Concept and Nature of Education Block-1

BESC-131
Education: Concept,
Indira Gandhi
National Open University
Nature and Perspectives
School of Education
BLOCK 1
CONCEPT AND NATURE OF EDUCATION 7
BLOCK 2
PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE OF
EDUCATION 87
BLOCK 3
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF
EDUCATION 167
BLOCK 4
SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVE OF EDUCATION 233
1
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. Lokesh K. Verma Prof. D. Venkateshwarlu Dr. Gaurav Singh
Former Dean Director Assistant Professor
Department of Education School of Education, IGNOU School of Education
University of Jammu IGNOU
(Chairperson of Expert Prof. Vibha Joshi
Committee Meeting) School of Education, IGNOU Dr. Elizabeth Kuruvilla
Assistant Professor
Prof. P.K. Sahoo
Prof. N.K. Dash School of Education
Formerly with Department
School of Education, IGNOU IGNOU
of Education
Allahabad University
Prof. Saroj Pandey Dr. Anjuli Suhane
Prof. Harjeet Kaur Bhatia Formerly with School of Assistant Professor
Department of Education Education, IGNOU School of Education
JamiaMilliaIslamia IGNOU
Prof. Amitav Mishra
Prof. Nidhi Bala,
School of Education, IGNOU Mr. Ajith Kumar C.
Formerly with Department
Assistant Professor
of Education
Prof. Nirmala Yalavarthi School of Education
University of Lucknow
School of Education, IGNOU IGNOU
Prof. Swaraj Basu,
School of Social Science Prof. Sutapa Bose Dr. Niradhar Dey
IGNOU, New Delhi School of Education Programme Coordinator,
(Former Chairperson, IGNOU, New Delhi Education under B.A.
CBCS Committee) General (BAG)
Mrs. Poonam Bhushan
Programme - CBCS
Prof. Santosh Panda, Associate Professor
Assistant Professor
STRIDE, IGNOU, School of Education, IGNOU
School of Education
(former Chairperson NCTE IGNOU
New Delhi) Dr. Eisha Kannadi
Associate Professor
Prof. S. Vijaysekhar Reddy
School of Education, IGNOU
CBCS BDP Coordinator of
School of Social Science
Dr. M.V. Lakshmi Reddy
SOSS, IGNOU
Associate Professor
Prof. Rashmi Sinha School of Education, IGNOU
Director
School of Social Science
IGNOU, New Delhi
Programme Coordinator : Dr. Niradhar Dey
Educaion under B.A. General (BAG)
Programme - CBCS
Course Coordinator : Dr. Niradhar Dey, (BESC-131)
BLOCK 1 PREPARATION TEAM
Unit 1, 2 & 3 : Dr. Niradhar Dey, School of Education, IGNOU.
Unit 4 : Dr. Ramendra Ku. Parhi, Dept. of Education, Central University of Odisha,
Koraput.
Content Editing : Prof. N.K. Dash, School of Education, IGNOU.
Language Editing : Prof. Pramod Kumar, SOH, IGNOU.
Format Editing and Proof Reading : Dr. Niradhar Dey, School of Education, IGNOU.

Unit 5 : Dr. Sunita Singh, CIE, University of Delhi.
Unit 6 : Dr. Gaurav Rao, Dept. of Education, MJP Rohilkhand University.
Unit 7 : Prof. Asheesh Srivastava, Mahatma Gandhi Central University, Bihar.
Unit 8 : Prof. Neerja Dhankar, Formerly with School of Education, Central University
of Haryana.
Major Transformation : Unit 5 : Dr. Niradhar Dey, School of Education, IGNOU
Content Editing : Prof. Vibha Joshi, School of Education, IGNOU
Language Editing : Prof. Pramod Kumar, SOH, IGNOU
Format Editing and Proof Reading : Dr. Niradhar Dey, School of Education, IGNOU
2
Unit 9 : Dr. Shrikant Dwivedi, School of Education, Galgotias University.
Unit 10 : Prof. Vishal Sood, School of Education, Central Univ. of Himachal Pradesh.
Unit 11 : Dr. Tapan Kumar Basantia, School of Education, Central University of South
Bihar.
Unit 12 : Dr. Dori Lal, Dept. of Teacher Training and Non Formal Education, JMI.
Content Editing : Prof. Amitav Mishra, School of Education, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Format Editing and Proof Reading : Dr. Niradhar Dey, School of Education, IGNOU.

Unit 13 : Dr. Rajalaxmi Raina, Amity Institute of Behavioural and Allied Science, Amity
University, Noida.
Unit 14 : Dr. Biswajit Behera, School of Education, Central University of Punjab.
Unit 15 : Prof. Ramakanta Mohalik, RIE, Bhubaneswar (NCERT).
Unit 16 : Dr. Sweta Gupta, Central Institute of Education, University of Delhi.
Major Transformation : Unit 14, 15 & 16, Dr. Niradhar Dey, School of Education, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Content Editing : Prof. N.K. Dash, SOE, IGNOU (Units 13, 14 and 15); Prof. N.K. Dash and
Mrs. Poonam Bhushan, SOE, IGNOU (Unit-16).
Format Editing and Proof Reading : Dr. Niradhar Dey, School of Education, IGNOU, New Delhi.
PRINT PRODUCTION
Mr. Y. N. Sharma Sh. S.S. Venkatachalam Mr. Sudhir Kumar
Assistant Registrar ( Pub.) Assistant Registrar ( Pub.) Section Officer (P)
MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi
SOE, IGNOU, New Delhi
July, 2020
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2020
ISBN-81
All right reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form by mimeograph or any
other means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information about the School of Education and the Indira Gandhi National
Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s office at Maidan Garhi, New
Delhi-110068
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3
BESC-131 EDUCATION: CONCEPT,
NATURE AND
PERSPECTIVES
Block 1 Concept and Nature of Education 7
Unit 1 Concept and Nature of Education 9
Unit 2 Scope of Education 27
Unit 3 Agencies of Education 43
Unit 4 Historical Developments of Education: An Overview 63
Block 2 Philosophical Perspective of Education 87

Unit 5 Education and Philosophy 89
Unit 6 Schools of Thought 107
Unit 7 Contribution of Indian Philosophers 123
Unit 8 Contribution of Western Philosophers 145
Block 3 Sociological Perspective of Education 167

Unit 9 Education and Society 169
Unit 10 Education and Socialization 185
Unit 11 Issues and Concerns in Education 198
Unit 12 Interface between School and Community 216
Block 4 Socio-Psychological Perspective of Education 233

Unit 13 Understanding Education from Psychological
Perspective 235
Unit 14 Understanding Education from Socio-
Psychological Perspectives 253
Unit 15 Shifting Psychological Theories to Understand
Education 271
Unit 16 Understanding Socio-Psychological Attributes 291
BESC-131 EDUCATION: CONCEPT,
NATURE AND
PERSPECTIVES
Introduction to the Course
This course ‘Education: Concept, Nature and Perspectives’ (BESC-131)
is basically an attempt to make you understand the meaning and concept of
education and its discourses in various educational perspectives. The course aims
to achieve the following learning outcomes.
After going through the course, you should be able to:
 Explain the concept, nature and scope of education.
 Discuss the role of different agencies of education and their interface
between and among the agencies.
 Analyse the historical development of education in India during pre and
post-independence periods.
 Explain the concept of education from different philosophical perspectives
with special reference to various schools of thought and viewpoints of Indian
and Western philosophers.
 Describe sociological perspective of education with special reference to
the process of socialisation of the child and the interface between the school
and community.
 Discuss the socio-psychological perspective of education with special
reference to the use of constructivist approach to education.
This course has been designed into four different Blocks.
The first Block will provide you with the basic understanding of education
from various perspectives. This Block deals with the concept, nature and scope
of education. This Block also emphasizes the functions of various agencies of
education like family, school, community, state, media, etc. in imparting education
to the children. This Block also discusses a detailed overview of the historical
development of education in India.
The second Block deals with the philosophical perspective of education focusing
on educational concept of various schools of thought and viewpoints of different
Indian and Western philosophers on education.
The third Block provides the learners experiences to understand the society
where they live, role of education for socialising the children, debate and
discussions on social issues and concerns in education and its interface with
different agencies of education like, family, school and community.
The fourth Block explores and understands the use of socio-psychological
attributes of learners and the implications of constructivist approach to education.
Specifically, it deals with understanding education from the socio-psychological
perspectives and the implications of psychological theories and attributes in the
field of educational practices.
6
BESC-131
Education: Concept,
Indira Gandhi
National Open University
Nature and Perspectives
School of Education
Block
1 CONCEPT AND NATURE OF

EDUCATION
Unit 1
Concept and Nature of Education 9
Unit 2
Scope of Education 27
Unit 3
Agencies of Education 43
Unit 4
Historical Developments of Education: An Overview 63
7
BLOCK 1 CONCEPT AND NATURE
OF EDUCATION
Introduction to the Block
‘Concept and Nature of Education’ is the first Block of the Course,
BESC-131 ‘Education: Concept, Nature and Perspectives’. To understand
an abstract concept like education, one is required to explicate its meaning or
nature from the point of view of the functions such concepts perform or the
contexts in which such concepts are appropriately used. Keeping in view of
its areas of knowledge and perspectives, the present Block addresses specifically
the meaning, scope and nature of education narrating the contribution of various
agencies to the understanding of educational discourses. This Block provides
an overview of the historical perspective of education. There are four Units
in this Block.
The first Unit of this Block, ‘Concept and Nature of Education’, begins with
providing you an understanding of the concept and nature of education, including
the values that we practice. Specifically, the Unit discusses the aims of education
that deals with the development of individuals and the society. Finally, the Unit
differentiates the concept of Education from Schooling, Learning, Instruction,
Training and Indoctrination.
The second Unit of this Block, ‘Scope of Education’, focuses on understanding
education from different viewpoints such as different learning environments, focus
on the study of knowledge and mode of providing education. Under the viewpoint
of learning environments, the scope of education has been explained as formal,
informal and non-formal systems of education. Further, from the focus on study
of knowledge, education is classified into liberal, professional and vocational
& technical education. The Unit ends with illustrating the systems of face-to-
face, open and distance learning, and online education.
The third Unit of this Block, ‘Agencies of Education’ deals with the contribution
of various agencies such as family, school, community, State and media to the
education of the children. Education being a continuous and life long process,
to the above agencies of education perform educational functions as expected
by the society and educate the children.
The fourth Unit of this Block, ‘Historical Developments of Education: An
Overview’ analyses the historical perspective of education. Specifically, this Unit
critically analyses the education system prevailing in India and its influences on
shaping educational policies and practices during different periods such as ancient,
medieval and modern times. This Unit also explains educational developments
in the recent time such as the Niti Aayog, education as a fundamental right
and draft National Education Policy, 2019.
8
UNIT 1 CONCEPT AND NATURE OF
EDUCATION
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Concept of Education
1.3.1 Etymological Derivation of Education
1.3.2 Definitions of Education and its Analysis
1.3.3 Narrow and Broader Meaning of Education
1.3.4 Nature of Education
1.4 Goals and Aims of Education

1.4.1 Individual Aim of Education
1.4.2 Social Aim of Education
1.4.3 Democratic Aim of Education
1.5 Cultivating Values through Education
1.6 Education as Differentiated from Schooling, Learning, Instruction,

Training, Teaching and Indoctrination
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 References and Suggested Readings
1.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Education is a never ending process. It starts from the very beginning of one’s
birth and continues till the death. At every moment of our life, we learn something
that may be at our home, at the school, in the society, at the workplace, and many
other places. Education helps us to realise our potential abilities and helps use
those in our actions. Education is a powerful instrument to modify our behavior
and it also makes us realize our own self. The aims of education are also very
wide in their scope and cater to individual and social need of an individual. The
most important aspect of education is to cultivate values among the human beings
through schooling, instruction, training and teaching.
In view of the above, the present Unit will help you to understand the concept
and nature of education. It will also help you to understand the aims of education
for the development of individuals and the society. Finally, this Unit will help you
to differentiate the concept of Education from Schooling, Learning, Instruction,
Training and Indoctrination.
All of us know that education is an important aspect of our social life. Parents
irrespective of different socio-economic background want their children to get
good education. Government wants that its citizens must get good education.
Dr. Niradhar Dey, Assistant Professor, School of Education, IGNOU. 9

Concept and Nature of
Education 1.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
 define education with its derivations;
 explain the concept and nature of education;
 discuss the individual, social and democratic aims of education;
 describe the processes to cultivate values among the learners through
education; and
 explain the concepts of ‘schooling’, ‘learning’, ‘instruction’, ‘training’, and
‘indoctrination’.
1.3 CONCEPT OF EDUCATION

In layperson’s language, we understand education is a capacity that helps an
individual to lead him/her from ‘darkness to light’ or from ‘ignorance to knowledge’.
More specifically, education helps individuals to acquire information and knowledge;
makes them conscious and adjust to different situations; and also change their
behavior from undesirable to desirable. John Dewey explains education as a
process of living through a continuous reconstruction of experiences. It means the
experiences are not static; rather the experiences are reconstructed, which means
education helps us to reconstruct our experiences. Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
says ‘Education in Indian tradition is not merely a means of earning a livelihood,
not only a nursery of thought, or a school for citizenship, but it is ignition into the
life of sprit and training of human souls in the pursuits of truth and the practice
of virtue’.
The above discussions depict that:
 Education helps individuals to continuously reconstruct their own experiences.
 Education contributes to the complete development of human beings.
 Education not merely prepares individuals to earn their livelihood but also
purifies their soul and mind and enables them to experience the truth and
virtues of life.
Let us try to understand the meaning of the concept of education from the
etymological point of views.
1.3.1 Etymological Derivation of Education

The word ‘Education’ has been derived from the Latin words ‘Educare’, ‘Educere’
and ‘Educatum’. The word ‘Educare’ means to ‘nourish’ or to ‘bring up’. The
word ‘Educere’ means to ‘lead forth’ or to ‘draw out’. The word ‘Educatum’ is
composed of two terms, i.e. ‘E’ and ‘Duco’. Here ‘E’ means, a movement from
‘inward’ to ‘outward’ and ‘Duco’ means ‘developing’ or ‘progressing’.
When we analyse the above etymological derivations, we can infer that ‘Education’
nourishes or brings up the children for complete development of their personality.
‘Education’ can lead them from ignorance to knowledge. Further, ‘Education’
helps them develop and express their inward abilities.
10
‘Education’, can also be defined in terms of Sanskrit words ‘Shiksha’ and ‘Vidya’. Concept and Nature of
Education
The word, ‘Shiksha’ is derived from ‘shah’ which implies, ‘to control or to
discipline’. The word, ‘Vidya’ is derived from ‘Vidh’ which implies ‘to know’. So
the Sanskrit words ‘Shiksha’ and ‘Vidya’ are synonyms to the word ‘Education’.
Thus ‘Education’ provides knowledge and makes oneself disciplined’.
Let us now discuss some of the definitions of ‘Education’ given by the great
educationists.
1.3.2 Definitions of Education and its Analysis

Both Indian and western thinkers have defined the concept of education. Let us
analyse a few of them.
Indian Thinkers:
‘Education is something, which makes the person self-reliant and self-less’.
Rigveda
‘Education is for liberation’.
Upanishad
‘Nothing is more purifying in the earth than wisdom’.
Bhagvat Gita
‘Education means training for the Country and love for the nation’.
Kautilya
‘Human education means the training which one gets from the nature’.
Panini
‘Education is the manifestation of divine perfection already existing in man’.
Swami Vivekananda
Education is the all-round drawing out of the best in child and man - body,
mind and spirit’.
Mahatma Gandhi
The highest education is that which does not merely give us information but
makes our life in harmony with all existence’.
Rabindranath Tagore
‘Education which will offer the tools where by one can live for the divine,
for the country, for one-self, and for others and this must be the ideal of
every school which calls itself national’.
Sri Aurobindo
Western Thinkers:
‘Education is the child’s development from within’.
Rousseau
11
Concept and Nature of ‘Education means the bringing out the ideas of universal validity which are
Education
latent in the mind of every man’.
Socrates
‘Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at the right movement’.
Plato
‘Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound body’.
Aristotle
‘Education is the natural, harmonious and progressive development of man’s
innate powers’.
Pestalozzi
‘Education is the complete development of the individuality of the child’.
T.P. Nunn
‘Education is the process of living through a continuous reconstruction of
experiences’.
John Dewey
When we analyse the above definitions of Education, we infer the following
characteristics of education.
 Education makes the individual self-less, self-reliant, liberated from worldly
bondage, and manifests the divine perfection already existing in him/her.
 Education makes the individual realize the divine and work spiritually.
 Education trains individuals for the country and inculcates in them love for the
nation.
 Education makes our life in harmony with all existence.
 Education prepares oneself for the society as well as for the country.
 Education helps individuals to adjust to various situations, both favourable
and unfavourable.
 Education helps individuals to live through continuous reconstruction of new
experiences.
 Education is the natural, progressive and harmonious development of the
individuals in body, mind and spirit.
Activity 1
From the above definitions of ‘Education’, write the name of the educationist(s)
against the key points that they have mentioned in their definition:
Individual and all-round development:
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
12
Development for the Country: Education
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
Spiritual and divine development:
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
1.3.3 Narrow and Broader Meaning of Education

Education can also be explained in its narrow as well as broad sense. According
to narrow meaning of education, education means teaching-learning activities taking
place in the formal system of education. Education that we receive from the
formal school system explains narrow meaning of education. Under narrow meaning
of education, curriculum, teachers, students, time tables, teaching methodologies,
teaching materials, evaluation processes are covered. The acts of teachers and
students in which teachers provide knowledge as per of the defined curriculum
and students receive knowledge whatever is taught to them in the school comes
under the narrow meaning of education. In the narrow setting of education, students
get very less scope to exhibit themselves and also get less opportunities to transform
their potential aptitudes into visible abilities. But this idea of education has been
criticized as it is very limited in scope. The acquisition of knowledge is not the one
and only purpose of education, but definitely formal education system is one of
the prominent aims of education.
On the contrary, broader meaning of education refers to all the life experiences
that the child receives at school, home, society, etc. Education that a child gets
from formal, informal and non-formal systems of education comes under the
broader sense of education. The broader meaning of education explains education
as a continuous process. As earlier discussed, the process of education starts
from the birth and continuous till the death. All experiences of life that an individual
gets while interacting with the family, friends, peers, playmates, environment, club
members, social gatherings, culture and festivals, teachers and mentors help him/
her to mould his/her behavior and personality. All these experiences came are the
wider meaning of education.
1.3.4 Nature of Education

The nature of education is very wide and complex. This can be understood from
the definitions and explanations given in the earlier section. Let us discuss the
specific nature of education.
 Education is a Lifelong Process: The process of education starts from the
very beginning of birth and continues till the death. It includes all the
experiences that an individual gets during his/her life time. Continuous
reconstruction of experiences is a life-long process of education.
 Education brings Development of the Country: Education brings the
changes in the society and development of the country. The development of
the country depends on how established its education system is. Education
is a means of earning one’s livelihood. Education helps individuals to earn
their livelihood. Therefore, it comes under ‘bread and butter’ aim of education. 13
Concept and Nature of  Education is a Tri-polar Process: The process of education is not limited
Education
to the teacher and the students (bi-polar process); rather it includes the
society as well. Every educational action is for the betterment of the society.
Education is, therefore, a tri-polar process, in which there is regular interaction
among teachers, students and the society. The ultimate beneficiary of every
educational action is the society.
 Education brings all Round Development of the Personality: Education
brings all round development of the personality of the individual. It includes
physical, mental, social, emotional, aesthetic, moral, economic and spiritual
development of the individual. Lack of development in one aspect hinders
development of total personality. For achieving this goal, emphasis is given
in our school curriculum for all round development of individual personality.
 Education prepares individuals to live their life: The broader aim of
education is not only to educate individuals for their intellectual development
but to make them able to live their lives. It helps individuals acquire knowledge
and skills to engage themselves in world of works and acquire the skills
required for living their lives. Interacting with people, dealing with various
situations, maintaining socio-emotional balance, acquiring life skills, values,
etc. help them to prepare for their lives. It helps them to acquire ten core
life skills given by the World Health Organisation (WHO) such as self-
awareness, empathy, critical thinking, creative thinking, decision making,
problem solving, effective communication, interpersonal relationship, coping
with stress, and coping with emotion.
 Education prepares citizens for the country: Education trains and prepares
the citizens to work for the country and develop patriotism for their country.
Therefore, citizenship education is a part of every education system and gets
practiced in school curriculum.
 Education is a Systematic Process: Education is a systematic process
wherein teacher (Guru) provides students (Shishyas) new knowledge by
organizing varieties of teaching-learning activities.
 Education is an Art as well as a Science: Education is both an Art and
Science. As discussed earlier education is a systematic process. It means,
certain methods, techniques, strategies, curriculum, resources, etc. which are
used to teach the students. When we apply the above methods and techniques
in our teaching, we follow certain systematic process and scientific principles
to teach the students. Hence, it is said that ‘Education is a Science’. On the
other hand, teaching varies from teacher to teacher in their ways of
presentation, citing examples and illustrations, articulations, etc. which constitute
art of teaching. Therefore, ‘Education is also called as an Art’.
Check Your Progress 1.1
Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones that are given at the end of
the Unit.
1. Discuss the etymological derivations of the term ‘education’.
............................................................................................................
14 ............................................................................................................
2. Explain the meaning of the terms Shiksha and Vidya. Education
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3. Cite one example each of narrow and broader meaning of education.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
4. Explain how ‘Education is a tri-polar process’.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
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1.4 GOALS AND AIMS OF EDUCATION

The goals and aims of education are not limited in their scope. Keeping in view
different goals of life, the aims of education may also be different. Aims of education
may be immediate or ultimate. Immediate aims of education are achievable in a
short span of time; say just after the accomplishment of an academic programme,
whereas it takes a very long time to achieve ultimate aims. For example, arranging
bread and butter for one’s living and ensuring shelter, health and security for
oneself are the immediate aims of education, whereas, achieving aims like ‘national
integration’, ‘emotional integration’, ‘universal brotherhood’, ‘international
understanding’, etc. are the ultimate aims or goals of education. These are broad
aims of education.
Aims of education may be specific in terms of achieving individual requirements
or they may be broad to achieve the requirements of the society or the nation.
In this section, we will discuss the details of individual and social aims of education.
1.4.1 Individual Aim of Education

According to individualist thinkers, an individual is greater than the society. Individual
aim, therefore, emphasizes the development of individual to his/her fullest capacities.
T.P. Nunn, the ardent supporter of this aim emphasized ‘nothing good enters into
the human world except in and through the free activities of individual men and
women and that the educational practice must be shaped to accord with this
truth’. (Quoted in Saxena and Dutt, 2009).
The above statement emphasizes that education should develop individuals
according to their interests, capacities and specialties. Naturalists advocate that
essential aim of education is the independent progress of an individual. The
educationists like Rousseau, Pestalogy, Frobel, T.P. Nuun, and others have given
emphasis on individual aim of education. Individual aim of education has both
narrow and wider meanings. Let us understand narrow and wider meanings of
individual aim of education. 15
Concept and Nature of Narrow Meaning of Individual Aim of Education:
Education
The narrow meaning of individual aim of education emphasizes all-round and
natural development of the individual. Individual aim of education is based upon
the principles of naturalist thinking on education. T.P. Nuun in his book, ‘Education’,
has mentioned, ‘Education must secure conditions under which individuality is
most completely developed’. Thus, narrow meaning of individual aim of education
emphasizes imparting education according to individual’s interests, inclinations,
capacities, and needs so that he/she is able to choose a vocation according to his/
her nature. This is called narrow meaning of individual aim of education as it
focuses only on the development of the individual for better living and fulfilling his/
her individual needs.
Wider Meaning of Individual Aim of Education:
On the contrary, the wider meaning of individual aim of education emphasizes the
individual development of the human being which contributes to the development
of the society. As the individual is a component of the larger society, the development
of individual has no meaning without development of the society. Therefore,
development of the society is as important as the development of individual child.
T.P. Nuun highlighted that education of the individual should be planned with a
view to achieving individual good as well as the good of the society of which he
is an integral part. Further, T.P Nuun mentions, ‘Education should help the child
to make his original contribution to the variegated whole of human life as full and
as truly characteristic as his nature permits’. (Quoted in Saxena and Dutt, 2009).
The statement emphasizes that the contribution of individual towards the development
of the society constitutes the wider meaning of individual aim of education.
Arguments in favour of Individual Aim of Education:
The following arguments favour the individual aim of education:
 Each individual has distinct interest, abilities, and psychological traits. Therefore,
according to their abilities and traits, facilities and opportunities should be
provided for their fullest development. This concept is supported by the
psychologists.
 The scientists supported the individual aim of education as every individual
grows and develops according to his/her developmental pace. The biological
development of individual is quite natural but it needs to be supported by
providing to the individual.
 As per the progressivists, the individuals create society to preserve and
transmit their culture to the future generation so that social progress goes on
continuously. It clarifies that the development of the individual leads to the
development of the society. Therefore, development of the individual is essential
for the development of a society.
 The eminent educationists like T.P. Nuun, Rousseau, Frobel and Pestalozzi
support the individual aim of education. Nuun emphatically remarks,
‘Individuality is the ideal of life. A scheme of education is to be valued by
its success in fostering the highest degree of excellence’.
 Keeping in view the rights of individuals for their own development as good
citizens, the advocates of democracy have also supported the concept of
16 individual aim of education. According to them, good citizenship develops
from good human beings. Hence, the aim of education should be the Concept and Nature of
Education
development of unique abilities of the individual. Therefore, individual aim of
education is important for the development of the individuals themselves.
Arguments Against Individual Aim of Education:
The following arguments go against the individual aim of education:
 Individual is an active member of the society. The existence of the individual
is because of the existence of the society. Therefore, individual aim of
education is the secondary whereas social aim of education is the primary.
When society develops, individual develops automatically. Therefore, individual
aim of education should be given less priority in comparison to social aim of
education.
 Every individual is unique. As per the psychological principle, no two individuals
are alike so far as their physical and mental traits are concerned. If individual
aim emphasized, then, different curricula, methods, techniques may be designed
for each individual’s development, which is not possible. Therefore, individual
aim of education seems to be impractical.
 Because of individual aim of education, there may be disequilibrium in the
society as a few individuals may be more powerful and others may be weak
in many areas of social action. Social control over individual may be minimized
and that may cause a conflict in the society between the empowered and the
under-privileged sections of the society.
 Inclusive nature of the society and its inclusive development is the demand
of the time. If we emphasize individual aim of education, it may hinder
inclusive growth and development of the society. Therefore, social development
should be inclusive, in which all individuals in the society may live with love,
happiness, sympathy, cooperation and moral values.
1.4.2 Social Aim of Education
Many educationists give more importance to social aim of education than individual
aim of education. As individual is a part of the society, the development of society
will bring in development of individual. The view of well-known educationist,
Raymont, i.e. ‘An isolated individual is a figment of imagination’ very well explains
the social aim of education.
Narrow Meaning of Social Aim of Education:
Narrow meaning of social aim of education emphasizes optimum power to be
with the state to control the individual. There may be the apprehension that the
individual rights may be violated because of unnecessary control on the citizens
by the State. This may further suppress creativity of the individual. The suppression
of the individual by the society may happen because the individuals have to
adhere to the norms set by the society. The society may be controlled by a few
individuals who frame the norms, rules and regulations for the entire society. This
section of the society may occupy a prominent position in the society and dominate
other members of the society. Therefore, social aim of education, in its narrow
sense, gives a lot of importance to the society in comparison to individuals.
Wider Meaning of Social Aim of Education:
Wider meaning of social aim of education takes a mid-way between individual aim
17
of education and social aim of education. Social aim of education is equated with
Concept and Nature of democratic socialism. It means that both the society and the individual will be
Education
given equal importance. Society will be the ideal, and individuals will work for the
betterment of the society. At the same time, individual development needs to be
addressed by the society. The democratic principles for fulfilling the needs and
interests of the individual will be prioritized by the society. In the wider sense of
social aim of education, both the society and the individuals work in a cooperative
manner for the development of each other.
Arguments in favour of Social Aim of Education:
The following arguments are given in favour of the social aim of education.
 An individual exists within the society. The identity of an individual is known
from the society where he/she lives. Therefore, society should be given more
importance than individual.
 Human child is born with animal tendencies and instincts. It is the society that
makes the individual a social being. It is therefore, society which gets more
value than individual.
 An individual is nurtured by the society to realize his/her potentialities. Hence
the individual should work for the betterment of the society.
 Development, preservation, and transmission of culture are three major
concerns of the society. Therefore, every individual should work for these
three major concerns of the society.
 It is the society that protects the rights and fulfills needs of the individual.
Hence, it is the responsibility of the individual to safeguard its society and his/
her culture.
 In the words of Raymont, ‘An isolated individual is a figment of imagination’.
Hence, individuals must make society stable and well organized (Quoted in
Saxena and Dutt, 2009).
 There is a saying that ‘United we stand and divided we fall’. It reflects the
benefits of group living. So, every individual should work and live in the
society with common social values.
Arguments Against Social Aim of Education:
The following are the arguments against the social aim of education.
 Social aim of education goes against the principles of psychology as individual
differences pertaining to human abilities and other aspects of human
development are not taken into consideration by the society.
 The ultimate contributors to the social development are the individuals.
Therefore, individuals should get more importance than the society.
 According to the narrow meaning of Social Aim of education, society assumes
a dominant role in comparison to individuals. Therefore, social aim of education
has been criticized as there may not be recognition of the individuals and
their contribution towards the society.
 Over emphasis on society and state may undermine individual rights and
values. The values of equity and equality and democratic principles of
education may not be promoted if the society and state are dominant over
18 the individual.
 No society develops without the development of the individual of that society. Concept and Nature of
Education
If individual abilities like intelligence, aptitude, attitude, creativity, and other
such talents are neglected, no society can develop. Therefore, social aim of
education can be achieved when emphasis is given on the individual aim of
education.
Activity 2
From the above discussion on individual and social aims of education, how
can both of them be synthesized for their development? Give your opinions.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
1.4.3 Democratic Aim of Education

Quoting on democracy, the University Education Commission (1948-49), has
mentioned, ‘Democracy is a way of life and not a mere political arrangement. It
is based on the principle of equal freedom and equal rights for all regardless of
race, religion, sex or economic status’. This principle guides the framing of the aim
of education of a democratic country. In a democratic country, there needs to be
equilibrium between the individual need and the social need.
Democratic aims of education involve democratic values such as freedom, equality,
fraternity, justice, etc. which are practiced by the citizens of the country for the
social and national development. Let us understand some of the aspects/elements
of democratic aims of education.
 Equal educational opportunities should be provided to all members of the
society.
 Compulsory or universal education should be provided to children up to a
particular standard. For example, in India, Right of Children for Free and
Compulsory Education Act 2009, popularly known as Right to Education
Act 2009, has been implemented from 1st April 2010, onwards to provide
free and compulsory education to all the children within the age group of 6-
14 years (Class-I to Class-VIII). It is the responsibility of every democratic
country to provide free and compulsory education to its citizens till a particular
level.
 There should be provision of Adult Education for achieving democratic aim
of education. By implementing Adult Education programmes, skills and
efficiency of adult illiterate learners are enhanced so that they contribute to
the development of the country. Therefore, night school, skill based short-
term courses, and other job trainings can be provided.
 Democratic aim of education promotes institutional autonomy. It means that
the institutions of education should have the autonomy to develop their own
curriculum, and launch academic programmes.
19
Concept and Nature of  Democratic aim of education emphasizes personality development and
Education
professional development of teachers. Therefore, orientation, refreshers, and
theme based training programmes for teachers need to be organized by
education system.
 Achieving all round development of the students is another democratic aim
of education. It includes development of all aspects of students i.e. physical,
mental, emotional, social, and spiritual.
 Developing national and international outlook is also a democratic aim of
education. The purpose of this aim of education is to make the citizens
practise the values of democracy, love their nation and also to have feeling
of universal brotherhood and international understanding.
 Democratic aim of education also emphasizes on a dynamic and diversified
curriculum, achieving social aims, fulfilling local and vocational needs and
provision for leisure hour activities.
 Democratic aim of education focuses on implementation of varieties of teaching
methods and activities so that students with diverse abilities can easily
participate and take the benefits of teaching-learning activities.
 Democratic aim of education gives stress on self-discipline of the learners
instead of imposing it on them. Democratic discipline does not believe in
repression or compulsion rather than self-discipline.
 As per the democratic aim of education, teacher is considered as a friend,
a philosopher and a guide. A teacher performs like a good supporter of
students and facilitates them in their career paths.
 Democratic aim of education emphasizes the school administration should
develop children into capable and responsible citizens and train them as
future leaders.

the Unit.
5. Explain the wider meaning of Individual Aim of Education.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
6. State any two important points in support of Social Aim of Education
............................................................................................................
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20
7. Explain democratic aim of education in view of facilitating learners with Education
diverse abilities.
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............................................................................................................
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1.5 CULTIVATING VALUES THROUGH

EDUCATION
Highlighting the importance of educational values, ‘J.S. Brubacher (1962) said,
‘to state one’s aim of education is at once to state his educational values’. It
means that aims of education are rightly associated with the values that the person
has acquired. So, education and values are naturally related with each other.
Saxena and Dutt (2009) explain values as quality of an individual or thing which
makes that individual or thing important, respectable and useful. This quality may
be internal or external or both. From philosophical point of view, value signifies
neither a thing nor an individual, but a thought or a point of view. A person or a
thing, which is useful to an individual, becomes valuable to him/her.
Internal and External Values
Values may be categorized under two types, Internal or Subjective value and
External or Objective value. Internal values are our ideas and our qualities that
guide us for our activities. Many internal values may not be exhibited but they help
the individual in his/her life. Internal values are subjective in nature as they guide
the person only.
External values are the qualities of an individual which are exhibited by him/her
in many situations. They are outcomes of his/her external observation and judgment
leading to actions. External values of practitioners in education influence them
while designing curriculum, formulating teaching strategies and choosing teaching-
learning resources for instructional activity.
Kinds of Educational Values
Brubacher (1962), in his book, ‘Modern Philosophies of Education’, has classified
educational values into two categories, they are –
1. Immediate values
2. Remote values
1. Immediate Values: These values are usually related to satisfaction of
biological and psychological needs of the children. If someone is interested
in badminton and gets an opportunity to play badminton, he/she can fulfil his/
her immediate need of playing badminton. If a child has an interest and liking
for fine arts, he/she can fulfil his/her artistic need by engaging in fine arts
activities. The above two examples, explain immediate needs and their fulfillment
by individual actions.
2. Remote Values: These values are related to human intelligence and constitute
rational needs. Fulfilling rational needs is sometime difficult. Each student has
to make rational selection in order to achieve maximum gain from various 21
Concept and Nature of activities of the school. Hence these values are related to rational selection
Education
of needs. The remote values are further divided into two categories, i.e.
Instrumental values and Intrinsic values.
Instrumental values are judged good because they are good for something.
These values are helpful for the person themselves. For an example, if a child
wants to become a musician, knowledge of ‘Tal’ and ‘Swar’ are useful for
him/her. This knowledge of ‘Tal’ and ‘Swar’ are the specific abilities of the
child which help him/her to be a musician. These instrumental values may not
be used for other vocations, but these are valuable for the person him/
herself.
Intrinsic values are the values within an individual or an object which make
him/her or it good. These values are the inherent quality of a person or of
an object. If furniture in a classroom is good and useful for the students and
teachers, it may be said that the furniture is having intrinsic values.
3. Aesthetic Values: Values which give us pleasure, happiness, etc. are called
aesthetic values. Our school curriculum should incorporate a number of
aesthetic values. They should be an integral part of our curriculum and
teaching learning process.
4. Democratic Values : The values enshrined in our Constitution should also
be practiced in the educational process. Equity, equality, national integration,
unity in diversity, rights and responsibilities, liberty, etc. are the democratic
values which need to be integrated in our education system.
5. Moral Values : The moral values such as truth, goodness, honesty, sympathy
and empathy, belongingness, cooperation, etc. need be to part of our education
system.
Activity 3
Explain the following values with examples.
Immediate values: .................................................................................
Remote values : ....................................................................................
Aesthetic values :..................................................................................
Democratic values : ..............................................................................
Moral values : ......................................................................................
1.6 EDUCATION AS DIFFERENTIATED FROM

SCHOOLING, LEARNING, INSTRUCTION,
TRAINING, TEACHING AND
INDOCTRINATION
People sometimes confuse the concept of education with schooling, learning,
training, teaching or instruction. Though these terms have close links with the
process of education, they are different from the term ‘education’. Let us discuss
22 the distinctions between education and these terms.
Education: Education, in its wider sense is the process of development from birth Concept and Nature of
Education
to death or from ‘womb to tomb’. In this sense, education is a lifelong process
that includes all knowledge, attitude, skills and experiences. Thus, all experiences
in life become educational in nature and the process of education continues in all
personal and social situations. Education, in this sense, would certainly include all
efforts for inculcation of values, attitudes, and skills that the society desires to be
imparted to children.
Schooling: Schooling is an act of consciously imparting knowledge, values and
skills in accordance with the requirements (social and individual) in a formal
situation. In its essence, schooling is a limited educational exercise in terms of
range of experiences provided. It is also limited to a specific period of human life
i.e. from childhood till one leaves school, while the process of education continues
throughout the life.
Learning: Learning is a process which results in more or less permanent
modification of behavior as a result of practice of experience. Any relatively
permanent modification of behavior in any aspect of human personality can be the
result of learning. In contrast, education is concerned with the harmonious
development of human abilities and powers, according to the needs of the individual
and the society. While learning results in specific modification of behavior, education
seeks to mould the entire personality and takes a global view of an individual’s
abilities. Another distinction is that, learning may be positive or negative, whereas
education is always positive.
Training: Training is a series of activities involving instruction, practice etc. to
produce desirable habits or behavior modification in particular aspects of life or
vocations for example, teacher training, technical training etc. Thus, training aims
at developing and promoting specific skills in a chosen area with a view to making
the individual undergoing training an expert in the field or task concerned. Thus,
training may be thought of as development of skills in a particular aspect whereas
education is concerned with the development of the whole individual.
Teaching: Teaching is the means employed to effect desirable changes in human
behavior. Teaching involves communication of ideas, values, skills, information
and knowledge to the students. It uses systematic and scientific methods to make
communication effective. Teaching aims at effecting learning in individuals with a
view to educating them. Thus, teaching becomes an instrument of educating
individuals along with other educative experiences.
Indoctrination: Indoctrination is a process of inculcating in the learners ideas,
attitudes or a set of beliefs without entering to their rationality. Indoctrination is
linked with the knowledge and skills that one acquire through teaching.
(Source: The above section (1.6) has been taken from ES-334, Block-1, Unit-
1, Education and its Nature, IGNOU, 2000)
Activity 4
Compare education, schooling, learning, training, teaching and
instruction each with one example.
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.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
23
Education Check Your Progress 1.3
the Unit.
8. Explain aesthetic values with an example.
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............................................................................................................
9. ‘Learning may be positive or negative’. Explain with an example.
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1.7 LET US SUM UP

The first unit of this course highlighted the concept of education from different
perspectives. The aims of education have been elaborated in the light of the
concept and nature of education. The broader meaning of education which prepares
the individual for development of the nation and to work for national development
is exemplified under the social and democratic aim of education. After reading this
unit, you might have understood that the aims of education are to develop the
individual abilities that one has and at the same time, to contribute towards the
society for its development.
Values are the integral part of our education system. Therefore, cultivating values
through education is also one of the important aspects of our school curriculum.
In the end, the terms such as schooling, learning, instruction, training, teaching and
indoctrination have been explained with examples in this unit.
1.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Aggrawal, J.C. (2008). Theory and Principles of Education,12th Edn, New Delhi:
Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd, p24.
Bhatacharya, S. (2006). Philosophical Foundation of Education. New Delhi: Atlantic
Publishers and Distributors.
Brubacher, J.S. (1962). Modern Philosophies of Education (3rd edition), McGraw
Hill.
IGNOU (2000). Education and its Nature (Unit-1), Understanding Education
(Block-1), Education and Society (ES-334). New Delhi: IGNOU.
IGNOU, (2016). Nature and Concept of Education (Unit-9). Contemporary
India and Education (BES-122). B.Ed. Programme. pp.5-25, IGNOU: New
Delhi.
Jacques, D. (1998). Education for the Twenty First Century – Issues and Prospects.
24 The University of Michigan: Bernan Assoc.
Mathur, S.S. (1966). A Sociological Approach to Indian Education. Agra: Vinod Concept and Nature of
Education
Pustak Mandir.
MHRD (1948-49). The University Education Commission (1948-49). Govt. of
India: New Delhi.
Park, J. (1963). Selected Readings in the Philosophy of Education. Macmillan
Publisher.
Peters, R.S. (ed.) (2010). The Concept of Education –Vol. 17, New York:
Routledge.
Rather, A.R. (2014). Theory and Principles of Education. New Delhi: Discovery
Publications House.
Samuel, S.R. (2015). Philosophical and Sociological Bases of Education. Delhi;
PHI Learning Private Ltd,p.166.
Saxena, N.R.S. (2009). Principles of Education. Meerut: R. Lall Book Depot.
Saxena, N.R.S. and Dutt, N.K. (2009). Principles of Education. R. Lall Book
Depot. Meerut.
Singh, Y.K. (2008). Philosophical Foundations of Education. New Delhi; APH
Publishing Corporation, p.3.
Taneja, V.R. (2005). Socio-Philosophical Approach to Education. New Delhi;
Atlantic Publishers, p.18.
1.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. ‘Education’ is to nourish or bring up the children for their complete
development of personality and “Education’’ is to provide oneself knowledge
and make him/her disciplined.
2. ‘Shiksha’ means ‘control or to discipline’ and the word, ‘Vidya’ means ‘to
know’. So the Sanskrit words ‘Shiksha’ and ‘Vidya’ which are synonyms
the word ‘Education’.
3. Self-exercise.
4. Tri-polar process of Education : Teachers, Students and the Social
Environment
5. Wider meaning of individual aim of education emphasizes the individual
development of the human child corresponding with the development of the
society.
6. It is the society, that makes individual child a social being. Therefore, social
aim of education is more important than the individual aim of education. The
identity and the recognition of the individual are gained through the society.
Therefore, social aim of education is important than the individual.
7. The democratic aim of education addresses the concerns of learners with
diverse abilities and accordingly develops the curriculum to maintain equity
and equality.
25
Concept and Nature of 8. Pleasure, happiness, etc. When we read a poem, we feel happy and
Education
appreciate the creation of the poet. (Other examples can be given by the
learners)
9. Learning is acquisition of new experiences and formation of habits of these
new experiences. Good individual habits result in positive learning and bad
individual habits result in negative learning.
26
Scope of Education
UNIT 2 SCOPE OF EDUCATION
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Scope of Education from the Viewpoint of Different Learning Environments
2.3.1 Informal Education
2.3.2 Formal Education
2.3.3 Non-formal Education
2.4 Scope of Education from the view point of Major Focus of the Study of
Knowledge
2.4.1 Liberal Education
2.4.2 Professional Education
2.4.3 Vocational and Technical Education
2.5 Scope of Education from the Viewpoint of Mode of Providing Education

2.5.1 Face-to-Face Education
2.5.2 Open and Distance Education
2.5.3 Online Education
2.5.4 Comparison among the Face-to-Face, Distance and Online Education
2.6 Let Us Sum Up

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the earlier Unit, we have discussed the concept and nature of education. In this
Unit, we will acquaint you with the scope of education. By scope of education,
we mean the educational operations in terms of different learning environments,
study of knowledge and mode of providing education. As you know the scope
of education is very wide. It cannot be equated with the knowledge acquired
through formal schooling system alone. The informal and non-formal systems of
education also equally contribute to education of individuals. The scope of education
is also understood in terms of study of knowledge through liberal, professional,
technical and vocational education. All the above branches of education provide
a particular knowledge base to the students that include concept, principles and
skills for practicing that knowledge. Moreover, education is transacted through
face-to-face and distance education systems. Now-a-days, with the development
of computer technology and internet, online learning is also getting popular. These
can also be considered as the scope of education.
2.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
 define the meaning and scope of education;
[Note: Few content points of this Unit has been taken from Unit-3 ‘Scope of Education’, MES-012,
MAEDU, IGNOU, New Delhi, 2007]
27
Dr. Niradhar Dey, Assistant Professor, School of Education, IGNOU.
Concept and Nature of  classify education from the viewpoint of different learning environments;
Education
 discuss the inter linking of informal, formal and non-formal education;
 categorise education from the viewpoint of the major focus of the study of
knowledge; and
 categorise education according to the mode of providing education.
2.3 SCOPE OF EDUCATION FROM THE

VIEWPOINT OF DIFFERENT LEARNING
ENVIRONMENTS
It is rightly said, education is a process from ‘Cradle to Grave’. It means the
process of education starts from the very beginning of birth of the child and
continues till the death. Therefore, education is a lifelong and continuous process.
We learn many things during our daily activities at different situations and different
places, may be at our home, schools, market places, during travel in playground,
during social gatherings, festivals and cultural activities, etc. Learning can happen
at different situations, at different places and with different people. The event of
learning cannot be restricted to Schools only. School is a formal system of education.
Definitely we learn many things through the formal system of schooling but also
we learn through various informal and non-formal systems of education. This
section of the unit will make you acquainted with the scope of education from the
view point of different learning environments, namely informal, non-formal and
formal learning environments/systems of education.
2.3.1 Informal Education

Informal education takes place in any kind of informal learning environment that
we come across with. As you know, we learn the traditions and cultures of our
family by observing the different activities in our family as well as by interacting
with the family members. Similarly, we learn many things about our society such
as social living, culture and traditions, etc. by observing the social and cultural
activities as well as by interacting with the members of the society. When we
travel by a bus or a train, we come in contact with many people, interact with
them and learn many things that we had not known earlier. All of us are familiar
with how the farmers acquire knowledge from their ancestors about farming of
different kinds of crops. The farmers cultivate all types of crops without receiving
any kind of formal or non-formal training. All the above discussions explain the
concept of informal education.
Based on our discussion, we may identify the characteristics of informal education
as follows:
 Informal education is the outcome of the interaction between a child/ a
learner with his/her social environment.
 Informal education is not organized and structured.
 Only desirable learning in an informal education can be called informal
education.
 Informal education is purposeful but many times incidental.
28
 Informal education can take place in a variety of physical and social settings; Scope of Education
there is no regular or prescribed form.
 Informal education is experimental in nature. It means the learner learns a lot
through interacting with the learning environment.
 Informal education is a lifelong process which starts at the time of birth and
continues till the death of a human being.
In summary, informal education includes all types of life experiences of the child
that he/she acquires from different situations, places, persons, environments, etc.
This is also called incidental education as the child gains knowledge incidentally
through his/her interactions with different learning situations. Further, informal
education prepares the learner to benefit from formal education. Therefore, learning
starts informally and gets structured in formal system of education.
Activity 1
Define informal education citing at least one example.
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
2.3.2 Formal Education

Since informal learning environment is unstructured, transmission of desirable learning
experiences by the society requires a formal and structured learning environment.
Educational institutions like school and colleges are formal learning environments
or systems of education. They are called formal system of education as they
enforce a formal process to educate the child. Let us understand what is meant
by formal education.
Coombs, Processor and Ahmed (1973), defined “formal education is the
hierarchically structured, chronologically graded education system, running from
primary school through the university and including, in addition to general academic
studies, a variety of specialized programmes and institutions for full time technical
and professional training”.
The above definition of formal education depicts that the learning experiences
provided through formal system of education are vertically and horizontally
structured. Vertical system of education means, that it starts from primary school
education to university education and horizontal system of education means that
it caters to all forms of education that include general education, technical education,
professional and vocational education. The various aspects of formal system of
education are as follows:
 Formal system of education has a particular aim and purpose. The aims of
education at different levels of schooling and also in different types of education
are different. So before planning any formal system of education, aims and
purposes are determined.
29
Concept and Nature of  There is a particular time schedule for implementing any formal system of
Education
education. We can say that elementary education is of eight years of duration,
secondary education is of two years of duration, senior secondary education
is of two years of duration and college education is of three years of duration.
Again, there is a formal time schedule for planning teaching-learning activities
and completing the curriculum within the prescribed time.
 Every formal education has a definite curriculum and courses of study. Students
receive necessary knowledge, attitudes, and skills through the prescribed
curriculum.
 There are entry requirements for the students to get into a particular level of
formal education. For example, to take admission in secondary class, one
should have completed the elementary education. Similarly, to take admission
in three year degree education, one should have completed senior secondary
schooling.
 In formal system of education, teacher uses teaching-learning strategies that
include classroom teaching, practical experiences, field-based experiences,
participation in co-scholastic activities, etc.
 Formal system of education is operated through a centralized body that may
be a Board or a University. For example, there are State Secondary Education
Boards in different States for operating School Education. Similarly, Central
Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) works for secondary and senior
secondary education at the central level. For operating higher education,
Universities work as operational bodies. They prepare curriculum, develop
guidelines for its implementation, conduct examination and certify students.
 Every formal education is based upon certain learning outcomes. Achieving
the specific learning outcomes is the goal of the formal system of education.
The learning outcomes are assessed through formal evaluation system by the
Education Boards or the Universities.
In a nut shell, we can say that the formal system of education is a structured
process of organizing teaching-learning activities that include a pre-defined
curriculum, proper plan of its transaction and implementation on a specified time
schedule, daily interaction of teachers with students, centralized bodies to operate
it, evaluating and certification of the performance of the students.
2.3.3 Non-formal Education

Like formal education system, non-formal education is also an organized system
of education which includes centralized body for operating the system, programmes
offered to a variety of clientele groups, curriculum and its transaction process,
evaluation and certification. The major difference between formal and non-formal
education systems is in terms of flexibility in planning and implementation of the
system. In formal education, these is rigidity about the clientele groups, time
schedule, duration of the programme, regular interaction between teacher and
students, etc., whereas in non-formal education system, there is flexibility in terms
of time schedule, classes, duration of the programme, examinations, etc.
Non-formal education system is also called as the alternative system of education.
This in spirit fulfills the objectives of lifelong and continuous education. Even one
30 can pursue education after entering job fields. This type of education is provided
through distance education system. Distance Education, Open and Distance Scope of Education
Learning, Online Education, etc. provide non-formal education. Now let us discuss
some of the characteristics of non-formal education:
 Like formal education, non-formal education has certain goals and objectives
of the programmes. It offers learners learning experiences that it intends to
provide to them.
 Unlike formal education system, non-formal education system is flexible in
terms of completing an academic programme. For example, in distance
education system, there is minimum and maximum time duration to complete
a programme.
 Curriculum and courses of study are formulated keeping in view of the
learning needs of the learners. Non-formal education curriculum is mostly
customized and individualized as it caters to the needs of out-of-school
children as well as the persons who are already in different professions.
 Curriculum and courses of study are formulated keeping in view of the
learning needs of the learners. Non-formal education curriculum is mostly
customized and individualized as it caters to the needs of out-of-school
children as well as the persons who are already in different professions.
 Teaching-learning process is generally learner-oriented and flexible in nature.
 Like formal system of education, there is a centralized body which operates
the system, plans and implements the programme, evaluates the achievement
of the learners and certifies their performance.
 Assessment of learning outcomes is also carried out in non-formal education
system.
From the above discussion, it can be concluded that most characteristics of
formal and non-formal education are similar in nature except the rigidities in
their implementation. The flexibility in non-formal system of education is as
follows:
 Plan and implement short term programmes or courses for a small group of
clientele, say illiterate, out-of-school children, the workers, etc.
 No need of regular classes, even the courses can be offered through distance
education system.
 There is flexibility in duration of the programme and its completion.
 It addresses special clientele group not only for their professional development
but also for development of their basic education.
Activity 2
Based upon your understanding, cite few examples of non-formal education
and also explain how it is different from formal system of education.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................ 31
the Unit.
1. What is informal system of education?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. Explain the major characteristics of formal system of education.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3. What is the major difference between formal and non-formal education.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2.4 SCOPE OF EDUCATION FROM THE VIEW

POINT OF MAJOR FOCUS OF THE STUDY
OF KNOWLEDGE
In the previous section, you have studied different forms of education in terms of
learning environments, i.e. informal, formal and non-formal education. In this section,
we will discuss the scope of education in view of study of knowledge i.e. liberal
education, professional education, vocational and technical education.
2.4.1 Liberal Education

To understand the concept of liberal education, let us analyse the definition given
by Lemann (2004) on liberal education. According to him,
“Liberal education is best defined with its most literal meaning. It is the
education that liberates, that frees the mind from the constraints of a
particular moment and set of circumstances that permits one to see
possibilities that are not immediately apparent, to understand things in a
larger context, to think about situations conceptually and analytically, to
draw upon and muster knowledge when faced with specific situations”.
From the above definition, it can be inferred that the pursuit of liberal education
is to make the person free from particular set of constraints. It is an intellectual
pursuit which makes the individual liberal in his/her thinking, doing and activities.
Acquisition and utilization of knowledge with a broader perspective, creation of
new knowledge, bringing changes in the existing knowledge structure and practices
32 are objectives of liberal education. The academic pursuit of liberal education is to
create and cultivate human mind for the greater intellectual purpose. The boundary Scope of Education
of liberal education is not confined to the areas of humanities and art education,
but it extends to other areas of human knowledge and practices. There are many
areas of human learning like education, value education, peace education, spiritual
education, etc. where the mind plays a great role in conceptualizing and theorizing
new ideas. Therefore, many elements of liberal education are also present in other
areas of learning other than liberal arts education.
For example, ‘Education’ is taught as a liberal discipline and also as an area of
practice. As a practice, it prepares teachers to transact school curriculum using
proper pedagogy, whereas, as a liberal discipline, it focuses on broader dimensions
of education as an area of knowledge. As a liberal discipline, ‘Education’ is taught
in the colleges and universities to make students understand the body of knowledge
of education; its theoretical, historical and intellectual perspectives; various areas
of its practice; its wide research base; and its linkages with other cognate disciplines
like Psychology, Philosophy, Sociology, Economics, etc. All these aspects of
education as a discipline deal with intellectual pursuits.
2.4.2 Professional Education
One can find a number of definitions to define a profession. We present one of
these definitions below:
“A profession . . . is a field of endeavour whose practitioners have a collective
idea of the good in their work that does not overlap exactly with the self-interest
of either themselves or their employers. Professionals have goals and ideals and
purposes having to do with the history, the techniques and the social role of their
field, which rise above the daily demands of work. They are in discourse with
each other about matters broader than just the completion of the work assignment
at hand. Professionals have to deal with complexity in their work. Professionals
do work that has a public purpose.”
(Lemann, 2004)
From the above definition and many more definitions, we can find out the following
important features of a profession:
1) A profession renders a crucial social service.
2) A profession comprises a specialised body of knowledge, skills and attitude.
3) A profession requires continuous updating in the knowledge base and in-
service practical training of the members.
4) A profession demands that its practitioners form professional groups or
association to enhance and safeguard the interests of group members.
5) A profession expects its members to be guided by a code of ethics and
professional values.
6) A profession ensures that its members grow in their professional careers.
7) A profession enables a professional to make his own judgement in relation
to appropriate practices.
(Source: MES-012, IGNOU, 2007)
From the above discussion we can say that professional education is basically
related to various aspects of social service, but for an individual the first and 33
Concept and Nature of foremost concern is to earn his/her livelihood. Professional education fulfills both
Education
the requirements. It prepares for a person to serve the nation and at the same time
it also make the person self-sufficient for his/her livelihood.
2.4.3 Vocational and Technical Education
Like professional education, vocational education is deeply in the vocation that a
family pursues. For example, during the earlier days, if the vocation of a family
was carpentry, the members of the family from generation to generation followed
the same vocation without getting a formal training. They learnt carpentry from the
seniors of the family. But, now, the concept of vocational education has undergone
change. Because of rapid development of industrialization, many training and
vocational institutions have been established across the world for providing varieties
of vocational training that the industries require. Now vocational education is also
a part of higher secondary and higher education. After completion of secondary
education, one can go for higher secondary education in general education stream
or in vocational education stream.
Vocational education thus refers to education, which prepares a person for a
particular vocation or occupation. The concept of getting traditional vocational
education from the family or society has been widened to get it from the formal
and informal institutions. In India, the concept of vocational education is very old.
It was initially recommended in 1854 by Wood’s Despatch which suggested for
introducing pre-vocational education at the secondary stage. The Calcutta University
Commission, in the year 1917, also recommended for establishing intermediate
colleges with Arts, Science, Medicine and Engineering subjects. In the Wardha
scheme of Basic Education, 1937, Mahatma Gandhi also emphasized the
importance of craft centered education. The Secondary Education Commission
(1952-53) recommended the introduction of diversified streams in higher secondary
schools such as commercial subjects, agriculture, fine arts, etc. The Education
Commission (1964-66) recommended work experience and vocationalisation as
part of secondary education. For promoting vocational education, the contribution
of National Institute of Open Schooling at the school stage and Indira Gandhi
National Open University at the higher education level are also significant. Some
of the important areas of vocational education are as follows:
Table 2.1 : Areas of Vocational Education
Sl. No. Areas of Vocational Education Vocational Education
1 Agriculture Poultry Farming

Dairying
Sericulture
Floriculture
2 Engineering and Technology Mechanical Services

Audio-visual Technician
Computer technique
Tanneries
Sugar Technology
34
Scope of Education
3 Health and Paramedical Health Worker
X-ray Technician
Pharmacist
Auxiliary Nurse and Midwives
Primary Health Worker
4 Home Science Food Preservation

Interior Design
Child Care and Nutrition
Knitting Technology
Pre-school and Crèche
Management
5 Science and Humanities Library and Information Science

Photography
Commercial Act
Indian Music
Classical Dance
(Source: MES-012, MAEDU, IGNOU, 2007)

Apart from the above areas of education, the National Skill Development
Corporation (NSDC) has implemented more than 247 skill education programmes
under Prime Minister Kaushal Vikash Yojana (2018-19). The skill education
programmes are from different sectors such as agriculture, beauty and wellness
sector, construction skill development council of India, Capital goods skill council,
etc. Some of the skill education programmes are like, gardening, micro irrigation
technician, greenhouse operator, tractor operator, organic grower, dairy farming,
small poultry farming, Animal health worker, pressman, Export assistant, quality
seed grower, etc.
(Source: NSDC, India, 2020; Retrieved from https://nsdcindia.org/
contentavailability/1408)
Apart from the vocational education system, the scope of education for imparting
technical education is also one of the prominent developments in India for its
development. The development of technical education in India started with the
establishment of All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) in the year
1945.
The structure of technical education in India is given in four stages. The first
stage is for certificate level programmes which are usually offered in the vocational
and technical institutions. The second stage of technical education offers diploma
level training courses, through the Polytechnic Institutes. At the third stage,
technical education is provided at the Degree level, is usually offered by the
Engineering Colleges, IITs and NITs. The fourth stage of technical education
which constitutes Post Graduate and Doctoral levels engineering programmes
which offered by the NITs and IITs. 35
Education
the Unit.
4. Explain the main focus of liberal education.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
5. Differentiate between professional education and vocational education.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
6. What are the four stages of technical education?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2.5 SCOPE OF EDUCATION FROM THE

VIEWPOINT OF MODE OF PROVIDING
EDUCATION
The scope of education can also be understood in view of mode of providing
education i.e. education provided through the conventional system, open and
distance learning system and online education through Internet. In this section, we
will discuss the mode of education: face-to-face education system and distance
education system. Let us discuss each of these modes of education in details.
2.5.1 Face-to-Face Education

Face-to-Face education is generally a formal system of education. The concept
of face-to-face system of education can be traced back to the Gurukul system
of education, wherein there was regular contact and interaction between the
Gurus and the Shishyas. That was a type of residential system of education in
which the Shishyas were staying at the Gurukul till the completion of their education.
Later on, the Gurukul system of education was replaced by formal education
system for the common public. The State took the onus of providing formal
education to its citizens. Now, Elementary education has become the right of the
children. India is the 139th country in the world to provide free and compulsory
elementary education to the children within the age group of 6-14 or up to
completion of Class VIII. Elementary education in India becomes a fundamental
right of the children through the Right to Education Act, 2009. Face-to-face
education is provided to the students starting from elementary education to
36 secondary, senior secondary, higher education, vocational and technical education
levels. The characteristics of face-to-face education are as follows: Scope of Education
 This is a formal system of education, in which there are regular classes for
the students in a place called a School or a College or a University.
 A stage specific curriculum is designed and developed for implementation at
that stage of education.
 Teacher teaches students using methods and techniques suitable for different
subjects and topics and also organizes varieties of activities for all round
development of the personality of the students.
 Teacher is mostly engaged in verbal communication throughout class lecture
for teaching students.
 A proper time schedule is prepared for implementing the process of teaching
and learning. The time schedule includes yearly plan, weekly plan, lesson
plan, etc.
 Formal certificate is provided to students after assessing their performance
through both formative and summative tests.
 Promoting students to a higher class requires acquisition of requisite knowledge
and skills in the lower class.
2.5.2 Open and Distance Education

The Open and Distance Education System is alternative mode of providing
education. Though it is a non-formal system of education, most of its operations
are like a formal system of education. Education which is imparted through distance
mode without regular class and interaction of students with teachers at a physical
space is called as a distance education system.
Keegan (1986), mentioned the characteristics of distance education as follows:
 Open and Distance Education system is just like a quasi-permanent separation
of teacher and learner during the process of teaching and learning.
 Students are provided a well prepared quality learning materials of the entire
courses for their study which is called as the Self-Learning Material.
 Students are provided support services at different stages for their smooth
study.
 Varieties of methods and media are used for transacting the curriculum such
as print, audio-video, teleconferencing and radio counseling systems.
Moore (1990) defines distance education as “all deliberate and planned learning
that is directed or facilitated in a structured manner by an instructor…..separated
in space and/or time from the learners.” Kulandai Swamy (1992) defined distance
education in a different way. He considers distance education as the third stage
of the evolution of education. The first stage was the ancient Gurukul system of
education, second stage is the conventional classroom system and the third stage
is the distance education system which is characterized by flexibility, high productivity
and capability to readily respond to market demands. He also considered distance
education as an instrument that can satisfy the requirements of equity and universal
education.
37
Concept and Nature of 2.5.3 Online Education
Education
Online education is a recent development in providing education for the learners
due to the development of computer networking, internet, and various online
learning applications. It is used for general as well as professional education both
at the certificate, diploma and degree levels. The Ministry of Human Resource
Development (MHRD), Govt. of India, has initiated Study Webs of Active-
Learning for Young Aspiring Mind (SWYAM), an online system of pursuing
education through Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) since 2017. (MHRD,
2019). The MOOCs aim to address the most critical issues in education, i.e.
access, equity and quality. SWYAM offers online courses through MOOCs starting
from Class-IX to Post Graduate Level.
Due to the popularity of internet and its wide use by learners it is now easy to
get the online resources for study from YouTube, Open Educational Resources,
National Digital Library (Govt. of India), eGyankosh (an IGNOU initiative),
Gyandarshan-1, 2 and Swamprabha (Educational Televisions), and also from
important institute, organization and university sites. One can pursue an online
course from across the globe by using Internet and computer and mobile. It is
cost effective, time saving, self-paced, and individualized. One can get varieties
of learning experiences with quality instruction and learning resources. The
international organization like Commonwealth of Learning (COL), also promotes
online learning in the Commonwealth countries.
Activity 3
Visit the website of Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt. of
India and mention a few lines about the efforts made by the MHRD for
promoting online learning.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2.5.4 Comparison among the Face-to-Face, Distance and

Online Education
From the discussions made earlier, we can now compare among face-to-face
education, distance education and online education as presented in the Table 2.2:
Table No. 2.2 : Comparison among face-to-face, distance and
online education
Face-to-Face Distance Education Online Education
Education System System
Teacher and students Teacher and students are Teacher and students are
are in regular contact physically separated but physically separated but they
and there are there is limited face-to- experience regular online
constant face-to-face face contact between contact and feedback.
interactions. them.
38
Scope of Education
Teacher decides the Self-pacing of learning Self-pacing by the students
pace of students by the students. while learning through online
learning media.
Lecture by the Self-learning print E-contents in terms of

teacher and library materials, varieties of customized videos, audios,
books are major electronic materials, and texts available online
sources of along with counseling are the main sources of
information and sessions and information for curriculum
strategies for workshop are the transaction along with
curriculum major curriculum regular online discussion
transaction. transaction strategies. and assessment.
Constant peer and Individualized and Completely self-pacing
group interaction. self-pacing learning, learning. Possibility of online
less peer and group peer and group activities.
interaction.
Education is less Democratization of Democratic and laissez-faire
democratic; more education. approaches to education.
autocratic.
Mostly teacher Learner centered Learner centered
centered teaching instructional strategies instructional strategies with
and teacher directed with varieties of self- varieties of online learning
classroom activities. learning activities. activities.
Strict entry Relaxed entry Relaxed entry qualifications.
qualifications. qualifications. Learners Huge number of learners
Number of learners get benefitted due to get benefitted at a time.
is less. reasonable time.
Both formative and Formative assessment Formative assessment (self-
summative (without and with assessment strategies with
assessment strategies credits), assignments credit system) and
are followed. and summative summative assessment
assessment through through online mode.
offline mode.

the Unit.
7. Describe any two characteristics of face-to-face education.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................ 39
Education 8. Define Open and Distance Education system.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
9. What is Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
10. Write any two differences among face-to-face, distance and online education.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2.6 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit, the main thrust of discussion was to present the scope of education
in view of different learning environments, the focus of the study of knowledge
and modes of providing education. The presentation of three different perspectives
on the scope of education might have helped you to understand the scope of
education.
Different learning environments provide us different experiences. Informal education
which we get incidentally is very much important to get informed and acquire
knowledge that can further help us to pursue a formal education. Both formal and
non-formal education also provides us learning experiences in different learning
environments. According to the focus of study of knowledge, education can be
categorized into liberal, professional, vocational and technical education.
As per the changing scenario of education, education has also been continuously
changing. Our system of education has evolved from the Gurukul system of
education during the Ancient time through face-to-face education system to the
most current online education system. Now, we are capable to address huge
number of students at a time by providing them quality education through distance
and online education.

Aggrawal, J.C. (2008). Theory and Principles of Education, 12thed, New Delhi;
Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd, p24.
Bhattacharya, S. (2006). Philosophical Foundation of Education. New Delhi:
Atlantic Publishers and Distributors.
Coombs, P.H., Processer, C. and Ahmed, M. (1973). New Paths to Learning for
Rural Children and New York: International Council for Educational Development,
40 in Smith Mark K. (2004):http://infed.org/biblio/b-nonfor.htm.
Govt. of Education (1952-53). Secondary Education Commission. New Delhi: Scope of Education
Ministry of Education.
Govt. of India (1964-66). The Education Commission. New Delhi: Ministry of
Education.
Govt. of India (2019). Report of Calcutta University Commission (1917).
IGNOU, (2007). Scope of Education (Unit-3). Education: Nature and Purposes
(MES-012). M.A. Education Programme. pp.39-56, IGNOU: New Delhi.
Keegan, D. (1986). The Foundations of Distance Education (2nd ed.). London,
Croom Helm.
Kulandai Swamy, V.C. (1992). Distance Education in the Indian Context. Indian
Journal of Open Learning, 1(1), 1-4., IGNOU: New Delhi.
Kulandi Swamy, V.C. (2004). Vocational Orientation to Education, in J.S. Rajput
(ed.), Encyclopedia of Indian Education, New Delhi: NCERT.
Lemann, Nicholas (2004). Liberal Education and Professionals. Quoted from
MES-012, Education: Nature and Purposes, Unit-3, IGNOU, 2007.
MHRD (1948-49). The University Education Commission (1948-49). Govt. of
India: New Delhi.
Moore, M.G. (1990). Correspondence Study, in M.W. Galbraith (ed.), Adult
Training Methods, Krieger, Malabar, Fla.
Rather, A.R. (2014). Theory and Principles of Education. New Delhi: Discovery
Publications House.
Samuel, S.R. (2015). Philosophical and Sociological Bases of Education. Delhi;
PHI Learning Private Ltd,p.166.
Saxena, N.R.S. (2009). Principles of Education. Meerut: R. Lall Book Depot.
Depot. Meerut.
Publishing Corporation,p.3.
Website Referred
NSDC, India, 2020; Govt. of India, Retrieved from https://nsdcindia.org/
contentavailability/1408 on 15.06.2020.

1. Informal education takes place in informal learning environment. The examples
of informal education are the family, the neighbourhood, community, market
place, etc. Informal education is also called as incidental education.
2. Formal system of education is a time bound education system. It requires a
formal curriculum, teacher, student, place of teaching, regular classes,
41
certification, etc.
Concept and Nature of 3. Formal education refers to an organized structure of education and its main
Education
aim is to provide individuals learning experiences both in vertical and horizontal
learning situations. Non-formal education system provides flexibility in terms
of time schedule, programme, and examination.
4. The main focus of liberal education is to undertake intellectual pursuit, which
aims at cultivation of mind.
5. Professional education deals with a body of specialized knowledge and
application of this knowledge to serve various requirements of the society.
Vocational education refers to the forms of education, which provides a
person learning experiences required of a particular vocation or occupation.
6. Certificate, Diploma, Degree and Post Graduate/Ph.D.
7. In face-to-face education system, there are regular classes and there is also
a definite curriculum at a particular stage of education.
8. Education which is imparted through a distance mode without a regular class
and interaction between students and teachers at a particular physical space
is called as Open and Distance Learning system.
9. Massive Open Online Courses are offered online using Internet. A large
number of students can study online through MOOCs at a time.
10. Face-to-Face Distance Education Online Education
Education System System
Teacher and students Teacher and students Teacher and students

are in regular contact are physically are physically
and there are constant separated but there is separated but they
face-to-face limited face-to-face experience regular
interactions. contact between them. online contact and
feedback.
Teacher decides the Self-pacing of learning Self-pacing by the

pace of students by the students. students while learning
learning through online media.
42
Agencies of Education
UNIT 3 AGENCIES OF EDUCATION
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Agencies of Education – Meaning and Classification
3.3.1 Classification of Agencies of Education
3.4 Family as an Agency of Education
3.4.1 Role of Family for the Development and Education of the Child
3.5 School as an Agency of Education

3.5.1 Role of School for the Development and Education of the Child
3.5.2 Relationship between School and Home
3.6 Community as an Agency of Education

3.6.1 Role of Community for the Development and Education of the Child
3.6.2 Relationship between School and Community
3.7 State as an Agency of Education

3.7.1 Role of State for the Education of the Child
3.8 Media as an Agency of Education

3.8.1 Role of Media for the Education of the Child
3.9 Interface Between and Among the Agencies of Education

3.10 Let Us Sum Up
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Every society wants that its knowledge, culture, traditions, etc. are preserved as
well as transmitted to its future members. Preservation and transmission of
knowledge and culture are performed by many social institutions like family,
school, community, etc. For example, before entering the School, the children
learn many things in the family when they interact with family members, and
observe the things done by them in the family. Similarly, community, school, state
and media also perform such functions. All these social institutions act as agencies
of education and perform educational functions as expected by the society.
This Unit intends to discuss the role and functions of the above five agencies of
education and how these agencies help in shaping personality of the children. The
above agencies are not independent themselves. Each agency is linked with other
agencies. All the above agencies work collectively for the development of the
Note: A few sections of the Unit have been taken from ‘IGNOU (2016). Agencies of Education
(Unit-12). Philosophical Perspectives of Education.
Dr. Niradhar Dey, Assistant Professor, School of Education, IGNOU.

43
Concept and Nature of children. Therefore, the present Unit will also discuss the interface between and
Education
among the agencies of education.
3.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you will be able to:
 define the meaning of agencies of education and classify them;
 explain the role of various agencies of education such as family, school,
community, state and media in education of the children; and
 analyse the interface between and among the agencies of education.
3.3 AGENCIES OF EDUCATION – MEANING

AND CLASSIFICATION
In the Unit-1, we have explained that education is a lifelong process. It starts from
the birth of a human being and continues till his/her death. During the entire period
of life, human beings come in contact with various institutions. They acquire
educational experiences through these institutions. These institutions are called
agencies of education. The agencies of education can be classified into Family,
School, Community, State, Media, etc. According to Bhatia (1994), ‘Society has
developed a number of specialized institutions to carry out the functions of education.
These institutions are known as ‘Agencies of Education’. Among the agencies,
some are formal agencies of education, whereas others are informal agencies of
education. In the next section, we discuss the classification of the agencies of
education.
3.3.1 Classification of Agencies of Education

As mentioned by Brown (1947), quoted in Saxena (2009), classification of the
agencies of education can be done in various ways. Let us discuss some of the
important classifications of the agencies of education.
44 Fig. 3.1: Classification of Agencies of Education (Category-1)

Agencies of Education
Fig. 3.2: Classification of Agencies of Education (Category-II)
Fig. 3.3: Classification of Agencies of Education (Category-III)
(Source: Saxena, 2009).
As presented in Figure 3.3, agencies of education can be classified into different

categories keeping in view their nature and functions of imparting education. It is
true that only one agency of education is not enough for the child to get education
for his/her development. Children get education from formal as well as informal
agencies, active and passive agencies, commercial as well as non-commercial
agencies of education. In the subsequent sections, we discuss a few important
agencies of education.
Activity 1
Based on the classification of agencies of education given in Figure 3.3,
classify agencies of education into some other categories as per your
understanding.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................ 45
the Unit.
1. What is an agency of education?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. Why are family, school and community called as the active agencies of
education? Explain.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3.4 FAMILY AS AN AGENCY OF EDUCATION

Family is an oldest, basic and fundamental unit of human society. Family nurtures
the child from the very beginning of the birth of the child even when he/she is in
mother’s womb. A family consists of persons who interact with one another in
different ways. A child in a family comes in contact with the senior and junior
members of the family and from them learns culture, customs, values, etc. Therefore,
family is called as the first school of the child. Socialization of the child starts with
the family wherein he/she learns a lot of societal values from the members of the
family. It plays a very important role in laying foundation of the child’s personality
in terms of physical, emotional, social, moral and cognitive dimensions.
A family has the following characteristics:
 Family is universal. It is found all over the world.
 A family consists of a definite number of persons living together having blood
relation or otherwise among themselves.
 A family is a miniature of the society. The values of a society are adopted
and practised in the family.
 Family plays an important role in moulding the personality of the child by
facilitating his/her all-round development.
 Child develops a sense of responsibility in the family. Generally adult members
of the family have greater responsibility than children.
 Family is one of the active agencies of education for inculcating desirable
social values among the children for leading effective social life.
 Family is the first institution from where, the child gets formal recognition to
be a member of the society.
46
3.4.1 Role of Family for the Development and Education Agencies of Education
of the Child
Family is actively involved in the development and education of the child. In the
family, there are members who are emotionally attached with the child and play
an active role in his/her development. The following are the major educational
functions of the family.
 It educates the child by inculcating positive attitude, developing moral and
social values, and desirable skills for social interaction.
 It teaches the child about the culture, tradition, and customs of the society
and also, teaches him/her fellow feeling, love and sense of living together.
 It helps in physical, mental, and emotional development of the child.
 It facilitates the socialization of the child.
 It identifies the interests of the child and accordingly provides him/her
opportunities to develop his/her interests.
 It not only provides the child basic necessities but also prepares him/her for
future living.
 It makes the child ready for formal schooling.
Let us discuss the role of family in all round development of the child.
 Physical Development: The child spends his/her childhood with the family.
During childhood period, the priority, initially, should be on the physical
growth of the child. The family should take care of the diet of the child
and ensure that the child is nourished properly. Moreover, it should engage
the child in age appropriate plays and games for his/her physical growth.
 Social Development: The first act of socialization takes place when the
child receives love and affection from his/her family. Family is the first social
institution that socializes the child. The social development of the child
depends upon the love, affection, recognition, security, approval, freedom,
etc. which the child receives from the family. The child learns how to conduct
in a righteous manner from the parents. He/she also observes day to day
activities of the parents which impact his/her social behaviour. The manner
in which the family conducts itself influences the future role and performance
of the child.
 Emotional Development: The behavior of the parents influences the
emotional development of the child. Needless to say, the child first develops
emotional bonding with the parents. The feeling of ‘acceptance’, ‘love and
belongingness’ and ‘togetherness’ comes from the family, which builds up
emotional maturity in the child.
 Mental Development: Like physical growth, mental development of the
child takes place in the family. From the very beginning of infancy, child
learns various signs and symbols, speeches and imitates others in the family.
The family educates the child, informally through various actions, plays, and
stories.
47
Concept and Nature of  Moral and Religious Development: The parents are the first role model
Education
for the child. The values and behaviours of the parents are usually observed
by the children. The parental behaviours create a value system in the
children. The parents make them differentiate between the right and the
wrong. The immoral acts of the children are checked by the parents at
the very initial stage. The value system of the children gets developed by
the moral and spiritual activities practised in the family.
Apart from these, the family performs the following functions for the development
of the children.
 Develop in them a sense of patriotism towards the country.
 Make them understand their duties and responsibilities to the society.
 Develop in them respect for human life and dignity.
 Encourage them to preserve and transmit family values and culture.
 Develop in them interest and positive attitude towards people, society, etc.

the Unit.
3. Explain any two characteristics of a family
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4. Explain the role of family in the emotional development of the child.
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3.5 SCHOOL AS AN AGENCY OF EDUCATION

School is an important formal agency of education. It develops all-round
personality of the children and makes them capable of adjusting themselves to
the changing scenario of the society. School is the place where the children
get enough opportunities to adjust themselves to various situations and learn
many things. After home and family, school is the second important place where
the children acquire different learning experiences and modify their behaviours.
The word ‘School’ has been derived from the Greek word ‘Skhole’ which means
leisure. In ancient times, India had the Gurukula system of education where
students were accepted as Shishayas and stayed with the guru in Ashrams/
Gurukuls. Teaching learning process was conducted in the Gurukul system
48 through face-to-face interactions, story-telling, hands-on activities of different
nature, and expose to the nature for true learning. The objectives of learning Agencies of Education
were to understand life, nature and acquire values. It did not require only
memorizing the information rather to reflect upon it for one’s life practices. But
now the concept of schooling has changed; it denotes a formal centre of
education where the children need to be taught about the societal system,
governance, civic structure, democracy, Country, demography, History, Languages,
Mathematics, vocations, etc. The school system, thus, becomes an important
agency of education.
3.5.1 Role of School for the Development and

Education of the Child
The School is an agency of education and also is a miniature form of the society.
It comprises the different stakeholders like teachers, students, parents and the
government. The Schools has its own culture and social setting. Socialization
is also an important function of the School. The process of socialisation of the
child which takes place in family extends to school when he/she enters it.
Besides socialization, another significant function of School is the transmission
of cultural norms and values to new generations. Students coming from different
strata of the society are made to follow the rules and regulations of the School.
School undertakes different activities at different levels to ensure overall
personality development of the child. School, therefore, plays a significant role
in laying the foundation of child’s personality in terms of physical, cognitive,
social, emotional, moral and spiritual development. In the changing scenario of
education, the school basically performs two types of roles: manifestation role
and emerging role. Let us discuss the two types of roles of a school.
Manifestation Role:
The following manifestation roles are performed by school.
i. Transmitting Traditional Culture: School, as an agency of education,
transmits social culture, a process by which the culture of a society is passed
on to its future members. Children are taught about culture, beliefs, values,
and norms of the society. School helps the children develop self-concepts,
emotions, attitudes and desirable behaviours for proper adjustment to the
society. Every society has its own heritage and history. The main function
of the School is to make the students aware of the cultural history and
heritage of the society. This is done through formal teaching of History,
Literature, etc.
ii. Teaching Basic and Vocational Skills: The School responds to society’s
need and complies with society’s demands for preparing trained workers,
intellectuals and well-educated citizens. The School trains the individuals
for developing occupational and vocational skills. For accomplishing this
job vocational abilities and interests of individuals are identified and are
developed. Presently, the government of India is focusing more on skill
based education starting from school stage. Even in the higher education
curriculum, as per the Choice Based Credit System (CBCS), the ability
and skill enhancement courses have also been included at the graduation
level. It is because the main focus of education is to produce skills based
human power.
49
Concept and Nature of iii. Character Education: The School inculcates values among the children.
Education
In school curriculum, moral science is integrated into different subjects. The
stories of national heroes are also part of the curriculum. The School has
a responsibility to create individuals of high morals and character. In School,
students learn to follow rules and regulations; learn patience, learn to respect
different beliefs and thoughts. School also teaches the learners to learn the
ethics, values, morals, and life skills required for becoming responsible
citizens of the country. The above aspects which are taught by the schools
lead to character development of the students.
Emerging Role:
The school performs the following emerging roles among the children.
i. Imparts Life Skills Education: Today’s society expects school to teach
students life skills such as self-awareness, effective communication, creative
thinking, critical thinking, problem solving ability, coping with stress, coping
with emotions, etc. According to World Health Organization (WHO), life
skills are the abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable
individuals to deal effectively with the demands and everyday challenges.
WHO has prescribed ten life skills. Those are, Self-awareness, Empathy,
Critical thinking, Creative thinking, Decision making, Problem Solving,
Effective communication, Interpersonal relationship, coping with stress, and
Coping with emotions.
ii. Promotes Functional Literacy: School develops basic academic skills
like reading, writing and arithmetic among students. Literacy generally means
knowledge of 3Rs (Reading, Writing and Arithmetic). Apart from promoting
general literacy, school also makes students functionally literate. Functional
literacy implies knowledge, skills, attitudes and values by acquiring which
an individual can face the challenges of life and lead a smooth life in the
society.
iii. Fosters Creativity: School provides an environment for fostering creative
minds of the children. It encourages children to think divergent and create
new ideas. It promotes creative thinking among young children. There are
activities in the school like projects which expect children to exhibit their
creativity. Scientific exhibitions provide children a scope to exhibit their
creative abilities by demonstrating innovative scientific innovations. School
provides students opportunities for creating new knowledge and dissemination
of that knowledge. School is, thus a rearing ground for fresh minds, novel
ideas, innovative thinking, scientific observation, inquiry, etc.
iv. Teaches Learners to Live Together: According to Delors Commission
(1996), ‘the task of education is to teach at one and the same time, the
diversity of human race and an awareness of the similarities between and
the interdependence of all humans’. From the early childhood period, school
must, therefore, take every opportunity to teach these two things. School
actually allows children to explore the culture of their fellow beings. Students
are made to respect viewpoints of other ethnic or religious groups and
develop an attitude of acceptance of feelings and beliefs of other members
in the group. School promotes religious harmony among the children. The
children learn to co-exist with other members of other groups. It helps
50 them to develop a receptive mind.
3.5.2 Relationship between School and Home Agencies of Education
Parents send their children to School with the hope that their children will acquire
knowledge, develop basic skills, and inculcate moral and ethical values. The
contributions of home and school in the development of child are inter-depended.
Both these agencies play an important role in the process of socialization of
the children. Both the agencies of education are dependent on each other in
terms of educating children and nurturing values among them. Schools organize
parent teacher meetings for ensuring parental involvement and participation in
the development of the school. Home, on the other hand, fulfils the basic
requirements of the children and prepares them for school. Conducive environment
at home influences the children in their involvement in school activities and solving
the problems faced by them. Therefore, both the school as well as the home
plays a critical role in the development of the children.
Moreover, in the Right to Education Act, 2009, it has been recommended to
form School Management Committee (SMC) through which the parents can
contribute to the school development activities and establish better relationship
between the school and the home. This is quite evident that without the
cooperation of home, school cannot function well and vice versa.
Activity 2
As a teacher, how can you improve the relationship between School
and Home? State your suggestions.
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............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

the Unit.
5. What manifest functions does the school perform?
............................................................................................................
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............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
6. Explain the concept, ‘Learning to Live Together’.
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............................................................................................................ 51
Education 3.6 COMMUNITYAS AN AGENCY OF EDUCATION
The term ‘community’ has been derived from two distinct words ‘com’ and
‘munis’, ‘com’ means togetherness and ‘munis’ means to serve. Thus the term
‘community’ means ‘to serve together’. A group of people having commonality
in their ways of living, principles and ideals is called a community. According
to Ginsberg, ‘community is to be understood as a group of social beings living
a common life including all the infinite variety and complexity of relations which
result from common life’. (Quoted in Swaroop Saxena, 2009).
Community is considered as an agency of education because community provides
its members all sorts of facilities for getting education by using different means.
It provides formal education by establishing schools and also provides non-formal
education by establishing education centres for adult learners during evening
hours. Community also provides its members all types of informal learning
experiences. School run by a community is, therefore, called a miniature form
of the society. As mentioned in the previous section, the RTE Act, 2009, has
recommended to form a School Management Committee (SMC) for every
school with an aim to bring community closure to school and establish good
school community relationships.
3.6.1 Role of Community for the Development and

Education of the Child
Community is an informal agency of education. Community is a larger social
unit as compared to family. We have already studied that socialization, awareness
about culture, development of the ‘we feeling’ and providing moral and religious
education are the main functions of family. Community is a part of the larger
society and family is a part of the community. Socialization is the main function
of the community. By attending many community functions like marriage, festivals
etc., children get to know about the value system and social culture. Through
community, children learn customs and traditions which influence their social
behaviour.
Role of the Community in Education:
As discussed, socialization is the main function of the community. School is also
a part of community. Community plays an active role by interacting with the
School and improving its quality. Community makes all efforts for the all-round
development of the children. It establishes hospitals, parks, and playgrounds
for the physical development of the children. Community also takes the
responsibility to establish, Zoo, Libraries, etc. which influence the life and
activities of the children. Every community has its leaders and performers and
wants its future generations to emulate them.
According to the Delors Commission (1996), ‘the main parties contributing to
the success of educational reforms are first of all the local community including
the parents, the school heads and teachers”….. Again in RTE Act 2009, the
main role that has been entrusted to the community through the School
Management Committee (SMC) is to prepare and implement the School
Development Plan (SDP) which includes all aspects of the development of the
school. It is obvious that local community plays a paramount role in the
development of the school. The community wants its members to be responsible
52
citizens and add to the productivity of the nation. Therefore, educational Agencies of Education
development depends on the effective participation of the community in the
schooling process.
Apart from the above, the community also undertakes the following roles:
 Establishes school for the education of the children.
 Actively participates with school authorities to prepare School Development
Plan and observe closely for its implementation.
 Extends support to the development of school infrastructure, human
resources and generation of finance for various developmental activities of
the school.
 Provides the school support for organisation of adult education, vocational
and skill based education.
3.6.2 Relationship between School and Community

Learning is a continuous process which encompasses Home, School, Peer
Group, Community etc. School, as a social institution and as an agent of
socialization, needs to have a good relationship with community. The community
can involve itself in various activities of the school and can also contribute to
the curriculum process. According to the National Curriculum Framework, 2005,
(p.88), the participation of the community in the child’s world of education and
learning should be allowed to:
 transfer oral history and traditional knowledge to children, while the school
encourages critical thinking and reflection wherever it is required;
 influence the content of subjects and add local, practical and appropriate
examples;
 support children in their explorations and creation of knowledge and
information;
 support children in their practice of democracy through their participation
in information generation, planning, monitoring and evaluation with local
governments and Schools;
 participate in addressing the constraints faced by children;
 participate in setting criteria for vocational training; and
 enable the village to become a learning environment for children realizing
the concept of “village as a school”.
(Source: NCF, 2005)
Bakwai (2013) was of the view that, ‘School community relationship is a two-
way symbiotic arrangement through which the school and community co-operate
with each other for realization of goals of the community and vice versa’.
Therefore, a school is a mini society that needs good relations with the community
to function effectively. On the other hand, the community also needs the school
for its survival and progress. Madumere (2004) was of the view that, ‘School
as a social system means that the School is a part and parcel of the society’.
He added that since school belongs to the community, cordial relationship 53
Concept and Nature of between the school and community is the pre-requisite for achieving meaningful
Education
educational objective for the community and nation at large. Sadker (2008),
was of the view that, ‘community transmits its culture and views to the world’.
The community would only add to the overall performance of the school. In
order to encourage community participation, schools invite parents and dignitaries
from the community on the occasion of national festivals, and on other occasions
like sports day, cultural day, School’s annual day, etc. Schools have also parents’
teacher associations, alumni associations, etc. which strengthen the relationship
and co-ordination between the school and the community. Communities can also
contribute to the development of school’s infrastructure. Similarly, school can
provide its infrastructure for community service. Community can be asked to
pool in resources for education of the weaker sections of the society.
Activity 3
1. Read the provisions of School Management Committee given in
the Right to Education Act 2009 and point out the role of SMC
for the development of the School.
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...........................................................................................................
2. How can community be better associated with the activities of

the school? Give suggestions.
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3.7 STATE AS AN AGENCY OF EDUCATION

I. L. Kandel (Quoted in Swaroop and Saxena, 2009) defines ‘State as an
organized political community with government recognized by people’. The role
of State is for the overall development of its citizens in terms of education,
health, infrastructure, economy and other socio-cultural aspects. Being a major
stakeholder in school system, State cannot be kept isolated for education of
the children. In the hierarchy of school management, State occupies the top
position to exercise its control over the education system in the country. It ensures
that all children irrespective of caste, creed, religions, socio-economic backgrounds,
etc. have access to educational facilities. Thus, it promotes the constitutional
provision of equality of educational opportunity. It regulates the entire education
system by preparing plans, executing them and providing educational supports
to the students through various schemes of education. Let us discuss the role
54 of state for the education of the Children.
3.7.1 Role of State for the Education of the Child Agencies of Education
A democratic and liberal state takes the responsibility of educating its citizens.
State as a major stakeholder in education in general and School in particular
undertake the following roles for the education of the child.
Formulation of a National Policy on Education :
A liberal State takes the responsibility to develop an education policy for
implementing it across the country. For that, the State constitutes committees
to look into the matter by consulting various stakeholders in education, organizing
seminars and workshops before making it final. Similarly the state also sets up
various commissions from time to time give recommendations pertaining to
different aspects concerned with different levels of education, like school
education, higher education, teacher education, technical and professional
education, etc. For example, the Secondary Education Commission (1952-53),
was set up to recommend for school education system in India. National Policy
on Education, 1986 provides detailed guidelines for education system of India
which includes education at all levels. 10+2+3 system of education (10 Years
of Secondary School Education, 2 Years of Higher Secondary School Education
and 3 Years of Graduation Degree) was recommended by the National Policy
on Education (1986) and subsequently, it was implemented across the country.
Implementation of National Policy on Education:
For effective implementation of National Policy on Education, the State launches
different schemes of education. Through these schemes of education, different
stakeholders get the benefits of education. The following are some of the schemes
of education which have been implemented for the educational development of
our country.
Table 3.1: Schemes of Education
S.N. Name of the Schemes Main Objective
1 Right to Education Act,  To provide the children right to
2009 (Implemented get free and compulsory
since 1st April 2010) Elementary Education (from Class I
to VIII) within the age group of 6
to 14 years.
2 Mid-Day Meal Scheme  To enhance enrollment, retention,
(Launched on 15th attendance and simultaneously to
August 1995) improve the nutritional status of
children.
3 Kasturba Gandhi Balika  To provide the upper primary schools
Vidyalaya (KGBV) (2004) residential facilities for the girls from
SC, ST, OBC and Muslim
communities.
4 National Bal Bhawan(1956)  To provide opportunity to the
children for enhancing their creativity
through creative art, writing,
performance, physical education,
scientific innovation, photography, etc.
in a joyful environment. 55
Education 5 Rashtriya Madhyamika  The scheme envisages interalia,
Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) to enhance the enrollment at
(2009) secondary stage by providing a
Secondary School within a
reasonable distance of habitation,
and with an aim to ensure Gross
Enrollment Ratio (GER) of 100%
by 2017 and universal retention
by 2020.
 To improve quality of education
imparted at secondary level
through making all secondary
schools conform to prescribed
norms, removing gender, socio-
economic and disability barriers,
etc.
6 UDAAN(2014)  To address the quality gap
between school education and
engineering entrance, by
addressing three dimensions of
education – curriculum design,
transaction and assessment.
 To enrich and enhance teaching
and learning of science and
Mathematics at Senior Secondary
level.
 To provide a platform that
empowers the girl students and
provides better learning
opportunities to them.
(Source : Govt. of India, 2020)
Activity 4
Write the names of at least two schemes of education with their objectives
and beneficiaries which were launched by your State Government.
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56
Provision for Schools: Agencies of Education
The State makes provision for Schools at different levels within the proximity
of the students. As per the Right to Education Act, 2009, a child has the right
to get free and compulsory elementary education up to the age of 14. There
should be a school within the radius of one kilometre from the house of the
children and the ratio of students and teachers will be 30:1 and 35:1 at the
lower primary (Class I-V) and upper primary (Class VI-VIII) levels respectively.
Therefore, the role of the State is to provide a school to the children within
their reach.
Adult Education Centre:
Like the provision of Schools, the State makes provision for an Adult Education
Centre at the village level to educate the illiterate adult learners and make them
skilled in various occupations.
Finance of the School:
The State provides financial assistance to the schools and educational institutions
for their proper functioning. It includes salary for the teachers, funds for
infrastructure development in the schools as well as recurring amount for day-
to-day expenses of the schools.
Appointment of Teachers:
The State appoints teachers in all schools as per the requirements and strength
of students in the schools. As it was mentioned earlier, the State should maintain
the ratio of students and teachers as 30:1 at the lower and 35:1 at the upper
primary classes respectively (RTE Act, 2009). The responsibility of the State
is not only to appoint the teachers, but also to ensure quality education in the
schools.
Provision of Text Books and Study Materials:
The State provides textbooks and other study materials to the students free
of cost. In every State, there is a State Council of Educational Research and
Training (SCERT). The major functions of SCERT are to develop school
textbooks and supply them to students timely and free of cost.
Provision of Scholarship:
The State provides scholarships to the poor and meritorious students and
motivates them for studies. This is one type of incentive to the students for
their study. National Talent Search (NTS) examination is conducted by the
National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) to identify the
talented students at the school level and support them with scholarships and
incentives. This is an example of how the state makes provision of scholarship
for students at the school level.
Coordinating between School and Communities:
The State also acts as a coordinator between the School and Community for
their proper functioning. As per the Right to Education Act, 2009, there is the
provision of establishment of School Management Committee (SMC) in each
school. The work of the SMC is to prepare the School Development Plan
(SDP) and to observe its implementation with a close monitoring of the activities
conducted in the schools. 57
the Unit.
7. How does the State implement Education Policy in the Country?
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3.8 MEDIA AS AN AGENCY OF EDUCATION

Like family, school and home, media also play a vital role in socialization of
children. With advancement in the field of educational technology, media is being
used for the purpose of formal and informal education. We are living in the
age of science and technology. Mass media like radio, television, etc. can improve
the quality of education as they make educational contents reach a large number
of people. Mass media may be defined as the medium or agency through which
ideas, attitudes or impressions are communicated to a large number of people.
Currently, we find a number of interactive media like interactive radio, interactive
television, teleconferencing, mobile, email, online conferencing which are used
to interact with students in real time. Moreover, online education supports like
Open Educational Resources, e-learning and Massive Open Online Courses are
getting popular in the education system all over the world. Therefore, media
play a significant role in education of students.
John Dewey has stated that education cannot be limited to the teacher or taught
without social environment. So, mass media is used to create a virtual social
environment in teaching-learning process. Due to mass media, education is not
any more confined to the four walls of the classroom. Teaching-learning can
take place without a formal classroom with the help of latest online technologies.
Mass media can be used beyond the boundaries of a country and can make
the entire world a family. Various media such as newspaper, TV, radio, films,
internet, World Wide Web, social media, etc. can be used for educating the
children.
3.8.1 Role of Media for the Education of the Child
Media is one of the means of educating the society. It is one of quickest means
of providing education to the masses. Media is also now an important tool in
the hands of the teacher. It is now used in the classrooms in the form of multi-
media packages and social media. Success of education cannot be achieved
merely by substituting human beings with technological aids, but by developing
new teaching-learning methodologies using both human beings and technological
aids. Information technology is undoubtedly providing knowledge, skills, improving
58 understanding and changing attitudes.
Educational media has gained popularity both for individual learning and mass Agencies of Education
education. Information Communication Technology (ICT) is used in both formal
and non-formal education systems. Indira Gandhi National Open University
(IGNOU), National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS), etc. are offering
educational programmes throughout the country and in oversea countries through
ODL, radio, television, and online learning. The Central Institute of Educational
Technology (CIET) under the NCERT is mainly concerned with the development
of audio-video programmes and online learning resources and is using these
resources for School education. It is engaged in the use of television through
INSAT to reach both school children and out of school children and teachers
throughout the country. It produces Educational Television (E.T.V.) programmes
and these programmes are being telecast via INSAT. The Electronic Media
Production Center (EMPC) of IGNOU, also develops audio-video materials,
conducts direct virtual teaching telecast through Teleconferencing and Interactive
Radio Counselling for different learners.
The Delors Commission (1996; p.173), also observes that new technology has
created a host of new tools for use in the classroom as under:
 Computer & Internet
 Cable and satellite TV education
 Multimedia equipment
 Inter-active information exchange system including e-mail and online access

to libraries and public data base.
(Source: IGNOU, 2000)
NPE, 1986, has emphasized, ‘modern communication techniques have the

potential to bypass several stages and sequences in the process of development
encountered in earlier decades. Both the constraints of time and distance become
manageable. In order to avoid structural dualism, modern educational technology
must reach out to most distant areas and most deprived sections of beneficiaries’.
The National Knowledge Commission (NKC)) in its report also recommended
online learning and use of varieties of media in the process of teaching and
learning. Most importantly, the progress of Massive Open Online Courses
(MOOCs) throughout the world and the present initiative of the Govt. of India
for ‘Digital Literacy’ add further boost for the use of multimedia in education.
The multimedia system has promoted personalized learning which means a learner
can learn on his/her own pace and according to his/her convenience. Online
programmes are available on the Internet which enables the learners to pursue
courses of their choice. Learning materials are also available online. No longer
are students dependent solely on the classrooms and teachers. They have new
opportunity to expand their learning by going beyond the classroom and accessing
a lot of information online. All new technologies also contribute a lot to informal
education of the masses.
According to NCF 2005, ‘mass media can be used to support teacher training,
facilitate classroom learning and be used for advocacy. Possibilities of teaching
and learning at varied paces, self-learning, dual modes of studies, etc. could
59
all benefit from the use of technology particularly ICT’.
the Unit.
8. What media does IGNOU use for delivering its programmes? Make a
list of it
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
........................................................................................................... .
3.9 INTERFACE BETWEEN AND AMONG THE

AGENCIES OF EDUCATION
The agencies of education discussed in this unit supplement each other for overall
development of the children. These agencies influence the children in their own
ways. Continuous interface among Home, School and Community enhance the
capabilities of the children. Home, school, the peer group, the community and
the media could contribute a lot to education of children if these agencies work
in a concerted manner.
Today’s School is different from the ancient Gurukul system of education.
Knowledge that the students acquire today is not solely from the face-to-face
interaction that takes place between students and teachers at the school, students
also acquire knowledge and get informed by using other media. Now-a-days,
school is using multi-media approach for teaching the students. School uses text
books, reference books, audio-video materials, television, radio, internet, and
other e-learning tools for teaching the students. Therefore, learning takes place
by using varieties of agencies of education with proper coordination among and
between the agencies of education. Without the support and cooperation of the
community, school cannot function well. Again the development of the community
depends upon the involvement of schools in the community activities. Home
is of course, one of the primary agencies of education which links the child
with school and community. The State is at the apex. It prepares policies of
education and implements it in the school by using various agencies of education
like, media, community, family, school, etc. Therefore, the purpose of educating
the child cannot be fulfilled neglecting any agencies of education.
The above agencies of education supplement each other for overall development
of the child. These agencies influence the child in their own ways. A perfect
environment created by the family, School and Community enhances the
capabilities of the child. In this way the total environment comprising the family,
school, peer group, community and the media influences the child in the process
of learning and education. Thus, these agencies influence the child separately
and further influence each other.
3.10 LET US SUM UP

We have dealt with various agencies of education in this Unit and their relationship
60 in influencing the overall development of a child. The roles of formal and informal
agencies are intertwined and interweaved where one impacts the other. These Agencies of Education
agencies consciously and unconsciously educate a child and have their own utility.
While a formal agency like School educates in a systematic manner through
a planned curriculum and methodology, informal agencies provide knowledge
informally. The family teaches children values and looks after their social
development. At the same time, it remains an active partner with schools helping
the children to study. Though today, a larger role is being played by the schools
which are termed as emerging functions. The community shares responsibility
with family in providing moral and religious education to the children. Apart
from that, the community as an informal agency that provides facilities, and is
involved in the development of the schools. It also regulates the curriculum of
the Schools. The School actually works in collaboration with the community.
Media, no doubt, plays a very effective role in providing information and
knowledge which are a part of school curriculum and learning practices.
On the whole, these different agencies of education supplement each other in
the overall development of the children. These agencies influence the children
in their own ways. A perfect environment created by the family, school and
community, State and Media enhance the capabilities of the children.

Aggrawal, J.C. (2008). Theory and Principles of Education,12thEdn, New Delhi;
Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd, p24
Bhatacharya, S. (2006).Philosophical Foundation of Education. New Delhi:
Atlantic Publishers and Distributors.
Brown, F.J. (1947). Educational Sociology. The Technical Press.
Coombs, P.H., Processer, C. and Ahmed, M. (1973). New Paths to Learning
for Rural Children and New York: International Council for Educational
Development, in Smith Mark K. (2004):http://infed.org/biblio/b-nonfor.htm.
Dagar, B.S. and Dhull, Indira (1994). Prospective in Moral Education, New
Delhi: Uppal Publishing House.
Dash, B. N. (2003). Principles of Education, New Delhi: Neelkamal Publications.
Delors Jacques (1996). Learning the Treasure Within, Paris: UNESCO Publishing.
Govt. of Education (1952-53). Secondary Education Commission. New Delhi:
Ministry of Education.
Govt. of India (2015). Digital Literacy. New Delhi: Ministry of Human Resource
Development.
Govt. of India (2020). Annual Report, MHRD, Govt. of India, New Delhi.
IGNOU (2000). Agencies of Education (Unit-3), Understanding Education
(Block-1), Education and Society (ES-334), New Delhi: IGNOU.
IGNOU (2016). Agencies of Education (Unit-12). Philosophical Perspectives
of Education (Block-3). Contemporary India and Education (BES-122).
IGNOU: New Delhi.
IGNOU (2016). Education and Policies (Unit-3). Indian Societal Context and
Education (Block-1). Contemporary India and Education (BES-122). IGNOU:
New Delhi. 61
Concept and Nature of Mohanti, P.C. (1992). Learning the Treasure within. Paris: UNESCO Publishing.
Education
Musgrave, P.W. (ed.), (1970). Sociology, History and Education. London:
Mathuen & Co. Ltd.
NCERT (2005). National Curriculum Framework (NCF, 2005). New Delhi:
NCERT.
Saxena, N.R. S. (2009). Principles of Education. Meerut: R. Lall Book Depot.
Depot. Meerut.
Publishing Corporation, p.3.

1. Agencies of Education are the social institutions like school, community,
media, family, state, etc. which function as knowledge providers and educate
the children.
2. Family, school and community are called as the active agencies of education
as nourishment, grooming and education of the children are done directly
by these agencies.
3. Two characteristics of a family are : (i) A family is having a size i.e. a
number of persons living together with having blood relation or otherwise
and (ii) family is a permanent institution for the child because from the
family, the child gets formal recognition to be a member of the society
and to lead a social life.
4. Family is a place where the child develops an emotional bonding as the
members of the family are emotionally attached with each other. The feeling
of ‘acceptance’, ‘love and belongingness’ and ‘togetherness’ comes from
the family only, which provides emotional maturity to the children.
5. School transmits culture and tradition, teaching skills and vocation and helps
in character building and practice of values.
6. The concept, ‘Learning to Live Together’ helps the students develop a sense
of living together, accept the feelings and culture of others, and to understand
the whole universe as a large family.
7. The responsibility of a State is to develop a policy of education by consulting
all the stakeholders of education and to implement the policy in its true
sense.
8. For transacting academic programmes, IGNOU uses the media like Self-
Learning Print materials, Radio and Television, internet, webcasting, online
and also face-to-face interaction.
62
Historical Developments of
UNIT 4 HISTORICAL Education: An Overview
DEVELOPMENTS OF
EDUCATION: AN OVERVIEW
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Ancient Indian Education
4.3.1 Education during the Vedic Period
4.3.2 Education during the Buddhist Period
4.4 Education during Medieval Period

4.5 Indian Education in Modern Time
4.5.1 Education during the Pre-independence Period
4.5.1.1 Macaulay’s Minutes 1835
4.5.1.2 Wood’s Despatch 1854
4.5.1.3 Hunter Commission 1882-83
4.5.1.4 Indian University Commission 1902
4.5.1.5 Calcutta University Commission 1917-19
4.5.1.6 Hartog Committee 1928-29
4.5.1.7 Govt. of India Act 1935
4.5.2 Education during the Post-independence Period
4.5.2.1 University Education Commission 1948-49
4.5.2.2 Secondary Education Commission 1952-53
4.5.2.3 Education Commission 1964-66
4.5.2.4 National Policy on Education 1968
4.5.2.5 National Education Policy 1986
4.5.2.6 Revised National Education Policy 1992
4.5.2.7 Five Year Plans
4.5.2.8 Niti Aayog
4.5.2.9 Education as a Fundamental Right
4.5.2.10 Draft National Education Policy 2019
4.6 Let Us Sum Up

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Development of education in India has a long historical past. The history of
education in India can be traced back to the Gurukul system of education during
the Ancient times. Since then, it has passed through several centuries of Indian
civilization and reached the current stage of technology based education system.
Development of education in every period beginning from the Ancient times has
its own importance. India has witnessed many ups and downs of education during
different periods, say, the Ancient, the Medieval, and also the Modern which
includes both the pre-independence and the post-independence periods.
Dr. Ramendra Ku. Parhi, Dept. of Education, Central University of Odisha, Koraput. 63
Concept and Nature of The present Unit will help you understand and analyse the education system
Education prevailing in India during different periods as mentioned above. This Unit will also
help you understand the present development of education in terms of transformation
of quality education at the School and the Higher education levels.
4.2 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the Unit, you should be able to:
 explain the education system prevailing during the Ancient period;
 critically analyse the education system practiced during the Medieval period;
 discuss the educational developments which took place during the pre-
independence period; and
 critically analyse the developments and issues of education during the post-
independence period.
4.3 ANCIENT INDIAN EDUCATION

India has a long history of well-established education system. The modern
educational systems are the outcomes of educational systems prevailing during the
past. Modern or contemporary systems of education draw their essence from the
past educational systems. It is the historical outlook which helps in studying the
problems of education. India has a magnificent history of education since the
Vedic age. Indeed, there was an ideal education system during Vedic, Brahmanic
and Buddhist era. Further, the ancient system of education was nourished by the
Mughals who came to this land and settled in this country. With the advent of
British in India, reform of the traditional system began and foundation of modern
education system in India was laid down. After independence, Government of
India improved the status and promoted the system of education to a new
culminating point.
4.3.1 Education during the Vedic Period

The Vedas were the original source of the philosophy of life and system of
education during ancient India. Education, during ancient India, consisted of
teachings of the Vedas. Four Vedas, such as Rig-Veda, Samveda, Atharveda and
Yajurveda are the sources of knowledge about the culture, civilization, life and
philosophy of the people of Ancient India. They contain the philosophy of life.
Rig-Veda is the essence of the basic teachings of the great Indian thinkers, teachers,
rushis and munis. Education, during the Vedic period, was based on the text of
Rig-Veda. Vedic education thus consisted of teachings of the Vedas.
Aims of Education
The ultimate aim of education during the Vedic period was to enable an Individual
to understand truth and to attain Moksha. Moksha means ‘liberation’ and
‘emancipation’. Also known as Mukti, it is derived from Sanskrit word
‘mukt’which means to be liberated from the life-death cycle. It is the final stage
into which dharma, artha and kama automatically culminate. Dharma means living
a virtual and moral life. Artha means attaining the means of wealth, security and
prosperity. Kama means appreciating sensual pleasures, love and enjoyment.
64 There are three goals of Purusarthas through which individuals move towards
achievement of Moksha. Other important aims of Vedic education were Historical Developments of
Education: An Overview
development of character and personality, sublimation of instincts, preservation of
culture, character building and physical efficiency. Vedic education also intended
to develop piety and sense of respect; to train the human cognition, intellect and
memory; to make one fit to have healthy progeny; to make one live long, and to
bring immortality within reach (Dash, 2008, p. 20).
(Source: http://www.yogapedia.com, “Moksha”, What is Moksha?)
Methods of Teaching
Methods of teaching during, the Vedic period, emphasised repetitive recital or

avritti. Mostly, three methods of teaching were being used by teachers during
that period:
(i) Sravana (Listening): Students listened to the words or texts uttered by the
teacher and memorized them.
(ii) Manana (Deliberation): It was an advanced method of teaching through

which students were taught how to reflect on the topic taught by the teacher.
Intellectual appreciation of truth was the prominent feature of this method.
(iii) Nidhidhyasana (Meditation): Through this method realization of truth was

to be accomplished.The individual was helped by this method to realise the
self.
Duties of students (Shishyas) : According to Rai (2001), the duties of the

students who lived in ‘Gurukul’were : (a) a student had to do the service of the
‘Guru’ and required works of the ‘Gurukul’. He also prepared the necessities for
the rituals like, Yajnas. (b) The student had to go out for alms. This developed
the spirit of generosity in them. (c) His main duty was to study. He learnt and
attended to the instruction of the ‘Guru’very gently.Thus, it is clear that while living
in ‘Gurukul’ he spent the life of an ideal student, which was simple and well
regulated.
Relation between Guru and Shishyas : During the Vedic age, the Shishya
considered his Guru as his father. “Guru, very affectionately looked after his
taught” (Rai, 2001, p. 11). He never let him suffer in any way and always worked
towards his all-round development.
Gurukulas : “The Gurukul system which necessitated the stay of the student
away from his home at the home of the teacher or in boarding house of established
reputation, was one of most important features of the Ancient Indian Education”
(Altekar, 1944, p.30).
Qualities of Guru : Teachers of the Vedic age were of the uppermost calibre
in the society in terms of knowledge and spiritual development. Residing in their
‘Gurukulas’, they always emphasised on religious and spiritual development of
their thoughts. Thus, every obligation of the Shishyas (learners) was on ‘Gurus’,
who continuously tried to improve the qualities of their learners so that they might
become better than themselves. The teacher’s responsibility was to show the
correct path to learners for realization of ultimate truth (Nayak, 2012).
65
Concept and Nature of Curriculum
Education
Curriculum, during the Vedic period, was chosen to enhance the process of all
round development of the learner’s personality.The students were taught to learn
the four Vedas by heart and side by side they studied Sanskrit language and six
Vedangas Kalpa (ritual), Vyakaran (grammar), Jyotish (astronomy), Chhanda
(metrics), Nirukta (etymology) and Shiksha (phonetics).As far as courses of
study and literature were concerned, the Vedic education was remarkable. Physical
Education was also included in the curriculum. Some professional and technical
subjects like Ayurveda or Chikitshavidya (Medicine and surgery), Astronomy,
Ethics, Philosophy, Astrology, Military Education, Artha-sashtra, etc. also comprised
the Vedic curriculum.
Fullness in Education – The comprehensive knowledge of some specific subjects
was emphasized after knowledge of several basic subjects was acquired by
students.
Importance of religious education – Ancient Indian education was dominated
by religion. Kindness, forgiveness, perseverance, nobleness etc. were inculcated
in students. “The knowledge of the sacred hymnology and sacrificial rituals was
considerably systematized and it was transmitted orally word by word by the
teacher to pupil” (Nayak, 2012, p.24). Teaching of hymns and rituals were
emphasized by teachers.
Emphasis on character building – The Gurus thought that if the students would
learn good habits from the early life then their future would be peaceful and
happy. The learners were under the direct and personal supervision of their
teacher, who was to look after not only their intellectual development but also
their moral conduct (Altekar, 1944).
Women education- Women education also received proper attention during the
Vedic age with the result that women became Rishikas after receiving education.
They composed hymns too. They used to take part in religious rituals. They were
also taught practical and useful handicrafts and household duties.
Physical education – Though the Vedic education was religious in nature, yet
useful and needful subjects for general public were included in the Vedic curriculum.
People could gain education of various arts and crafts side by side. Subjects like
Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, etc. were taught through the Vedic education.
To conclude, we can say that the aim of ‘Vedic’ Education was very lofty. It
aimed at providing students full opportunity for the development of human qualities.
It is beyond doubt that ‘Vedic’ education was fully capable of building
goodcharacter, providing knowledge in various subject areas, ensuring social
prosperity, etc.
4.3.2 Education during the Buddhist Period
‘Buddhism’ evolved in India and was started by Gautam Buddha who was an
Indian Prince of Sakya dynasty. Buddhism had spread over India by 600 B.C.
and developed in the form of ‘Sanghas’. Buddhism was not a sudden outcome
of any thought. It was the natural evolution of the Indian thinking which was
expressed in the ancient Indian religious, philosophical, social and political spheres
66
of the society. Buddhism spread through the ‘Monasteries’ and ‘Vihars’, where Historical Developments of
educational activities were carried out by the monks. In short, the history of
education during the Buddhist period is closely related with the history of these
monasteries and ‘Vihars,’ as there were no independent educational institutions or
centres, other than those religious centres. Moreover, only monks or ‘Shramans’
were authorised to impart education to the people. Thus, the monasteries and
‘Vihars’ took the places of sacrificial altars and as a result, these places became
the centres of leaving as well as cultural life.
Aims of Education
The aims of Buddhist education were individual as well as social. Under the
individual aim, the development of moral character was emphasised; under the
social aim, promotion of culture and social efficiency were more focused.The aim
of education was to disseminate worldly and practical knowledge (Nayak,
2012).The most important aim of education was to show the path by which an
individual can overcome the desires and ultimately achieve Nirvana.
Admission to Educational Institutions (Sangha)
Pabbja/Phahajja (The first Ordination) - In order to take admission in any

sangha, monastery or vihar, one had to go through the initiation ceremony. Like
the ‘Upanayan’ during the Vedic period, ‘Pabbja’ was performed during the
Buddhist period, before a student could get into the Sangha. The novice, if he was
eight years old, had to perform the Pabbja/Phahajja (orientation or initiation
ceremony). Generally, everyone had the opportunity to undergo ‘Pabbja’ and
become a part of the Sangha. It was ensured that parents permitted the pupil to
join the monastery. There they received education for twelve years and during this
period they were getting prepared for the Sangha –life.
Upasampada (The final Ordination) -After undergoing education for twelve

years, the ‘Monk at the age of 20 years had to go through the ‘Upasampada’
ceremony and then he became the permanent member of the ‘Sangha’. Generally,
the methods of performing ‘Upasampada’ were slightly different from Pabbja.
After ‘Upasampada’, a student became a full-fledged monk, having no concerns
with family life. Pabbja was a ritual for limited time but ‘Upasampada’ was
permanent and for the whole life.
Curriculum
The curricula were oral, ceremonial and book-based. Monks passed on the
religious knowledge to the learners. Most of the monks were carrying on the
study of teaching of Buddha and ‘Dharmshastras’. The curriculum of the Buddhist
monks included the subject matters contained in the Tripitaka: (i) Sutta Pitaka was
a collection of discourses on various subjects by the Buddha; (ii) Vinaya Pitaka
comprised monastic code; and (iii) Abhidharma Pitaka contained the philosophical
interpretations of the doctrines of Buddhism. So far as arts and crafts were
concerned, students were taught spinning, weaving, painting, tailoring, writing,
arithmetic, printing, etc.
Buddhist education was divided into two stages:(i) Primary and (ii) Secondary. At
primary education stage, Reading, Writing and Arithmetic were taught and at
Higher education stage, Religion, Philosophy, ‘Ayurveda’, Logic (Hetuvidya), 67
Concept and Nature of Metaphysics (Abhidharmakosa), Military training, etc. were taught. Everyone was
Education
free to choose his subject without any restrictions.
Medium of Instruction
The mediumof Buddhist education was the local language followed in the community.
Lord Buddha himself gave his teachings in local languages at different places. It
is, therefore, clear that there was not much importance given to Sanskrit in
Buddhist education.
Methods of Teaching
The methods of teaching during the Buddhist period seem to have been oral.
Teaching through questions and answer was mostly followed by teachers. To
impart moral instruction, teachers took the help of telling stories through illustration.
The stories, thus told, had a dramatic effect on the moral development of the
students. Thinking and questioning were adopted as methods for promoting
intellectual development. “The Buddhist system of education, like the Brahmanical,
lays equal stress upon the efficacy of the method of debate and discussion in
education” (Mookerji, 2011, p.452).
Buddhism aimed to answer to the old philosophical question: “How to attain
Salvation?” Looking at the Buddhistic system of education from every point of
view, it can be concluded that the system began to face downfall due to its own
shortcomings and demerits, which developed in the later period in the monasteries
and vihars. Even then, we find that ‘Buddhist system of education” had more
qualities than its demerits. Doubtlessly, Buddhist education laid the foundation
stone of a rich culture and inspired people to lead pure, simple and ideal life.

the Unit.
1. What were the aims of education during the Vedic period?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. What was the medium of instruction during the Buddhist period?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
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4.4 EDUCATION DURING MEDIEVAL PERIOD

During the medieval period, the Muslim rulers established their empires in India,
they introduced a new system of education. Subsequently, the ancient system of
education was greatly changed. No Muslim ruler apart from Akbar did praiseworthy
68 works in the area of education (Rai, 2001). It was due to the fact that in maximum
cases praiseworthy work done by a ruler had been undone by his successors due Historical Developments of
to their indifferences and neglect (Dash, 2008).
Aims of Education:
The aims of education during the Muslim period in India were multifarious and
they changed with change in rulers. The entire education system was influenced
by religious principles which shaped the aims, the contents of the study and even
the daily life of the pupils. Pupil acquired knowledge as a religious obligation. The
Muslim education also aimed at the achievement of material prosperity.The aims
of education during the Muslim rule in India may be summed up as follows:
i) Education was being imparted to strengthen the political position of rulers
and to employ educated employees for smooth running of the administration.
ii) Education of this period aimed at the propagation of Islamic values, laws and
social conventions. Therefore, the aim of education was to acquaint the
students with the verses of Koran and Islamic culture (Nayak, 2012).
iii) Dissemination and mastery over social and moral codes of conduct were the
chief aims of education. Masses were informed about the Muslims laws and
shariyats of the holy Koran through Muslim Education.
Initiation Ceremony
The initiation ceremony was called ‘Bismillah Khani’. It means the child was
introduced to education after invoking God. Admission to maktabs was marked
by a colourful ceremony called Bismillah. Initiation into religious studies commenced
on the day when a Muslim boy would be four years, four months and four days
old.
Types of Educational Institutions
During the Muslim period, there were basically two types of institutions, Maktabs
and Madrasahs:
Maktabs: Primary education was provided in ‘Maktabs’.These were elementary
schools attached to mosques or run by private individuals imparting Muslim
education in the three Rs (reading, writing and primary arithmetic) and the prayers
were based on the Quran. The ‘maktabs’ attached to the mosque were perhaps
the most permanent of Muslim educational institutions in India (Dash, 2008).
Madrasahs: Higher education was disseminated through Madarsahs. After
completing the primary education, children were sent to ‘Madarsahs’ to receive
higher education. Madrasahs were seats of higher learning patronised by royal
families.There were separate teachers for different subjects. Special emphasis
was also given to religious education and secular subjects.
Methods of Teaching
The methods of teaching in the Muslim educational institutions were Recitation
and Cramming. Cramming and memorising were practiced in educational
institutions.
Curriculum
Curriculum at elementary stage was focused on reading, writing, arithmetic and
religious education. In ‘Maktabs’ children were made to remember the ‘Ayats’ of 69
Concept and Nature of ‘Quran’. After children had learnt the Arabic script, they were taught Persian
Education
language and script. The stories of Prophets and Muslim ‘Fakir’ were also taught
to the children. Children were also imparted the knowledge of art of writing letters
and conversation. The system of oral education was mostly prevalent in the
educational institutions.
At the higher education stage, the curriculum was broad and comprehensive
enough to contain the religious education and general education (non-religious).The
religious education included the study of Quran, Mohammad Saheb and his
conventions, Islamic laws and Islamic history, etc. The secular/general education
included the study of Arabic literature, grammar, rhetoric, history, philosophy,
mathematics, geography, politics, economics, Greek language, and astrology.
Medium of Instruction
Persian, which was the court language of the Muslim kings, was the popular
medium of instruction. The study of Arabic, the language of the Quran was
compulsory for Muslim
Education of Women
Women education was mostly ignored during the Medieval period. ‘Paradah’
system was present during the Islamic period. But during the Muslim period in
India, education of girls received a great set back particularly at the secondary
level (Nayak, 2012).Sometimes, young girls were taught in schools. Since they
left school at an early age, they could not continue their education up to the higher
level.
Examination system
There was no provision for annual examination of the modern type in the education
system. Evaluation was a built-in, continuous process. Upgradations were based
on assessment by the educators themselves. Degrees were awarded for specialised
and in-depth study in various branches of learning (Dash, 2008).The most important
of these degrees were: Fazil (specialised in logic), Atim (specialised in theology),
and Qubil (specialised in literature).
In medieval India, the Islamic system of education as discussed above conformed
to the ideals and objectives of life as laid out in the Quran, the religious scripture
of the Muslims. Hence education was religion oriented. Much stress was laid on
the teachings of the principles of Islam through the study of the holy Quran and
also the propagation of Islam among the people of India.

the Unit.
3. What was the main aim of education during the Muslim rule?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
70 ............................................................................................................
Historical Developments of
4. What is a Madrasahs? Education: An Overview
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
4.5 INDIAN EDUCATION IN MODERN TIME

The modern system of education was started by the Portuguese missionaries as
early as 1510. Thereafter, the British Christian missionaries came to India and the
education in modern India started with the advent of the Britishers. After coming
to India, the Britishers established the East India Company, but in a short time the
reign of the government was in the hands of the British Parliament. The education
during the reign of East India Company was initially neglected as the company
was busy in consolidating its rule in India. When one lakh rupees was sanctioned
in the budget for the education in India in 1813 (Charter Act), Macaulay Minutes
(1835) was written and submitted to William Bentinck, the then Governor General
of India. The minute shaped the destiny of Indian education. However, the significant
educational reforms under the East India Company began after the Wood’s
Despatch of 1854.
4.5.1 Education during the Pre-independence Period

The major developments in Education started during the pre-independence period,
notably from the recommendations of the Macaulay’s Minutes (1835). It continued
till the independence of India with many other developments in education. Let us
discus major landmarks in educational development during the British period.
4.5.1.1 Macaulay’s Minutes 1835
The beginning of the state system of education in India under the British rule may
be traced back to the year 1813 when the East India Company was compelled
by then circumstances, both socio-economic and political, to accept responsibility
for education of the Indians. However, it has its real roots in Elphinstones’s
‘minutes’ of 1823 in which it was stressed on establishing schools for teaching
English. Subsequently, Macaulay advocated education of the upper classes in
India and advised the government for the dissemination of western learning through
the medium of English. Macaulay’s intention was to ‘create a class of people,
Indian in blood and colour but English in taste, opinions, morals and intellect’
(Nayak, 2012, p. 139). The Minute submitted by Lord Macaulay was further
endorsed by Lord William Bentinck which paved the way for educational
development in India.
4.5.1.2 Wood’s Despatch 1854
Through out the nineteenth century, downward filtration theory was the
acknowledged goal of education. It dominated the scene of education throughout
the century. Between 1813 and 1853, there was significant educational progress
in the country. But there was no definite educational policy. When the Charter of
East India Company was to be renewed in 1853, the government felt the necessity
to conduct a thorough survey of education prevailing in the country and prescribe,
in the light of this survey, a systematic policy for the future educational development 71
Concept and Nature of in the country. The Despatch of 1854, popularly known as the Wood’s Despatch,
Education
observed the situation and gave a directive for the promotion of mass education.
The recommendations of the committee were positively considered by the Board
of Directors. Wood’s Despatch derives its name from Sir Charles Wood who
was the President of the Board of Control for India (Aggarwal, 2011).
Recommendations:
In order to achieve the major recommendations, the Despatch suggested the
introduction of the following initiatives:
1. The Despatch declared that in all the provinces, the Department of Public
instruction should be set up. Its highest official should be designated as the
Director of public Instruction, and he should be assisted by Deputy Education
Director, Inspector and Deputy Inspectors of Schools.
2. The Despatch suggested for the setting up of the Universities at Calcutta,
Bombay and Madras and if necessary, at any other places too. All the
Universities were to be modelled on the London University which was then
an examining body.
3. The third scheme suggested by the Despatch was the establishment of a
network of high schools in the country. The Despatch emphasised on the
graded schools.
4. The Despatch suggested the Grant-in-aid system for the institutions which
fulfilled certain qualifications. It also suggested that the rules and regulations
for Grant-in-aid should be framed on the lines practised in England.
5. The Despatch laid importance on vocational education and to that end
suggested the requirement of establishing vocational colleges and schools.
6. It recommended for the inclusion of Indian Languages and literature in the
course of study.
7. In order to secure properly qualified teachers, the desire for opening training
schools in every province of India was suggested by the Despatch.
Wood’s Despatch, with all its merits and demerits, has an important place in the
history of Modern Indian Education. It has contributed much to the organisation
and stabilization of the present Indian educational system. As a result of this
Despatch, three universities were established in the Presidencies of Bengal, Bombay
and Madras.
4.5.1.3 Hunter Commission, 1882-83
As a result of the recommendations of Wood’s Despatch, Universities were
established in 1857 by the various Acts in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras on the
pattern of the London University. There was a quick growth of colleges and other
educational organisations but no appreciable progress was made in the field of
primary education since 1854. However, the missionaries which ran English medium
educational institutions introduced an organization in London identified as the
‘General Council of Education in India (1878) to achieve their goals. The first
Indian Education Commission was appointed in February 3, 1882 by Lord Ripon
with Sir William Hunter (Member of Viceroy’s Executive Council) as Chairman
with other twenty persons as members, besides the President. The Commission
is also well-known as the ‘Hunter Commission’. It was the outcome of an agitation
72 began by the Council in London.
The Hunter Commission was appointed primarily to assess the problems and Historical Developments of
development of primary education. But this Commission also made its suggestions
in regard to secondary, higher, women and modern education. The Commission
made very important recommendations regarding the expansion of education at
different phases and recommended to initiate the system of grant-in-aid in the field
of education. It was on the basis of suggestions of the Commission that a network
of the primary schools was spread through out the country with secondary and
higher education as well.
4.5.1.4 Indian University Commission, 1902
This Commission was set up essentially for two significant reasons. Initially, the
university education system was extremely defective and nothing had been done
till date to reorganise the system since its beginning. Secondly, the London University
which acted as an ideal for the Indian universities had gone through a change in
the year 1898. So, it was the correct time for the Indian university education
system to undergo modification. Therefore, the Indian University Commission was
set up by Lord Curzon on January 27, 1902 and in the same year by the month
of June, the Commission gave its recommendations. The Commission’s
recommendations were accepted in the interest of strengthening and revamping of
the present education system. On the basis of the Indian University Commission
1902, Indian University Act 1904 was enforced.
4.5.1.5 Calcutta University Commission, 1917-1919
Under the Chairmanship of Dr Michael Saddler, the Vice Chancellor of the Leeds
University, the Calcutta University Commission was set up in 1917. The
Commission was also known as the Saddler Commission. Although the Commission
was mainly appointed to examine the problems of the Calcutta University, it found
that the problems were very much related to the problems of other Indian
Universities; thus it provided recommendations which were of great value to the
higher education system in India as a whole. This report had a great effect on the
progress of secondary and higher education in India. The Commission
recommended for the establishment of secondary and intermediate boards in each
province. It, moreover, advocated separation of intermediate courses from the
university education and made important recommendation regarding the re-
structuring of secondary schools. The recommendations in respect to the
introduction of technological, professional and vocational courses contributed a
lot to the subsequent educational developments in the country.
4.5.1.6 Hartog Committee, 1928-29
In May 1928, the Simon Commission (an Indian Statutory Commission set up for
examining into social, political and economic developments of India) appointed an
Auxiliary Committee, also called as the Hartog Committee, named after its chairman,
Sir Philip Joseph Hartog. The Committee arrived at the conclusion that the
expansion in the field of education was taking place at the cost of quality and that
the immediate need of the hour was to improve the quality of education rather
than to struggle to increase the quantity education. The Committee inquired into
all the aspects of education in India and presented its report in September 1929.
The Hartog Committee proposed various recommendations on primary education,
secondary education and Higher education. 73
Concept and Nature of 4.5.1.7 Government of India Act, 1935
Education
The Government of India Act, 1935 was an important step towards the
advancement of education leading to the attainment of the political freedom.A new
system of administration called as the Provincial Autonomy came into force from
the year 1937 in eleven provinces of British India. The hopes of educational
advancement were not realized as the congress remained in power for a short
duration of just three years. The Act of 1919 had made education partly for all
the Indian and partly for the reserved category. But the Act of 1935 removed all
classifications and brought the whole educational system to be administered by
the Central government and the Provincial governments.

the Unit.
5. State two initiatives mentioned in the Wood’s Despatch.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
6. What was the main focus of the Calcutta University Commission?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
4.5.2 Education during the Post-independence Period

This section focuses on major landmarks in the development of education during
the post-independence period.
4.5.2.1 University Education Commission, 1948-49
The first major initiative in education taken by the Government after Independence
was appointment of the University Education Commission 1948-49. The
Commission was appointed under the Chairmanship of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan.
This Commission is better known as Radhakrishnan Commission. The
recomendations of the commission wee as follows:
 The maintenance of the highest standards of teaching, research and examination
in the universities and colleges under their control.
 The courses of study in the universities with special reference to the maintenance
of a sound balance between the Humanities and the Sciences and between
pure science and technological training and the duration of such courses.
 The standards of admission to university courses of study with reference to
the desirability of an independent university entrance examination.
 The provision for advanced study in Indian culture, history, literatures,
74 languages, philosophy and fine arts.
 The need for more universities on a regional or other basis. Historical Developments of
 The qualifications, conditions of service, salaries, privileges and functions of
teachers and the encouragement of original research by teachers.
4.5.2.2 Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53
With the recommendation of an All-India Policy on Secondary Education laid
down by the Central Advisory Board of Education made at its 14th meeting held
in January 1948, the Government of India appointed the Secondary Education
Commission in September, 1952 with Dr. A. Lakshmanaswami Mudaliar, Vice-
Chancellor, Madras University as its Chairman. The Commission was directed to
suggest measures for re-construction of secondary education with particular
reference to its aims, organization, content and relationship with other levels of
education.
In spite of its limitations and inadequate treatment of certain problems, the Report
presents a complete progressive blueprint for the future development of secondary
education in India.
Its terms of reference were:
 to enquire into and report on the existing position of Secondary Education
in India in all its aspects; and
 to propose measures for its reorganization and progress with particular
reference to:
- the aims, organization and contents of Secondary Education;
- its relationship to Primary, Basic and Higher Education;
- the inter-relationships among different types of Secondary Education;
and
- Other allied problems.
Moreover, the Commission was of the opinion that both the state and the central
government should make every effort to find the necessary funds to implement
these recommendations and adopt a planned and coordinated policy for the
purpose of establishing standards in education.
4.5.2.3 Education Commission, 1964-66
Several recommendations of Radhakrishnan and Mudaliar Commissions had
remained to be implemented and some of them were out of date. On account
of all these there was the need for a new system of education. It was, therefore,
felt that there should be re-organisation and re-orientation of all the stages of
education; Primary, Secondary, University and Technical. Therefore, the
Government of India appointed the Education Commission in 1964 under the
Chairmanship of Dr. D.S. Kothari which is popularly known as Kothari Commission
(Nayak, 2012).
The main objective of this Commission was to assess the whole educational
system in India. The report comprises recommendations on all aspects of education.
It covers education at all stages from the pre-primary through the secondary to
the higher. The Commission’s recommendations covered different areas such as
reforms needed in education including a language policy; structure and quality in 75
Concept and Nature of education; and various aspects of school education including achieving the universal
Education
retention. It highlights not only the present defects in the system at each level, but
also offers practical recommendations for eradicating them.
4.5.2.4 National Policy on Education, 1968
Based on the Kothari Commission’s report, the National Policy on Education,
1968, was formulated. It was, for the first time, in the recent history of education
that the members of all the political parties discussed together and prepared the
draft of the statement. This draft was accepted by the Central Advisory Board
on Education (CABE). Subsequently, the Government of India passed the resolution
on National Policy on Education in 1968 and this formed the foundation of
education reforms in India until the approval of the New Policy in the year 1986.
It aimed to encourage national progress, a sense of common citizenship and
culture and to strengthen national integration. The National Policy had given its
recommendations on the following aspects:
 Free and compulsory education
 Status, emoluments and education of teachers
 Development of languages
 Regional languages
 Implementation of three language formula
 Achieving equal educational opportunity
4.5.2.5 National Policy on Education, 1986
Before the finalization of the National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986, it was
made open to the general public for thoughtful debates under the title of “Challenge
of Education”. The declaration for the same was made on 11 August 1985.
The emphasis of the National Policy on Education was on the vocationalization
of education. The term vocationalization was used to align education with areas
like agriculture, rural development programmes, communication and other areas
concerned as they were with the overall development of the economy. The policy
also stressed the significance of Open University System of education to expand
faster the level of higher education. The National Policy on Education specified
that the nation should produce men and women with skills to use the recent and
modern technology so that they can earn their livelihood without much suffering.
The National Policy on Education 1986 considered education as a continuum. To
earn the maximum benefits of the productive human resources of the country, the
best mode is through spreading education. Accordingly, on the 7th May, 1990, the
Government of India announced the appointment of a new committee “to review
the National Policy on Education 1986”.
4.5.2.6 Revised National Policy on Education, 1992
The National Policy on Education 1986 was modified in 1992 by the Programme
of Action (PoA), 1992 under the National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986. The
revised recommendations were implemented on certain aspects like equity, social
justice and education; early childhood care and education; adult and continuing
education; education and right to work; higher education; technical and management
76 education; and resources of education.
4.5.2.7 Five Year Plans Historical Developments of
Planning is absolutely essential for the progress and advancement of a democratic
country like India. Understanding the importance of planning for national
development, Government of India set up Planning Commission of India in the
year 1951. Five year plans were formulated since the year 1951. So far, India
has formulated and complemented 12 five year plans and 12th five year plan was
the last five year plan. Niti Aayog came into existence in the year 2015 to take
over functions performed by Planning Commission.
First Five Year Plan 1951-56
In the year 1951, the First Five Year Plan was formulated with a vision of
achieving the national goals and fulfilling desires of the people of India. For the
improvement and promotion of education at primary, secondary and university
levels, the following suggestions were made:
 Primary Education: The Plan suggested for the provision of educational
facilities to 60 percent of children with the age group 6 to 11 and also
recommended to bring the children to school up to the age group of 14.
 Secondary Education: The then secondary education was considered as
stereotyped, examination-dominated and poorly equipped. In order to make
secondary education self-supporting, steps were taken for the development
of activities like agriculture, cottage industry and small scale industry. The
central government decided to appoint the Secondary Education Commission
in the year 1952.
 University Education: By the year 1951, there were 30 universities in the
country. The plan sanctioned Rs. 14.03 crores for the advancement of
university education. The shares of state and centre were 10.6 crores and
3.43 crores. The Planning Commission had also recommended for the
establishment of University Grants Commission for managing higher education
and administration of various universities in the country.
Second Five Year Plan 1956-1961
The second five year plan laid stress on education as follows :
 Primary Education: During this period, importance was laid on the
expansion of primary education. The Plan viewed that “The problems of
education at the elementary level are mainly two: the expansion of the existing
facilities and the reorientation of the system of education on basic lines.” The
plan also mentioned about the wastage and stagnation at the primary level.
 Secondary Education: On the basis of the recommendations of Secondary
Education Commission, the following measures were drawn up for the
promotion of secondary education (Brahma, 2012).
- High schools were to be upgraded up to higher secondary schools.
- Junior technical schools and multipurpose schools were established.
- New teacher training colleges were to be established for the provision
of training facilities.
- Conditions of teachers were to be improved by revising the pay scales
of the teachers.
- Proper guidance and counseling were to be given to the children. 77
Concept and Nature of  University Education: During this period, suggestions were made to
Education
introduce the three year degree course. Suggestions were also made to
improve the university education and to increase the pay scale of teachers
and to provide facilities for the professional growth of the university teachers.
Third Five Year Plan 1961-1966
The third five year plan laid emphasis on the following aspects:
 Primary Education: Much importance was given on the universalisation of
education for the age group of 6-11. But the expansion of primary education
was not in accordance with the growth of population.
 Secondary Education: As the recommendations of the Secondary Education
Commission were carried out, it was observed that there was significant
development in Secondary Education. Emphasis was also given on science
education, establishment of multipurpose schools, and establishment of higher
secondary institutions.
 University Education: Twelve more universities were established during
this Plan period. For the qualitative improvement of university education,
some measures were taken. The important measures were:
- Introduction of three year course
- Improvement of laboratories and libraries
- Development of Post Graduate Studies and Research
- Hostel facilities
- Strengthening of scale of pay for teachers
- Provision of evening and corresponding courses
Fourth Five Year Plan 1969-74
With a focus on Primary, Secondary and University Education, the Plan laid down
the following plan of actions (Brahma, 2012).
 Primary Education: The Plan emphasized that priority must be given to the
expansion of primary schools in educationally backward areas, minor
communities and girls. The Plan suggested for the improvement of teaching
standards and good evaluation methods. Text books were to be made available
with lower price. The Plan also suggested for the extension of mid-day meal
programme.
 Secondary Education: The Plan emphasized on a diversified system of
education courses i.e. technical, commercial, agricultural, etc. Work experience
came out as a significant aspect of education. Importance was given on
national integration, cultural and religious tolerance, and healthy living.
 University Education: As there was substantial increase in secondary
schools, the Plan suggested for the strengthening of university education. The
Plan suggested for research facilities in Humanities, Science and Technical
subjects.
78
Fifth Five Year Plan 1974-79 Historical Developments of
 Primary Education : During this Plan period, emphasis was given on
addressing the causes of wastage and stagnation. The Plan emphasized on
the improvement of the quality of education through work experience, co-
curricular activities, etc.
 Secondary Education: The Plan suggested that fulfillment of economic and
social needs should be the main objective of the Secondary Education. It
also suggested for setting a uniform pattern of 10 years of Secondary and
2 years of Higher Secondary schools.
 University Education: The Plan emphasized on the opening of evening
colleges, correspondence courses with an encouragement for private study.
By providing more scholarships, research at higher level was also encouraged.
Sixth Five Year Plan 1980-1985
The Sixth Plan was prepared by considering the achievements and the short-
comings of the past three decades of planning. The Plan had to cover a period
of five years with effect from April 1980 to the end of March 1985. It emphasized
on the qualitative improvement of education in building up the character and
integrity of the student community.
Seventh Five-Year Plan 1985-1990
The Seventh Plan laid stress on improving the productivity level of industries
through the up-gradation of technology. The important objectives of the Plan were
to increase economic productivity, production of food grains, and generation of
employment. Development of education was considered as one of the felt need
since it is the tool for development of other sectors.
Eight Five-Year Plan 1992-1997
(Brahma, 2012) mentioned that outstanding feature of the Eighth Plan was
modernization of industries. The gradual opening of the Indian economy was
emphasized during this Plan period. During this Plan, India became a member of
the World Trade Organization (WTO). The Plan period emphasized on control
of population growth, reduction of poverty, generation of employment, strengthening
of the infrastructure, institutional building, tourism management, human resource
development, Nagar Palikas, N.G.O’s and decentralization.
Ninth Five-Year Plan 1997-2002
The main objectives of the Ninth Five Year Plan of India were: (i) emphasis on
rural development and prioritizing agricultural sector; (ii) adequate employment
opportunities and reduction of poverty; (iii) accelerating the growth rate of the
economy; (iv) ensuring nutritional security; (v) provision of basic infrastructural
facilities like education for all, safe drinking water, primary health care, transport,
energy, etc.; (vi) control of the population growth; and (vii) creation of liberal
market for increase in private investments.
Tenth Five-Year Plan 2002-2007
The major objectives of Tenth Five Year Plan were to attain 8% GDP growth per
year, reduction of poverty ratio by 5 percent by 2007, providing gainful and high-
quality employment to the labour force, all children to complete 5 years of schooling 79
Concept and Nature of by 2007, reduction in gender gaps in literacy and in wage rates by at least 50%
Education
by 2007. Within the Tenth Plan period, it was aimed to literacy rates up to 75%.
Eleventh Five-Year Plan 2007-2012
The 11thFive Year Plan aimed to provide the opportunity to restructure policies
to achieve a new vision based on faster, more broad-based and inclusive growth.
It aimed at reducing poverty and focusing on connecting various splits that broke
up our society. The 11th Plan aimed at putting the economy on a sustainable
growth with the growth rate of approximately 10% by the end of the period. It
aimed to create productive employment at a faster pace than before.
12th Five Year Plan 2012-2017
The 12th Five Year Plan was the last Five Year Plan in India. The Niti Aayog was
set up replacing the Planning Commission aiming to provide policy direction to the
Government. The main objectives of the 12th five year plan were : reduction of
poverty; enhancement of regional equality within and across the states; improving
living conditions of SC,ST,OBC and minority sections of society; creation of
employment opportunities for the youth of India; and removal of gender gaps by
2017.
4.5.2.8 Niti Aayog
As a modified form of Planning Commission, National Institution for Transforming
India, popularly known as NITI Aayog, was formed on January 1, 2015 through
a resolution of the Union Cabinet. NITI stands for National Institution for
Transforming India. It has been functioning since 1st January, 2015 with its focus
on reform agenda by replacing Planning Commission which was formed on 15
March 1950. NITI Aayog is the Premier Policy Think-Tank of the Government
of India which provides both directional & policy inputs. Contrary to the Planning
Commission, which went with top to bottom approach in planning, in which, state
has no right and representation in the body, NITI Aayog follows the bottom to
top approach in which state can influence the decisions of the Centre. NITI
Aayog consists of Prime Minister of India as the chairperson, Vice Chairperson,
CEO, Permanent members, Ex officio and Chief Ministers and LG’s and special
invitees.
Functions of Niti Aayog
Niti Aayog performs the following major role and functions:
 To evolve a shared vision of national development priorities sectors and
strategies with the active involvement of States in the light of national objectives.
 To foster cooperative federalism through structured support initiatives and
mechanisms with the States on a continuous basis, recognizing that strong
States make a strong nation.
 To develop mechanisms to formulate credible plans at the village level and
aggregate these progressively at higher levels of government.
 To ensure, on areas that are specifically referred to it, that the interests of
national security are incorporated in economic strategy and policy.
 To pay special attention to the sections of our society that may be at risk of
80 not benefiting adequately from economic progress.
 To design strategic and long term policy and programme frameworks and Historical Developments of
initiatives, and monitor their progress and their efficacy.
 To provide advice and encourage partnerships between key stakeholders
and national and international like-minded Think tanks, as well as educational
and policy research institutions.
 To create a knowledge, innovation and entrepreneurial support system through
a collaborative community of national and international experts, practitioners
and other partners.
 To offer a platform for resolution of inter-sectoral and inter--departmental
issues in order to accelerate the implementation of the development agenda.
 To maintain a state-of-the-art Resource Centre, be a repository of research
on good governance and best practices in sustainable and equitable
development as well as help their dissemination to stake-holders.
 To actively monitor and evaluate the implementation of programmes and
initiatives, including the identification of the needed resources so as to
strengthen the probability of success and scope of delivery.
 To focus on technology upgradation and capacity building for implementation
of programmes and initiatives.
(Source: Official Website of Niti Aayog, https://niti.gov.in/content/functions
retrieved on 14.06.2020)
4.5.2.9 Education as a Fundamental Right
The 86th Constitutional amendment was made in 2002 and inserted Article 21-
A in the Constitution of India to make education as a fundamental right.The Right
of Children to Free and Compulsory Education or Right to Education (RTE) Act
was enacted by the Parliament of India in 2009. But the RTE Act came into effect
on April 1st 2010. It provides the children the right of free and compulsory
education in the age group of 6-14. It is responsibility of the state governments
and local bodies to ensure that every child gets education in a school in the
neighbourhood.
The main aim of the Act is to provide the opportunity of quality education for all
the children belonging to the age group of 6 to 14. The Act makes provision for
the children free and compulsory education in neighbourhood school till the
completion of elementary education. It makes clear that ‘free’ means no child shall
be liable to make any kind of payment or expenses which may prevent the child
in the pursuance and completion of primary or elementary education. Compulsory
education refers to commitment of the appropriate government to provide free
education at elementary level and to make certain the compulsory admission;
attendance and completion of elementary education for the children in the age
group 6-14. Making elementary education a prerogative entitlement for children
in the age group 6-14, the Act will directly benefit the children, who do not go
to school at present. The School Management Committee (SMC) or the local
bodies will identify the out-of-school children aged above six and admit them in
classes appropriate to their age.
4.5.2.10 Draft National Education Policy 2019
The recent development in the field of education in India was the formulation of
National Education Policy, 2019 by a Committee under the Chairmanship of K. 81
Concept and Nature of Kasturirangan. The draft report has been prepared and in circulation since 2015
Education
to obtain suggestions before it is made final. The National Education Policy, 2019
envisages an India-centred education system that contributes directly to transforming
our nation sustainably into an equitable and vibrant knowledge society, by providing
high quality education to all.

the Unit.
7. Write any two recommendations of the University Education Commission
1948-49.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
8. What was the terms of reference of the Secondary Education Commission?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
9. Mention any two functions of the NITI Aayog.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
10. What is the main objective of Right to Education Act, 2009?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
11. Discuss the vision of Draft National Policy on Education 2019.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
4.6 LET US SUM UP

Education is the responsibility of the State. Every liberal Government undertakes
the responsibility to educate its citizens for the development of the country as
education is the tool for all other developments. India has a unique history in the
development of education at different periods. Presently, the realisation of the
82 democratic form of education has reached after a long way experiencing many
ups and downs in education. To make education as a right is not the development Historical Developments of
of overnight matter rather it is the will power and continuous progressive work
of the Government of the Country. The present Unit must have made you
acquainted with the development of Education in India beginning from its Ancient
times to the modern period. It must have familiarised you with the works and
contributions of various Committees and Commissions towards achieving education
in its quantitative and qualitative aspects.

Agarwal J.C. (1972). Educational Administration Planning and Financing in India.
Arya Book Depot, Karol Bag, New Delhi.
Aggarwal, J.C. (2011). Development of Education System in India. New Delhi,
India: Shipra Publications.
Altekar, A.S. (1957). Education in Ancient India, (5th edition), 1957, Varanasi:
Nand Kishore and Bros.
Brahma, D. (2012). Educational Administration and Supervision, Sambalpur, Saha
Chaube, S.P. (2016). History and Problems of Indian Education, Agra: Vinod
Pustak Mandir.
Dash, B.N. (2008). History of Education in India. New Delhi, India: Dominant
Dutt, B & Garg, J. (2012). Education System in India. New Delhi, India: Global
Publications.
Draft National Policy of Education (2019). MHRD, Govt. of India, New Delhi.
MHRD, (2011). Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan - Framework for Implementation, Dept.
of School Education and Literacy, MHRD, Govt. of India.
Mukherjee, S. N. (1964). Education in India Today and Tomorrow. Acharya
Book Depot. Baroda: India.
Naik, J. P. (1947). Policy and Performance in Indian Education. Indian Council
of Social Science Research, New Delhi: India.
Nayak, B.K. (2012). History, Heritage and Development of Indian Education,
New Delhi, India: Axis Books Pvt. Ltd.
Govt. of India (2019). NitiAayog, New Delhi, retrieved from https://www.niti.gov.in
on 09.09.2019.
Govt. of India (2020). Functions of Niti Ayog, Govt. of India. Retrieved from
https://niti.gov.in/content/functionson 14.06.2020.
Nurullah, Syed & Naik, J.P. (Vth eds.). (1964). Student History of Education in
India. Macmillan, Calcutta (1971, Reprint).
Planning Commission (1970). Education and Man Power, Government of India
Radha Kumar Mookerji (1989). Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and
Buddhist, Motilal Banarsidas Publishers, Delhi, 1989, p. 67. 83
Concept and Nature of Rai, B.C. (2001). History of Indian Education, Lucknow, India: Prakashan Kendra
Education
Rawat, P.L. (1996). History of Indian Education, Agra: Ram Prasad & Sons,
1996.
Report of Education Commission (1964-66). Ministry of Education, Govt. Of

India, New Delhi
Report of National Policy on Education (1986). (as modified in 1992) with

National policy on Education 1968, Dept. of Education, MHRD, Govt. of India,
New Delhi.
Report of Revised National Policy of Education (1992). MHRD, Govt. of India,

New Delhi.
Report of Secondary Education Commission (1952-53). MHRD, Govt. of India,

New Delhi.
Report of the CABE Committee on Girls Education and Common School System
(2005), MHRD, Govt. of India, New Delhi: India.
Report of the National Policy on Education (1986). MHRD, Govt. of India, New
Delhi.
Report of University Education Commission (1948-49). Ministry of Education,

Govt. of India, New Delhi.
Website Referred
Retrieved from http://www.yogapedia.com, “Moksha”, What is Moksha? Definition

from Yogpedia.

1. The main aim of education during Vedic period is to enable an Individual to
understand truth and to attain Moksha.
2. The medium of Buddhist education was the common and the local language
of the persons.
3. The aim of Education during Muslim rule was mostly religious and was
imparted for the propagation of Islamic principles, laws and social conventions.
4. Madrasha was the centre for Higher Learning during the Muslim rule.
5. Set up of Department of Public instruction and setting up of the Universities

at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
6. The major focus point of Calcutta University Commission was in general to

provide the recommendations for solving problems of Higher Education in
India and in particular Calcutta University.
7. The maintenance of the highest standards of teaching and examination in the

universities and colleges and maintenance of a sound balance between the
Humanities and the Sciences and between pure science and technological
training and the duration of courses.
84
8. The term of reference of Secondary Education Commission was to enquire Historical Developments of
into and report on the existing position of Secondary Education in India in
all its aspects; and to suggest measures for its reorganization and progress.
9. (i) To evolve a shared vision of national development priorities sectors and

strategies with the active involvement of States in the light of national objectives.
(ii) To foster cooperative federalism through structured support initiatives
and mechanisms with the States on a continuous basis, recognizing that
strong States make a strong nation.
10. Main objective of Right to Education Act, 2009 is to provide free and
compulsory education to all the children within the age group of 6-14. It is
the responsibility of the State to provide compulsory elementary education
to the children.
11. The vision of National Policy on Education (2019) is to prevail India-
centred education system that contributes directly to transforming our nation
sustainably into an equitable and vibrant knowledge society, by providing
high quality education to all.
85
Education
86

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BLOCK 2 PREPARATION TEAM

BLOCK 4 PREPARATION TEAM

Unit 14 : Dr. Biswajit Behera, School of Education, Central University of Punjab.

Unit 15 : Prof. Ramakanta Mohalik, RIE, Bhubaneswar (NCERT).

Unit 16 : Dr. Sweta Gupta, Central Institute of Education, University of Delhi.

Language Editing : Prof. Pramod Kumar, SOH, IGNOU.

Block 2 Philosophical Perspective of Education 87

Block 3 Sociological Perspective of Education 167

Block 4 Socio-Psychological Perspective of Education 233

1 CONCEPT AND NATURE OF

1.4 Goals and Aims of Education

1.5 Cultivating Values through Education

1.6 Education as Differentiated from Schooling, Learning, Instruction,

1.7 Let Us Sum Up

1.8 References and Suggested Readings

1.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

Dr. Niradhar Dey, Assistant Professor, School of Education, IGNOU. 9

1.3 CONCEPT OF EDUCATION

1.3.1 Etymological Derivation of Education

1.3.2 Definitions of Education and its Analysis

1.3.3 Narrow and Broader Meaning of Education

1.3.4 Nature of Education

1.4 GOALS AND AIMS OF EDUCATION

1.4.1 Individual Aim of Education

1.4.3 Democratic Aim of Education

Check Your Progress 1.2

1.5 CULTIVATING VALUES THROUGH

1.6 EDUCATION AS DIFFERENTIATED FROM

1.7 LET US SUM UP

1.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

1.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

2.5 Scope of Education from the Viewpoint of Mode of Providing Education

2.6 Let Us Sum Up

2.3 SCOPE OF EDUCATION FROM THE

2.3.1 Informal Education

2.3.2 Formal Education

2.3.3 Non-formal Education

2.4 SCOPE OF EDUCATION FROM THE VIEW

2.4.1 Liberal Education

1 Agriculture Poultry Farming

2 Engineering and Technology Mechanical Services

4 Home Science Food Preservation

5 Science and Humanities Library and Information Science

(Source: MES-012, MAEDU, IGNOU, 2007)

2.5 SCOPE OF EDUCATION FROM THE

2.5.1 Face-to-Face Education

2.5.2 Open and Distance Education

2.5.4 Comparison among the Face-to-Face, Distance and

Lecture by the Self-learning print E-contents in terms of

Check Your Progress 2.3

2.6 LET US SUM UP

2.7 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

2.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Teacher and students Teacher and students Teacher and students

Teacher decides the Self-pacing of learning Self-pacing by the

3.5 School as an Agency of Education

3.6 Community as an Agency of Education

3.7 State as an Agency of Education

3.8 Media as an Agency of Education