CARBON MONOXIDE AND

SYNGAS PIPELINE SYSTEMS

Doc 120/14
Revision of Doc 120/04

EUROPEAN INDUSTRIAL GASES ASSOCIATION AISBL

AVENUE DE L’ASTRONOMIE 30 • B – 1210 BRUSSELS

Tel: +32 2 217 70 98
E-mail: [email protected] • Internet: www.eiga.eu
 Doc 120/14

CARBON MONOXIDE AND

SYNGAS PIPELINE SYSTEMS

As part of a programme of harmonisation of industry standards, the European Industrial Gases

Association (EIGA) has issued EIGA Doc 120, Carbon Monoxide and Syngas Pipeline Systems, jointly
produced by members of the International Harmonisation Council and originally published by the
Compressed Gas Association (CGA) as CGA G-5.7, Carbon Monoxide and Syngas Pipeline Systems.

This publication is intended as an international harmonised standard for the worldwide use and
application of all members of the Asia Industrial Gases Association (AIGA), Compressed Gas Association
(CGA), European Industrial Gases Association (EIGA), and Japan Industrial and Medical Gases
Association (JIMGA). Each Association’s technical content is identical, except for regional regulatory
requirements and minor changes in formatting and spelling.

Disclaimer
All technical publications of EIGA or under EIGA's name, including Codes of practice, Safety procedures and any other technical
information contained in such publications were obtained from sources believed to be reliable and are based on technical
information and experience currently available from members of EIGA and others at the date of their issuance.

While EIGA recommends reference to or use of its publications by its members, such reference to or use of EIGA's publications by
its members or third parties are purely voluntary and not binding.

Therefore, EIGA or its members make no guarantee of the results and assume no liability or responsibility in connection with the
reference to or use of information or suggestions contained in EIGA's publications.

EIGA has no control whatsoever as regards, performance or non performance, misinterpretation, proper or improper use of any
information or suggestions contained in EIGA's publications by any person or entity (including EIGA members) and EIGA expressly
disclaims any liability in connection thereto.

EIGA's publications are subject to periodic review and users are cautioned to obtain the latest edition.

 EIGA grants permission to reproduce this publication provided the Association is acknowledged as the source

EUROPEAN INDUSTRIAL GASES ASSOCIATION AISBL

Avenue de l’Astronomie 30 B 1210 Brussels Tel +32 2 217 70 98
E-mail: [email protected] Internet: www.eiga.eu
EIGA DOC 120/14

Table of Contents
1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 1

2 Scope and purpose .......................................................................................................................... 1

3 Definitions ........................................................................................................................................ 2

4 Design philosophy ............................................................................................................................ 5

4.1 General criteria ......................................................................................................................... 5
4.2 Properties of Syngas ................................................................................................................ 6
4.3 Metallic Materials ...................................................................................................................... 8
4.4 Non metallic materials ............................................................................................................ 13
4.5 Piping systems ........................................................................................................................ 15
4.6 Hazard analysis and risk assessment .................................................................................... 18
4.7 Siting of stations ..................................................................................................................... 21
5 Piping, valves and equipment ........................................................................................................ 22
5.1 General criteria ....................................................................................................................... 22
5.2 Material selection criteria ........................................................................................................ 22
5.3 Electrical hazardous area requirements ................................................................................. 22
5.4 Piping ...................................................................................................................................... 23
5.5 Valves ..................................................................................................................................... 24
5.6 Other equipment ..................................................................................................................... 27
6 Cleaning ......................................................................................................................................... 28
6.1 General requirements ............................................................................................................. 28
6.2 Post-installation cleaning ........................................................................................................ 30
7 Construction ................................................................................................................................... 33
7.1 General criteria ....................................................................................................................... 33
7.2 Specification and manufacture of line pipe material ............................................................... 34
7.3 Construction plan .................................................................................................................... 34
7.4 Pipe fabrication and welding ................................................................................................... 34
7.5 Assembly and installation ....................................................................................................... 35
7.6 Inspection and examination .................................................................................................... 37
7.7 Non-destructive testing ........................................................................................................... 37
7.8 Documentation........................................................................................................................ 39
8 Design and construction of stations ............................................................................................... 39
8.1 Function .................................................................................................................................. 39
8.2 Design brief ............................................................................................................................. 39
8.3 Standards and design codes .................................................................................................. 41
8.4 Materials and fabrication ........................................................................................................ 41
8.5 Access limitation ..................................................................................................................... 41
8.6 Location .................................................................................................................................. 41
8.7 Grounding ............................................................................................................................... 42
8.8 Installation ............................................................................................................................... 42
8.9 Pressure and leak testing ....................................................................................................... 42
8.10 Commissioning.................................................................................................................... 42
8.11 Operation ............................................................................................................................ 43
9 Operation and monitoring .............................................................................................................. 44
9.1 Operation and maintenance manual ...................................................................................... 44
9.2 Management systems............................................................................................................. 44
9.3 General safety requirements .................................................................................................. 45
9.4 Personnel for operation and maintenance ............................................................................. 45
9.5 Welding and cutting ................................................................................................................ 45
9.6 Shut down, repair and start-up of pipelines ............................................................................ 46
9.7 Venting and pressure relief ..................................................................................................... 46
EIGA DOC 120/14

9.8 Commissioning pipelines and stations ................................................................................... 46

9.9 Operation and monitoring ....................................................................................................... 47
9.10 Information to third parties, work adjacent to pipelines and update of documents ............. 47
9.11 Specialised surveys ............................................................................................................ 48
9.12 Damage to the pipeline system........................................................................................... 48
10 General protective measures ..................................................................................................... 49
10.1 Emergency response plan .................................................................................................. 49
10.2 Accident and damage report ............................................................................................... 51
10.3 Safety management system ............................................................................................... 51
10.4 Leak detection system (LDS) .............................................................................................. 53
Appendix A: Typical arrangements for pipelines systems .................................................................... 54

Appendix B: Embrittlement and Environmental Damage Mechanisms Involving Syngas, Carbon

Monoxide Mixtures; Applicable Test Methods ...................................................................................... 55

Appendix C: Table of Nominal Alloy Compositions & Ranges .............................................................. 60

Appendix D: Metallurgical factors Affecting Toughness and Brittle Fracture Mechanisms .................. 63

Appendix F: Example of Preventive Maintenance Program for Carbon monoxide and Syngas
Pipelines ................................................................................................................................................ 67

Appendix G: Composition criteria for CO and Syngas .......................................................................... 69

Appendix J: Probability acceptance criteria .......................................................................................... 70

Appendix K: References ....................................................................................................................... 72

Amendments to 120/04

Section Change
4.2.2 Add reference to SDS
Appendix K Add reference to EIGA Doc 919

Note: Technical changes from the previous edition are underlined.

EIGA DOC 120/14

1 Introduction

This publication has been prepared by a group of specialists in pipeline systems, representing major
industrial gases producers in various countries of Europe and North America and is based on the
technical information and experience currently available to the authors.

It must be recognized, however, that pipeline systems, developed over 40 years in the various
European countries and North America have shown good and comparable safety records, although
national practices show many differences in design and operations. Some national authorities have
also introduced legislation, which is mandatory for the operators in those countries.

Thus, the information contained in this document applies only to future installations and not to existing
installations or those in the project phase, as of the date of this publication. Furthermore, to the extent
that they exist, national laws supersede the suggested practices listed in this publication. It should not
be assumed that every local standard, test, safety procedure or method is contained in these
recommendations or that abnormal or unusual circumstances may not warrant additional
requirements or procedures. The authors make no representations or warranties on the information in
or the completeness of this document and disclaim all warranties, express or implied including, but not
limited to, the warranty of merchantability and the warranty of fitness for a particular use or purpose.

ISO units and corresponding Imperial units in brackets are used in this document. Corresponding
values may be approximate.
Those involved in the safe design, operation, and maintenance of gaseous transmission and
distribution systems should be aware of various documents, guidance, publications, and standards
prepared by various multinational organizations which may be pertinent to such systems. These are
listed in Appendix K. In addition to these documents, there are a number of pertinent publications,
technical papers, bulletins, etc. which provide useful information on materials of construction,
metallurgy, environmental degradation mechanisms, etc. found also in Appendix K. While the cited
references provide valuable background, it cannot be stated that these are all of the standards
documents or technical papers published by international organizations that could be pertinent to the
subject of this publication.

2 Scope and purpose

The scope of this document is for transmission and distribution piping systems for carbon monoxide
and hydrogen and carbon monoxide mixtures (referred as Syngas in the remainder of this
document).Typical arrangements for these pipeline systems are shown in Diagram 1 of Appendix A. It
is limited to gaseous products with a temperature range between –40°C (-40°F) and 150°C (302°F),
pressures from 0,1 MPa up to 15 MPa (2250 psig) and the purity criteria defined in Appendix G.
This document does not apply to the following processes:
• cylinder filling plants
• producing plants
• compressor units
• Bulk facilities (liquid or high pressure gas) at the customer’s site up to the point where gas enters
the distribution systems
• Piping on specialized equipment and machines.

These systems have many specialized needs and requirements. However, this document may
provide useful background information in other processes where CO is present.

The purpose of this publication is to further the understanding of those engaged in the safe design
operation and maintenance of transmission and distribution systems. It is not intended to be a
mandatory standard or code. It contains a summary of the current industrial practices. It is based
upon the combined knowledge, experience, and practices of the major producers in Western Europe
and North America as represented by their members on the CGA/ EIGA/ Ad-Hoc group on pipeline
transportation systems.
Some of the practices represent conservative compromises and not all situations are described. The
designer is cautioned that this document is not a complete design handbook and does not negate the

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EIGA DOC 120/14

need for competent engineering judgment and interpretation. It is suggested that the user reviews any
special problems or concerns with his CO/Syngas supplier who should be able to provide advice and
guidance.

Although the technical information provided in this document is not intended to be mandatory, the
word « shall » is frequently used. The use of “shall” implies a strong concern that the particular
practice referenced be followed for safety reasons. The use of « should » implies that the referenced
practice is commonly followed, but recognizes that other safe practices are sometimes utilized.

3 Definitions

• Distribution piping

Piping contained on the property (generally owned by the customer) at the use point such as mains,
feeders, station connections, and valves.

• Plant piping

Piping within the production facility

• Transmission piping

Piping between the production plant boundary and distribution piping boundary, including that which
passes over public land and third party property.

• Copper based alloys

Copper based alloys used in components for the transmission of industrial gases via pipeline
generally contain at least 55 weight % copper. Included within this group are the coppers, brasses
(copper alloyed primarily with zinc), bronzes (copper alloyed with aluminium, silicon, manganese, tin,
lead, etc) and copper nickels (copper alloyed with nickel).

• Nickel base alloys

Nickel based alloys used in components for gas transmission pipeline systems contain at least 50
weight % nickel and nickel contents up to 99+ weight % have been used. However, some tabulations
of nickel alloys may list alloys with nickel contents as low as 30 weight %.
Some of the major nickel alloy families and examples of each are as follows : Nickel (Nickel 200),
Nickel-Copper ( Monel-400 and Monel-500), Nickel-Chromium (Inconel 600 and Inconel X-750) and
Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum (Hastelloy C-276 and Inconel 625).
For hydrogen-containing gas transmission applications, the potential for hydrogen embrittlement,
which is affected by metal strength and hydrogen partial pressure should be considered.

• Stainless steel alloys

Ferrous alloys become stainless when they contain a minimum chromium content of at least 10-13
weight %. There are a number of stainless steel classifications, which are dependent upon the alloy
content, crystalline lattice, strengthening mechanisms and the ratio of ferrite stabilizers to austenitic
stabilizers.
Stainless steel classifications, with examples of each type, are as follows:
• Austenitic (304, 304L, 316, 316L, 321, 347)
• Ferritic (430)
• Martensitic (410)
• Precipitation hardening (17-4 PH)
• Duplex (329, SAF 2205).

The preceding alloy designations were for wrought products but there are alloys such as CF-8, CF-3,
CF-8M, CF-3M which are the cast analogs of 304, 304L, 316 and 316 L respectively.

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EIGA DOC 120/14

Of the various stainless steels, the 300 series stainless steels and their cast analogs are the most
commonly used in gas transmission piping systems and have excellent toughness even in high
pressure hydrogen.

• Cobalt alloys

The commercial listings of cobalt alloys generally start with a minimum cobalt content of at least 40
weight %. Wear resistant alloys such as Stellite 6 or Stellite 6B are sometimes used as coatings on
valve trims to minimise erosion damage and improve valve life.

• Non ferrous alloys

When the term nonferrous alloys is used in this document, it includes only copper, nickel and cobalt
alloys. It does not include aluminium or reactive materials such as titanium or zirconium.

• Ferrous alloys

Included in this category are carbon-steel, low-alloy steel and all stainless steels irrespective of
whether these alloy families are in cast or wrought form.

• Microalloyed steels

The broadest description of microalloying is the use of small additions of alloying elements which
achieve improvements of steel properties which seem to be out of proportion to the amount of alloying
elements which are added. The steel characteristics which may be improved include strength,
toughness, weldability and formability. Reactive metals, rare earths, boron and sulfide shape control
additives would be included in the inventory of microalloying agents in the broadest definition.

A more restricted definition of microalloying is the use of small amounts of alloying additions of
elements such as vanadium, niobium and titanium which are strong carbide and nitride formers to
achieve improvements in strength, toughness and weldability through specific thermomechanical
processing steps.

• Carbon equivalent and the composition parameter

Carbon equivalent (C.E.) is a parameter used to assess the weldability of carbon and low alloy steels
and their susceptibility to cracking during welding. Steels with low carbon equivalents generally do not
require any preheating or post heating treatment. Those with intermediate carbon equivalents may
require preheating and those with high carbon equivalents require both preheating and post heating.

Generally carbon equivalents of 0.55 and above are considered to be high and carbon equivalents
less than 0.35 are considered to be low. However, thickness, weld heat input and other factors enter
the overall assessment.

It should be noted that various carbon equivalent relationships have been developed and published
over the years. One of the earliest carbon equivalent relationships is the following:

C.E.= %C +%Mn/6

The most common carbon equivalent relationship currently in use is:

C.E.=%C+%Mn/6+(%Mo+%Cr+%V)/5+(%Ni+%Cu)/15

A major benefit of microalloyed steels is that low carbon equivalents may be achieved and the alloys
are more resistant to weld cracking. For steels with lower carbon contents or carbon equivalents, the
composition parameter Pcm has been used as an indicator of cracking susceptibility. An acceptable
limit is 0.2% maximum for the following:

Pcm=%C + (%Mn+%Si+%Cu+%Co)/20+%Ni/60+%Mo/15+%V/10+5 %B

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EIGA DOC 120/14

• Base Metal

The material which is to be welded, brazed or soldered.

• Heat affected zone (HAZ)

That portion of a weld, braze or solder joint that has not melted but where mechanical properties or
microstructure have been altered by the heat of welding, brazing or soldering. It should be noted that
certain cutting processes may also result in a discernible heat affected zone.

• Metastable Austenitic Alloys

These are austenitic alloys which have a chemistry which renders the austenitic microstructure
susceptible to transformation to martensite when subjected to thermomechanical processes involving
various combinations of strain and reduced temperatures. The relative ratio of austenite stabilizer to
ferrite stabilizer is significant in the transformation process.

• Stable Austenitic Alloys

These are alloys which have a high ratio of austenite stabilizers or formers to ferrite formers or
stabilizers. When subjected to high strain and reduced temperature, the austenitic alloy will not
transform to martensite.

• Austenite Stabilizers or Formers

These are elements which promote austenitic formation and stabilize austenite when stressed at
reduced temperatures. They include: nickel, carbon, manganese, nitrogen, cobalt and copper. There
are various empirical relationships which quantify the strength of various alloying elements as
austenite stabilizer or formers.

• Ferrite Stabilizer or Formers

These are elements which promote the formation of ferrite and stabilize it. These include: chromium,
molybdenum, silicon and niobium. Empirical relationships which quantify the strength of the alloying
elements in this capacity have been developed.

• Austenite Stability Factor (∆)

Austenite stability factors have been developed to determine when an austenite stainless steel would
be likely to transform to martensite at cold reductions as high as 80%. Shown below are

the Griffith and Wright Stability Factor Relationship:

∆=Ni-[(Cr+1.5Mo-20)2/12-0.5Mn-35C-Cu-27N+15]

and the « modified Post and Eberly » formula (see reference Hydrogen and Materials)

∆=Ni + 0,5Mn + 35 C - 0,0833(Cr+1.5Mo-20)2 -12

Negative numbers indicate a high tendency for austenite to martensite transformations when severely
strained.
If Ni content is greater than 10.5% in a 300 serie stainless steel, ∆ is usually positive and the steel is
stable.

• Austenite to Martensite Transition Temperatures

Ms is the temperature at which metastable austenite transformation to martensite occurs on cooling.

The Eichelman and Hull Relationship is as follows:

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EIGA DOC 120/14

Ms (°F)=75(14.6-Cr)+110(8.9-Ni)+60(1.33-Mn)+50(0.47-Si)+3000[0.068-(C+N)]

Md30 is the temperature at which 50% austenite will transform to martensite at 30% strain. Shown
below is the relationship developed by Angel []:

Md30 (°F)=413-462(C+N)-9.2Si-8.1Mn-13.7Cr-9.5Ni-18.5Mo

• Chromium and Nickel Equivalents

The most common relationship for the calculation for the chromium equivalent is as follows:

Cr eq=%Cr+%Mo+1.5 %Si+0.5 %Nb

The most common relationship for the calculation of the nickel equivalent is as follows:

Ni eq=%Ni+ 30 %C+ 0.5 %Mn

In conjunction with a “Shaeffler Diagram” [], chromium and nickel equivalents can be used to predict
the ferrite and austenite forming tendencies of austenitic stainless steels in weld metals and cast
metals. It should be noted that newer relationships which include the effects of other elements which
affect austenite and ferrite formation or stability do exist.

• Velocity

The volumetric flowrate at the actual pressure and temperature divided by the pipe inside cross-
sectional area

• Gas Pressure

The Gas Pressure is the operating pressure of the piping system.

4 Design philosophy

4.1 General criteria

The safe operation of a transmission piping system depends on various factors which can influence
each other. This chapter describes the principal risks and hazards associated with CO and Syngas
systems and the manner in which the hazards can be minimized by good engineering design.
A safe carbon monoxide or Syngas piping transmission or distribution system, including all its
components, is one that is designed taking into account:
• Local conditions e.g. seismic zone, soil characteristics.
• Applicable piping codes for mechanical design (including pressure rating and wall thickness) and
installation.
• Conditions of service with respect to fluid composition, gas velocity, pressure, temperature and
dew point.
• Selection of metallic materials.
• Selection of non metallic materials.
• National laws and regulations which apply to gas transmission pipelines generally and flammable
systems specifically
• Standards of cleanliness for service
• Industry codes of practice relating to CO and Syngas systems
• Hazard considerations such as flammability and toxicity of Carbon monoxide and Syngas systems

Transmission or distribution pipelines fabricated from non metallic material, such as plastic or
composite material are not recommended because of potential exposure to external damage.

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EIGA DOC 120/14

4.2 Properties of Syngas

Syngas, as the term is meant in this document and for the most part in general industry parlance,
refers to a mixture primarily of hydrogen (H2) and carbon monoxide (CO) which may also contain
significant but lower concentrations of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) as well as smaller
amounts of impurities such as chlorides, sulphur compounds, and heavier hydrocarbons.
It is particularly important to exclude water from pipelines in CO or Syngas service since the presence
of water introduces serious corrosion issues, which are not addressed in this document.
If it is known or suspected that water above the level specified in Appendix G is present in the gas
stream, then methods and requirements beyond those of this document must be used to ensure a
safe and reliable system.
Within the concern of this document, there are many similarities between H2 and CO as well as some
important differences. The requirements for Syngas are a combination of safe practices for H2 and
CO, since both are present in significant proportions. In practice this means that the more restrictive of
both the H2 and CO requirements apply.
To accommodate this it is very helpful to set some thresholds on mixtures of them beyond which we
start to consider them Syngas. The following practice can generally be safely used with the
requirements of this document provided engineering judgment is applied to verify that no conditions
exist in a particular application which would suggest other treatment.
See Appendix G for the composition criteria for application of this document for CO and Syngas
services.

4.2.1 Flammability

Both CO and H2 are flammable gases

4.2.1.1 Hydrogen
Hydrogen is lighter than air, highly flammable, easily ignited, heats up when reduced in pressure,
does not support breathing and is one of the most difficult gases to prevent from leaking. In the pure
state, it presents some unique corrosion mechanisms and when combined with even small impurities
(ppm), the corrosion concerns can multiply.
Hydrogen burns in air with a pale blue, almost invisible flame which increases the risk of injury in case
of fire.
The lower and upper flammability limits in air are:
LFL : 4%
UFL : 75%
The minimum ignition temperature of hydrogen-air mixtures is 500°C.
Hydrogen-air mixtures are extremely easy to ignite requiring only 0.017 mJ ignition energy compared
to 0.25 mJ for hydrocarbons.

The maximum flame propagation rate is up to 3 m/s in air.

Although auto-ignition of leaks and atmospheric vents is always a possibility with any flammable gas,
hydrogen is especially prone to this phenomenon. This is due to hydrogen’s low ignition energy and
the fact that, unlike most gases, hydrogen increases in temperature when it expands from a higher to
a lower pressure. This tendency towards auto-ignition of leaks and atmospheric vents, combined with
the difficulty in seeing the flame make small leaks a serious potential personnel injury risk.
In order to mitigate fire risks , fire prevention practice and operator training shall be considered ( see
chapters 9 and 10).

4.2.1.2 Carbon monoxide

Carbon monoxide is a flammable gas.
Ignited in air, it burns with a little illuminating blue flame.
This combustion issues carbon dioxide (CO2).
The flammability limits in air are:
LFL : 12.5%
UFL : 74 %
The minimum auto ignition temperature in air is 630°C.

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EIGA DOC 120/14

In order to mitigate fire risks, fire prevention practice and operator training shall be considered (see
chapters 9 and 10)

4.2.2 Toxicity

Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas (see note).

For this very reason, any CO or Syngas pipeline project should be considered as “critical” in the sense
of requiring a detailed risk management review under the responsibility of the owner.

For more information, see the gas supplier’s safety data sheet (SDS), referenced in Appendix K

Note: Carbon monoxide is quickly fixed on haemoglobin, causing a decrease in cellular respiration,
which is particularly harmful to the central nervous system. Therefore, it is important to understand the
potential effect of exposure to various concentrations of carbon monoxide, which may be encountered
so as to provide a safe environment.
A threshold limit value of 50 ppm is recommended for carbon monoxide, as a concentration in air to
which nearly all workers may be exposed during a 8-hour workday and 40-hour workweek, without
adverse effects.

The consequences of exposure to higher concentrations are shown in the table below:

Table of the effects of carbon monoxide on health and life

Concentration in ppm Consequences
50 Limit of tolerance for long exposure
50 to 100 After some days ,chronic poisoning
200 Subacute poisoning
1000-1500 Headache,nausea, poisoning and fatal in case of prolonged
exposure (more than 30 minutes)
2500 Rapid collapse , death in one or two hours
3760 LC50, one hour exposure
5000 Massive poisoning , death in less than one hour
10000 Death in 10 to 15 minutes
50000 Instantaneous poisoning , immediately fatal

The probability of fatality from a toxic exposure can also be determined using probit equations. Some
information about probit equations is given in Appendix J.

To prevent workers from overexposure the general safety requirements according to 9.3 shall be
observed .
Besides , special attention shall be paid on training (see chap.9.4)
Notably the following means shall be considered :
-Individual CO detection device
-Permanent CO detection and monitoring in stations
-Leak detection system on pipeline
In case of purging or venting chapter 9.7 shall be observed .
In addition to its own toxicity Carbon monoxide is subjected to dangerous chemical reactions
In contact with certain metals it may create volatile metal carbonyls
Combined with chlorine, CO produces phosgene which is lethal at 50 ppm.
Any toxicity related issue, such as protection against overpressure ,maintenance ,repairs , etc……,
shall be dealt with considering this chapter.

4.2.3 Brittle fracture and environmental damage mechanisms

There are a number of brittle fracture mechanisms or degradation effects attributed to hydrogen.
These are all described in Appendix B. However, not all of these are pertinent to dry hydrogen gas,
dry carbon monoxide and their mixtures. Special attention shall be given to CO and CO mixtures as
the simultaneous presence of CO, traces of CO2 and traces of H2O at temperatures below the dew
point, will provide a susceptible environment for stress corrosion cracking in the use of carbon and low
alloy steels. Brittle fracture and environmental damage mechanisms that are pertinent to the
transmission of these gases via pipelines are as follows:

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EIGA DOC 120/14

• For internal corrosion

o Hydrogen gas embrittlement (HGE) at ambient temperature

o Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) of carbon and low alloy steels in CO environments

• For external corrosion on all pipelines

o Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) of line pipe materials in underground environments.

HGE covers a number of different effects which are described in detail in Appendix B. SCC of line
pipe materials in underground environments is a phenomenon which may be linked to a number of
factors such as defective coatings, improper cathodic protection and poor soil conditions. SCC of
carbon and low alloy steels in carbon monoxide environments is usually attributed to the presence of
contaminants in the carbon monoxide. Both SCC mechanisms are covered in more details in
Appendix B.

The term “hydrogen attack” is sometimes improperly used when hydrogen pipelines are considered.
Hydrogen attack only occurs at temperatures of 200°C or more and consequently is not relevant to
hydrogen pipelines (see Appendix B for more information about high temperature degradation
modes).

Hydrogen attack only occurs at temperatures of 200°C or more and consequently is not relevant to
hydrogen pipelines (see Appendix B for more information about high temperature degradation
modes).

The three above mentioned phenomena could lead to catastrophic failures. Approaches by which the
risks associated with these mechanisms can be minimised include reductions in global stress levels
as described in paragraph 4.3.2.1 and careful materials selection as described in paragraph 4.3.
Procedures which minimise H2O and CO2 presence are beneficial for CO services as indicated in
paragraphs 4.2.3.

4.3 Metallic Materials

4.3.1 Generalities

4.3.1.1 Strength, hardness and microstructure

Many metallic materials can suffer embrittlement in environments containing hydrogen gas. These
include steels (especially high strength steels), stainless steel, and nickel alloys.

Steels used in hydrogen – containing gas pipeline service should have a maximum hardness of
approximately 22 HRC (Hardness Rockwell C) or 250 HB (Hardness Brinell). This hardness limit is
approximately equivalent to a tensile strength limit of about 116 ksi (800 MPa). Welds should also
have a maximum hardness of 22 HRC or 250 HB . It shall be noted that the welded zone is often
harder and therefore more susceptible to embrittlement than the base metal.

To achieve an acceptable weld zone hardness, it may be necessary to use lower strength steels than
indicated above (500 MPa). Special welding procedures and pre or post welding thermal treatments
may be another approach.

In the pipeline systems, there may be a need for “buffers” which are usually seamless pressure
vessels. Steels used for seamless vessels may have an ultimate tensile strength (UTS) up to 950
MPa (ISO 9809 and ISO 11120).

The engineering alloys used in critical locations should have high toughness levels in the fabricated
condition and be relatively insensitive to welding problems, e.g., hard/brittle areas, microcracks,
fissures etc.

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EIGA DOC 120/14

There are a number of variables, which can affect the severity of the embrittlement mechanisms
encountered such as purity, temperature and pressure. It is generally recognised that the tendency for
embrittlement in hydrogen atmospheres increases with increasing pressure.

In general, the following are significant metallurgical considerations for HGE:

• Use of alloys with homogenous fine-grained microstructures is preferred

• Avoidance of excessively hard or high strength alloys, see above.
• Use of steels with enhanced cleanliness so non-metallic inclusions, which reduce toughness
and hydrogen embrittlement resistance are minimized.
• Components free from significant surface and internal defects

With respect to the above, there may be somewhat different positions on the degree to which the
above are applied and at what pressures. Appendix D covers the preceding in great detail. Each user
must determine which of the above considerations should be applied to their specific applications.

The stress requirement for carbon steel is detailed below in subparagraph 4.3.2.

4.3.1.2 Welding

• Mechanical Properties of Welds

Welding processes and operators qualification should verify that weld sample meet the same strength
and toughness requirement as the parent metal.

• Weld and Weld Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)

The hardness level of welds and the weld HAZ should not exceed Rockwell C 22 which is equivalent
to 250 HB or Vickers 248. The hardness determination is to be made via microhardness traverses on
mounted metallographic samples removed from process/operator weld qualification samples.
Production hardness tests should be considered (see subparagraph 7.7.2.4)

4.3.1.3 Surface Condition

Inside surface should be free of defects such as scratches, notches, carbon deposits and corrosion.

4.3.1.4 Hydrostatic Tests

Pipe shall be tested between 75% and 100% of the specified minimum yield strength (SMYS) with a
holding time at pressure of at least 5 - 10 seconds depending on the diameter.

4.3.1.5 Inspection

The materials, source of materials manufacturing, all phases of testing, test specimens, results, etc.
shall be available for inspection and approval.

4.3.2 Carbon Steels

4.3.2.1 General

Carbon steel is the alloy family most commonly used in gas transmission pipelines. Various carbon
steel specifications for pipelines are listed in Appendix C. The choice of the specific grade will
depend on many factors, such as the severity of the service and the availability. Due to the toxicity of
carbon monoxide and Syngas and the possibility of stress corrosion cracking, consideration should be
given to maintain low stress on the pipeline. A design factor between 25% and 30% SMYS is
recommended in the literature. For example:

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EIGA DOC 120/14

• The CO filling pressure is limited to 100 bar in steel cylinder whose service pressure is at
least 150 bar. With these conditions, the maximum stress in the steel corresponds to 25% of
the SMYS (refer to EIGA Doc 95).
• A design factor of less than 30 % of the SMYS is recommended by the BS 8010 for pipelines
conveying category D substances. These category D substances are defined as flammable
and toxic substances, which are gases at ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure
conditions, thus including CO.

4.3.2.2 Heat Treatment

It is recommended that as-worked mill forms (not normalized) be avoided when practical to do so due
to the toxicity of CO, Supplying carbon steel materials in the normalized condition assures the
presence of fine grained homogenous microstructures which results in greater toughness and this is
preferred. It should be noted that seam welded pipes must be normalized locally in the seam weld
(see also subparagraph 7.2.3). Special attention also should be given to the surface condition of alloy
mill forms during and after heat treatment

4.3.2.3 Chemistry
• General

All of the line pipe steels and products from Appendix C have specified compositional range for
chemical elements. Chemical composition limits as practiced in conventional carbon steel metallurgy
have generally been found to be suitable for Syngas and carbon monoxide pipeline applications. With
newer melting processes, reduced sulfur and phosphorous are possible. The use of lower sulphur and
phosphorous levels is an approach which enhances steel toughness and therefore should be
considered for severe applications.

• Carbon equivalent

The maximum carbon equivalent (CE) is 0.43

• Concentrations of Alloy Elements

All elements which are deliberately added are to be reported such as calcium and rare earths for
sulfide shape control, aluminium for deoxidization and elements which may be used in carbon
equivalent calculations.

4.3.2.4 Tensile Strength Requirements

The carbon steel alloy grade that is selected should have the lowest possible tensile strength
consistent with the actual application. Because of greater susceptibility to some forms of corrosion in
a hydrogen or carbon monoxide environment, substituting a higher strength material is generally not
an improvement. A maximum tensile strength of 800 MPa (116 kpsi) is recommended.

4.3.2.5 Toughness Requirement

As the pipeline pressure increases, toughness is increasingly important. Steels and the mill forms
identified with the footnote (1) in Appendix C have to meet impact test requirements in the applicable
API, ASTM specifications. Generally, the mill forms which have to meet impact toughness
requirements are made from killed steel per a fine grain practice.

It is recommended that toughness requirement be considered on certain steel mill forms to be used in
Syngas and carbon monoxide pipeline applications. Toughness requirements may be found in
References (Mohitpour, Golshan, and Murray, p 594 and 595). It is especially important for
applications at pressures of 50 bars and above.

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EIGA DOC 120/14

4.3.3 Microalloyed Steels

4.3.3.1 General

Microalloyed steels are described in more detail than other materials in this document to familiarize
readers with this relatively new and promising technology. Large scale natural gas pipelines marked
the first significant utilization of microalloyed line pipe in gas transmission applications. Since early
1990s, a significant amount of microalloyed line pipe in the API 5L X52 grade has been used to
transmit hydrogen gas at pressure in excess of 7 MPa (1000 psi). Microalloyed line pipe is applicable
to the transmission of Syngas and carbon monoxide.

This section covers special requirements for the production of microalloyed ERW linepipe intended for
high pressure service. The application requires high toughness levels in the fabricated line pipe and
relative insensitivity to welding problems as a consequence of possible embrittlement scenarios with
may be encountered in service.
Note that none of the API 5L PSL 2 (or PSL 1) grades are listed as “microalloyed steel” in the
standard. If microalloyed steel is preferred, the user should specify appropriate supplementary
requirements, including added chemistry and property requirements, to attain the benefits of
microalloyed steel. It is the responsibility of the user to determine the necessary supplemental
requirements. The following sections provide guidance.

Due to the toxicity of carbon monoxide and Syngas and the possibility of stress corrosion cracking,
consideration should be given to maintain low stress on the pipeline. A design factor between 25%
and 30% SMYS is recommended in the literature.

4.3.3.2 Codes, Standard and Grades

Pipe must be manufactured in accordance with all the provisions of the latest edition of API
Specification 5L or equivalent except as may be modified by the additional requirements noted in this
document.

The specific API 5L grades allowed in microalloyed form for Syngas and carbon monoxide pipelines
are X42 and X52. The manufacturer shall not substitute steel intended for higher strength grades.

4.3.3.3 Process of Manufacture and Material

The material used in making the pipe shall be basic oxygen or electric furnace steel that is
continuously cast. All steel must be fully killed.

The weld seam and heat affected zone shall be heat treated so as to simulate a normalizing heat
treatment. Low temperature stress relief of fabricated pipe prior to hydrotesting is permissible.

4.3.3.4 Chemistry

The sulfur content shall not exceed 0.01% (API 5L PSL 2 limit is 0.015%)
The phosphorus content shall not exceed 0.015% (API 5L PSL 2 limit is 0.025%)

The use of sulfide shape control agents such as calcium is permitted. However, all additions made for
this purpose must be reported.

The maximum carbon equivalent (CE) is 0.35. (API 5L PSL 2 limit is 0.43%)

The concentration of any intentionally added element such as rare earths, Ti, Nb, B, Al etc must be
reported. Also to be reported are any elements which affect carbon equivalent determinations.

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EIGA DOC 120/14

4.3.3.5 Metallographic & Microscopic Examination

The final ferrite grain size shall be ASTM 8 or finer. Samples of the seam weld will be cut from one
pipe length of each one hundred lengths or fraction and examined to ensure that proper weld fusion
has been obtained across the thickness of the weld. In addition, Rockwell hardness surveys shall be
conducted across the weld-and- heat affected zone of the parent metal and test sections. Hardness
shall not exceed 95HRB.

4.3.3.6 Mechanical Properties

Actual yield and tensile strengths shall be less than the following maximum above the minimum
specified for different API 5L grades:

X-52 24,000 psi (165 MPa)

X-42 25,000 psi (172 MPa)

The flattening acceptance test criterion for ERW pipe shall be increased to 1/2 of original OD without
weld opening instead of that appearing in API 5L.

4.3.3.7 Impact Tests

The test temperature will be 0 °C (32 °F). For each heat a set of three transverse and three
longitudinal impact specimens will be impact tested. For small diameter pipes, only longitudinal
specimens are required.
The following table lists minimum acceptable absorption energies for different sizes of Charpy V notch
specimens.

Absorbed Energy, transverse Absorbed Energy, Longitudinal

Ft-lb (J) Ft-lb (J)
Specimen Size Average Minimum Single Average Minimum Single
Full Size 69 (94) 52 (71) 87 (118) 65 (88)
¾ 52 (71) 39 (53) 65 (88) 49 (67)
2/3 35 (48) 35 (48) 58 (78) 43 (58)
½ 26 (35) 26 (35) 43 (58) 32 (43)
1/3 17 (23) 17 (23) 29 (39) 22 (30)
1/4 13 (18) 13 (18) 22 (30) 16 (22)

Full wall thickness specimens will be used in the testing. Energy absorption values for these
specimens will be obtained via linear interpolation between "Standard Sizes".

The largest size Charpy specimen that is consistent with the available wall thickness of the pipe will
be utilized for the fracture testing. Transverse specimens will be flattened if necessary to obtain
specimens more representative of the full wall thickness. The flattening should be done mechanically
with no application of heat e.g., torches.

Ductile shear percentage will be a minimum of 75% for an average of 3 specimens with no single
value below 60%.

4.3.4 Carbon-Molybdenum (C-Mo) and Carbon-Molybdenum-Chrome (C-Mo-Cr) Low Alloy

Steels

Normally, these high temperature steels are not used in high pressure Syngas or carbon monoxide
gas transmission pipelines but for “buffers” see subparagraph 4.3.1.1. However, it is conceivable that
these alloys might be welded to a gas transmission pipeline. Accordingly, some of the common ASTM
C-Mo and C-Mo-Cr low alloy pipe standards and compositions are listed in Appendix C. It should be
noted that the high Cr content grades may be more difficult to weld, subject to cracking and could
have local hard spots in the weld HAZ. Consequently, preheating and post weld heat treatments are
more often needed for these steels than for carbon steels.

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EIGA DOC 120/14

Due to the toxicity of carbon monoxide and Syngas and the possibility of stress corrosion cracking,
consideration should be given to maintain low stress on the pipeline. A design factor between 25%
and 30% SMYS is recommended in the literature.

4.3.5 Stainless Steels

A chromium content equal or more than 13% mitigates the CO stress corrosion cracking and carbonyl
formation. Special attention for the use of stainless steel is required only for Syngas service.

4.3.5.1 Austenitic Stainless Steels

Some of the materials listed in Appendix C might be used to transmit Syngas , particularly, at higher
pressures. The excellent toughness and ease of welding particularly in field locations are important
attributes

These materials might also be used for Syngas transmission at elevated pressures outside of the
application range cited in this document. Typically, the presence of even mildly corrosive
environments may require that the low carbon (304L, 316L) or stabilized grades (316Ti, 321 and 347)
be used when welding is used. In this application, the most likely corrosion site may be on the outside
of the pipe. For Syngas service stainless steels with high austenite stability are preferred (i.e., high
austenite stability or high nickel equivalents)
Austenitic stainless steels with a positive austenitic stability factor according to a “modified Post and
Eberly formula” (see reference Hydrogen and Materials) were found suitable for hydrogen service.

4.3.5.2 Other Stainless Steels

Other stainless steels such as ferritic, martensitic, dulplex or precipitation hardened may be used in
Syngas pipeline components providing they are used at low stress. The toughness of these steels is
generally not as good as the austentitic varieties. Strength levels should be minimal and consistent
with the application. The fully annealed condition is preferred for the ferritic and duplex steels.
Martensitic and precipitation hardening grades should be heat treated to develop strength levels at
the low end of the available range.

4.3.6 Nickel Alloys

Many nickel alloys are susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement. Nickel alloys should be avoided unless
the user verifies the alloy is suitable for syngas gas service. Monel K-500 and Inconel X-750 which
are precipitation hardened alloys may be used with hardness limits in subcomponents where high
strength is required. Again, modest strength levels and avoidance of high nickel levels are worth
noting. Nickel alloys also suffer from a high propensity to form carbonyls. Alloys with less than 50%
Nickel, such as the Incoloy may be acceptable.

4.3.7 Copper and Cobalt Alloys

Copper alloys are subject to hydrogen damage when copper contains oxygen. Hydrogen can enter
the metal and react with oxygen in solid solution or oxide inclusions to form water. At elevated
temperatures, greater than 370°C (700°F), steam pressure is high enough to cause cracking. Most
copper alloys are deoxidized, and these generally do not suffer hydrogen embrittlement and are
suitable for use in CO/Syngas service.
Certain cobalt alloys may be used where abrasion resistance or wear resistance is required. These
usually are Stellite formulations. Cobalt alloys are considered acceptable for CO/Syngas service.

4.3.8 Carbonyl Formation

Carbonyl formation is briefly discussed in Appendix B3.8. Published literature suggests that the
condition of metal surfaces is very important in the formation of carbonyls. Alloy selection and surface
treatment may mitigate carbonyl formation.

4.4 Non metallic materials

See also ISO 11114-2 for compatibility with non metallic materials.

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EIGA DOC 120/14

4.4.1 CO compatibility with Non Metallic Material

The chemical resistance of certain elastomers and plastics to carbon monoxide is given in the table
below:

Material Compatibility
Teflon ® A
Natural rubber C
Neoprene ® C
Hypalon ® B
Butyl rubber C
Kel-F ® A
Buna N ® C

A: good resistance
B: fair resistance
C: poor resistance

4.4.2 H2 Compatibility with Non Metallic Material

Plastics exhibit varying behaviour in the presence of hydrogen.

The temperatures at which the resistance of some plastics in the presence of hydrogen seems
assured are given in the table below. In certain cases these values do not exclude the possibility of
resistance at higher temperatures.

Material Temperature
(°C)
Plasticized cellulose 20
Cellulose diacetate 20
Formo-aniline 20
Formo-urea 20
Phenol-formaldehyde 20
Furaphenol 20
Polyamides 20
Polyfuran 110
Polychloroprene 100
Polyepoxydiphenylopropane 90
Polyethylene glycol terephtalate 20
Polyurethane 20
Polyurethylmethacrylate 20
Polyvinyl acetate 20
Polyvinyl chloride 60
Polytrifluorochlorethylene 180
Polytetrafluoroethylene 250
Polyethylene 60
Polyisobutylene 100
Polystyrene 20
Polyacrylonitrile 20
Polyvinyl-vinylidene chloride (20-80%) 60

In using other plastics, it is advisable to conduce suitable strength tests prior to use.

Most elastomers are compatible with hydrogen. Their chemical resistance is given in the table below:

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EIGA DOC 120/14

Material Compatibility
Natural rubber B
Butyl rubber A
Silicone rubber B
Neoprene ® A
Buna S ® A
Hypalon ® A
Viton ® A
Buna N ® A

A: good
B: fair

Permeation of hydrogen through elastomers at 25 °C

(multiply these values by 10-10 to obtain cm-3 S.T.P.mm.sec.-1.cm-2 (cmHg-1)

Material Permeation
Natural rubber 492
Butyl rubber 74
Buna S ® 399
Perbunan ® G 158
Neoprene ® G 133
Hycar or 15 ® 74
Polybutadiene 424
Polymethylpentadiene 428
Perbunan 18 ® 251
Isoprene-methacryl-nitrile copolymer 138
Hycar or 25 ® 118
Polydimethylbutadiene 172
Vulcoprene A ® 64
Isoprene-acrylonitrile copolymer 74
Thiokol S 16

4.4.3 Syngas

Non metallic material used in Syngas service should be compatible with H2 and CO at the operating
conditions.

4.5 Piping systems

4.5.1 Underground piping systems

Piping should be of all welded construction in accordance with a specification and inspection code
such as API 1104, EN12732, EN 14161, EN 1594 (see Appendix K or any other recognized code).
Underground piping must be externally coated to an approved specification, to protect against soil
corrosion. Reference to current, internationally accepted, coatings standards and specifications is
recommended (see Appendix K)

Underground piping should be adequately buried to protect it from frost, casual surface construction,
shifting due to unstable soil, back fill damage to the external surface of pipe or the coating, and
aboveground loads such as vehicles or equipment moving over the path of the pipeline. Pipe casings
or load shields, if required by special agencies, should be installed at railroad or road crossings or
where unusual aboveground loading can occur. Casings or sleeves require careful consideration and
special measures to avoid cathodic protection problems and arcing, which can be caused due to an
electrical connection forming between the sleeve and carrier pipe due to settlement, etc. In general
the use of metallic casings or sleeves is to be avoided wherever possible.

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EIGA DOC 120/14

Underground carbon monoxide and Syngas piping is vulnerable to damage by lightning strikes or
ground fault conditions, which may rupture the pipe material. To reduce the likelihood of one of these
occurring, electrical continuity between underground piping and above ground piping, or other metal
structures, should be avoided.
Due to the possibility of leaks it is preferable to have no flanged or other mechanical joints
underground. If this cannot be avoided then the number should be limited and they should be installed
in a way which provides access for inspection and maintenance e.g. in valve pits.

4.5.2 Above-ground piping systems

Above-ground carbon monoxide and Syngas piping systems should follow good mechanical design
practices as applied to any other above-ground piping system. Due to its toxicity, leakage concern are
much more important than with other gases. The use of welded connections is strongly recommended
whenever this is possible. Above-ground piping should be painted to an approved specification to
protect against atmospheric corrosion.

Above-ground portions of pipeline systems should connect to underground portions through an

electrically insulated joint to isolate the underground cathodic protection system (see 5.6.4).
All above-ground pipelines shall have electrical continuity across all connections, except insulation
flanges, and shall be earthed at suitable intervals to protect against the effects of lightning and static
electricity. The electrical resistance to earth of the installed pipeline should not exceed 10 ohms for
personnel protection against electrical or high voltage shock.

Flange bolting will provide the necessary electrical bond provided the bolts are not coated with a
dielectric material or paint and are well maintained to avoid rust.

In the case of short above ground sections, where insulating flanges are not used, the pipe should be
insulated from the support structure by means of an isolating pad.

CO/Syngas piping should not be exposed to external forces which can cause a failure or dangerous
situation such as external impingement from hot gas or steam vents, vibration from external sources,
leaking oil dripping onto the line, etc.
Above-ground piping systems outside plant fence lines may be subject to deliberate or accidental
damage. Consideration should be given to installing pipe and valves below ground, with extensions
for above ground operators and instrumentation.

4.5.3 Pipeline markers

Overhead piping should be colour coded and/or identified. Underground piping should be identified
with markers placed on the ground near the buried pipeline. Markers should be suitably spaced to
indicate the route of the line.

4.5.4 Corrosion protection

4.5.4.1 Underground pipelines

Corrosion caused by galvanic action between the outside of the pipe and the soil is probably the most
frequent cause of leaks except for mechanical damage. It is caused by the difference in electric
potential between the pipe and the soil which sets up an electro-chemical cell. This electrolytic cell
acts to continuously remove metal from the pipe and deposit it in the soil. If not prevented or
sufficiently inhibited eventually a hole(s) is made in the pipe during its working life. Corrosion
protection is achieved by cathodic protection, either by sacrificial anode or by impressed current, both
in combination with electrical isolation by coating. To achieve a good cathodic protection in a given
circumstance, it is necessary to understand the soil conditions and the anti-corrosion methods used
by near-by pipelines. The advice of an expert in these matters is strongly recommended in known
difficult corrosion areas and is a worthwhile precaution in any area. Cathodic protection may be done
according to recognized standards, such as NACE RP 177 or EN 12954. It is suggested that electrical
isolation (pipeline coating) plus one other of the two methods listed below be employed on every
underground pipeline.

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EIGA DOC 120/14

1) Electrical isolation – this method acts to prevent corrosion by electrically isolating the pipeline
from the soil. This is the most basic technique and, as a minimum should be practiced on
every section of underground pipeline. The pipe is isolated from the soil directly by an
external coating and indirectly by isolating flanges where it connects to above ground piping.
The weakness is that even small flaws in the coating become sites for what is often very rapid
rates of corrosion. These flaws may be present in the coating as supplied, come from damage
during installation, occur as the coating looses its dielectric strength or after some time in
service may be caused by bacterial activity. It should be assumed that a number of defects in
the coating exist or will come to exist during the lifetime of the pipeline. This does not negate
its value but does lead to the necessity of providing another means of protection together with
electrical isolation.

2) Sacrificial anode – this method acts to prevent corrosion of the pipe by providing a source of
material which is more electrolytically active (anodic) than the piping material. Corrosion takes
place preferentially on this sacrificial anode and the pipeline is thereby spared – at least until
the anode is used up. Sacrificial anodes are most effective when used together with electrical
isolation since they are well suited to protecting against small areas of corrosion such as
occur at flaws in the pipe coating. However, there is a limited distance in which a sacrificial
anode is effective so that many of them are required at intervals along the pipeline.

3) Impressed current – To be free of the limited driving voltage associated with sacrificial anode
systems, current from some outside source may be impressed on the pipeline by using an
anode ground bed and a power source, the most common of which is a rectifier. The rectifier
converts AC to DC, and is usually provided with means of varying the DC output voltage, in
small increments, over a reasonably wide range. Most pipeline rectifiers operate in a wide
range between 10 and 50 volts and can be obtained with maximum current outputs ranging
from less than 10 amps to several hundred amps. The anodes employed in impressed
current systems generally depend on electrochemical oxidation of water and other chemicals
in the soil or electrolyte to exchange current with the environment.. Specific materials used for
anodes are: graphite (carbon), high silicon iron alloys, platinized titanium or niobium, and
certain conductive mixed metal oxides applied to a titanium metal base. Most anodes used in
an impressed current system, exhibit an electrical potential that is more noble than iron or
steel. Therefore, the anodes themselves remain relatively inert and unaffected by the transfer
of current. The source of electric current must overcome this back potential as well as
electrical resistance in the circuit before current will flow in the proper direction. Steel anodes,
such as rails, are also commonly used, but they will exhibit a wear of 9 kg/Amp.year. They
have to be replaced, when necessary.

Because of the complexity involved, it requires the most experienced and specialized knowledge to
properly implement. It is strongly recommended that an expert be consulted.

Monitoring of the corrosion protection system at intervals over the lifetime of the pipeline is essential
to achieving satisfactory results. In the case of sacrificial anodes and impressed current systems, this
requires monitoring the electrical potential at the cathodic protection stations and at monitoring points
in between stations.

4.5.4.2 Above ground pipelines

Because above ground pipelines can be visually inspected, corrosion can be more easily controlled.
However, this is only the case if the inspections are frequent, methodical and all the discovered
problems remediated.

Uninsulated above ground pipelines should be protected against environmental corrosion by an

appropriate coating system, usually paint. The selection of the system will vary with the environment,
but as a general rule a system suitable for a chemical plant environment should be used as a
minimum.

Insulated above ground pipelines are also subject to environmentally caused corrosion which occurs
underneath the insulation and is therefore not visible. This type of corrosion is quite common and is

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EIGA DOC 120/14

recognized as a significant problem in industry. Reference could be made to standards, such as

NACE RP 01-98.The pipe should be painted before insulating to provide surface protection. The
pipeline should be regularly inspected for corrosion under the insulation by removing small sections of
insulation at various places and visually checking. A positive indication is cause to remove further
samples in the same area until the full extent of the corrosion has been identified. Remediation and
reinsulation should then follow.

4.5.5 Leakage Surveys

Pipelines for dangerous gases such as CO and Syngas may present high environmental risks.
It is particularly important to periodically examine pipelines with a leak detector. The exact regimen for
performing this examination will vary with the population density in the area and national regulations.
A suggested minimum would be to examine pipelines once every three months with additional
frequency for known leak prone areas such as flanged connections, valve stems, and compression
fittings.

In addition, to mitigate the risk of leaks, the installation of a Leak Detection System (LDS) shall be
considered, if the pipeline is in the public domain. Such a system can detect a leak in real time and
estimates the size and location of the leak which allows operations staff to assess the severity of the
leak and the type of response that is required. The Leak detection system and the related monitoring
and controlling system must be designed with a high level of reliability.

4.6 Hazard analysis and risk assessment

4.6.1 General

Some level of risk is inherent to all human activities and positive steps should be taken to reduce the
risks to a reasonable level whenever this is possible. Every new transportation pipeline system must
be designed, constructed and operated in such a way that the additional risk to people, property and
the environment is kept within acceptable limits.
To this end, a safety analysis should be performed on every new pipeline system or significant
modification to an existing system. The safety analysis is a proven way to assess the risks of the
pipeline system to the environment, the risks to the pipeline from its environment, as well as to define
the measures, to be applied during design, construction and operation, to reduce the probability of
occurrence and the consequences of abnormal events. See references, such as EIGA Doc 75 about
determination of safety distances.
Normally, the level of detail of the safety analysis is based on the population density around the pipe
route, the potential severity of an incident, and the likelihood an incident could occur.
The method typically used in a safety evaluation is to determine the individual risk and to show that it
is within acceptable limits. It is not unusual to define individual risk, as the probability of a person
remaining at a given open-air location at all times being fatally injured as a result of any abnormal
event affecting the pipeline and to give an acceptable limit in terms of fatalities per number of years.
In specific areas, such as high population density zones, the societal risk must be taken into account
due to the toxic properties of CO.
Local regulations often provide guidelines on performing safety analysis and specify acceptable limits.
When no regulation exists, one of the generally accepted country codes such as the Dutch or British
regulation is often referred to.

The risk assessment comprises the following steps:

• Assessment of the individual risk, which is the probability of a person remaining at a given
open-air location at all times being fatally injured as a result of any abnormal event affecting
the pipeline.
• Assessment of the societal risk, in order to take into account the number of fatalities which
may occur in case of an abnormal event affecting the pipe, particularly in highly populated
areas and in places of public assembly. The required maximum probability of the abnormal
event decreases with the number of resulting fatalities.

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EIGA DOC 120/14

4.6.2 Identification of the hazards

The minimum list of hazards to be considered is:

• Damage by third parties
• Use of non compatible materials and equipment at all operating conditions
• Stress corrosion cracking in the presence of CO2 and H2O impurities below the dew point
• Severe internal corrosion in presence of water
• Hydrogen embrittlement for mixtures with hydrogen
• External corrosion due to improper cathodic protection
• Leaks at valve packing, gaskets,..
• Over pressurisation of the pipeline
• Improper inerting procedure
• Improper venting procedure
• Improper operation and maintenance of the pipeline
• Abnormal loads due to land slide, floods, earthquakes, crossing of roads, railways, ..
• Influence of other structures, such as high power electrical lines, electrical railways
• Damage due to an abnormal event on a parallel pipe
• Road accident or fire in the vicinity of above ground parts of the pipeline
• The radiation from a vent fire or a flare

4.6.3 Mitigating measures

For each hazard, mitigation measures shall be identified, such as:

• Control of third party interference
• Ensuring that the gas feed remains dry
• Increased thickness of the pipe
• Increased pipeline depth
• Installation in pipe ways or corridors
• Non destructive test on welds
• Inerting of the pipe
• Pipeline marking
• Specific pipelines warning devices: marking matts or tapes
• Isolation valves
• Excess flow or low pressure shut down valves
• Leak detection system by dynamic flow analysis
• Physical protections: concrete coating or casing, concrete slabs
• Operating procedures, including: inspection programs, leak detection surveys, corrosion
control programs, emergency plan, personnel training, information of third parties,
collaboration with local authorities

4.6.4 Typical event scenarii

For ease of analysis, the events frequently considered for a pipeline are:
• the full bore rupture
• the 50% full bore
• a small leak (5% of the full bore)

4.6.5 Consequences of these events

For carbon monoxide and syngas the consequences of a release is the forming of a toxic and
flammable cloud in the vicinity. The cloud may ignite. Depending upon the model used for evaluating
the toxicity, including possible self evacuation of individuals, the consequences of radiation on
individuals may be greater than that of toxicity. Both types of consequences must be considered.

4.6.6 Selection of simulation model parameters

Models frequently used are dispersion calculation and thermal radiation of flame software, such as
PHAST developed by The Det Norske Veritas.

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EIGA DOC 120/14

The following items must be taken into account in order to run the simulation model:
• Pressure drop due to the dynamic flow in the pipe
• Transient flow regime due to the decompression of the pipe
• Velocity of the gas at the breech
• Wind speed and direction and air conditions

4.6.7 Criteria for the feared event

A way to evaluate the effect on the environment of a CO/Syngas release is to determine the toxicity
risk and the magnitude of the thermal radiation in case of ignition at different distances from the pipe.

4.6.7.1 Toxicity risk

For toxicity, in the absence of local regulations which would take precedence, as a minimum the
following two limits should be considered:
• The area of lethal effects : threshold value corresponding to an exceeding of 7000 ppm during
10 minutes (4.5% of fatalities, Probit DNV)

• The area of irreversible effects for human health : threshold value corresponding to an
exceeding of 1500 ppm during 30 minutes (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health
equivalent)

It should be noted that circumstances may suggest that additional criteria be included. See also
section 4.2.2 and Appendix J.

4.6.7.2 Thermal radiation risk

The Eisenberg method to define the hazard zone is to use the radiation dose approach. This
considers that the effect of radiant heat on humans is a function of both radiation intensity and
duration of exposure. Eisenberg et al. (reference listed in Appendix K) studied data on the lethality
from thermal radiation and concluded that the dosage-response relationship for various probabilities
of injury/fatality should be in the form,

D = t I 4/3 in units of (W/m2)4/3 - sec

where:
D = dosage for various probability of injury
t = duration of the exposure, sec
I = thermal radiation intensity, W/m²

Damage Criteria For Thermal Radiation

Damage Levels Thermal Dosage, D

Extreme Pain 1.1 x 106
Second Degree (blistering threshold) 2.4 x 106
Third Degree threshold 7.2 x 106
Second Degree under 9.3 oz/yd2 (FRT Cotton) 10.3 x 106
1% Fatality 10.6 x 106
Second Degree under 6.8 oz/yd2 (Nomex) 13.1 x 106
50% Fatality 23.0 x 106
99% Fatality 65.7 x 106

Eisenberg’s data is adapted for radiation durations less than 45 seconds. Usage of the damage
criteria should be limited to short exposure durations.

For longer periods, the thermal radiation limits listed above, compared to the damage criteria of
Eisenberg may be used:

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EIGA DOC 120/14

• 3 kW/m2: for an exposure time of 120 seconds - limit of approach for the public. This is
outside the limits of the Eisenberg correlation since the exposure time is greater than 45
seconds.
• 5 kW/m2: taken as the radiation level at which breakage of glass by thermal effect occurs and
also at which 2nd degree burns on the skin of a non protected person exposed for 30 seconds
- limit of approach of the operators or other trained personnel. This corresponds to a dose of
2.6x106, i.e. close to the blistering threshold
• 12,5 kW/m2: taken as the radiation level at which fire propagates on vessels sprayed with
water and also the onset of pain on the skin of a non protected person exposed for 6 seconds
- limit of evacuation of housing and other normally occupied buildings. This corresponds to a
dose of 1.7x106 which Eisenberg’s equation would categorize as extreme pain.

With these criteria, it is possible to transform in distances around the pipe the results of the
simulations, in order to identify the zones concerned by the occurrence of the major event.
This risk evaluation method is a deterministic approach and is required in certain countries.

4.6.8 Definition of the zone to be studied around the pipe

Taking into account the distances found by the simulation, the zones around the pipeline must be
studied for the whole length of the pipe. Since the toxicity of CO must be considered as well as its
flammability, larger distances than would have been the case when considering flammability alone are
not unusual.
Another widely used method to define the zone around the pipe that could be affected by a leak or
rupture is using a potential impact radius. This method is documented in ASME B31.8S and is
dependent on the MAOP and outside diameter of the pipeline.
In particular areas, compensatory measures will be considered.

4.6.9 Risk criteria

When the probabilistic approach is used, individual and societal risks are considered.
For the individual risk, the probability of fatality of a person permanently present at a given distance of
the pipe is computed, taking into account all feared events and their probability.
For the societal risk, taking into account all feared events and their probability, the probability of a
given number of fatalities is also computed at a given distance of the pipe.
The risk criteria taken into account depend on the national regulations. The risk criteria, expressed in
probability of fatality per year for the individual risk and in probability of a given number of persons for
the societal risk, are given in Appendix J for the Netherlands, Belgium and the United Kingdom for
information.

4.7 Siting of stations

4.7.1 General

The location of stations should be chosen with care and, in so far as is practical, to avoid the
immediate proximity of vulnerable areas and equipment such as electrical equipment, flammable
product storage tanks, public roads, public buildings, car parks and transfer stations.
Siting and safety distances should follow established practices and applicable regulations.
A release of CO or Syngas creates two types of risks, one is the thermal effect, if the release is
ignited, the other is the toxicity, due to the presence of CO.
So, the safety distances for Hydrogen stations must be considered as a minimum, see EIGA/CGA
publications on Hydrogen pipeline systems.
Furthermore, for the toxicity risk, the following types of releases have to be considered for the design
and location of stations:

4.7.2 Release of CO/Syngas during maintenance

The mass of released gas is limited to the mass contained in the station, except in case of internal
leak of an isolating valve of the pipe or human error.

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The parameters to be taken into account for the dispersion study and the definition of the safety
zones are the height of the vent, the flow, the velocity and the duration of the gas released.
Venting and purging operations are described in section 9.7.

4.7.3 Case of CO/Syngas leaks

Unless the use of welded and below valves, unexpected leaks to the atmosphere may happen from
equipment such as flanges, and valve packings.
Detection means and emergency response time are factors to take into account in the design of the
stations
• Stations in the public domain
They are generally along the pipe and emergency response time may be more than ½ hour. The
design of the station should be such that there is an acceptable toxicity risk at the fence of the station.
See 4.6.7.1.
A possible solution is to install all equipment of the station inside an enclosure equipped with a gas
detector. In case of leak, the detector generates an alarm, starts a forced ventilation to dilute and
disperse the gas to the atmosphere.
• Stations in production or at customer sites.
They are installed in restricted access areas. Detectors may be installed in order to detect leaks.
Skilled operators are able to intervene within a few minutes.

5 Piping, valves and equipment

5.1 General criteria

This chapter describes how the design philosophy presented in Chapter 4 can be applied in practice
to piping, valves, specific piping components and equipment configurations.

5.2 Material selection criteria

Selection of material for pipes, valves, equipment, etc. shall be in accordance with sections 4.3, 4.4
and 4.5.

Due to the hazardous nature of the gas, pressure containing parts such as piping, valve bodies,
strainer and filter housings, etc. shall be made of metallic materials only. The use of non-metallic
materials shall be limited to services such as valve internals (inserts only), external coatings, etc.
which do not provide primary mechanical strength.

One of the most important criteria is resistance to stress corrosion cracking and hydrogen
embrittlement. The risk of these occurring is increased at higher temperatures and pressures and is
mitigated by low stress levels. Therefore, material selection, fabrication processes, and material
thicknesses should be chosen with a view towards achieving low residual stresses. Typical methods
of lowering stresses once the operating temperature and pressure have been decided are closer pipe
support spacing, thicker pipe walls, thermal relieving residual welding stresses.

There are no special velocity restrictions for piping in carbon monoxide or Syngas service other than
the underlying economics. However, the sonic velocity of hydrogen is approximately four times that of
most flammable gases. Therefore, close attention should be paid to possible erosion and abrasion at
such items as control valves and relief valves which usually will have sonic or near sonic velocities.
Because of the high sonic velocity, it is quite possible that problems will arise at differential pressures
which would not have caused a problem with most other gases.

5.3 Electrical hazardous area requirements

As carbon monoxide and Syngas systems may pose a fire or explosion risk, electrical systems must
be in accordance with the applicable codes. These provide requirements and suggestions for
determining the level of hazard (classification) and mitigating the risks involved. Typically used codes
are:
• National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 70

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EIGA DOC 120/14

• IEC 79
• NFPA 496, 497
• American Petroleum Institute RP 500 A,B,C
• European directive ATEX 94/9

It is recommended that as a minimum either NFPA 70 or IEC 79 be used.

The type of electrical equipment which may be installed and the installation methods depend upon the
level of hazard classification and are described in the prescriptive sections of the codes.
It is worth noting that the equipment and piping should be carefully bonded and grounded to drain
static electricity and to carry electrical fault currents to earth ground, to prevent the release of electric
sparks which could ignite CO/Syngas leaks in the area.

5.4 Piping

Welded connections are preferred and should be used wherever practical to minimize potential leak
sources. Threaded connections which are seal welded are considered as welded connections for this
purpose. Either seamless or longitudinally welded pipe and wrought or machined fittings shall be used
except in exceptional circumstances e.g. absolute unavailability.

5.4.1 Venting and flare destruction systems

Carbon monoxide and Syngas vents must be contained, collected, and disposed of safely. Carbon
monoxide and Syngas in small amounts, such as from filters, may be vented directly to the
atmosphere, if routed to a safe location. Otherwise, carbon monoxide and Syngas vent streams must
be contained and disposed of properly. For this purpose, pressure relief valves are considered large
vents. The almost universally used method is a flare which destroys the gas by burning.
The back pressure created by the collection system must be properly accounted for in the design,
especially on safety relief valve discharges (API RP 520, 521 are often used reference documents for
this).
The same materials as are used elsewhere in the pipe line should also be used for vent collection and
disposal piping.
The design of a vent collection and flare system for flammable gases is a complex design task and
should only be performed by persons familiar and experienced in this area. For a good reference and
a layman’s understanding API 521 a good source.
When attaching to an existing vent collection and / or flare system it is essential to understand the
basis of the system’s design so that the designer’s intent is not inadvertently compromised. The
performance of the new attachment affects the performance of the existing system, possibly
negatively. Issues such as back pressure on devices, back flow, instantaneous volume, inert purge,
materials of construction, etc. are typically involved. The owner of the existing vent / flare system is
usually the best resource to ensure compatibility and it is greatly preferred that he be directly involved
in reviewing the design and fabrication of the attachment and that his approval be obtained. If this is
not possible, then an analysis of the existing system shall be performed from existing documents and
inspection of the equipment and the results used to design the attachment.

5.4.2 Flanges and gaskets

Where welded connections are not practical flanges are the next best choice. Leak resistant flange
types such as raised face, tongue and groove, or ring joint flanges shall be used. Gasket materials
shall be appropriate for the design pressures and temperatures, and be hydrogen and carbon
monoxide compatible and leak resistant. In addition, consideration should be given to resistance to
fire, due to the flammability of the gas. In general filled spiral wound steel gaskets are preferred with
raised flanges, but composition gaskets which are graphite based are also used at lower pressures.
Soft metallic rings are preferred with ring joint flanges. Overall then, a Teflon or graphite filled spiral
wound gasket with a raised face flange or a copper ring with a ring joint flange are typical choices
since they embody the desired features to a large extent. Since small leaks to atmosphere present a
significant safety risk, flange covers should be considered.

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5.4.3 Threaded connections

These shall be used only where welded (including seal welded threaded connections) and flanged
connections are not practical. The sealant shall be hydrogen and carbon monoxide compatible and
should be high temperature resistant to reduce the risk of leaks during a fire. Typical uses of threaded
connections are to match equipment, especially instruments.

5.4.4 Instrument tubing

The use of continuous runs shall be maximized to reduce the number of fittings since these can be
leak sources. Instrument tubing shall be stainless steel (See section 4.3.5) with compression fittings
or welded.

5.5 Valves

5.5.1 General

The major concern specific to carbon monoxide and Syngas service is to prevent leakage either to the
ambient or across the valve.
Leakage to ambient is most frequently caused by packing and bonnet leaks and to a lesser extent by
leaking castings. To minimize the potential for leaks the following, or equivalent, shall be considered:
• Double packing or bellow seal valves
• Live loaded bolted bonnet
• Valve bodies to be hydraulically leak tested
• Soft seat in a metal retainer for in-line automatic valves and automatic vents; specify bubble tight
shut off
• Metal to metal seat or soft seat in a retainer for in-line manual valves; these should be combined
with a means of positive isolation if used to block flow before attempting maintenance or
inspection inside the line.
• Metallic seat with valve outlet blocked. Typical arrangements used are double valves, blind
flange, plug, or cap (threaded connections are acceptable).
• No threaded connections in assembly of the valve body; preference for no through bolting or body
flanges
• Mainline isolation valves should be of full port design, when pipeline pigging for inspection is
foreseen

5.5.2 Valve functions

5.5.2.1 Isolation valves

Isolation valves with lock out capabilities are used to isolate portions of the pipe line in emergencies
or for routine maintenance and inspection. These should be installed in an accessible location since
they may need to be manually closed on an emergency basis.
For safe maintenance access it is necessary to have a means of positive isolation with a supporting
lock out or tag out maintenance procedure. Typical accepted arrangements are double block and
bleed valves, blind flange, double trunnion mounted ball valves with a body vent or spool removal.
These are typically ball, plug, gate, or butterfly type valves.

5.5.2.2 Emergency isolation valves

Emergency Isolation Valves (EIV) are used to provide emergency blockage of the flow. They may be
manual, automatic, or both. Although the number location and type of EIV’s depend on the specifics
of the inspection, maintenance and risk management strategies, as a minimum they shall be provided
at the beginning of the pipeline and at each user.
EIV’s shall be capable of being fully closed to ensure against gas leakage and in the case of
automatic valves shall be designed to close on instrument air, signal, hydraulic and electrical failure. A

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typical arrangement would be spring return actuators which fail closed. Fail in place valves are not
acceptable.
When automated, EIV’s are typically ball or gate valves and are of fire safe construction. When
manual, these valves are typically gate valves. It is often advisable to install a means of positive
isolation along with an EIV.

5.5.2.3 Control and pressure reducing valves and regulators

These are used for flow and pressure control functions. The use of hardened seats and plugs or other
special design features should be considered when the pressure drop through the valve or regulator
is greater than 10% of the upstream pressure because of the high sonic velocity of Syngas. Erosion,
abrasion, and excessive noise should be addressed in the design.
These are frequently globe valves, but notched ball valves are also used.
Regulators should not vent process gas to the ambient in an uncontrolled way. They should either
vent internally or the vent should be treated as in section 5.4.1.1 above.

5.5.2.4 Safety relief valves

The purpose of safety relief valves is to protect the system and its components from damage caused
by pressures above the maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP). Carbon monoxide and
Syngas service does not in general require a more or less severe analysis than most other flammable
gases except that special attention should be paid to the potential of the gas leaking through the valve
when it is closed and the requirements of section 5.4.1 above for safe venting must be followed. The
number, location, type, sizing criteria, safe venting, and inspection intervals for pressure relief devices
are governed by local regulatory authority and these requirements must be strictly followed. Typically
pressure vessels, for example large filter housings, will fall under the pressure vessel regulations and
the balance will fall under the piping and / or pipe line regulations.

Some of the dos and don’ts as typically practiced are:

• Safety valves should be located as close as possible to the item which they protect.
• Back pressure on the safety valve discharge and even back flow contamination, caused by the
vent collection system, shall be considered.
• Consideration shall be given to the reaction forces when a safety valve discharges.
• Safety valve relief and vent system design methods may be found in reference documents, such
as API RP 520 and 521.
• Although it is preferable not to, it is sometimes necessary to install block and / or by-pass valves
together with safety relief valves to meet local inspection/testing regulations or when connecting
to an existing vent or flare system. However, this presents inherent safety risks since the safety
valve could be blocked. Therefore, a careful analysis of the entire system, its components, and
the supporting operational and maintenance procedures (e.g. lock out) by an experienced
professional shall be performed.
It is sometimes impractical to safely dispose of vented gas at pressure let-down stations of the
pipeline since the toxicity precludes direct venting of significant quantities to the atmosphere. In such
instances, an alternate method should be considered, which is to protect against overpressure by the
use of two automatic isolation valves in series. These valves will be controlled by triple redundant
pressure transmitters with two out of three voting or a rupture pin system.

5.5.2.5 Manual vent and drain valves

Typical practice is to provide positive sealing through the valve by redundancy. The most common
arrangements used are double valves, blind flange, plug, or cap (plugs and caps should be threaded
without seal welding since it is necessary to remove them for the vent valve to perform its function).
These are typically ball, plug, gate, or globe valves.

5.5.2.6 Excess flow valves (EFV)

These are usually designed similarly to emergency isolation valves (EIV).

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5.5.2.7 Check valves (non-return valves)

Carbon monoxide and Syngas do not present special concerns for check valves besides leakage. The
concerns are similar to those for automatic valves and a soft seat in a metal retainer or specially
lapped metal to metal seats are preferred, especially when small back leakage would present a
significant risk. As with all check valves installation in the proper orientation can be crucial. Typically
check valves are not considered fully reliable flow stoppers. Therefore, a check valves shall not be
used as a substitute for an isolation valve.

5.5.3 Valve type summary

5.5.3.1 Ball and plug valves

Ball and plug valves are inherently quick opening and good sealing. They can be manually or
automatically operated. They are frequently preferred as isolation, emergency isolation, excess flow,
and vent and drain valves. They can also be used as control valves in certain circumstances although
their control characteristics are generally less precise than globe valves or butterfly valves. Ball valves
are usually full ported and must be full ported if it is required to run a pipeline internal inspection
device through them. Ball and plug valves are typically used in small sizes.

5.5.3.2 Butterfly valves

Eccentric disc wafer valves (high performance butterfly) may be used. They can be manually or
automatically operated and can be used as a control valve when the pressure drop across the valve is
not too large. The main disadvantage is that the valve seat is particularly exposed to particulate
damage. If these are chosen, they shall be double eccentric and bubble tight shut off. Butterfly valves
are not suitable to run a pipeline internal inspection device through since the disc and pin sit
permanently in the flow path.
This document does not take a position on the use of these valves other than to acknowledge that
there is difference of opinion about their use with some pipe line operators allowing them in certain
circumstances and others not permitting them at all. However, as there are potential benefits in
certain situations, a description of them was considered appropriate to include.

5.5.3.3 Gate valves

Gate valves are rugged proven valves which are typically used to block flows. Although they can be
automated they are by far most often manually operated. The main disadvantage is that, except for
certain special designs with soft sealing strips on the disc, they are not as tight sealing as ball, plug,
butterfly, or globe valves. To mitigate this they should be specified with flexible wedges (gates). Gate
valves are suitable to run a pipeline internal inspection device through them.

5.5.3.4 Globe valves

Globe valves are commonly used in control applications and where a tight shut off is a pre-eminent
concern. They can be manually or automatically operated. They are widely used as control valves
because of the precise nature of their control characteristics. They are also used as automated vent
and isolation valves because of their tight shut off. They are more used at smaller sizes than larger
sizes. The gas which flows through a globe valve is forced to change direction. This is how its precise
control characteristic is created, however, it makes them susceptible to erosion and abrasion. For this
reason the use of hardened plug and seat materials should be considered in applications which have
a large pressure drop across the valve. The high sonic velocity of Syngas means that this problem
occurs at lower pressure drops than with most other gases.

5.5.3.5 Pressure relief valves

These are valves which are specifically designed to prevent over pressurization of an item or system
by automatically and reliably stopping the increase of internal pressure by venting gas once a pre set

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pressure has been reached. Pressure relief valves are self-contained in that they do not require
operator or control system actuation to perform their function. There are several different types and
styles of safety relief valves including direct acting, pilot operated, variable back pressure, etc. Direct
acting spring actuated relief valves are acceptable. Internals shall be of carbon monoxide and Syngas
compatible corrosion resistant materials. Soft seats shall be used to provide a tight shut-off.
Pressure relief valves typically must meet international, national, and local regulatory requirements
which typically include design, materials of construction, testing, quality assurance, inspection in
service, and often official sealing after the relief pressure has been set to guard against tampering.
Although many materials may be used for the valve body, it is preferable to use either carbon steel or
stainless steel since these materials are economic and avoid some of the potential corrosion issues
which could arise if impurities entered the pipe line.

5.5.3.6 Check valves (non-return valves)

These are valves which are specifically designed to permit flow in one direction and to stop it in the
reverse direction. There are numerous types including swing, flapper, ball, poppet, spring loaded,
gravity operated, hydraulic assisted, etc. Swing and flapper types are most often used in larger sizes
and ball or poppets in very small sizes (<2”). To minimize back leakage when the valve is closed, a
soft seat in a metal retainer or specially lapped metal to metal seats are preferred, especially when a
small backwards flow would present a significant risk. As with all check valves installation in the
proper orientation can be crucial. Typically check valves are not considered as reliable flow stoppers
as isolation valves and, therefore, a check valve shall not be used as a substitute for an isolation
valve.

5.5.4 Miscellaneous valve issues

5.5.4.1 Packing

Positive sealing of packing glands is important in carbon monoxide and Syngas service. Packing
materials shall be carbon monoxide and Syngas compatible and suitable for high temperatures to
better maintain their integrity in case of a fire. Graphite based compounds are typically used. Double
packing should be considered to mitigate the chance of leakage to atmosphere which can present a
toxicity or/and flammability safety risk.

5.5.4.2 Damage from particulates

To protect soft seats from possible damage from particulates carried with the gas, a strainer of 300
microns (50 mesh) or finer may be installed upstream of valves or valve clusters with soft seats which
are normally open to flow during operation. Typically this excludes vents, drains, and pressure relief
valves (pressure relief valves should not have a strainer upstream of them in any case since a
partially blocked strainer would reduce the relieving capacity).

5.6 Other equipment

5.6.1 Strainers and filters

Strainer and filter installation is recommended to avoid contamination, particularly upstream of

pressure control and metering devices, as the sonic velocity of Syngas is very high compared with
most gases. The housing material should as a minimum be equivalent to the pipe and the internals
should be of a corrosion resistant metal.

5.6.2 Flow measuring devices

Orifice plate, venturi and turbine meters are frequently used.

The selection of flow meter type is normally based on the accuracy requirements for the required
range of gas flow to meet customer requirements. Instrumentation for converting the output from the

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EIGA DOC 120/14

volumetric primary device into a mass flow may use an Integrated Electronic System, which may
comprise the following:
• pressure transmitter
• temperature transmitter
• differential pressure transmitter
• mass flow computer

5.6.3 Rupture discs

Rupture discs should not be used, due to toxicity risk.

5.6.4 Insulating joints

Insulating joints are essentially two pieces of pipe separated by a material with a high dielectric
constant (insulator) so as to electrically isolate two systems or items. Typically this is done to create
separate zones of possible corrosion for example between underground and aboveground segments
of the pipe line. Although the design of these devices is well known, there is still a possibility that a
spark may be created between the electrically isolated sections and that this spark might ignite a fire.
Proper specification and installation of insulating joints is necessary to mitigate this risk. Therefore, a
knowledgeable and experienced person should review the specification and installation of this item.

5.6.5 Flexible connections (hose, expansion joint, etc.)

When piping and equipment warms up, it expands putting stress on the system as it changes shape
to accommodate the now longer material. A flexible connection is a device to allow for this growth by
its inherent flexibility; it expands so the piping does not have to. Unfortunately, flexible connections
are significantly less robust in service than pipe, and this presents a significantly increased risk of
failure, which would be dangerous with any flammable gas, and even more so with carbon monoxide
and Syngas. The preferred solution is to design flexibility into the piping system by means of
expansion loops (out of plane runs of pipe) and this shall be the design used unless there is no
practical alternative. In case a flexible connection is unavoidable it shall be made of corrosion
resistant metal, have a liner, and shall be inspected frequently in service to detect early signs of
incipient failure. Expansion joints may be in accordance with existing standards, such as of the
Expansion Joint Manufacturer’s Association (EJMA). Proper specification and installation of flexible
connections is necessary or they may fail prematurely or even immediately. Therefore, a
knowledgeable and experienced person should review the specification and installation of this item.

5.6.6 Miscellaneous equipment items

In general, the concern with most piping and equipment items in carbon monoxide and Syngas
service is similar to other flammable gas services. The major difference is that leaks are more likely to
occur and that the action of carbon monoxide as a toxic gas must be taken into account. The design,
installation, and inspection of these items should follow the principals and suggestions in this
document as they apply to each item.

6 Cleaning

6.1 General requirements

6.1.1 Cleaning strategy

Cleaning of a CO/Syngas pipeline system is normally accomplished by a combination of building

clean and final cleaning after construction. During construction, visual is performed on sections of
pipe as they are assembled, making sure there is no gross contamination left in the pipe. In addition,
fabrication techniques are used which do not introduce contamination to the pipe. This is followed by
a thorough cleaning of the pipeline system after construction. It is both impractical and impossible to
fully inspect a pipeline system for cleanliness after construction and final cleaning, so the methods

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used must provide an adequate cleanliness level. It is therefore strongly recommended that a
detailed written procedure, including the sequence for construction and cleaning, be well established
and carefully followed throughout the project. The piping system design must be compatible with
cleaning, construction and pressure testing methods to be used. A visual inspection for cleanliness
should be applied throughout the material preparation and construction stages.

6.1.2 Standard of cleanliness

A system is considered to be clean for CO and Syngas when internal particulate matter has been
extensively removed. The cleaning process shall assure the removal of contaminants such as dirt,
water, filings, scale, weld spatter, paints, or other foreign material from the interior of the pipeline
system. This level of cleanliness is often referred to as “commercially clean”. Contractual
requirements or customer specifications may require a more stringent cleaning process.

6.1.3 Cleaning methods

The cleaning of carbon monoxide and Syngas pipelines may be accomplished by any one, or a
combination of more than one, of the following methods:

• Pigging
• Mechanical scraping
• High velocity gas purge.

Pigs are commonly used for internal cleaning of pipelines. The types of pigs available fall into the
following broad categories:

Type Application
Gauging To ensure freedom from obstruction
Foam (or soft pig) Dewatering
Removal of fine, loose debris and dust
Rubber disc or cup Dewatering
Removal of loose debris
Wire brush Removal of pipe scale
Removal of adhered particles and rust
Scraper Removal of pipe scale
Removal of adhered particles and rust

In general, pigs will be fabricated from materials that would be compatible with carbon monoxide and
Syngas. For this reason, along with the level of cleanliness required, pigging is normally the primary
choice for cleaning of carbon monoxide and Syngas pipelines. The correct selection and use of pigs
to suit the anticipated condition of the internal surface of the pipe at the various stages of cleaning will
minimize the likelihood of damage to the pigs and lead to the desired level of cleanliness.

6.1.4 Pipeline components

Equipment such as tees, valves, check valves, insulation joints, regulators, meters, filters and other
fittings will normally be purchased with cleaning levels acceptable for carbon monoxide and Syngas
service and installed after the completion of pipeline cleaning operations. Visual inspection of
equipment items should be carried out just before installation to ensure that the required standard of
cleanliness has been met. If items are identified as being deficient in meeting cleaning criteria they
shall be cleaned at the site until the desired level of cleanliness has been achieved.

Branch lines and parallel lines shall be treated as separate systems for the purpose of cleaning, and
the final tie-ins shall be made after cleaning is completed. This is necessary to be certain that the
cleaning medium whether pig, high velocity gas, or scraper actually reaches all the pipe and that no
branch has been short circuited.

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6.1.5 Welding

The pipe sections shall be welded together using a recognized welding process. Ultimately, it is
essential that the internal weld surfaces are smooth and substantially free of slag, beads or loose
debris thereby preserving the internal cleanliness. It is recommended that the root pass of all butt
welds be done with a welding technique which uses an inert gas purge since this minimizes the
chance of slag deposits on the underside of the weld. Refer to section 7.3 for further information on
welding requirements.

6.1.6 Pressure testing

Pressure test should be performed in such a way that cleanliness of the pipe is not compromised.
(see section 7.7.1 for further details)

6.1.7 Installation of pipeline equipment

On completion of final cleaning all aboveground connections can be installed, including pre-cleaned
and pre-tested tees, valves, fittings, branch piping and other items. See paragraph 7.6.2 for non-
destructive testing requirements.

6.2 Post-installation cleaning

6.2.1 General

All line pipes should be installed with sections of pipe that are generally in accordance with section
5.4. Otherwise there are no other special requirements. It is important, however, to ascertain the likely
condition of the piping (e.g. degree of mill scale) as delivered from the stockist or manufacturer’s
works to ensure that the proposed cleaning method is capable of achieving the desired specification
of the pipeline owner.

Carbon monoxide and Syngas Pipelines are normally cleaned using various types of pigs; wire, foam,
scraper, dewatering, line-sized, and oversized. They are pushed through the pipeline using a
pressurized system.

A pig launcher shall be used for injecting pigs into the pipeline. The pig launcher shall have a quick-
opening closure, a full-pipe-size check valve, and adequate shutoff valves to permit rapid and
frequent launching of the pigs.

A pig catcher shall be used to capture pigs exiting the pipeline. The pig catcher shall prevent the pigs
from becoming airborne and endangering personnel. The pig catcher shall be designed to minimize
any damage to the pigs so that they can be reused.

Before and during use, pig launchers and catchers should be kept clean.

Only new pigs or used ones which have been shown to be in good repair shall be used at the start of
cleaning. Pigs may be reused during cleaning until they become worn and cannot perform their
intended function efficiently.

The velocity of the pigs should be controlled as indicated in this specification. This can be done by
controlling the amount of the pig driving media flowing into the pipeline behind the pig(s). Back
pressuring the pipeline to control the velocity of the pigs is also acceptable.

The cleaning operation is normally done after the hydrostatic or pneumatic pressure tests are
complete as this accomplishes dewatering as well. If necessary, the cleaning operation may precede
a pneumatic pressure test.

Pipeline equipment such as tees, valves, check valves, insulation joints, regulators, meters, filters and
other fittings shall not be installed until the pipeline has been cleaned. This minimizes the chance of
damage to the items or pigs and provides unambiguous flow paths during cleaning .

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6.2.2 Propelling Medium

When compressed air is used for propelling pigs through the pipeline, residues such as water, oil, and
particulate should be removed from the air stream. Generally, compressed air is be passed through a
drier, for example with dual and switchable beds of silica gel or activated alumina, an oil coalescer,
and a filter before entering the system being pigged. The dry, oil-free air shall have a dew point of -
40°C (-40°F) or lower and a hydrocarbon content of less than 5 mg per cubic meter.

When dry, oil-free nitrogen from a liquid nitrogen pumper, gaseous nitrogen tube trailer or other
source is used, precautions must be taken to provide appropriate ventilation as an asphyxiating
atmosphere may be created. Employees at the exit end of the pipeline are susceptible to large
volumes of nitrogen. Workers must be trained for the potential hazard of anoxia or asphyxiation.

6.2.3 Typical cleaning sequence

The following steps outline the cleaning sequence that begins after the hydraulic pressure test

6.2.3.1 Dewatering

Dewatering shall be done after the pipeline has been hydrostatically pressure tested. Dewatering
should be completed using dewatering pigs made of hard polyurethane foam with sealed, double-
dished ends. Wire brushes or scrapers shall not be attached to nor included as part of these
dewatering pigs.

The propelling media for the pigs shall be oil-free air or nitrogen as defined in paragraph 6.3.2 of this
specification.

The pigs shall effectively seal against the interior pipe wall to minimize water leakage past the pigs.

The pigs shall be run through the pipeline until no water is accumulated at the pig catcher. At a
minimum, no less than three dewatering pigs shall be run through the pipe.

To avoid potential mechanical damage to the pipeline and also for safety reasons, the velocity of the
initial dewatering pig should not exceed 5 km/h (3 mph)and the velocity of subsequent dewatering
pigs should not exceed 16 km/h (10 mph).

6.2.3.2 Drying

After the line has been dewatered, the water adhering to the interior pipe wall shall be removed by
running new, bare polyurethane drying pigs through the pipeline.

The propelling media for the drying pigs shall be dry, oil-free air or nitrogen as defined in paragraph
6.3.2.

For good results and also for safety reasons, the maximum velocity of the drying pigs should be
around 6.5 km/h (4 mph).

These drying pigs shall be run through the pipeline until they do not absorb any more water. This can
be determined by feeling the drying pig surface for dryness.

Drying pigs may be reused if they are not saturated with water and less than 70% of their surface
area is discoloured.

This operation shall continue until the pipeline interior surface is completely dry. This will be
considered to have been achieved when the interior dew point at the drying pig receiving end is
measured at –20°C (-4°F) maximum.

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6.2.3.3 Dry cleaning

After the line has been dried, the line shall be cleaned of rust and mill scale by using wire-brush and
foam pigs.

The propelling media for the pigs shall be dry, oil-free air or nitrogen as defined in paragraph 6.3.2 of
this specification. The dew point of the propelling media for final stages of wire brushing and foam
pigging shall be controlled at or below -20°C (-4°F).

The wire brush pigs shall be made of hard polyurethane foam covered with flame-hardened steel
bristles and shall be new and free of all oil and grease.

Pigs shall be launched one at a time, or in trains, at a frequency that will prevent pigs from gathering
and lodging in the pipeline, or successive pigs or trains of pigs from arriving together at the pig
catcher or terminus of the pipeline segment being cleaned.

For good results and also for safety reasons, the maximum pig velocity for this cleaning operation
should be around 40 km/h (25 mph).

Wire-brush pigs shall be run until no dirt, dust, or any other debris is deposited at the end of the pipe,
and the dew point at the receiving end is below –20°C (-4°F).

The wire-brush pigs may be reused if they have an interference fit with the pipeline interior, have over
90% of wire bristles available for cleaning, and have no accumulation of deposits in the bristles.

Wire-brush pigs may require up to 50% more driving media than foam pigs. This extra media
requirement is necessary because of large amounts of flow bypassing the wire brush pigs because of
the long wire bristles. The contractor may elect to run a foam pig directly behind the wire brush pigs to
limit the bypass of the driving media around the wire brush pigs.

After wire-brush pigs have been run, foam pigs shall be run until the line is clean.

Following completion of cleaning, all precleaned valves, tees, and meters shall be installed.

6.2.3.4 Final Drying

Final drying is typically accomplished by the intermittent purging and bottling of the
pipeline with dry nitrogen gas until the desired dew point level is achieved. At this point all precleaned
valves, tees, and meters shall be installed.

Vacuum Drying can be utilized after executing the nitrogen purge drying sequence, if lower dew
points are desired. Vacuum Drying can achieve dew points in the range of minus 70°F to minus
105°F.

6.2.4 Maintaining cleanliness

During the installation of the pipeline, ingress of contaminants should be avoided as much as possible
(e.g. oil, grease, soil, debris, and runoff water).

6.2.5 Inspection

After satisfactory completion of the construction, testing and cleaning processes, the pipeline shall be
inspected at both the inlet and discharge ends and at all accessible points to assess the condition of
the internal surface. A record of the inspections that is descriptive of the interior pipe surface shall be
maintained as part of the pipeline quality control dossier.

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6.2.6 Acceptance criteria

The pipeline is considered clean when no more dust leaves the pipeline and the foam pigs emerge
with a light grey or light brown colour that has penetrated the pig's surface no more than 3 to 6 mm
(1/8 to 1/4 in).

6.2.7 Sealing, inerting, leak testing and monitoring

Following the pipeline inspection and acceptance of the standard of cleanliness, the pipeline will be
sealed at all open ends with either welded caps or blind flanges and purged with nitrogen. Once the
oxygen content and dew point have reached the required levels, the pipeline system shall be sealed
and pressurised with nitrogen to about 0,06 MPa (10 psig). The pressure shall be monitored on a
regular basis to check the absence of leaks and maintained in this condition until the pipeline is
required for service with the product gas. As nitrogen is used, warning panels against anoxia must be
affixed.

7 Construction

7.1 General criteria

The total installation of the pipeline, including testing and cleaning, should be undertaken by a
reputable organisation with a proven record of experience in pipeline construction. The fabrication,
testing and cleaning procedures shall have been reviewed and approved by the purchaser before
work is begun. The detailed construction program, including the sequence of testing and cleaning
procedures, shall be defined to suit specific project requirements. The design of the pipeline system
shall have made provision for the cleaning and pressure testing methods to be used.

The construction of the piping systems should follow good engineering practice in accordance with
recognised national or international piping and construction codes.
Systems of work shall be in place to ensure the safety of the construction personnel in the fabrication
and erection areas and the general public in any adjacent populated areas.

Appropriate efforts shall be made to ensure the quality and the operational safety of the piping being
installed.

The piping system shall be fabricated and installed in accordance with the piping and construction
codes as defined in the project specification.

Necessary precautions and measures should be taken to protect materials and piping from damage
caused during off-loading, storing, installation, or other activities. Piping should be carefully stored
and handled to prevent contamination of the interior of the pipe and to prevent damage to the exterior
protective coating (if applied).

The line pipe shall be fabricated and/or installed in accordance with approved drawings. Installation of
the line pipe shall include all manual valves, special piping items, control valves, relief valves, in-line
items and pipe supports as required by the approved drawings.

If required, the piping system shall be constructed to accommodate the passage of instrumented
internal inspection devices. This criteria does not apply to meter stations or regulator stations.

Procedures for any remedial work that might be required should be agreed with the purchaser prior to
the work being performed.

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7.2 Specification and manufacture of line pipe material

7.2.1 General requirements

All essential requirements for the specification and manufacture of the line pipe which have a direct
bearing on the cleaning process should be formally submitted to the pipe supplier as part of the full
technical specification for the purchase of the line pipe. The origin and quality control of the
purchased line pipe shall be fully traceable and the relevant documentation submitted to the
purchaser for retention.

7.2.2 Codes and standards

Generally, the manufacturing process, material, grade, and inspection requirements for the piping
should be in accordance with standards, such as EN 10208-2 or API 5L specification or other codes
as defined in the project specification as a result of purchasers requirements, national regulations, or
other reasons. The material composition should generally be in accordance with the aforesaid codes
and the manufacturers normal standard for line pipe.

7.2.3 Manufacturing process

Both seamless and welded pipes may be used. In the latter case, the line pipe shall be manufactured
using either the High Frequency Induction (HFI) or Electric Resistance Welding (ERW) or Submerged
Arc Welding (SAW) process. Line pipe manufactured by other processes should not be used without
the prior approval of the purchaser.

7.2.4 Heat treatment

Heat treatment for either the longitudinal weld (normally carried out as part of the continuous HFI or
ERW or SAW production process) or the pipe body should be such that the finished line pipe is
essentially free of mill scale.

7.2.5 Hydrostatic test of the line pipe

Regardless of the nature of the pressure test carried out in the field, the manufacturer of the line pipe
shall, as part of the manufacturing and quality control process, carry out a hydrostatic test on each
section of the finished pipe. The test should be in accordance with the requirements of the applicable
national regulations or codes, such as EN 10208-2 or API 5L, unless dictated otherwise in the project
specification as a result of the purchaser’s requirements.

7.3 Construction plan

A formal construction plan should be developed which provides a comprehensive, logical progression
of work including proper supervision, regular inspection, and verification.

7.4 Pipe fabrication and welding

7.4.1 General

To the greatest extent possible piping shall be assembled by welding. Where welded connections are
not possible, flanged connections shall be used wherever practical. Threaded connections shall be
kept to an absolute minimum.

To preserve the internal cleanliness of the piping, the internal weld surfaces must be smooth and
substantially free of slag, beads or loose debris. The Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) also known
as Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) shall be used for the root pass on these tie-in welds. Subsequent weld
passes can be made using either the GTAW or other weld processes as preferred. This process will in
itself produce the desired smooth finish on the internal weld surface. When using the Manual Metal

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Arc (MMA) welding technique, also known as the Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW), followed by
cleaning of the internal weld surfaces with wire brush or blade tool pigs to remove slag, beads and
loose debris and thereby achieve the desired finish.
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) is an acceptable practice for shop pre-fabrication of piping.

Inspection should be made of all pipe spools and components prior to assembly to ensure that flange
or weld faces are clean and that there is no dirt or contamination inside the pipe. Any debris or foreign
material inside the pipe shall be removed before pipe welds or flange connections are made.
As service pressure increases, greater attention to welding processes may be required, for example
TIG root passes, post weld heat treatment, etc. Fracture mechanisms analysis may be required.

7.4.2 Qualifications

All pipe welding shall be performed in accordance with welding procedures and by welders qualified
to the procedures in accordance with the piping code as defined in the project specification and as
required by local or national regulations.

7.4.3 Backing rings

• Backing rings, which remain in place, are not allowed as they will interfere with pipeline
pigging operations and weld inspections.

7.4.4 Preparation for welding

All weld joints shall be prepared in accordance with the approved welding procedure and the relevant
piping code. The longitudinal seams of welded pipe in adjoining pipe sections shall be staggered.

7.4.5 Welding requirements for materials

Use of low hydrogen welding rods is recommended. Keeping the weld rods dry during the
construction period is very important. Inspections shall be performed according to 7.6.

The welding procedure should be selected so that the finished weld hardness is less than 22
Rockwell C, equivalent to 250 HB or 248 Vickers in the weld itself and the heat affected zone.

Post weld heat treatment should be considered to limit the maximum hardness or large variations of
hardness in the heat effected zone, particularly in the case of pipeline materials with a carbon
equivalent equal to or greater than 0,43.
In the case of austenitic stainless steel, the ferrite content in the welding zone should be limited to
7%. Too low ferrite content may lead to hot cracking.

7.5 Assembly and installation

7.5.1 Alignment

Before bolting up, the alignment deviation of the flange face and flange bolt holes shall not exceed the
values defined in the project specification; all bolts shall pass easily through both flanges.

The tolerance on the termination of all piping other than flanged connections shall be as shown in the
design drawings and specifications.

7.5.2 Flanged joints

Piping must not be hung from flanges of compressors or other equipment without adequate supports.

Gaskets shall be installed in accordance with the design drawings. Gasket leaks are often a result of
improper alignment and not following recommended tightening procedures. When gaskets containing
non-metallic parts are used, non-metallic materials must be chosen according to paragraph 4.4.2. The

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use of gasket types or materials other than those defined in the project specification shall be
prohibited unless approved by the purchaser.
Bolting shall be pulled up gradually using a crossover sequence. The bolt type and size shall be
matched to the flange and gasket material. If, in special circumstances, bolt loads are specified, the
contractor should use bolt tensioning equipment to achieve the correct bolt loading. If torque values
are specified, the contractor can use torque wrenches via the nuts to develop the necessary bolt load.
The use of torque wrenches might dictate the use of a suitable lubricant on the bolt threads. If no bolt
loads or torque values are specified, bolts shall be tightened sufficiently, in accordance with good
engineering practice or vendor information, to ensure that the joint is capable of holding the tightness
test without leakage.

The re-use of any gasket is prohibited; it is essential that new gaskets be inserted every time a flange
is released. When a joint leaks on pressure test, the joint shall be re-made using new gaskets.

Gaskets, nuts and bolts shall be visually inspected to ensure that they are clean and in good
condition. If so desired, a suitable lubricant, as defined in the project specification, can be applied to
bolt threads and bearing faces of nuts and washers before bolts are inserted into flanges and
tightened.
Alternatively, lubrication can be avoided by the use of appropriate, corrosion resistant materials for
bolts, nuts and washers.

7.5.3 Insulating joints

Insulating joints for cathodic protection systems, particularly those of the monoblock type, are prone to
damage and leakage if overstressed either laterally or longitudinally. Proper alignment of flanged
isolation joints is also critical to proper installation of sleeves covering bolts for proper isolation after
tightening. To reduce the likelihood of joint deformation beyond the acceptable limit, it is important
that joints are adequately supported and correctly installed in accordance with design drawings and
good construction practices. See also paragraphs 4.4.2 and 5.5.5. These joints shall be tested for
electrical isolation prior to pipeline being placed in service.

7.5.4 Threaded joints

Any threaded joints should be kept to a minimum based on the products that this specification is
covering. It is recommended that any threaded joints directly connected to the pipeline without a
method of isolation shall be properly seal welded. All threaded end connections open to the
atmosphere shall be sealed with a plug. Clean cut taper threads in accordance with the design
requirements shall be used and shall be fully deburred.

Stainless steel tubing is recommended for instrumentation.

7.5.5 Tubing

Stainless steel tubing is recommended for instrumentation. Copper tubing shall not be used for
circuits which are exposed to the pipeline gas.

7.5.6 Valves

All valves shall be supplied with identification tags or plates and installed in the location defined by the
design drawings. Identification tags or plates shall remain attached to each valve after installation. It is
not permitted to interchange valves.

To minimise exposure to damage, valve top works, actuators and other associated equipment should
be stored in a clean condition and installed as required after major construction work has been
completed.

All valves shall be installed in accordance with the piping design drawings and handled in a way
which maintains their cleanliness and prevents ingress of moisture, oil, dust, and other contaminants.
Particular care should be taken with valves, whether manual, automated or pressure relief, to ensure
that both the flow direction and orientation are correct.

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EIGA DOC 120/14

The following precautions shall be observed with respect to the installation of pressure relief valves
and other pressure relief devices:
• Apart from those required for construction and testing purposes, no pressure relief valves or
other pressure relief devices shall be installed until all pressure testing, cleaning and blowout
work have been completed.
• It is recommended that vent piping be fitted with protective devices that will prohibit
restrictions to the proper functionality of the relief valve, like bird nests or ice.
• All relief valve vents must be piped to a flare.

Before welding any valve into a piping system, the valve shall be fully opened. The top works should
be removed to prevent thermal distortion of the valve components. Soft seats and other components
are usually vulnerable to damage by heat. After welding, soft seats and other vulnerable components
should be checked. If excessive force is required to operate the valve remedial action shall be taken.

7.5.7 Supports, guides and anchors

Supports, guides and anchors shall be positioned and secured before the installation of the piping.
Additional temporary supports can be used during installation but they shall not be welded or bolted to
any permanent structural members. Temporary supports, guides and anchors must be removed
before the pipeline is commissioned.

All welded connections, such as earth clamps or supports, attached directly to process piping or
equipment intended for service at elevated pressures shall be made before pressure testing. Welding
on pressure containing equipment after the successful completion of a pressure test is not permitted.

Any support for cathodically protected piping must be electrically isolated so that the protection of the
pipeline is not compromised.

7.6 Inspection and examination

During construction, regular on-site inspections should be made to ensure that correct procedures for
installation are being observed. During and after construction, the pipeline should be inspected and
tested in accordance with the relevant piping code and procedures as defined in the project
specification. Such inspections should, as a minimum, include those to verify the following:

• Correct materials (as a minimum by stamped markings and / or accompanying paperwork. It

is recommended that spot Positive Materials Identification be performed as well.)
• Pipe concentricity
• Specified wall thickness
• Internal cleanliness
• Protective coating integrity
• Electrical isolation
• Absence of mechanical damage e.g. gouges, dents etc.
• Joint preparation
• Welding fit-up
• Welding
• Absence of arc burns
• Review of radiographic or other examination

7.7 Non-destructive testing

7.7.1 Pressure testing

The pipeline shall be subject to either a pneumatic or a hydrostatic pressure test at the pressure
required by the code to which the pipeline has been constructed. The preference is for a hydrostatic
test. Whichever test method is selected, it shall be conducted at a convenient point in the overall
pipeline construction to suit project requirements and to minimise the likelihood of costly rework.

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EIGA DOC 120/14

The strength test should be completed by conducting a hydrostatic test using clean water. The test
shall be carried out in accordance with the code to which the pipeline has been designed and
constructed.

The filling and testing operations shall be planned as a continuous operation to ensure that water
does not remain in the pipeline system for any longer than necessary, particularly if below freezing
ambient temperatures are foreseen during the test period. Adequate safety precautions to minimise
the potential consequences of a pressure release must be taken while the test is in progress. If a
pneumatic test is conducted and nitrogen is used as the test medium, the risk of exposure of
personnel to oxygen deficient atmospheres must be assessed and appropriate precautions taken.
Water for testing and any subsequent flushing should be clean and free from any suspended or
dissolved substance which could be harmful for the pipe material or which could form deposits within
the pipeline. For carbon steel pipelines, the pH should be between 5 and 8 and the chloride not more
than 1000 mg/litre (50mg/litre for stainless steel). It is best practice to minimize the time the hydrotest
water remains in the pipeline, as water promotes corrosion and biological activity. If the water stays
more than 8 days in the pipeline, the pH should be limited between 6 and 7.5 and chloride
concentration less than 500mg/litre (5mg/litre for stainless steel). Special care is needed in dealing
with water sources containing potentially harmful chemicals or bacteria.
After the completion of a hydrostatic test the water should be preferable removed immediately either
by draining or pigging or a combination of the two. See 6.3.4.
Any residual water in a CO or Syngas pipeline following a hydrostatic test could lead to failure
mechanisms within the pipeline therefore it is imperative to achieve a maximum dew point of -50OC.
For reasons of practicality, in the case of pipe tie-ins or final closing welds it may be acceptable to
waive the need for a pressure test provided that a prescribed alternative method of non-destructive
testing is carried out and local regulations do not prohibit this.

7.7.2 Non destructive examination (NDE)

7.7.2.1 General
All NDE examinations shall be performed by a licensed qualified operator with the exception of dye
penetrant and magnaflux examination which may be applied by a trained assistant and interpreted by
a licensed operator. All NDE activities shall be fully traceable preferably with a weld map. A report
shall be made identifying each weld which is examined and showing its location, the weld procedure
used, the weld operator who made the weld, NDE procedure used, and results including repairs.

Longitudinal pipe seams, which exist as a result of the pipe manufacturing process, are exempt from
on-site non-destructive testing (See Section 5.3).

7.7.2.2 Radiographic examination

All radiographs shall be of the entire length of the weld (full radiography). It is required that 100% of
the butt weld joints in the pipeline be fully radiographically examined as defined in the project
specification. Final closing welds must be radiographed.

In situations where the radiological hazards presented by X-rays (or Gamma rays) cannot be
accommodated by reasonable means, 100% non-destructive examination by an equivalent method
such as UT may be substituted.

7.7.2.3 Dye penetrant and magnaflux examination

Socket weld and fillet weld joints cannot be suitably radiographed but should be examined using dye
penetrant or magnaflux examination. It is recommended that 100% of these joints be examined.

7.7.2.4 Micro hardness test

In order to control that the toughness of the pipe material is not affected by the welds, it is
recommended to perform micro hardness tests as part of the weld procedure and weld operator
testing and, by samples of production welds.

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7.8 Documentation

The following documents relating to the construction and installation of the pipeline shall be retrieved
and collected in a dossier that is retained for reference by the operator:

• Pressure test report

• Weld procedures, procedure qualifications, and qualification records for each welder.
• Weld joint NDE reports (Including rejects/repairs, weld map, weld operator identification,
welding technique used).
• Summary of all NDE procedures demonstrating that all code, regulatory, and project specific
requirements have been met.
• Report of internal pipe cleaning and inspection.
• Inspection reports for all inspection activities
• As-built drawings.
• As-built data logs.
• Records of construction personnel qualifications.
• Material control certificates.
• Other reports and certificates required by local and/or national authorities, the relevant piping
code and the project specification.
• Protective coating integrity test report (report on pinholes or defects in the external coating)
• Cathodic protection and electrical isolation report.

At the completion of the work, the fabricator should supply a written statement that all NDE
requirements have been met which has been executed by the quality assurance supervisor or other
qualified individuals.

8 Design and construction of stations

8.1 Function

The function of a process control station is to control and meter gas in conjunction with a supply
pipeline. Each process control station is designed and constructed for individual customer
requirements and incorporates appropriate process control equipment. Typical arrangements are
shown in Appendix A, Diagram 1.
The different functions may be : isolation for maintenance and/or for emergency, metering, pressure
and/or flow regulation, filtration.
This type of station is typically located at a customer’s site.

Additionally regulatory requirements may require isolation stations at defined intervals along the
pipeline.

8.2 Design brief

A design brief summarising the basic requirements (Process Definition and P & I Diagram) should be
used as the basis for design.

The design brief should be developed by reference to the following:

• process pattern data supplied by customer
• environmental, customer, and other statutory requirements
• site requirements, including interaction with surrounding plant, e.g. vent collection system.

A Hazop study and Risk Assessment shall be considered with the design brief.
An example of a complete process control station showing possible components is shown in
Appendix A, Diagram 2.

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8.2.1 Excess flow valves

Excess flow valves should be provided to afford protection against pipeline failures. The closure of the
valves can be initiated manually or automatically from a central control room or by automatic signals
derived from high flowrate, low pressure or rate of decay of line pressure.

8.2.2 Isolation valves

Due to the risks of toxicity and ignition of a carbon monoxide or Syngas leakage, maintenance should
be done after positive isolation of the concerned installation, followed by inerting. Positive isolation
may be done by double block and bleed valves, blind flange, double trunnion mounted ball valve
equipped with a body vent or equivalent.

8.2.3 Filters and strainers

Filters may be installed at the inlet to the process control station to protect control devices from
particulate matter (originating from the upstream carbon steel pipeline or equipment/machinery) which
may be entrained in the gas stream.

8.2.4 Flow meters

The billing quality meter measures accurately the total quantity of gas passing through the process
control station. The meter consists of a primary device and instrumentation to convert the process
variables to a volumetric or mass flow value.
A bypass is recommended to facilitate removal for calibration and maintenance.
The selection of flow meter type is normally based on the accuracy requirements for the required
range of gas flow to meet customer requirements. Instrumentation comprised of pressure, differential
pressure and temperature transmitters measure and convert the process variables into signals that
are typically input into a flow computer. The flow computer uses these inputs to calculate a flow rate
which is integrated over a specific time period to calculate and record volumes.

8.2.5 Flow and pressure control

Flow control devices are typically provided to overcome erratic flow patterns to produce constant
supply irrespective of customer demand, or to limit the flow available to the customer. Pressure
control systems regulate the variable pipeline pressure to deliver gas at constant pressure to the
customer.
Installed block and manual by-pass valves are the recommended minimum scope to achieve reliable
supply and provide for ease of maintenance. In some cases it may be preferable to consider a
redundant control valve instead of the manual by-pass for even higher reliability.

8.2.6 Gas storage

Storage vessels or additional volume of piping may be required to provide buffer capacity to satisfy
peaks in customer demand and to provide downstream capacity to facilitate efficient control valve
operation.
Due to the risk of toxicity in case of leak, gas storage vessels should be avoided.
When used, their risks must be taken into account in the pipeline system risk assessment. The
materials of construction of these storage vessels should as a minimum follow the pipeline
requirements in intent and selection criteria. Vessels should be designed with sufficient parent metal
and weld zone toughness for leak before break criterion and to withstand fatigue in service.

8.2.7 Pressure relief

In order of preference based on fail safe design, the following provisions are recommended:

• The entire station should be designed for the MAWP of the pipeline to avoid the need for
pressure relief valves to protect the station from over pressure.
• Where this is not practical, then safety valves safely vented to a closed collection system are
recommended.

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• Where a vent collection system is not readily available to tie into, an automatic shutoff
system, the use of two automatic isolation valves in series controlled by triple redundant
pressure transmitters with two out of three voting or a rupture pin system should be
considered.
• These systems may require a small pressure relief valve downstream of this device, as it is
assumed that all valves leak through. Either systems must meet applicable codes
requirements. The shutoff valve and control system should be given a functional test.

8.2.8 Instruments

Instruments are usually electric, electronic, pneumatic, or a combination of these types of systems.
The instrument and control system should be designed to fail safe electrically and pneumatically
unless the customer desires a fail in place system for higher reliability. The pipeline supplier should
consider the advantages and risks to this less fail-safe but more reliable arrangement before
agreeing. In any case it is recommended that written instructions be received from the customer
before proceeding.

8.2.9 Electrical

See section 5.2 above.

Part or all of the station is classified as a hazardous electrical area and the equipment and installation
must conform to the relevant code requirements.
The equipment and piping shall be electrically connected and grounded to drain static electricity and
to carry electrical fault currents to earth ground, to prevent release of electric sparks which could
ignite hydrogen leaks in the area.

8.3 Standards and design codes

Design, fabrication, inspection, examination and testing shall be in accordance with national or
international standards, such as ASME B31.3 and B31.8.
Electrical and instrument installations shall be designed and installed in accordance with the relevant
international or national standards for the electrical hazardous area classification.

8.4 Materials and fabrication

Fabrication shall be carried out by contractors approved in their particular discipline, i.e. Mechanical,
Civil, Electrical, Instruments. Installation work shall be completed in accordance with the design
drawings and specifications. The completed work should be inspected and approved by the relevant
technical authority.

8.5 Access limitation

Each station should be enclosed within a clearly marked area with signs indicating the risk and the
necessary emergency response.

When a station is located in a public area, a fence which does not inhibit free air flow should enclose
the station to prevent unauthorized access. The enclosure should have at least 2 gates and be
lockable. Exits should open outwards into areas that are free of obstructions.

When a station is located on a plant site, then a chain instead of a fence may be considered sufficient
in some cases.

8.6 Location

The location and the design of the station should be made according to the results of a toxicity
analysis.
Due to toxicity risk, a careful analysis of the installation must be done to ensure that safe entry is
provided for operators both in the design and in operating procedures. Monitoring the atmosphere at
different places in the enclosure and the design of ventilation systems are important topics to be

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EIGA DOC 120/14

included in the analysis. It is worth noting that locating a station indoors may, and locating one in a pit
always, require more stringent hazardous electrical designs.

When selecting a location, it is preferable to have significant clear space around the enclosure. This
may not always be practical. Some examples of good siting practice are given in Appendix E.

Piping may be installed on a concrete slab and the station should be surrounded by a fence.
The fence, of a height of at least 2 m will be provided with at least two emergency escape doors in
opposite sides.

Valves may also be installed below ground, if there are security concerns.

Activities involving the use or production of flames, sparks or other ignition sources are forbidden
within the enclosure or the distance requirements of the applicable codes, whichever is greater,
except as authorised by a safety work permit.

An acceptable standard of lighting shall be provided to illuminate the station, when this is deemed
necessary to ensure personnel safety. The lighting fixtures and installation must conform to the code
requirements for the hazardous electrical area.

8.7 Grounding

The resistance to earth (or ground) of the station pipework should not exceed 10 ohms at any point
throughout the installation; tests shall be conducted from a known earth point. If necessary cross
flange bonding may be required to achieve the stated minimum value. If cross bonding has been
adopted, measures shall be taken to prevent corrosion of component parts.

Pipework systems should not be used as grounding rods. Each piece of equipment should be
individually earthed.

All grounding should be to a common grounding grid to ensure that all items, including the pipe work,
are brought to a common electrical potential.
All test results including reference earth point shall be recorded and periodic testing undertaken.

8.8 Installation

Installation shall be carried out by contractors approved in their particular discipline, i.e. Mechanical,
Civil, Electrical, Instruments. Installation work shall be completed in accordance with the design
drawings and specifications. The completed installation should be inspected and approved by the
relevant technical authority.

8.9 Pressure and leak testing

Pressure testing to meet code requirements is required. Usually the station is tested separately from
the pipeline. This may take place either at a fabricator or in the field. If hydrostatic testing is used, the
piping shall be thoroughly drained, dried and cleaned after testing.
Pneumatic leak testing is also required. This may take place either at a fabricator or in the field or
preferably both. Inerting the pipeline is sometimes combined with the leak test. As nitrogen is used as
the test / inerting gas, precautions against asphyxiation shall be specified. Vent pipes should be fitted,
where necessary, to ensure that gas is discharged to a safe area.

8.10 Commissioning

The preparation of a suitable commissioning procedure should be undertaken with details of the
following accommodated:

• interaction with customer processes

• safety considerations

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EIGA DOC 120/14

A knowledgeable and experienced person shall be appointed to control all aspects of the
commissioning procedure.

8.10.1 Safety

Only authorised personnel should be allowed in the vicinity of the station during commissioning. The
person responsible for the co-ordination and control of the commissioning shall ensure that the
Customer and all personnel are properly briefed. Normally a commissioning programme and
procedure will be prepared and discussed with all concerned before commissioning starts. All Gas
Supplier and Customer standing orders and safety instructions shall be observed.

8.10.2 Pre-commissioning checks

The commissioning procedure should start after satisfactory completion of pressure testing and the
issue of the relevant test certificates. The procedure should include the following pre-commissioning
checks:

• P & I D is compared and verified with the new station equipment and piping
• relevant material, cleaning, authenticated calibration and test certificates are available
• warning notices and instruction plates are posted
• filter elements are fitted, if and where specified
• satisfactory operation and adjustment of:
o meters
o flow Controllers
o spill valves
o pressure controllers
o safety valves (if fitted)
o safety shut-off valves (if fitted)
o shut-off valves
o safety devices, alarms and trips
o all automatic actions and responses
• Verification of meter installation and calibration by a customer’s representative is frequently
required.

8.10.3 Inerting

Inerting of stations may be performed by the method of successive pressurizations and

depressurizations (pressure pumping) since the stations invariably have undrained cavities (dead
legs, hands). A minimum of three cycles of pressurization and depressurization must be performed.
Verifying that the inerting is complete by local analysis is suggested. Inerting may also be done
including piping and stations by simply flowing nitrogen through the system, see 8.10.4.

During commissioning the filter differential pressure gauges should be monitored, especially in the
first phases of commissioning, in order to detect when filter element changes are required. Such a
monitoring exercise should also be carried out following maintenance / shutdown operations.

8.10.4 Pre-commissioning checks of the whole pipeline system

When pipeline and stations have been inerted, the oxygen content must be measured to ensure that
there is no more air or oxygen in the pipeline. Then hydrogen can be introduced into the pipeline
system until all nitrogen has been displaced. Hydrogen pressure is increased step by step and
checked to be at a stable level. During that process, flanges and mechanical joints, which could not
be previously be tested, are checked for leaks using for example an explosimeter.

8.11 Operation

Process control stations are normally automatic in operation once the controls have been set. The
only manual operations required are:

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EIGA DOC 120/14

• Opening and closing of isolating valves to suit process and maintenance requirements
• Monitoring of gauges and other indicator displays to ensure the process control station or
components are operating within limits
• Maintenance of a clean process control station area and particularly the exclusion of
flammable products
• Implementation of a maintenance program

Personnel entrusted with the operation of the process control station shall have been trained in the
operating techniques required, the potential hazards associated with carbon monoxide and Syngas
and in the emergency procedures.

8.11.1 Filters / screens

Initially on a new station, due to high velocity test and purge flowrates during commissioning, any
filters may receive a considerable amount of foreign matter from the pipeline and may choke rapidly.
Therefore, after a short time in operation, the filter / screen differential pressure should be checked
and the filter / screen cleaned if necessary. Depending on the degree of cleanliness of the pipeline
and station piping, it may be necessary to repeat this process.

9 Operation and monitoring

9.1 Operation and maintenance manual

An Operations and Maintenance Manual is required for the operation all CO, and Syngas
pipelines. The operator shall provide all information needed for safe operation of the pipeline in
the form of rules, guidelines, and procedures within this document.
The pipeline system can be influenced by the reliability of the individual components and the
experience and training of the operations personnel. In order to meet these performance
standards the following precautions and provisions shall be considered:
• Ensure safe operation of the pipeline system
• Monitor its condition
• Perform maintenance safely and effectively
• Deal effectively and responsibly with incidents and emergencies

9.2 Management systems

A management system shall be established and implemented with the objectives of insuring the
following:
• Safe operation of the pipeline system
• Compliance with design
• Managing pipeline integrity
• Safe and effective execution of maintenance, modifications and abandonment
• Dealing effectively with incidents and emergencies
The management system should include the following:
• Identification of personnel responsible for the management of the operation and
maintenance of the pipeline and for key activities
• An appropriate organization chart
• A written plan covering operation and maintenance procedures
• A written emergency response plan, covering failure of pipeline systems and other
incidents
• A written work permit system
• A written Management of Change Process
• A written operator training and qualification program
• A periodic review and update process
• Effective pipeline integrity management system

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EIGA DOC 120/14

9.3 General safety requirements

When performing work on a CO or Syngas system the following will be required:

• Smoking and other sources of ignition are forbidden in stations and within a minimum
distance of 5 meters
• Personal protective equipment including flame retardant clothing
• Use of non sparking tools
• Work permit required when performing maintenance and/or repairs
• Positive isolation is required prior to performing maintenance and/or repairs. It should request
the presence of minimum two persons, when there is work which may involve a release of
gas
• Proper purging and inerting required prior to any welding or cutting
• Fire watch required when performing welding or cutting.
• Temporary grounding is recommended during maintenance and/or repair
• Gas detection and monitoring required prior to and while performing work on a CO or Syngas
system.
• Standby Self Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) required in the immediate work area
when performing work on a CO or Syngas system.
• CO gas detection monitoring badge must be worn by all personnel
• Venting to a flare system is required when purging of a CO or Syngas system.

9.4 Personnel for operation and maintenance

As well as having the usual work safety knowledge, personnel who operate, maintain and repair CO
or Syngas systems must also have special knowledge of how to handle CO or Syngas and the
potential hazards that are involved. They must be well acquainted with the location of the pipelines,
the stations and the control equipment. All the operating and safety procedures must be available to
the personnel.
All personnel including Sub-contractors must be made aware of any abnormal operating conditions
and have access to all the relevant safety information.

9.5 Welding and cutting

9.5.1 In service welding and cutting

Any welding on in-service CO or Syngas pipelines could cause localized heating and/or adversely
affect the integrity of the piping system and therefore shall be avoided.
The only exceptions are:
• drilling small openings in depressurised pipelines during connection work
• welding on cathodic protection devices
The above work requires special equipment and procedures; it may only be carried out under the
supervision of highly experienced and trained personnel. The process qualification should verify that
the pipe metallurgy and properties are not adversely affected by the process. Although it is preferred
that these processes be done when the line is out of service, it is recognized that occasions may arise
when this is not practical, but these should be minimized.

9.5.2 Out of Service welding and cutting

All maintenance welding of CO or Syngas pipelines shall be to the same standards and requirements
called for in the construction section above. A weld that cannot be repaired as outlined above may be
repaired by installing a full encirclement welded split sleeve using circumferential fillet welds or cutting
out and replacing that section of pipe.
If a segment of a pipeline is repaired by cutting out the damaged portion of the pipe as a cylinder, the
removed section should be cut at least two pipe diameters on each side of the defect or weld. The
replacement pipe must be of comparable strength and metallurgy and be suitable for the CO or
Syngas service at the intended maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP). The replacement
section of pipe must be pre-tested to match the MAWP of the pipeline. All field girth butt welds not
strength tested must be radiographically examined after installation.

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Cold cutting of pipelines for tie-in and repairs is preferred to reduce the possibility of ignition keeping
in mind that this does not reduce any of the requirements for safe maintenance activities.

9.6 Shut down, repair and start-up of pipelines

A hazardous work permit is generally required for shut down, repair and start up and maintenance of
pipelines. The personnel involved in the work, including contractors, must be qualified and be
informed of the abnormal operating conditions related to CO or Syngas and the tasks to be
performed.
A positive shut-off is required. This shut off can be carried out by:
• Complete disconnection of the section concerned from the pipeline system
• Installing blind flanges
• Closure and mechanical locking of two valves arranged in tandem with an open venting valve
between them (if the valve has an electric drive, the power should also be disconnected) : or
a double trunnion mounted ball valve equipped with a body vent.
A check valve cannot be used as a shut-off mechanism for maintenance work.
Inerting of the section of pipe to be repaired, which should include local analysis, must be done prior
to the start of any work.
Lock out and tag out procedures shall be used to indicate that the equipment has been placed in the
shut off position and to reduce the risk of uncontrolled operation of the valves. Operations must inform
the maintenance team that the pipeline is ready for their work.

9.7 Venting and pressure relief

9.7.1 Venting:

Small quantities of CO or syngas may be vented to the atmosphere in a safe location and maintaining
a high upwards velocity, to facilitate dispersion, eventually by adding nitrogen.
Large quantities of CO or syngas shall be directed to a flare system (permanent or mobile).
In case of emergency, when large quantities of CO or syngas must be vented to atmosphere, the vent
must be carried out to a stack in order to be directed away from personnel, buildings and enclosures, in
a location where neither personnel nor vulnerable items of equipment are exposed to CO or syngas. It
should be assumed that the vent flow may ignite, in which case radiation criteria in Section 4.6.7
should not be exceeded. Venting should not take place directly beneath any overhead power or
communication lines.

9.7.2 Purging

Purging of CO or syngas, except for relatively small quantities, requires the use of a flare system.
The flare system must be purged of air before the introduction of the CO/syngas, to avoid ignition
inside the piping.
Nitrogen or other inert gas must be used to purge CO or Syngas from the pipeline before loosening or
disconnecting flanges, instruments, etc. Dead ended legs of the pipeline system that cannot be swept
by nitrogen must be pressure purged. The number of pressure purging cycles must be evaluated for
each specific job.
A written purging plan should be prepared that insures all CO or Syngas is removed from the pipeline
system to non-detectable levels.
When using nitrogen, it must be ensured that unauthorised access to the outlet is prevented and that
no-one can be endangered by oxygen deficient atmospheres.

9.7.3 Maintenance and repair

Maintenance and repair work should not be accomplished whenever CO or syngas is present in the
ambient air.

9.8 Commissioning pipelines and stations

After the successful mechanical completion of the installation, repair or maintenance work, including
all testing, cleaning and drying, the pipeline is ready for commissioning. The maintenance team

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should inform operations of the completion of the work and that the system is ready for
recommissioning.
The steps in commissioning the pipeline are:

• Remove any blind flanges.

• Flow and pressure purge the pipeline with nitrogen until all air is removed and verify by
analysis
• Introduce CO or Syngas and vent
• Pressure purge any dead-ended legs with CO or Syngas
• Test for required purity of CO or Syngas.
• Close off all vent and purge valves
• Pressurize system to operating pressure
• Leak check all valves, flanges, and fittings.
When commissioning starts, the pipeline must first be purged with CO or syngas so that the nitrogen
that is already in the pipe is removed. The purging process is carried out using throttling and bypass
valves, if present (depending on the nominal diameter of the pipeline) via the last valve under
pressure. The CO or Syngas should be introduced in a specific direction in order to ensure CO or
Syngas purity. All flow purging should be done at low pressure as a safety precaution.
The purity of the CO or Syngas should be measured at all outlets using analysis equipment. If the
purity, as required by the customer specifications, is adequate at the outlet, the relevant valve can be
closed.
When the pipeline has been purged and all the purging points have been closed, the pipeline can be
pressurised, using a by-pass, a throttling valve or a control valve in order to slowly pressurise the pipe
up to the operating pressure.
All mechanical connections such as flanges, valve bonnets, threaded couplings, etc should be
checked for leaks at regular intervals during commissioning.

9.9 Operation and monitoring

Supplier’s and manufacturer’s instructions for the equipment and systems shall be followed as
received from the supplier or as upgraded by an authorized person in the operating company.
Pipeline and stations must be kept in good working order from an operational and safety point of view.
The operator shall follow a defined maintenance program, including all safety and technical
monitoring measures. A detailed description of the work to be carried out should be documented by
outlining specific tasks that are routinely used for pipeline maintenance.
An example of a preventive maintenance program can be seen in Appendix F, which illustrates the
main tasks to be performed. The frequency at which inspections are performed will be dictated by
national regulations and/ or established company practices.

9.10 Information to third parties, work adjacent to pipelines and update of documents

9.10.1 General

The maintenance of pipelines does not concern just technical and operational considerations.
Statistics from pipeline companies show that more than two accidents out of three occurring on
underground pipelines are due to external events.
To protect pipelines and ensure the reliability of supply, it is necessary that third parties be informed of
the location of the pipelines, any work adjacent to the pipelines and information regarding the
installation of new pipelines.

9.10.2 Flow of information

National regulations, when they exist, must be followed.

These regulations typically require:

• That operators of underground structures (pipes, cables, etc.) submit a declaration to the local
authorities concerned.

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• That contractors performing earthworks in the area of underground structures inform the
operators of those underground structures, in the form of a declaration, about the nature of
such work prior to starting any work.
• That operators respond to the contractors in timely manner.
• That operators have a qualified inspector present during any third party earthworks over,
adjacent to or under it’s underground structures at all times while the work is being performed.

In absence of national regulations, a similar plan for information flow should be adopted.

9.10.3 Summary of work

A summary of work carried out on pipelines or near pipelines and also of work not performed should
be made by the pipeline operator.
When work is performed adjacent to pipelines, the summary should be formalised by the issue of a
written document countersigned by the site manager.

9.10.4 Records

Records of the following should be made by the pipeline operator:

• requests from contractors
• replies to those requests, with the transmitted documents, including preferably GPS
coordinates of the work
• work supervision documentation

9.10.5 Updating of pipeline drawings

Updating of pipeline documents, in particular pipe installation drawings or maps, should be carried out
on existing pipelines to reflect deviations and modifications which occurred when work was
performed.

9.11 Specialised surveys

In addition to the routine monitoring of cathodic protection system potentials, consideration should be
given to investigating the integrity of the pipeline coating system and other faults, which may reduce
the effectiveness of the cathodic protection (C.P) system.
This can be achieved by the use of specialised survey techniques, such as.
• Pearson survey.
• Current attenuation survey.
• Close interval potential survey.
• Direct current voltage gradient.

These investigations can be undertaken at 5 to 10 year intervals, depending on the particular pipeline
and the type of cathodic protection system applied. It is common practice to compare the results of
such surveys with those obtained immediately following installation. For reference, see NACE RP
0502.

9.12 Damage to the pipeline system

9.12.1 Leakage

It is essential that all leaks be quickly identified so that proper remediation can take place. If a leakage
of product from the pipeline is suspected, and cannot be located through visual, audible or analytical
evidence, it may be necessary to isolate the pipeline in sections and pressure test it to identify the
source of the leak or prove that the pipeline is sound.
Another method of locating small leaks is to use sophisticated detection equipment that can identify
minute amounts of inert substances known as tracer compounds that are injected into the pipeline.

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9.12.2 Other defects

Other defects can be coating defects, dents, gouges, welding arc strikes, pits, cracks and corrosion
damages to the pipe. These defects must be evaluated to define the proper type of repair,
replacement or reinforcement of the damaged piping and remediated as required.
Coating defects may not need to be repaired, if they do not compromise the efficiency of the cathodic
protection.
It is important to capture the geographic coordinates of the damages to the pipe and trace the repairs.

9.12.3 Detection of defects

Various methods can be used to detect defects as caused by the many different types of threats to a
pipeline. Some of the assessment methods include in-line inspection, pressure testing, and types of
direct assessment. The process of determining and assessing defects is defined in ASME B31.8S,
titled, “Managing System Integrity of Gas Pipelines”.

9.12.4 Revalidation

Consideration should be given to revalidation (a detailed inspection, including a pressure test) to

establish the pipeline’s suitability for continued service after an incident occurs which may call this into
question. Typical of such incidents are leakage, fire or other significant incident, not attributable to
third party interference. Similarly a significant modification to the pipeline system may suggest
comparable action.

10 General protective measures

10.1 Emergency response plan

An emergency procedure document enables all operating staff and others, who may be involved,
including the public authorities, to be adequately informed of the action to be taken in the event of an
emergency. Procedures should be developed to meet the particular needs of each individual pipeline
system. National laws or regulations may dictate the form and content of such a procedure, however,
even if no regulation exists, it is strongly recommended that an emergency response plan be
developed by the operator. The following is a typical list of subjects issued as a guide to be
considered when compiling such procedures.

10.1.1 Liaison with public authorities and other consultees

The effective handling of a pipeline incident will often require the co-operation of public authorities
(e.g. Police, Fire, Public Utilities etc.). A list of emergency contacts should be established and copies
of the relevant sections of the emergency procedure should be circulated to those authorities that may
be involved.

10.1.2 Description of Pipeline System

This should include all relevant technical data such as routing, length, diameter, pressure of the
pipeline, location, drawings of control stations including location of isolating valves.

10.1.3 Control Centres

It is recommended that a single designated group or individual be responsible to control activities

during an emergency. The role and location of the control centre for dealing with an emergency
should be established and communication media (e.g. telephone, radio, e-mail and/or fax) should be
identified. Clear instructions for dealing with emergencies should be formally established and
generally available.

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10.1.4 Notification of an Incident

The incident may be detected by operators at a pipeline control center or be notified by a third party
through the observation of some abnormal condition on site. The control center should be responsible
for identifying the precise location of the incident, recording all details and passing the information to
the emergency response team without delay. Notification should include the appropriate authorities
responsible for public safety such as fire, police and transportation authorities.

10.1.5 Alerting procedure

It is the responsibility of the control centre to alert the engineer and personnel on call. The emergency
procedure should clearly identify the initial action to be taken by all personnel on receiving an
emergency call. Any restrictions on entering land should be included. Provision shall be made for the
mobilisation of a responsible person at the site together with staff capable of assessing and dealing
with the scale of the operation.
The alerting procedure should include a clearly defined safety perimeter around the incident centre
into which no unauthorized persons may enter.
The alerting procedure should also include requirements to inform all concerned when normal
conditions are restored.

10.1.6 Shutting down a pipeline

A clear procedure and understanding with the public authorities regarding the isolation and shutdown
of the pipeline in an emergency situation should be established It is recommended that the pipeline
control centre take charge of these events in the interests of the safety of all involved.

10.1.7 Emergency equipment

Equipment to deal with the emergency must be kept in a state of readiness at an appropriate location.
Typical examples are transportation for equipment and manpower, effective communication system
between control centre and the incident location, analysis equipment, fire extinguishers, protective
clothing and safety devices, escape masks and self-contained breathing apparatus, lighting sets and
power supply, repair materials and tools.

10.1.8 Remedial action

A detailed assessment of the action to be taken in dealing with the emergency can only be
established following an initial assessment at the site.
However general guidelines on the approach to be taken for the more likely and dangerous situations
should be indicated in the procedure, e.g. steps to be taken in dealing with an incident.
Annual reviews of emergency response plans with local authorities is often a mandated requirement
and is considered a good practice in any event.

10.1.9 Pipelines with cathodic protection

If a pipeline has been severed, the cathodic protection system should be isolated and temporary
bonds established if required.

10.1.10 Incident report form

Details of the incident should be written down and maintained in the files of the operator. They should
be compiled and recorded on the form required by the legislative requirements of the country
concerned and/or the company reporting procedure. The geographic co-ordinates (GPS) of the
incident may be also recorded.

10.1.11 Emergency drills

To ensure that the emergency procedure adequately covers the requirements of the pipeline system
for which it is drawn up and to provide practice situations for personnel, it is recommended that
emergency drills be carried out periodically.

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10.2 Accident and damage report

If a pipeline accident occurs a thorough investigation should take place and a clear and concise report
issued. The report should contain an accurate description of the conditions which pertained during the
last minutes before the accident, the material involved and the consequences of the accident, such as
a secondary ignition, injury to people and damage to equipment or property. It is a recommended
practice that for serious incidents, a Root Cause Analysis be conducted in order to determine what
should be changed to prevent a similar occurrence.

10.3 Safety management system

Consideration should be given to establishing a specialised form of safety management system,

commonly referred to as a Pipeline Integrity Management System (P.I.M.S.). Such a system enables
formal control of key aspects of safety management to be established and demonstrated.

An effective system typically provides detailed information, specific to the particular pipeline to cover
the following subject headings.

10.3.1 Notification to authorities and consultation on routing

These are normally stipulated in the prevailing legislation and the rules applying to the country the
pipeline is to be installed in.

10.3.2 Design and construction

Overall design and construction practice is dictated by the relevant design standards, codes of
practice and specifications acknowledged in the country concerned. In addition to these, industry
and/or company standards and specifications which relate to the particular product to be transmitted
are applied

10.3.3 Shutdown systems

Shutdown may be manual or automatic. Shutdown devices (e.g. emergency shutoff valves) may be
actuated by a leak detection system or by sensing high flow, low pressure, or rate of decay of line
pressure.

10.3.4 Operations

A control strategy is devised to control the pipeline supply within safe operating parameters.
Variables incorporated into the control strategy may include

• Pressure: to ensure that the required delivery pressure from the pipeline is maintained.
Protection against excess pressure is generally not an issue, since pipelines are normally
designed to withstand pressures in excess of the maximum that can be developed by the
production unit. A suitable pressure relief device may be required upstream of the pipeline to
provide protection against overpressure beyond the design criteria.
• Temperature: to ensure that cryogenic liquids from the storage units do not enter the pipeline
system.
• Flow: to match customer demand by product flow into the pipeline.
• Product purity: to ensure any product which does not meet specification does not enter the
pipeline system.

Any product disposal needed to maintain the required pipeline conditions is preferably achieved
through controlled venting on the production site.

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10.3.5 Control of third party interference

Measures typically employed are :

• Marker posts on the pipeline route.

• Distribution of “as built” drawings and information on the pipeline route to landowners, local
authority planners, and other interested parties.
• Similar information is also distributed to “one call” systems, a single point of contact where
information on all pipelines and services can be obtained - (where applicable).
• Scheduled patrols of the pipeline by foot or aerial survey to search for unauthorised
interference and to identify abnormal conditions. (See also 10.6.10).

10.3.6 Maintenance and inspection

A planned maintenance and remediation system (including routine patrols of the pipeline) is
recommended.

Examples of typical tasks included in such programs listed as illustrations for guidance are:

• routine testing of cathodic protection system

• visual leak check on above-ground flanges
• visual check for signs of unauthorised interference with the pipeline system
• visual check for signs of land subsidence
• visual check for any accidental damage to the system
• visual check for any development activities in the vicinity of the pipeline
• check that all pipeline marking devices are in place
• visual checks for dead or burned vegetation
• visual checks for bubbling

10.3.7 Major accident prevention policies and safety management systems

A document detailing the organisation and personnel, hazard identification and evaluation, operational
control, management of change, planning for emergencies, monitoring performance, audit/review may
be prepared (dependent upon the perceived extent and nature of the major accident hazards
presented by the pipeline and local regulations and practice).

10.3.8 Emergency planning

An emergency plan is prepared so that any incident can receive effective response. This plan is
specific to the parent site(s), and defines the roles of local personnel in an emergency situation. It also
identifies any emergency contacts, both internal and external to the operating company. The plan is
structured to be locally self-sufficient.

Personnel who could be called on to deal with an incident shall receive training appropriate to their
role in such an event. Any special protective clothing and equipment that might be required is kept
readily accessible and is maintained in a fit condition for use.

10.3.9 Information to the public and interested parties

Plans and documentation illustrating the route of the pipeline should be sent to the local government
authority planning department, landowners and other parties who may have an interest in the pipeline
(e.g. railway, mining authorities, road authorities, fire and police departments.) Where appropriate,
information is also provided to the public by means of marker posts along the route of the pipeline;
see also section 4.5.

10.3.10 Land use planning

The pipeline operator can exercise some control over the land area defined by his /easement
agreement. Land outside the limits of this “right of way” is not however controlled by the pipeline

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operator. Although adjacent property is not controlled by the pipeline operator, this does not relieve
him of the responsibility to attempt to be familiar with and if practical to monitor the activities and risks
associated with the activities on and the uses of the abutting properties. In other words the operator
should be a concerned neighbour.

10.3.11 Accident reporting

This is normally included in the legislative requirements of individual Member States or local
authorities.

10.4 Leak detection system (LDS)

When operating a CO or Syngas pipeline equipped with a Leak Detection System it is important to
check periodically the awareness of the system.
Any change of the piping system will require a new validation of the LDS.

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Appendix A: Typical arrangements for pipelines systems

Plant Pipeline Customer

Metering + Control
Metering Control
Metering + Control Metering + Control
Metering + Control
Metering + Control

Diagram 1 : Typical transmission and distribution piping systems

Note: the transmission pipeline system includes the metering/control station at the production plant,
the pipeline itself and related equipment and the control/metering stations at customer site.

N2 Vent and
Injection N2 purge
Pressure
safety
system

Double Auto Flow Pressure Auto Double

Filtration
block and Shut off Meter Control Shut off block and
bleed Valve Valve bleed

Diagram 2: Typical arrangement for a CO isolation and metering station

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Appendix B: Embrittlement and Environmental Damage Mechanisms Involving

Syngas, Carbon Monoxide Mixtures; Applicable Test Methods

B1. Introduction

In dealing with Syngas and carbon monoxide atmospheres, consideration must be given to
embrittlement and degradation mechanisms related to the hydrogen presence and those associated
with carbon monoxide. There are a number of mechanisms involving hydrogen which have caused
embrittlement or damage to engineering alloys. Some of these may be of concern in pipelines used
for the transmission of Syngas and the others are not. A brief description of the mechanisms which fall
into the two categories follows. In addition, there is a brittle fracture mechanism known as stress
corrosion cracking which is of concern to Syngas and carbon monoxide pipelines but it does not
necessarily involve hydrogen in the embrittlement process. This embrittlement mode may affect the
exterior surfaces of pipelines. Particular to carbon monoxide pipelines, there is another stress
corrosion mechanism specific to carbon monoxide and its mixtures. Brief descriptions of the stress
corrosion mechanisms also follow.

B2. Embrittlement or environmental Damage Mechanisms Pertinent to Syngas and Carbon Monoxide
Pipelines

B2.1 Hydrogen Gas Embrittlement

Hydrogen Gas Embrittlement (HGE) is the generic term which encompasses all of the detrimental
effects which engineering alloys might experience in hydrogen gas or hydrogen gas mixtures at
ambient temperatures. Some of the effects are more serious than others. Materials variables and
actual service conditions will have an effect on the appearance of the various HGE modes.

A number of test methods are available to evaluate the suitability of material to resist hydrogen gas
embrittlement (see ISO 11114-4 and B4 below), some make use of fracture mechanics specimens,
others of tensile test or disk specimens.

In general, the degradation of the mechanical properties of materials is greatest when the strain rate
is low and the hydrogen pressure and purity is high. Under the conditions most appropriate to the
operation of a hydrogen gas transmission pipeline, it is generally believed to be true that the gas is
dry. Fatigue is not supposed to be a problem and species which contribute to environmental
aggressiveness are not supposed to be present. Nevertheless, the following have been selected as
most likely to be of concern in Syngas pipelines:

B2.1.1 Hydrogen stress cracking (HSC)

Hydrogen stress cracking describes a phenomenon which resembles stress corrosion cracking but
occurs in hydrogen gas. In the presence of hydrogen gas (or another gas bearing hydrogen) a
material can become brittle and may fail if the stress level is too high. This phenomenon is optimum
around room temperature for usual metallic materials such as ferritic steels. It does not apply for
steels above 150 °C but could then be replaced at high temperature by “hydrogen attack” (see
reference Interaction of steels with Hydrogen in petroleum industry pressure vessel service, Paris 89).
It also tends to be negligible at cryogenic temperature except for some unstable austenitic stainless
steels.

If “precracked” fracture toughness tests of selected materials are compared in an inert atmosphere vs
an embrittling agent such as hydrogen, susceptible materials will show a reduction in the fracture
toughness parameter in environments such as hydrogen. The extent of the property loss is a function
of alloy and environmental factors. The major benefit of such tests and results is that analytical
techniques exist for determining critical flaw sizes in engineering structures which can be detected via
NDT techniques. For a given alloy and environment, a critical stress intensity (typically called KH) can
be determined below which hydrogen induced crack growth will not occur. Another benefit of such
data is that it can be used to identify the conditions under which “leak before break” fracture will exist

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vs catastrophic running fractures. The other test methods define sometimes a maximum
embrittlement index for the acceptance of materials.
Non-destructive inspection techniques can be used to determine if unacceptable flaws are present.
Local imperfections can act as a stress raiser.

Susceptible materials may, in presence of tensile stresses either residual or directly applied, develop
cracks in hydrogen gas environments. Material variables which affect the susceptibility of engineering
alloys include alloy chemistry, microstructure, hardness and strength level. Hydrogen variables at
ambient temperature which are significant include impurities and pressure.
Manufacturing or heat treatment procedures which eliminate residual tensile stresses, mitigate HSC.
In the case of carbon or low alloy steels such treatments may soften weld heat affected zones and
temper martensite which may be present in such areas. Prudent alloy selection including the
specification of maximum strength levels or alloy heat treatment can be used to eliminate or mitigate
the problem.

It should be noted that certain nickel alloys may be subject to this phenomenon.

Hydrogen stress cracking is characterized by the brittle fracture of a normally ductile alloy under
sustained load in the presence of hydrogen. Most often, fracture occurs at sustained loads below the
yield strength of the material. This cracking mechanism depends on the hydrogen fugacity, strength
level of the material, heat treatment/microstructure, applied stress, and temperature. For many steels,
a threshold stress exists below which hydrogen stress cracking does not occur. This threshold is a
function of the strength level of the steel and the specific hydrogen-bearing environment. Therefore,
threshold stress or stress intensity for hydrogen stress cracking is not considered a material property.
Generally, the threshold stress decreases as the yield strength and tensile strength of an alloy
increase. Hydrogen stress cracking is associated with absorption of hydrogen and a delayed time to
failure (incubation time) during which hydrogen diffuses into regions of high triaxial stress. Hydrogen
stress cracking may promote one mode of fracture in an alloy rather than another form normally
observed in benign environments. Thus, all modes of cracking have been observed in most
commercial alloy systems; however, hydrogen stress cracking usually produces sharp singular cracks
in contrast to the extensive branching observed in HSC.

B2.1.2 Reduction of tensile ductility and notched tensile strength in hydrogen gas

Hydrogen gas will reduce the tensile strength/ductility and notched tensile strength of susceptible
materials in high pressure environments. The effect can be determined by conducting tensile tests of
candidate materials in dry air or inert gas comparing the results of similar tests conducted in a
hydrogen environment. Premature failures of burst discs have been attributed to this phenomenon.

B2.1.3 Accelerated fatigue cracking growth in hydrogen gas and hydrogen environments

Acceleration of fatigue crack growth and degradation in fatigue endurance limits have been observed
in tests of susceptible materials via both pre-cracked specimens and smooth specimens in dry
hydrogen gas environments. Carbon and low alloy steels show such degradation even at relatively
low pressures in hydrogen gas. This is a mechanism which should be considered, preferably avoided
if possible, in such applications. Since pipelines normally operate at near constant pressure, fatigue
cracking is usually not a concern.

Tests have been conducted at pressures up to 45 MPa (7000 psig) under both static and dynamic
conditions. Stable austenitic stainless steels generally show little environmental damage in such tests.
However susceptible materials including metastable austenitic stainless steels, ferritic stainless steels,
martensitic stainless steels and carbon/low alloy steels show some degradation in tensile strength
ductility and notch tensile strength, this effect being dependent upon alloy strength level, heat
treatment and hydrogen pressure.

Acceleration of fatigue crack growth and degradation in fatigue endurance limits have been observed
in tests of susceptible materials via both pre-cracked specimens and smooth specimens in dry
hydrogen gas environments. Carbon and low alloy steels show such degradation even at relatively
low pressures in hydrogen gas. The accelerated fatigue crack growth is more pronounced at ambient
temperatures and becomes less severe at elevated temperatures. The presence of hydrogen reduces

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the threshold cyclic stress intensity factor (∆Kth) as well as fatigue life. The degradation of fatigue
properties is attributed to the reduction in crack tip ductility in presence of hydrogen. Despite the
supposed absence of fatigue conditions in pipelines, fatigue may be a problem in some cases.

B2.2 Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) of line pipe steel in underground environments

Stress cracking of carbon/low alloy steel line pipe in underground environments from both anodic
stress corrosion and/or hydrogen stress cracking mechanisms has been reported. This is usually an
external corrosion phenomenon and is not influenced by the hydrogen gas being transported. The
presence of residual or directly applied tensile stresses, the presence of a susceptible environment
and susceptible metals are required for the mechanism. Factors which contribute to stress cracking, in
addition to the preceding, may be hard spots, untempered martensite in weld areas, coating defects,
microbiological activity and inadequate or improper cathodic protection schemes. Careful alloy
selection, controlled alloy chemistries and controls over manufacturing processes will help mitigate
this problem.

Stress corrosion cracking is an electrochemical process with distinct anodic and cathodic reactions.
Corrosion specialists generally recognize true stress corrosion cracking as a mechanism in which
cracking is controlled by the anodic reaction and consider cracking which is controlled by the cathodic
reaction as a form of hydrogen embrittlement. Poor cathodic protection practices could contribute to
the embrittlement mechanism. Outside of the laboratory, it may be difficult to discern the differences
between the two cracking mechanisms.

B2.3 Stress corrosion cracking in CO environments

It is generally accepted that stress corrosion cracking in CO environments is a true stress corrosion
cracking process under anodic control. Hydrogen reactions do not play a role in crack initiation and
propagation.

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) requires the simultaneous presence of tensile stresses either
residual or directly applied and a susceptible environment. The simultaneous presence of CO, traces
of CO2 and traces of H2O at temperatures below the dew point, will provide a susceptible environment
for stress corrosion cracking in the use of carbon and low alloy steels. In pure CO environments, CO2
and H2O species may under certain circumstances be present as contaminants.

Manufacturing or heat treatment procedures which reduce residual tensile stresses mitigate SCC. In
this regard, post weld heat treatment (PWHT) is beneficial in reducing SCC susceptibility should liquid
water be present. Cleaning, operational and component assembly procedures which minimize H2O
and CO2 presence are beneficial. Generally, CO SCC will not occur as long as the pipeline is dry.

B2.4 Inhibiting effects of CO in H2 environments

It has been established that CO inhibits hydrogen embrittlement cracking. Other gas impurities
including O2, CS2, and SO2 also have an inhibiting effect. These gases are catalytic poisons that
adsorb on the steel surface in preference to the hydrogen and poison the chemically active sites at
which the hydrogen molecule dissociates into hydrogen atoms. It is the hydrogen atoms that dissolve
into the metal and cause hydrogen embrittlement cracking,

The amount of CO needed to inhibit hydrogen embrittlement is not well established, but one reference
indicates that cracking is inhibited at CO to H2 ratio of 0.1, while other references suggest that less
CO is effective. Most syngas compositions have CO / H2 ratios much greater than 0.1 and are
therefore unlikely to cause hydrogen embrittlement. Similarly, CO streams with small amounts of
hydrogen will not promote hydrogen embrittlement.

Even though high CO concentrations are present, it is considered prudent to avoid the use of high
strength steels and alloy steels (steels with tensile strength greater than 800 MPa). Generally,
moderate strength steels are adequate for the pressure and structural requirements and will be
resistant to hydrogen embrittlement should unplanned exposure to hydrogen gas occur.

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B2.5 Carbonyl Formation

Iron and nickel carbonyls are formed by the action of carbon monoxide upon alloys that contain iron
and nickel. The presence of iron and/or nickel carbonyl in process gases may have serious
consequences. Literature data indicate that the attack upon pipe steels in gas mixture at moderate
temperature (100-300 °C) is a function of alloy composition, surface condition, gas composition, gas
flow rate, gas pressure and temperature with a maximum rate at about 200 °C. Generally, carbonyl
formation reaction rates are low enough that pipeline structural integrity is not affected even after long
term service.

B3. Brittle fracture or damage mechanisms not pertinent to hydrogen or CO or Syngas pipelines

As a consequence of operating conditions such as elevated temperatures, specific contaminants not

normally associated with hydrogen, CO or Syngas pipelines and the specificity of materials involved,
there are brittle fracture or damage mechanisms which are not pertinent. A brief description of these
follows:

B3.1 Elevated temperature environmental effects on ferrous alloys

Hydrogen attack and decarburization are the two common damage mechanisms encountered by
carbon or low alloy steels involving hydrogen at elevated temperatures. “Hydrogen attack” of a carbon
steel or low alloy steel is a mode by which carbon reacts with hydrogen to form methane which results
in crack formation. “Decarburization” of a carbon or low alloy steel may also occur in hydrogen
atmospheres. Austenitic stainless steels are considered immune to decarburization and hydrogen
attack.

The “Nelson Chart” shows operating limits for carbon and low alloy steels in hydrogen atmospheres at
elevated temperature and pressures. It should be noted that the Nelson Chart is only pertinent to the
two mechanisms previously cited and not to other damage mechanisms involving hydrogen (see for
example reference API 941).

B3.2 Elevated Temperature Effects on Cuprous Alloys

Cuprous alloys are subject to a special form of hydrogen attack at elevated temperatures. If the alloy
is not deoxidized, hydrogen will react with cuprous oxide to form water. Subsequently, grain
boundaries will fissure. Properly deoxidized copper alloys are not susceptible.

B3.3 Hydrogen Blistering

Hydrogen blistering is not pertinent because it requires the presence of acidic electrolyte in
substantial amounts. In this mechanism, steels exposed to acid electrolyte absorb large quantities of
hydrogen at local cathodes and subsequently fissure and blister.

B3.4 Sulfide stress cracking (SSC)

This is a subset of hydrogen embrittlement in which the cathodic reaction controls the cracking
reaction. However, SSC occurs in water within certain ranges of hydrogen sulfide content. Certain
oilfield environments and “sour” natural gas are associated with the cracking mechanism.

Consequently, if sour natural gases are mixed with Syngas or carbon monoxide mixtures, this
cracking mechanism would be of concern.

B3.5 Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HIC)

HIC is a degradation mode which generally occurs in sour wet gas service. In this mode of
environmental damage, atomic hydrogen formed during the corrosion process is trapped in
microscopic voids around nonmetallic inclusions. Usually, these are of the manganese sulfide type.
High gas pressure trapped around the inclusion can generate highly localized stresses which may
initiate crack nuclei parallel to the rolling direction of the material. As crack nuclei link up, stepwise
cracks will develop and cause failure. HIC is sometimes referred to as “stepwise cracking”.

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B3.6 Hydride Formation

The degradation of mechanical properties and cracking is due to the precipitation of metal hydride
phases. The most susceptible materials are titanium, magnesium and niobium alloys. The applied
stress may promote the formation of hydride in some alloy systems.

B4 Pertinent Test Methods

Hydrogen containing environments may affect every aspect of mechanical properties such as tensile
strength, elongation, fatigue life, fatigue crack growth rate and fracture toughness. The attributes of
the mechanical properties can be evaluated by conducting the pertinent experiments in the desired
hydrogen environment or on hydrogen precharged specimens.

Several test methods were developed over the past years. Standard test methods appropriate for
hydrogen embrittlment in gaseous hydrogen exist. Since hydrogen embrittlement and stress corrosion
cracking share many common features, the tests to evaluate materials resistance to SCC can also be
applied to study materials’ behavior in hydrogen, Syngas and carbon monoxide environment. Typical
tests for hydrogen embrittlement are described as follows:

B4.1 Tensile and Notched Tensile Properties

The susceptibility of metals to hydrogen embrittlement can be evaluated by conducting tensile tests
on smooth or notched specimens in hydrogen environment at different pressures. The test method is
described in ASTM G 142-98 “Standard Test Method for Determination of Susceptibility of Metals to
Embrittlement in Hydrogen Containing Environments at High Pressure, High Temperature, or Both”.

B4.2 KIH or KICO, Syngas test

This test is a fracture mechanics test to evaluate the threshold stress intensity factor for environmental
stress cracking. In this test, a precracked specimen is loaded in tension and in the gaseous
environment. The minimum applied stress intensity factor that can cause crack propagation (K1H or
KICO, Syngas) can be used to evaluate the resistance to environmentally assisted cracking in H2 or CO.
There are various ASTM or ISO test procedures that can be modified for these tests.

B4.3 Slow Strain Rate (SSR) Test

Since the environmental attack is a time dependent process, a slow strain rate test can be employed
to evaluate the strain rate sensitivity of the materials in environments such as Syngas or CO. In the
slow strain rate test, the test is conducted at strain rates as low as 10-7. The test can be done in
selected environments. A general procedure of SSR tests is described in ASTM G129-00 “Standard
Practice for Slow Strain Rate Testing to Evaluate the Susceptibility of Metallic Materials to
Environmentally Assisted Cracking”.

B4.4 Disk pressure test

Disk pressure test measures susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement of metallic materials under high
pressure hydrogen. A thin disk sample is placed as a membrane in a test cell is subject to high
pressure helium and hydrogen. The ratio between the helium burst pressure and the hydrogen burst
pressure indicates the susceptibility of the material to environmental hydrogen embrittlement. A
standard test procedure has been established as ASTM F1459 “Standard Test Method for
Determination of the Susceptibility of Metallic Materials to Gaseous Hydrogen Embrittlement”. The
ISO equivalent is ISO 11114-4. While the method was originally intended for high pressure hydrogen
environments, it is possible that it could be used to evaluate metals in Syngas or carbon monoxide.

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Appendix C: Table of Nominal Alloy Compositions & Ranges

MATERIAL TYPE OR ALLOY EN-MAT.NO. UNS NO. NOMINAL COMPOSITION RANGE

(7) (8)
Carbon Steels, Pipe
ASTM A53, Type S Grade A K02504 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
ASTM A53, Type S Grade B K03005 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
ASTM A106, Grade A K02501 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
ASTM A106, Grade B K03006 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
ASTM A333, Grade 1(1) K03008 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
ASTM A333, Grade 6(1) K03006 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
API 5L Grade A PSL1 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
API 5L Grade B PSL1 and PSL2(1) C, Mn, Bal. Fe
API 5L Grade X42 PSL1 and PSL2(1) C, Mn, Bal. Fe
API 5L Grade X46 PSL1 and PSL2 (1) C, Mn, Bal. Fe
API 5L Grade X52 PSL1 and PSL2 (1) C, Mn, Bal. Fe
NF A 49-211 TUE 220 b2 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
NF A 49-211 TUE 250 b2 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
NF A 49-400 TSE 220 cl. II C, Mn, Bal. Fe
NF A 49-400 TUE 250 cl. II C, Mn, Bal. Fe

L245 NB 1.0457 C, Mn, Bal. Fe

L245 MB 1.0418 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
L290 NB 1.0484 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
L290 MB 1.0429 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
L360 NB 1.0582 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
L360 NB 1.0572 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
P265 NL 1.0453 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
P275 NL1 1.0488 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
P355 NL1 1.0566 C, Mn, Bal. Fe

CSA Z245.1-98, 207 Categories. I, II(1), III(1) C, Mn, Bal. Fe

CSA Z245.1-98, 241 Categories. I, II(1), III(1) C, Mn, Bal. Fe
CSA Z245.1-98, 290 Categories. I, II(1), III(1) C, Mn, Bal. Fe
CSA Z245.1-98, 317 Categories. I, II(1), III(1) C, Mn, Bal. Fe
CSA Z245.1-98, 359 Categories. I, II(1), III(1) C, Mn, Bal. Fe

Carbon Steels, Other Mill Forms

ASTM A105 (Forging) K03504 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
ASTM A234 Grade WPB (Fitting) K03006 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
ASTM A334 Grade 1 (Tube) (1) K03008 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
ASTM A334 Grade 6 (Tube) (1) K03006 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
ASTM A350 Grade LF2 (Forging) (1) K03003 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
ASTM A352 Grade LCB (Casting) (1) K03011 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
ASTM A352 Grade LCL (Casting) (1) C, Mn, Bal. Fe
ASTM A420 Grade WPL6 (Fitting) (1) C, Mn, Bal. Fe
ASTM A516 Grade 55 (Plate) (1) K01800 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
ASTM A516 Grade 60 (Plate) (1) K02100 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
ASTM A516 Grade 65 (Plate) (1) K02403 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
ASTM A516 Grade 70 (Plate) (1) K02700 C, Mn, Bal. Fe

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Appendix C : Table of Nominal Alloy Compositions & Ranges (Cont’d)

MATERIAL TYPE OR ALLOY EN-MAT.NO. UNS NO. NOMINAL COMPOSITION RANGE

Carbon Steels, Other Mill Forms (Cont’d)

NF E 29-204 BF 42N C, Mn, Bal. Fe
NF E 29-204 BF 48N C, Mn, Bal. Fe
NF E 29-204 BF 48F C, Mn, Bal. Fe
NF A 49-218 AE 220 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
NF A 49-218 AE 250 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
NF A 49-218 AE 275B C, Mn, Bal. Fe
C22.8 (Forging) 1.0460 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
P355 NH (Forging) 1.0565 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
GP240 GH (Casting) 1.0619 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
GS-38 (Casting) 1.0420 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
GS-45 (Casting) 1.0446 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
G20Mn5 (Casting) 1.6220 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
P265 GH (Plate) 1.0425 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
P355 NH (Plate) 1.0565 C, Mn, Bal. Fe
P355 NL1 (Plate) 1.0566 C, Mn, Bal. Fe

Cobalt Alloys
Stellite 6 Stellit 6 R30006 55.5Co, 29Cr, 4.5W, 3Ni, 1C, 7 (Fe, Si, Mn, Mo)
Stellite 6B Stellit 6B R30016 53Co, 30Cr, 4.5W, 3Ni, 1C, 8.5 (Fe, Si, Mn, Mo)

Copper and Copper Alloys

Brass 2.0380 Various 55-85 Cu, 15-44 Zn, 1-3 (Sn, Pb, Fe, Al)
Copper 2.0090 C10100 99.9+Cu
C10200
Copper-Nickel Alloys 2.0882 C70600 67-87 Cu, 10-31 Ni, 1-2 (Fe, Mn, Zn)
C71500
Tin Bronzes 2.1080 Various 85-89Cu, 5-11Sn, 5-10 (Zn, Pb, Ni)

Ferrous Castings (Non- Stainless)

Gray Cast Iron 0.6030 F12801 3C, 2Si, 0.8Mn, Bal. Fe
Nodular Cast Iron 0.7040 F32800 3.6C, 2.7Si, O.4Mn, Bal. Fe
Ni Resist Type D2 0.7673 F43010 20Ni, 3C, 2SI, 2Cr, 1Mn, Bal. Fe

Ferrous Castings, (Stainless)

CF-3(2) 1.4308 J92500 19.5Cr, 10Ni, 2Si, 1.5Mn, Bal. Fe
CF-8(2) 1.4308 J92600 19.5Cr, 10Ni, 2Si, 1.5Mn, Bal. Fe
CF-3M(3) 1.4408 J92800 19Cr, 11Ni, 3Mo, 1.5Si, 1.5Mn, Bal. Fe
CF-8M(3) 1.4408 J92900 19Cr, 11Ni, 3Mo, 1.5Si, 1.5Mn, Bal. Fe
CG-8M(4) 1.4439 J93000 20Cr, 12Ni, 3Mo, 1.5Si, Bal. Fe
CN-7M(5) N08007 21Cr, 29Ni, 4Cu, 3Mo, 1.5Si, 1.5Mn, Bal. Fe

Low Alloy Steels, (C-Mo)&(C-Cr-Mo)

ASTM A335, Grade P1 K11522 C, 0.5Mo, Bal. Fe
ASTM A335, Grade P2 K11547 C, 0.65Cr, 0.5Mo, Bal. Fe
ASTM A335, Grade P12 K11562 C, 1.0Cr, 0.5Mo, Bal. Fe
ASTM A335, Grade P11 K11597 C, 1.25Cr, 0.5Mo, Bal. Fe
ASTM A335, Grade P22 K21590 C, 2.25Cr, 1.0Mo, Bal. Fe

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Appendix C : Table of Nominal Alloy Compositions & Ranges (Cont’d)

MATERIAL TYPE OR ALLOY EN-MAT.NO. UNS NO. NOMINAL COMPOSITION RANGE

Nickel Alloys
Monel K-500(6) 2.4375 N05500 66.5Ni, 30Cu, 3(Al, Ti)
Incoloy 800 N08800 33Ni, 21Cr, Bal. Fe
Incoloy 800H N08810 33Ni, 21Cr, Bal. Fe
Incoloy 800HT N08811 33Ni, 21Cr, Bal, Fe
Incoloy 825 N08825 42Ni, 21.5Cr, 3Mo, 1Ti, Bal. Fe
Hastelloy 2.4819 N10276 56Ni, 12Cr, 13.5Mo, 4Fe, 3W, 2.5Co
Inconel 600 2.4816 N06600 76Ni, 15Cr, 9Fe
Inconel 625 2.4856 N06625 60Ni, 22Cr, 9Mo, 5Fe, 4Nb
Inconel X-750(6) 2.4669 N07750 74Ni, 15.5Cr, 7Fe, 2.5Ti, 1Al

Stainless Steels, Wrought

304 1.4301/1.4306 S30400 19Cr, 9Ni, 2Mn, 1Si, Bal. Fe
304L 1.4301/1.4306 S30403 19Cr, 9Ni, 2Mn, 1Si, Bal. Fe
316 1.4401/1.4404 S31600 17Cr, 12Ni, 2Mn, 3Mo, 1Si, Bal. Fe
316L 1.4401/1.4404 S31603 17Cr, 12Ni, 2Mn, 3Mo, 1Si, Bal. Fe
316Ti 1.4401/1.4404 S31635 17Cr, 12Ni, 2Mn, 3Mo, 1Si, Ti 5xC min., Bal. Fe
321 1.4541 S32100 18Cr, 11.5Ni, Ti 5XC min., Bal. Fe
347 1.4550 S34700 18Cr, 11.5Ni, Nb 8XC min., Bal. Fe
410 1.4006/1.4024 S41000 13Cr, 1Mn, 1Si, Bal. Fe
430 1.4016/1.4742 S43000 17Cr, 1Mn, 1Si, Bal. Fe
17- 4PH H1150/H1150M Tempers(6) 1.4542/1.4548 S17400 17Cr, 4Ni, 4Cu, 1Si, Bal. Fe
X3 Ni Cr Mo 13-4 1.4313 S41500 13Cr, 4.5Ni, 1Mo, 1Si, Bal. Fe
Carpenter 20 Cb-3 2.4660 N08020 35Ni,20Cr,3.5Cu,2.5Mo, Bal. Fe

Notes :
(1) Toughness testing required by specification or PSL2 requirement
(2) Cast Analogs of 304L/304 stainless steel
(3) Cast Analogs of 316L/316 stainless steels
(4) Cast Analog of 317 stainless steel
(5) Alloy 20
(6) Age Hardened Condition, lower strength temper or hardness limits imposed
(7) EN-MAT.N°:the method to give a number for materials is given in the European standard EN 10027-2
“Designation systems for steel Part 2 Numerical system
(8) UNS: Metals and Alloys in the UNIFIED NUMBERING SYSTEM, Society of Automotive Engineers,
Warrendale, PA, 9th Edition, 2001.

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Appendix D: Metallurgical factors Affecting Toughness and Brittle Fracture

Mechanisms

D1. Introduction

It is generally acknowledged that engineering alloys used in the transmission of high pressure gas via
pipelines must have adequate toughness. In addition, it is also acknowledged that hydrogen gas may
embrittle and adversely affect the toughness of many engineering alloys. Gas parameters that may
affect toughness and related properties include factors such as hydrogen purity, gas composition,
temperature and pressure. In addition, there are metallurgical factors which also play an important
role. This section will briefly touch on the metallurgical factors which are considered significant in
hydrogen embrittlement.

D2. Crystal Structure

The major engineering alloys have crystal structures which are faced centered cubic (FCC), body
centered cubic (BCC) and hexagonal closed-packed (HCP). Under certain conditions such as rapid
quenching and welding, suppressed allotropic transformation will result in the formation of martensite,
a body centered tetragonal lattice. Strain induced martensite is also possible. Generally, the highest
toughness is achieved with FCC structures followed by BCC and HCP. The most common used alloys
for the transmission of high pressure gas are carbon steels which have a BCC structure. Also, while
nickel alloys generally have FCC structure, some of them are subject to embrittlement in H2.

D3. Key Metallurgical Controls

Key metallurgical controls or techniques which impact toughness and play a role in line pipe steels
are as follows:

Controls on alloy chemistry

Inclusion shape control additives
Fine grained microstructures
Use of killed steels
Low or reduced carbon equivalents
Microalloying

It should be noted that some of the above fall in more than one category and are related in terms of
the effects on toughness.

D4. Controls on Alloy Chemistry

The effects of sulfur and phosphorus contents on the toughness of steel have been known for some
time. Elements such as sulfur, phosphorus, antimony, tin and arsenic and their compounds also have
been found to inhibit the hydrogen recombination reaction, thus increasing the charging of atomic
hydrogen into the alloy.

Sulfur is usually present in the form of elongated sulfide inclusions. High concentrations of sulfide
inclusions reduce toughness particularly in the transverse direction of pipes or plates. With modern
steel making processes, maximum sulfur levels of 0.01% are feasible and desirable for high
toughness wrought mill forms.

Phosphorus has a deleterious effect on toughness. It raises the impact transition temperature by as
much as 8 °C (15 °F) for each increase of 0.01%P. A maximum level of 0.015% P is recommended.

Carbon and manganese levels are very important in carbon steels. A Mn:C ratio of at least 3:1 is
desirable. Mn tends to reduce the impact transition temperature while C will raise it. However, high
Mn:C ratios when carbon levels are high may cause problems with hardenability and weldability.

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D5. Sulfide Shape Control

The detrimental effect of sulfide inclusions is primarily due to their shapes which are elongated with
sharp ends and akin to cracks. Additions of species such as rare earth elements or calcium can
modify the sulfide shape to produce sulfide inclusions with globular shapes which do not reduce
toughness. Sulfide shape control technology can be used in conjunction with reduced maximum sulfur
levels.

D6. Killed Steels

Control of residual oxygen by utilizing “killing” agents or deoxidizers will improve toughness.
Aluminum killing has the additional advantage of forming aluminum nitrides which contribute to
forming fined grained microstructures. Silicon and reactive metals such as vanadium, titanium etc.
may also be used to kill or deoxidize steels.

D7. Microstructure and Effects of Fine Grained Microstructure

Martensitic, normalized and hot formed microstructures are used in mill forms of carbon and low alloy
steels. Quench and tempered martensite generally has the highest toughness and this is followed by
fine grained normalized microstructure. In linepipe, quench and tempered martensite structures are
relatively rare. Normalized and hot formed microstructures are commonly encountered. When high
toughness is needed, normalizing is the most usual approach for linepipe. Normalizing produces a
uniform fine grained microstructure when done properly. A change in the microstructure of one ASTM
grain size can shift the ductile to brittle transition temperature by approximately 10-15°C.

Thermomechanical processing typically used in the manufacture of ERW microalloyed linepipe is

another technique for obtaining fine grained microstructure. The toughness of such steels greatly
exceeds that of linepipe steels produced by traditional carbon steel processing techniques.

D8. Control of Carbon Equivalent

Welding is a necessary consideration in the fabrication of high pressure industrial gas pipelines. In
conventional carbon steel metallurgy, carbon and manganese are the major elements responsible for
developing necessary strength properties but other elements such as Cr, Mo, Ni, Cu etc. will also
contribute.

The major problem is that as the levels of alloying elements increase, the hardenability increases and
so does the potential for forming hard and brittle untempered martensite after welding. The presence
of brittle untempered martensite can lead to microcracks and increase susceptibility to failure
mechanisms involving hydrogen.

One method of control is to place limitations on chemistry for pipelines or component steels by the
carbon equivalent approach. There are various carbon equivalent formulas but the most common
carbon equivalent (C.E.) formula in use today is:

% Mn %Cr + % Mo + %V % Ni + %Cu
CE = %C + + +
6 5 15

In older references, a carbon equivalent of 0.55 maximum was considered to be the limit for steels
such as API 5L X52 in hydrogen service. More recently, a maximum carbon equivalent of 0.43 has
been cited as the maximum allowable for pipelines, but special cases may require lower carbon
equivalent levels.

With respect to the newer microalloyed steels with low carbon contents, alternative carbon equivalent
formulas may be utilized. For steels with low carbon contents or carbon equivalents equal to or less
than 0.12%, the composition parameter Pcm, has been found be to a better indicator of crack
susceptibility. This parameter developed by Ito-Bessyo is as follows:

Pcm=%C + (%Mn+%Si+%Cu+%Co)/20+%Ni/60+%Mo/15+%V/10+5 %B

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The acceptable limit is 0.20% maximum.

D9. Weld Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) Hardness

Controls over the weld and weld heat affect zone hardness can be improved to eliminate or minimize
the presence of hard brittle untempered martensite. Both weld procedure and weld operator
qualification can be controlled with respect to weld and HAZ hardness. The most common hardness
limitation is a level of Rockwell C 22 which is equivalent to Vickers 248. Typically, mounted weld
samples are tested using microhardness techniques. The hardness limitation has been applied to
pipe parent metal in sour gas services and it is applicable to hydrogen service also.

D10. Pre and Post Weld Stress Relief

One option for controlling weld HAZ hardness when welding steels which may be susceptible to HAZ
martensite formation is through modification of the welding process. Pre weld heat thermal treatment
helps prevent martensite formation while post weld heat treatment will temper any martensite and
stress relieve the HAZ simultaneously. Generally, pre and post weld heat treatments have added
costs and the preferred approach is to place limitations on alloy chemistry.

In regard to an assessment of austenite stability and microstructual constituents, some familiarity with
the following parameters may be needed:

1) Stability factor (∆)

2) Austenite tranformation factors (Ms, Md30)
3) Chromium equivalient, Creq
4) Nickel Equivalent, Nieq

The parameters are defined in an earlier section but Peckner and Bernstein’s “Handbook of Stainless
Steels”[?] is recommended as a reference for additional background.

D11. Metastable Austenitic Stainless Steels

Austenitic stainless steels have excellent toughness and resistance to environmental damage for
mechanisms involving hydrogen. In certain austenitic stainless steels such as 201, 301, 302, 304,
304L and 321, the austenite is metastable and may transform to martensite when strained,
particularly, when temperature is reduced. The presence of strain induced martensite in excessive
amount is detrimental; increases in magnetism in cold worked or strain hardened metastable
austenitic steels may be due to the presence of strain induced martensite or delta ferrite.

The problems with metastable austenitic stainless steels are not likely to be severe at low hydrogen
pressure but might be of concern at high pressures. A solution for high pressure is to select austenitic
stainless steels with high austenite stability, e.g., 316 or 316L.

D12. Strength Level

In low strength carbon steels, hydrogen damage occurs predominantly by loss in tensile ductility or
blistering. Low strength steels usually fail in a ductile mode in hydrogen environment. Higher strength
carbon steels are prone to hydrogen embrittlement and usually fracture in a brittle mode. At the same
strength level, a quenched and tempered fine grain microstructure is more resistance to hydrogen
cracking than the normalized microstructure.

The susceptibility of stainless steels to hydrogen embrittlement is also dependent on the strength
level. Ferritic stainless steels are resistant to hydrogen embrittlement at low strength levels. Austenitic
stainless steels are highly resistant or immune to hydrogen cracking in the annealed or lightly cold
worked condition. Martensitic and precipitation hardening stainless steels are extremely susceptible to
hydrogen embrittlement with increasing yield strength. The lower strength tempers of precipitation
hardening steels are preferred for hydrogen services.

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D13. Microalloyed Steels

A major development in the area of linepipe has been the introduction of microalloyed steels;
particularly, in ERW pipe. Microalloying refers to the use of small amounts of alloying elements which
produce an effect generally very significant and seemingly out of proportion to the amount added.
Examples of microalloying agents include: Nb, V, Ti, rare earth elements and Ca.

The use of microalloyed steels coupled with the special thermal mechanical processing results in
steels with very fined grained microstructures, exceptional toughness and weldability due to low
carbon equivalent. The high strength and low carbon equivalent combinations are superior to
conventional carbon steels with carbon and manganese as the major alloying elements.

The major microalloying element used in ERW linepipe is Nb. Ca addition may be made for sulfide
shape control. V is usually the major microalloying agent in seamless weld pipe. Specification API 5L
places controls on the total amount of major elements typically used in microalloyed steel linepipe.

It is very possible that many users of linepipes are using microalloyed steels and are unaware of this.

D14. Welding

There have been references to welding in previous portions of this section. Welding is extremely
critical. The welding process should produce defect free welds and weld heat affected zones which
match the mechanical and toughness properties of the linepipe being joined. It is important that
hardness levels in the weld and weld heat affected zone be controlled to avoid hard spots. Weld filler
metals, weld process qualification, weld operator qualification, mechanical tests, metallographic
techniques and NDT techniques all play a role in ensuring that the fabricated pipeline has adequate
toughness for hydrogen applications.

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Appendix F: Example of Preventive Maintenance Program

for Carbon monoxide and Syngas Pipelines

Note: Intervals shown are only examples and do not reflect required or universal practice.

a. Pipeline systems

Checking interval
Underground pipelines 1 Month 3 Months 6 Months 1 Year 3 Year 5 Year When required
Pipeline patrol X
Pipeline patrol in critical Daily
areas
On-foot servicing X
inspection
Pipeline risers and casing X
inspection
Effect of mining X
(subsidence)
Above-ground pipelines
Pipeline patrol and X
servicing
Pipe bridges- inspection X
and painting
Supports and anchorages X
Inner pipeline inspection X

b. Cathodic protection

Checking interval
1 Month 3 Months 6 Months 1 Year 3 Year 5 Year When required
Drainage stations X
Impressed current stations X
Protection devices against X
AC
Pipe/ground DC potential, X
on/off
Pipe/ground AC potential X
and current
Earths, anodes, X
connections fuses, spark
gaps
Insulating joints X
Overall CP effectiveness X
Coating defect detection X
in sensitive areas
Comprehensive system X
audit

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c. Checking of stations

Checking interval
1 Month 3 Months 6 Months 1 Year 3 Year 5 Year When required
General tightness X
Telecommunication X
system
Record measurements X
gas detector
Emergency shut-off valve X
Valves, control valves, X
etc.
Cleaning filter X
Safety valve (if any ) X
Cleaning and repainting X
piping
Calibration flow meters X

d. Safety Management System

Checking interval
1 Month 3 Months 6 Months 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year When required
Training of personnel X
Emergency response X
plan- test and update
Audit Safety Management X
System
Leak Detection System - X
test
Information to authorities X

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Appendix G: Composition criteria for CO and Syngas

This document specifically refers to carbon monoxide and syngas as defined below :

State : Gas
Components (molar) :

Water : less than 20 PPM (dew point @ 1 atmosphere = -55°C/-67°F)

Inerts and / or methane (natural gas): balance
CO2 : less than 100 PPM
H2 and CO per Classification of H2 / CO Mixtures diagram
Other components : negligible

It is important to note that moisture is a critical contaminant in this context and this document should
not be used for mixtures in which condensation of moisture may be expected to occur.

See the EIGA/CGA publication Hydrogen transportation pipelines

Classification of Gas Mixtures

Containing H2 and / or CO

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%
H2
50% H2 SYNGAS

40%
H2 10% or more and H2 10% or more and
CO less than 200 PPM CO more than 200 PPM
30%

20%

10%
Not covered in H2 less than 10% and
CO
this document CO 200 PPM or more

100 200 100%

PPM PPM

CO

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Appendix J: Probability acceptance criteria

Reference is made to the article “An overview of quantitative risk measures for loss of life and
economic damage”, by S.N. Jonkman, P.H.A.J.M. van Gelder and J.K. Vrijling, published in the
Journal of Hazardous Materials

Examples of risk criteria applicable in The Nederlands and in the United Kingdom

The individual risk is defined as the probability for a person remaining at a given open air location at
all times being fatally injured as a result of any abnormal event affecting the pipe.
The societal risk takes into account the number of fatalities, which may occur in the case of an
abnormal event affecting the pipe. The required minimum probability of the abnormal event decreases
with the number of fatalities

Probability of CO toxicity risk using Probit functions

A probit equation can be used to determine the probability of fatality from a toxic exposure. The probit
equation is:

Probit = A + B ln(Cn t)

Where A, B and n are material specific probit coefficients from toxic exposures to animals, C is the
concentration of the toxic material in ppm and t is the exposure time in minutes.

The probability of fatality is given by a normal distribution function. A probit of 2.67 corresponds to a
1% chance of fatality. A probit of 5 corresponds to approximately 50% chance of fatality. A probit of
8 is assumed to mean 100% chance of fatality.

The commercially available consequence modeling program, PHAST, provides by default the probit
coefficients for carbon monoxide.

A B n
PHAST -37.98 3.7 1

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The probit values were compared with the expected impact (referring to 4.2.2) of the exposure
concentration and duration listed above. This comparison is summarized below.

Concentration Exposure time PHAST Percentage

Effects description in EIGA document
(ppm) (min) probit of fatalities
Headache,nausea, poisoning and fatal in case of
1 500 30 1.66 < 1%
prolonged exposure (more than 30 minutes)
2 500 60 Rapid collapse , death in one or two hours 6.12 87 %
5 000 30 Massive poisoning , death in less than one hour 6.12 87 %
7000 10 1% fatalities 3.30 4.5 %
10 000 10 Death in 10 to 15 minutes 4.62 35 %
50 000 2 Instantaneous poisoning , immediately fatal 4.62 35 %

For the 7000 ppm exposure for 10 minutes, the probit is above the 1% fatality (i.e. probit of 2.67)
listed in table above as a description of the impact of such an exposure.
The rest of the descriptions listed in the above table appear to agree well with the probability of
fatalities predicted by the probit. The probit for the exposures are around 5 (i.e. 50% chance of fatality
for such an exposure).

Although there is not universal consensus on the probit values that should be used for these
calculations, probits can provide a better understanding of the impact of concentrations and/or
durations that are not listed in the table and the impact of exposure to time-varying concentrations of
CO.

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Appendix K: References

ASM
ASM Handbook “Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels and High Performance Alloys”, Vol. 1, ASM
International, Metals Park, OH, 1990
ASM Handbook “Welding, Brazing and Soldering”, Vol. 6, ASM International, Metals Park, OH 1993

ASME
Pipeline Design and Construction published by ASME in 2000, pages 581-604
B31.3 : Pressure Piping for Refineries and Chemical Plants
B31.8 : Gas transmission and distribution piping systems

API
API 5L : Specification for line pipe
API 520 : Sizing, selection and installation of pressure-relieving devices in refineries
API 521 : Guide for pressure-relieving and depressuring systems
API 941: Recommended Practice for Steels for Hydrogen Service at Elevated Temperatures and
Pressures in Petroleum Refineries and Petrochemical Plants
API 1104: Welding of pipelines and related facilities
API RP500 A, B, C: Recommended practice for classification of locations for electrical installations at
petroleum facilities

ASTM
G 142: Standard Test method foe Determination of Susceptibility of Metals to Embrittlement in
Hydrogen Containing Environment at High pressure, High Temperature or both
G 129: Standard Practice for Slow Strain Rate Testing to Evaluate the Susceptibility of Metallic
Materials to Environmentally Assisted Cracking
F 1459: Standard test method for determination of the susceptibility of metallic materials to gaseous
hydrogen embrittlement

ATEX
94/9: European directive on explosive atmospheres

NASA
Safety Standard for Hydrogen and Hydrogen Systems: Guidelines for Hydrogen System Design,
Materials Selection, Operations, Storage and Transportation

NACE
MR0 175-2000: Standard Material Requirements for Sulfide Stress Cracking Resistant Metallic
Materials for Oilfield Equipment
Standard TM0284-96, item N°21215, Standard test method, Evaluation of pipeline and pressure
vessel steels for resistance to hydrogen-induced cracking
Standard RP0177-95: Mitigation of Alternating Current and Lightning Effects on Metallic Structures
and Corrosion Control Systems
Standard RP01-98: Control of corrosion under thermal installation and fire proofing material
Standard RP05 02: Pipeline external corrosion direct assessment methodology

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EIGA
Doc 100 : Hydrogen Cylinders and Transport Vessels
Doc 15: Gaseous Hydrogen Stations
Doc 95: Recommendation for the Avoidance of Failure of CO and CO/CO2 Mixtures Cylinders
Doc 75: Determination of Safety Distances
Doc 919, Guidelines for the Preparation of Safety Data Sheets, European Industrial Gases
Association, Inc. www.eiga.eu

CGA
G 5.4: Standard for hydrogen piping systems at consumer locations
G 5.5: Hydrogen vent systems

ISO
ISO 13623: Petroleum and natural gas industries-Pipeline transportation systems
EN ISO 11114-Part 1: Gas cylinders. Compatibility of cylinder and valve materials with gas
contents:Metallic materials
EN ISO 11114-Part 2: Gas cylinders. Compatibility of cylinder and valve materials with gas contents
Non-metallic materials
EN ISO 11114-Part 4: Transportable gas cylinders. Compatibility of cylinder and valve materials with
gas contents:Test methods for selecting metallic materials resistant to hydrogen embrittlement
ISO 9809: Part 1-4 Refillable seamless steel gas cylinders. Design, construction and testing
ISO 11120: Gas cylinders. Refillable seamless steel tubes for compressed gas transport, of water
capacity between 150 l and 3000 l. Design construction and testing

EN
EN1594: Gas supply systems- Pipelines for maximum operating pressures over 16 bar
EN 14161:Petroleum and natural gas industries. Pipeline transportation systemsEN 10208-2: Steel
pipes for pipelines for combustible fluids
EN 12954: Cathodic protection of buried or immersed metallic structures
EN10285: Steel tubes and fittings for on and offshore pipelines- External three layer extruded
polyethylene based coatings
EN12732: Gas supply systems:Welding steel pipework- Functional requirements
EN60079-10: Electrical apparatus for explosive gas atmospheres- Part 10: Classification of hazardous
Areas
EN60079-14: Electrical apparatus for explosive gas atmospheres- Part 14: Electrical installations in
hazardous areas
EN61508: Functional safety of electrical/electronic/programmable electronic safety related systems

NFPA
NFPA 55: Compressed Gases and Cryogenic Fluids CodeNFPA - 70 : National Electric Code
NFPA-496: Standard for Purged and Pressurized Enclosures for Electrical Equipment
NFPA-497: Recommended Practice for The Classification of Flammable Liquids, Gases, or Vapors
and of Hazardous (Classified) Locations for Electrical Installations in Chemical Process Area

IEC
IEC 79: Electrical apparatus for explosive gas atmospheres

GERMAN STANDARDS
TRFL: Technische Regel für Rohrfernleitungsanlagen (2003)

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OTHER TECHNICAL LITERATURE

Hydrogen Gas

Gas encyclopedia, Air Liquide

A.W. Thompson, “Hydrogen: Its Technology and Implications,” Vol. 2, CRC Press, Cleveland, 1977.

Hydrogen Effects on Materials

Barthelemy, Herve, “Hydrogen gas embrittlement of some austenitic stainless steels, Hydrogen and
materials Conference”, Beijing, May, 9-13, 1988

Barthelemy, Herve, “Interaction of steels with hydrogen in petroleum industry pressure vessel
service”, International Conference, Paris, March 28-30, 1989

Loginow, A.W. and Phelps, E.H., “Steel for Seamless Hydrogen Pressure Vessels,” Corrosion, 31
(1975), p. 404.

Walter, R.J., Jewett, R.P., and Chandler, W.T., “On the Mechanism of Hydrogen Embrittlement of
Iron-and-Nickel-Base Alloys,” Materials Science and Engineering, 5 (2), 99-110 (January, 1970).

Vennett, R.M. and Ansell, G.S., “A Study of Gaseous Hydrogen Damage in Certain FCC Metals,”
ASM Transactions Quarterly, 62 (4), 1007-1013 (December, 1969).

Cavett, R.H., and VanNess, H.C., “Embrittlement of Steel by High-Pressure Hydrogen Gas,” Welding
Journal, Welding Research Supplement, 42, 316s-319s (July, 1963).

Steinman, J.B., VanNess,H.C. and Ansell, G.S. The Effect of High-Pressure Hydrogen Upon the
Notch Tensile Strength and Fracture Model of 4140 Steel,” Welding Journal, Welding Research
Supplement, 44, 221s-224s (May, 1965).

Wachab and Nelson, H.B., “Hydrogen Effects in Metals,” Warrendate, PA, AIME 1981.

Walter, R.J. and Chandler, W.T., “Effects of Hydrogen on Behavior of Materials,” edited by A.W.
Thompson and I.M. Bernstein, New York, AIME, 1976.

Holbrook, J.H. and Cicione, H.J., “The Effect of Hydrogen on Low-Cycle-Fatigue Life and Subcritical
Crack Growth in Pipeline Steels,” Battelle Columbus Laboratories prepared for the Energy
Applications and Analysis Division Department of Applied Science Under Subcontract No. 550772-S,
1982.

Chandler, W.T. and Walter, R.J., “Testing to Determine the Effect of High Pressure Hydrogen
Environments on the Mechanical Properties of Metals,” Hydrogen Embrittlement Testing, ASTM STP
543, ASTM, 1974.

S.L. Robinson and R.E. Stoltz, “Toughness Losses and Fracture Behavior of Low Strength Carbon-
Manganese Steel in Hydrogen,” Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore, CA, July 1976.
P.H. Pumphrey, “The Effect of Sulfide Inclusions on the Diffusion of Hydrogen in Steels,” Internal
Paper-Central Electricity Generating Board, Surrey, England, 1978.

Hydrogen-related parameters and hydrogen degradation of some steels, John Smith, Jan Kowalski,
Northwest University, University of Gdansk

Hydrogen damage in steels, Khalid Al-Nabulsi, Penn State University

Hydrogen induced corrosion, Avery, Chui, Kariya, Larson, UC Berkeley

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Pipelines

M. Mohitpour, et.al., “Design Basis Developed for Hydrogen Pipelines,” Oil and Gas Journal, May 28,
1990, pp. 83-94.

M.W. Mucek, “Amoco’s Line Pipe Specs Exceed Industry Standards,” Oil and Gas Journal, June 11,
1990, pp. 45-47.

Holbrook, J.H., Cialone, H.J. and Scott, P.M., “Hydrogen Degradation of Pipeline Steels Summary
Report,” Battelle Columbus Laboratories, July, 1984, DOE Contract No. DE-ACO2-76CH00016.

Thompson, A.W. and Bernstein, I.M., “Selection of Structural Materials for Hydrogen Pipelines and
Storage Vessels,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Vol. 2, pp. 163-173, Permagon Press,
1977.

Materials

Micro Alloying ’75, Proceedings, Washington DC, October 1-3, 1975

“Handbook of Comparative World Steel Standards”, 2nd Edition, J. E. Bringas, editor, ASTM
International, West Conshohocken, PA 19428, 2002

Peckner, D. and Bernstein, J. M., “Handbook of Stainless Steels”, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1977

Carbonyl Formation

J. Brynestad, “Iron and Nickel Carbonyl Formation in Steel Pipes and Its Prevention – Literature
Survey”, ORNL/TM 5499, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, September 1976.

V. P. Sirohi, “Carbonyl Formation in Coal Gasification Plants”, Interim Report for

Energy Research and Development Administration and The American Gas Association, December
1974.

Stress Corrosion Cracking

Leis, B.N. and Colwell, I.A., “Initiation of Stress-Corrosion Cracking in Gas Transmission Piping,”
Effects of the Environment in the Initiation of Crack Growth, ASTM 1298, W.A. VanDerSluys, R.S.
Piascek, and R. Zawierucha, Eds., American Society for Testing and Materials, 1997.

Miscellaneous

Wilson, A.D., “The Influence of Inclusions on the Toughness and Fatigue Properties of A516-70
Steel,” Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology, Vol. 101, pp. 265-274, July 1979.

Williams, D. N., “The Use of Flattened Specimens to Measure the Charpy V-Notch Impact Specimens
of Thin Wall Pipe”, Battelle, Columbus, OH, August 1988.

Makhnenko, V.I., “The Effects of Residual Stresses on the Propagation of Fatigue Cracks in the
Component Parts of Welded Structures,” Welding Research Abroad, January 1981.

75