working knowledge o f Sanskrit and his well-
known book Kitâb al-Hind? gives valuable information not found elsewhere
specially about astronomical methods and indian astronomers some of
whom were personally known to him. Some of the twenty-five books and
treatises dealing with indian subjects attributed to al-Bîrünî10 are either
lost or are available in MSS only. Among those available The Rasâ’il,11 the
al-Qânün al-Mas(üdî12 contain useful source material for the history of

7 See notes 13 and 14 in M.S. Khan’s paper m entioned in note 4 above.

8 S.N. Sen, “Mathematics”, in the CHSI, p. 168.
9 The full title is: Kit&b f i ’l-Tahqiq mâ l’il-Hind min Maqülatirı Maqbülatin Ji’l-‘Aql wa Mar-
dtıla (book giving an account o f India about facts acceptable to reason or to be rejected by it).
10 See M.S.Khan, Al-Bîrünî and indian Science (A Collection o f Essays, Forthcoming).
11 See the Four treatises o f al-Bîrünî published as Rasâ’il al-Bırîınt based on the unique
(MS) Compendium o f Mathematical and Astronomical Treatises in the Oriental Public
Library, Patna (Hyderabad: Dairatul-Maarif 1367/1948), pp. 226 + 226 + 107 + 30.
12 See the Edition published at Hyderabad by Dairatul-Maarif 3 Vols. 1373-1376/1954-1956,
pp. LXXV + 505, 517-985 and 986-1487 + 59.
720 M.S. KHAN

science in India in the first half o f the the eleventh century. His Arabic
translation of the Karana Tilaka of Bijayananda should be m entioned
here.13 Another work which has been edited and published is the Fi
RashikUt al-Hind14 which deals with the Indian Rule of Three.

A new developm ent in astronomy was the introduction o f Arabo-

Parsian-Greek Zij litarature in India namely astronomical tables. Abu’l-
Fadl mentions 86 Zijes in his A in-i Akbart. There were several Zijes prepared
in pre-Mughal India.15

Thare is no evidence to show that astrolabes were used in India before

the advent of the Muslims. It was during the reign o f Sultan Flröze Shâh
Tughlug that an astrolabe was constructed in 1370 A.D. and named Usturtiib-
i Firöze Shâhı which testifies to the fact that Indians possesed adequate
knowledge o f applied technology during the fourteenth century.16
People seem to be more interested in astrology than astronomy and
there were more astrologers than astronomers in Delhi. Diyâ ad-Dîn Baranı
writes about the horoscopes which they constructed of the sons and
daughters born to the kings, ministers and noblem en which was an im ­
portant source of their income. They earned their livelihood not as
astronomers but as astrologers. He also records the names o f those
astronomers and astrologers both Hindus and Muslims who flourished dur­
ing this period17 and adds that pseudo-sciences such as Ramal geomancy
and al-Kimyâ (alchemy) also flourished d u rin g this p e rio d .18

13 Also entitled Ghurrat az-zijat edited by N.A. Baloch (Sind: Institute of Sindhology 1973),
pp. 94 (Arabic text) + pp. 74 (English İntroduction and Bibliograhy) + pp. 7 (Errata). Other
editioııs of this texl lıave heeıı published with English translatioııs in the Islamic Culture of
Hyderabad. Henceforth IC.
14 The Risala in the Rasü’il al-Bırünl (note 11 above), pp. 1-30. A.K.Bag, “Al-Bîrünî on
Indian Arithmetic”, in IJHS, X (1975), pp. 174-186.
15 S.A. Khan Ghori, “Development o f Zij Literatüre” in the S.N. Sen and S.K. Sukla (eds.)
History of Astronomy in India, (New Delhi 1985), pp. 21-48.
16 See M.P. Kharegat, Astrolabes, ed. by D D Kapadia (Bombay 1950); W. Hartner, “Asturlab”,
in the Encyclopaedia of İslam (N) Vol I, (1960), pp. 722-728; Emilie Savage-Smith, Islamicate
Celestial Globes: Their History of Construction and Use, (VVashington 1985), pp. 354; S.N.Sen,
CHSI,pp. 126-129; Note no. 62 in “Arabic and Persian Source Materials for the History of
Science in Medieval India” by M.S.Khan in the IC (April-July 1988), pp. 113-139 at p. 129
where profuse references are given to this instrument.
17 See the Tarikh-i Firoze Shahi, ed. by Saiyid Ahmad Khan (Calcutta: Asiatic Society 1862),
pp. 362-366.
18 Ibid, p. 364.
 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN INDİA 721

Medicine, Chemistry and Alehemy

The Ayurvedic system o f m edicine ineluding the Siddhâ were prac-
tised extensively and in the beginning of the 13 th century the Unânî system
o f m edicine was also introduced in India when the period of growth and
standardisation o f Ayurveda had almost come to an end.19 The four Stan­
dard works Çaraka Samhitü, Susruta Samhitü, Aştüngahardaya, Nidana and
their commentaries were used by the general medical praetitioners of In-
dia (Vaids).
“Feeling o f patients’ pulse as a m ethod of diagnosis of diseases was
possibly first introduced during this period as discussed in a text of
Ayurvedic m edicine, Cikitsütilaka (12th century) by Tisatâcaryâ.”20
Physicians (Tabib) expert in the Unânî (Greco-Arab) system of medicine
began to migrate from the beginning o f the 13th century and this was the
first majör contact between Ayurveda and Unânî m edicine in India. Both
the systems of m edicine were now praetised. Two different sets of hospitals
were established by the Turko-Afghan rulers there the patients were treated
according to these systems. There were seventy hospitals only at Delhi
under Sultân Muhammad bin Tughluq (1297-1348 A.D.) having 1200 Vaids
and Tabıbs paid by the State.21 The mutual co-operation and direct con­
tact o f the Vaids and Tabıbs produced substantial results and led to the
mutual enrichm ent o f knowledge. Indian pharmacology, materia medica
and therapeutics were enriched by the U nânî system and camphor,
sublimate o f landanum and some anesthetics were introduced into the
Ayurveda.22

Botany and Agriculture

inform ation about advances made in botany and agriculture are not
available due to paucity of source material. The works o f Amîr Khusravv

19 R.C. Majumdar, “Medicine”, in the CHSI, p. 262.

20 Priyadaranjan Ray, “Medicine as it Evolved in Ancient and Medieval India”, in IJHS,
Vol. V, p. 95 quoting Julius Jolly, Indian Medicine, (1951), p.7.
21 M.Z. Siddiqui, Arabic and Persian Medical Literatüre, (Calcutta 1959), p. XXIII referring
to Masalik al-Absar by Shihab al-Din al-Umari. See also Iqtidar Husain Siddiqui and Muham­
mad Ahmed, A Fourteenth Century Arah Account of India under Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq
(Aligarh 1971), p. 36. The part dealing with Hind and Sind o f the Masalik al-Absar o f Fadlal
Lah al-Umari has been edited and puslished by Mohammad Salim ibn Shadid al-Awfi, İst
ed. (Cairo 1411/1990), pp. 277.
22 Priyadaranjan Ray, “M edicine as it Evolved in Ancient and Mediaval India”, in IJHS,
Vol. 5 (1970), p. 96.
722 M.S. KHÂN

(651-725/1253-1325 A.D.) and and the Persian historical chronicals contain

some information about these two subjects.
Medicinal herbs and plants were much cultivated. Al-Bîrflnî’s Kitâb
as-Saydanah f i ’t-Tibb, published recently with an English translation con-
tains useful information for the pharmacographia Indica.23 Compiled in
the m iddle of the eleventh century, it is an encyclopedia o f sim ple drugs
containing medicinal herbs and minerals used in the Unânî system of
m edicine arranged in alphabetical order. There are names o f hundreds
of medicinal herbs and plants of India which are used in Ayurvedic materia
medica. The Sanskrit name is given in each case and the location is in-
dicated where they were found at time o f al-Bîrünî. The first traceable
medical book on U nânî m edicine written in India was a Persian transla­
tion of the Kitâb as-Saydana o f al-Bîrünî. This was translated by Abü Bakr
bin eAlî bin ‘Usmân who lived at the Court of Sultân Iltutmish.24

Technology
Without doubt, there was progress in technology but the results of
technological advancement were not much applied to solve the socio-
econom ic problems. There is no denying the fact that in so far as
technology is concerned, advent o f the Turko-Afghans in India resulted
in some development due to mutual co-operation between the Hindus and
the Muslims and the introduction of new and more advanced technique
from Iran, Afghanistan and Central Asia the Muslims. It is evident that
technology during this period was almost the same as in ancient India
which was somevvhat improved after the Ghorian conquest.
Metallurgy
Iron, copper, brass, gold, silver and other minerals were extracted from
the ores found in mines in different parts o f India even by a primitive
technology with the help of a furnace made of clay in which wood and
charcoal were used for fire. As the army was important, iron was much
in use for the manufacture o f arms and armour.

23 Abu Rayhan Md. bin Ahmad al-Bîrünî, Kitab as-Saydana, ed. by Mohammad Said and
Rana Ihsan ilahi with English translation (Karachi 1973). Arabic Text pp. 430; Eng trs. pp.
376. Al-Birüriî’s Book on Pharmacy and Materia Medica, introduction, Commentary and Evalua-
tion by Sami K. Hamarneh (Karachi 1973), pp. 152.
24 A MS o f this book is said to be available in the British Museum, London, and also
at the State Library, Berlin, see D.V. Subba Reddy, “The Origin and Growth of Indigenous
Unani Medical Literatüre in Medieval India”, in the indian Journal of the History of Medicine,
Vol. 16/1 (Hyderabad 1969), p. 20.
 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN INDİA 723

Production Technology
In so far as production technology is concerned, a fact to be taken
into consideration is that cheap skilled labour was available in abundance
in India perhaps due to the institution o f the Kârkhâna introduced by the
Muslims which made this labour easily available.
Minting o f Coins
For m inting of coins, mostly gold, silver, lead, bronze, brass, bullion
and copper were used and lltutm ish struck the silver Tanka and Coper
Jital. Abu’l-Façlal m entions a small round gold dinar issued by Sultân
eA lâ\ıddîn Khaljî whose refınem ent was considered to be 12 degrees 25
but it was actually 10 1/2 degrees. The technology of Indian coinage in
ancient and medieval periods has been thoroughly discussed in a paper
published recently.26 The details are known from a Sanskrit work written
during the reign of 'Alâ’uddîn Khaljî.
Textile Technology/Spinning Wheel
The prem ier industry in India was cotton textile and dyeing, print­
ing and painting o f chothes was done since ancient times. In connection
with the innovation in textile technology, the general use of the spinning
wheel is to be m entioned. It would not be possible to ascribe its origin
to ancient India due to lack of positive evidence.27 Moreover, the word us­
ed for it is Charkha which is a Persian word. In the absence o f any other
evidence, the literary ones from Indo-Persian works can be put forward
to show that the spining wheal was in use at the end o f the 12th century
in which belt-drive technique was used.28 Another equipm ent which was
much used in this period was the bow-string (1ant and Kaman) for clean-
ing the cotton and separating the seeds from it or ginning.29 This primitive
technique is used in India to-day.

25 Abul-Fadl Allami, Â’m-i Akbarı, ed. by H. Blockmann, Vol. 1 (Calcutta 1872) Ain No5,
p.14. Eng. Trans, by H. Blockmann, Vol. I (Calcutta 1873), p.18.
26 B.N. Mukherjee, “Technology o f Indian Coinage, Ancient and Medieval Period” in
the Aniruddha Roy and S.K. Bagchi, Technology in Ancient and Medieval India, (Delhi 1986),
pp. 47-70. (Henceforth TAMJ).
27 Lynn White, “Tibet, India and Malaya as Sources o f Western Mediecal Technology,”
in the American Historical Revieuı, Vol. LXV/3 April (1960), p. 517.
28 See irfan Habîb, Presidential Address, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 3 İst Ses-
sion, held at Varanasi 1969, (Patna 1970), pp. 142-143. (Henceforth Presidential Address).
29 ‘irfan Habıb, Presidential Address, p. 144. its vibrations loosened and separeted (scutch)
the cotton fibres; Ishrat Alam, “Textile Tools as Depicted in Ajanta and Mughal Paintings”,
in Aniruddha Roy and S.K. Bagchi, TAMI, pp. 129-141.
72 4 M.S. KHÂN

Writing Material
It is al-Bırünı who gives the evidenee around 1030 A.D. that the
material used for writing in India were mainly black tablets palm-leaves,
bark of the Tuz tree called Bhurja and silk.30 The manufacture o f white
paper star te d in India in the 13th century. Amir Khosraw mentions paper
(Kâghaz) several times in his epistolary work entitled Ijâz-i Khusraun31 and
in his above m entioned Qiran as-Sa'dayn. He states that paper was made
with cotton, linen-cloth, silk (Qash, Harır) and reed (Kilk). They were soak-
ed in water, then pounded and turned into pulp with which the sheets
of paper were made and dried. After that, they were cut out according
to size with a sharp scissor and adds that this light paper was quite cost-
ly.32 As regards preparation o f ink, the earliest recipes for hair dye mak-
ing in India is found in the Navanitaka (Ca.2nd Cent. A.D.). From this
Nityanath Siddha (1200 A.D.) derived his recipes for ink making as record-
ed in his Rasaratnâkara33 (1200 A.D.). The materials used for this were her-
bal substances or metalic ingredients. The ingredients used were
lamp-black, charcoal, gum, burnt husk of almond, gold and silver powder
and others.34

Irrigation Technology
Generally, water was stored in tanks and wells, canals and channels
were dug for irrigation in ancient India. Tank was used extensively in the
South for irrigation and very large tanks were dug at this period. Among
others, there was the Porumamilla tank of great dim ension which bears
an inscription dated 1291 A.D.35 There is a difference o f opinion about
the device for water raising used in Ancient India called Araghatta or Ghati-
Yûntra which are Sanskrit words. On the basis o f this, several scholars have
argued that it was the same as the Persian wheel or sâqiyah and it was not

30 See the Kitdb al-Hind, (Hyderabad 1958), p. 146; Eng. trans, by E.C. Sachau, (New Delhi
reprint, 1964), Vol. I, 182. See also text p.133; trans, p. I, 171.
31 Lithographed, Nawl Kishore Press, Lucknow 1865, p. 45.
32 Edition cited in note 31 above pp. 228-229. See also p. 177; Mamata Chowdhury, “The
Technique o f Preparing VVriting Materials in Early India with Special Reference to al-Bırünî’s
Observations”, in the IC, Vol. XLVIII, No. 1, (January, 1974), pp. 33-38.
33 P.K. Gode, “Recipes for Hair Dye in the Navanitaka and their close Affinity with the
recipes for ink Manufacture after A.D. 1000”, in the Studies in Indian Cultural History, Vol.
I, (Hoshiyarpur 1961), pp. 101-110. See also Mamata Chowdhury, op. cit., p. 38.
34 Priyadaranjan Ray, History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, p p 73 ff. Henceforth
HCAMI; B. R. Pandey, op. cit., pp. 82-85; D.C. Sirkar, op. cit., pp. 80-81.
35 S.P. Roy Chowdhury “Agriculture”, in the CHSI, p. 367.
 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN INDİA 725

introduced by the Turko-Afgans in India but these two words are nowhere
clearly m entioned or explained in any early source.36 It was actually the
sim ple noria a wheel carrying pots and buckets fixed on its rims which
did not involve the technique o f gearing. That it was noria and not exactly
the Persian wheel has been confırm ed by the extensive researches of
Thorkild Schioler.37 The generally accepted view at present is that the Per­
sian wheel was introduced by the Turko-Afghans in India in the 13th cen­
tury. It was useful for raising the water from wells with the help o f a chain
o f buckets in which the circular motion was obtained by animal power
mainly bullocks using the technique of pin-drum gearing.

Ship Building
The technique em ployed for building of ships used in the indian
Ocean need not be discussed here. It would be sufficient to State that planks
o f the hull were sewn together by coir and generally not nailed.38 An Arab
geographer Ibn Rustah (fl. ca. 290-300/903-913) records that planks of ships
used by the Arabs in the indian Ocean were sewn with cords o f coconut
and palm fibre and iron nails were not used till the beginning of the eighth
century.39 The statement of the Arab geographer al-MascüdI is quite clear
on this point. He states “Now this kind o f structure (stitching) is not used
except in the indian Ocean; for the ships the Mediterranean and those
o f the Arabs ali have nails, whereas in ships o f the indian Ocean iron nails
do not last because the sea-water corrodes the iron and the nails grow soft
and weak in the sea and therefore the people on its shores have taken to
threading cords o f fibre instead and these are coated with grease and tar.40
“Ibn Battütah who arrived in India in September, 1333 have a detailed
account o f the technique used in the manufacture o f indian ships.”41

36 A. L. Basham, The Wonder that was India, 3rd Rev. edition, (London 1967), p. 194.
37 See his Roman and Islamic Water-Lifting Wheels, (Odense 1973), and Joseph Needham,
Science and Civilization in China, Vol. IV/Part II, (Cambridge 1965), pp. 330-334, 352-356,
“Hydraulic Engineering: Water Raising Machinery.”
38 George Fadlö HourânI, Arab Seafaring in the indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval
Times, (Princeton 1951), pp. 91-94; Syed SulaymSn Nadvl, The Arab Navigation, translated by
Syed Sabahuddın ‘Abdu’r-Rahmân, (Lahore 1966), İst ed., p.118.
39 Ibn Rustah, al-A‘l&q an-Najisah, (Leiden 1891), pp. 229 at p. 196.
40 George Fadlö HourânI, op. cit., p. 96 quoting the Murüj adh-Dhahab o f al-Mas'üdî, (Paris
ed.) Vol. I, p. 365.
41 See Rehla or Travels in Asia and Africa (1325-54) trans, and selected by H.A.R. Gibb (Lon­
don: Routledge and Kegan Paul 1957), p. 243.
726 M.S. KHAN

Architecture
Magnificient stupas, temples and other sacred monuments both in
the north and the south constructed during this period bear testimony
to the highly developed building technology in India.
Without doubt, Indian builders were employed by the Müslim rulers
for the construction o f monuments but several expert masons and crafts-
men were also brought from Persia and Afganistan introducing the Arabo-
Persian architectural and decorative traditions. They had to build within
the Islamic conceptual framework which strictly prohibited the represan-
tation of human fîgures in any building. They took recourse to the use
of the beautiful lettering of the Qurânic verses and employment o f leaves,
flowers and buds drawn from the flora and from geometrical designs
(arabesçue). This brought about great changes in the technology and style
of architecture in India. The im ported style consisted o f domes roofing,
half-domed portals, minarets (minâr), pendentive and squinch arches in­
troduced at the order of the Sultâns and nobles. In so far as building
material is concerned stones and bricks were necessarily used and lime-
mortar was employed perhaps for the first time in India by the Muslims.42
The Indian masons had to build false arches on trabeate principles.43

Glass Technology
The more archaeological excavations ara carried out in different parts
of the country, the more it is established that glass-making was widespread
in ancient India. So many articles made o f glass have been discovered,
especially at Kopia in U.P., Taxila, Satavahana sites and others that it can-
not be argued that ali of them were foreign goods im ported from outside.
Most of them are beads, bangles, bowls, slags, small vessels, tiles, glass-flasks
and others. But very little information is found concerning the technique
of glass-making for example about raw materials, furnace and tools used.
Howover, the raw materials used were soda, lime, alumina, excreta of mica,
sand m ixed with şaline earth.44 Primitive open circular or square furnace
was used and the temperature o f heat was about 1000° centrigrade.

42 ‘Irfân Habıb, Symposium Lecture, p. 16.

43 ‘irfan HabTb, ibid., p. 17; James Fergusson, History of Eastern and Indian Architecture, (Lon­
don 1910), Vol. II.
44 Mamata Chowdhury, “The Technique o f Glass Making in India”, Paper presented at
National Seminar on Technology and Science in India during 1400-1800 A.D. held on 20-81
April 1978, Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi; Priyadaranjan Ray, HCAMI, pp.
73 ff. See also M. G. Dikshit, History of Indian Glass, (Bombay 1969), pp. XIII + 212 + 48 plates.
 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY İN INDİA 727

Military Technology
Two important equipments showing change or innovation or develop­
ment in military technology o f this period have to be m entioned first i.e.
the flat iron stirrup and nailed horse shoe. İt is generally asserted that
stirrup because was in use in ancient India, but avalilable evidence shows
that the flat iron stirrup was introduced by Turkish conquerors in early
13th century.45 They had to use the iron stirrup because they laid emphasis
on the cavalry and their tactic o f battle was mounted shock combat. The
nailed horse shoes were not used in India before the Turko-Afghan con-
quest although they were in use in Byzantium at the end of the 9th cen­
tury A.D.46 Two statements in the Adâb al-Harb of FaMır Mudabbir suggest
that the horse shoes were used in the beginning o f the 13th century. The
above work of Fakhr Mudabbir which was written around 1225 A.D. gives
first-hand information about military technology specially about the
manufacture of ali kinds o f arms and armour in which mostly iron and
Steel were used. In this work, there is one full chapter entitled “On the
virtues and specialities o f each weapon and the advantege o f making use
o f it namely regarding the situation in which each one is useful. It runs
into 34 closely printed pages of the present text.”47
In modern terminology, the technique o f manufacture o f a sword will
mean that the two ingots were coverad with soft earth in order to prevent
loss o f carbon; both the ingots were made into ona piece or forge-welded
by hamm ering when iron/steel was made soft under a temperature of
1000°-1200° centrigrade. The process o f hardening o f Steel by quenching
red hot metal into water or oil is em ployed even to-day. The first hammer­
ing was for preparing a blank while the second hamm ering was to give
it the shape o f a sword. The blunt sword was sharpened on an abrasive
wheel and polished later on with oxym el.48
Artillery and Gunpowder
The question arises whether artillery, gun and gun powder were us­
ed befere Babar’s time (A.D. 1526) or not. This is a controversial issue. Some
historians State that mechanical artillery was in use in India as early as
the first quarter o f the 13th century, others are o f the view that it was used

45 See ‘Irfân Habıb, Presidential Address, p. 158 quoting Fakhr Mudabbir.

46 See ‘irfan Habıb, Symposium Lecture, pp. 26-27.
47 See Kitüb Âdâb al-Harb tuash-Shaj&’ah, Chapter XI, pp. 249-273. Henceforth KAHWS.
48 Konasudaram near Hyderabad was well known for the manufacture o f Wootz a kind
o f Steel manufactured by m ixing iron with carbonaceous matter.
728 M.S. KHÂN

in 1365/66 A.D. The manjamq or catapult was used by the Muslims for hurl-
ing huge masses o f stone tovvards the enemy or a fort. This worked by
“three different principles o f torsion, counterpoise and tension.” Naphta
or Greek fîre was used by the Turko-Afghan invaders but this also may
mean gun-powder. Two historians express the view that artillery was used
in India much before Babar in the reign o f Sultân Iltutmish of D elhi.49
On the other hand, R.C. Majumder states that artillary was used in India
in the 14th century.50
Concluding Remarks
One of the difficulties in writing this history is that the source
matarials especially the manuscripts in Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian have
not been edited and published. Some o f them are uncatalogued so that
they are unknown even to those who do research work on the history of
Science in India. Therefore, it is evident that a thorough assessment of
India’s contribution to scientific and technological develoment is not possi-
ble now. Thus it is not claimed that the history of Science and technology
in late ancient and early medieval India presented here is either thorough
or complete.

49 M. A. Makhdoomee, “Gunpowder Artillery in the Reign o f Sultan Iltutmish o f D elhi”,

in the Journal of indian History, Vol. XI, pts I and III (1936), pp. 185-188; “Mechanical Ar­
tillery in Medieval India” in loc. cit., pp. 189-195; Abu Zafar NadvT, “The Use o f the Cannon
in Medieval India”, in IC, Vol. XII, (October 1938), pp. 405-418. For Kushk Anjir see KAHWS
p. 424.
50 See the Delhi Sultanate, History and Culture of the indian People, (Bharatiyah Vidya
Bhaban), Vol. VI, p. 460.