Geospatial Analysis of Land Use, Land Cover (LULC)

Changes in Myanmar from 2017 to 2022

By
Research leader
Aung Aung
Research Assistant
Nilar Moe
Min Win Ko Ko
Sitt Thway Aung
Lawrence

Center for Research, Policy and Innovation

Burmese American Institute
Indianapolis, U.S.A
August, 2023
Contents
1. Introduction..........................................................................................................................4
1.1. Background....................................................................................................................4
1.2. Research objectives.......................................................................................................4
1.3. Research Question.........................................................................................................5
1.4. Scope and Significance..................................................................................................5
2. Geographical overview of Myanmar..................................................................................7
2.1. Geographic Extent.........................................................................................................7
2.2. Diverse Landscapes.......................................................................................................7
2.3. Major Rivers..................................................................................................................7
2.4. Biodiversity and Natural Resources............................................................................8
2.5. Climate............................................................................................................................8
2.6. Cultural Heritage...........................................................................................................8
3. Historical Land Use Practices in Myanmar.......................................................................8
3.1. Ancient Civilizations.....................................................................................................8
3.2. Bagan Empire................................................................................................................9
3.3. Konbaung Dynasty........................................................................................................9
3.4. British Colonial Period..................................................................................................9
3.5. Post-Independence Era.................................................................................................9
3.6. Contemporary Land Use Practices..............................................................................9
3.7. Environmental Challenges............................................................................................9
4. Importance of Land Use, Land Cover (LULC) Analysis for Sustainable Development
..................................................................................................................................................10
4.1. Resource Management and Allocation......................................................................10
4.2. Environmental Conservation and Biodiversity Protection......................................10
4.3. Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation.............................................................10
4.4. Disaster Risk Reduction and Resilience....................................................................11
4.5. Urban Planning and Smart Growth..........................................................................11
4.6. Water Resources Management..................................................................................11
4.7. Policy Formulation and Decision-Making.................................................................11
4.8. Monitoring Land Use Transitions..............................................................................11
5. Materials and methods......................................................................................................12
6. Results.................................................................................................................................12
6.1. Bare ground change....................................................................................................15
6.2. Built area change.........................................................................................................16
 6.3. Cropland change..........................................................................................................17
6.4. Flooded vegetation change..........................................................................................18
6.5. Rangeland change........................................................................................................19
6.6. Snow/Ice cover change................................................................................................20
6.7. Tree cover change........................................................................................................21
6.8. Water surface change..................................................................................................23
7. Discussion and conclusion.................................................................................................24
8. References...........................................................................................................................25

Contents
1. Introduction (1) (Min Win Ko Ko)
a. Background
b. Objectives
c. Research question
d. Research flow
e. Scope and significance
2. Geographical Overview of Myanmar (2+3) (Sitt Thway Aung)
3. Historical land use practices of Myanmar
4. Importance of Land Use, Land Cover (LULC) Analysis for Sustainable
Development (4+5) (Nilar Moe)
5. Material and methods
6. Results (6+7) (Lawrence)
7. Discussion and conclusion

1. Introduction
1.1. Background
Land use and land cover (LULC) changes are critical aspects of the dynamic relationship
between humans and the environment. As the global population continues to grow and
urbanization accelerates, understanding the patterns and drivers of LULC changes becomes
essential for sustainable development and natural resource management (Gaur & Singh,
2023). Myanmar, a country located in Southeast Asia, offers a fascinating case study due to
its diverse landscapes, rich biodiversity, and ongoing socio-economic transformations
(Zaehringer, 2020).

Myanmar is a nation with a long and storied history. Its geographical features encompass
mountains, fertile plains, vast river systems, and coastal areas along the Bay of Bengal. This
diversity of landscapes has shaped the country's ecosystems and influenced land use practices
over the centuries (Murray, 2020).

The nation's economy has been traditionally agriculture-based, with the majority of the
population engaged in subsistence farming. The fertile lands of the Irrawaddy River delta
have been the backbone of Myanmar's agricultural production, contributing significantly to
the country's food security and economy. Additionally, Myanmar's vast forests have been a
valuable resource for timber and other forest products, contributing to its economic growth
(Yang, 2019).

In recent decades, Myanmar has experienced significant socio-economic changes. The

country underwent political reforms in 2011, leading to increased foreign investments and
economic liberalization. These changes brought about urbanization, industrialization, and
infrastructural development, transforming the country's land use patterns.

1.2. Research objectives

The research objectives of this geospatial analysis aim to comprehensively examine the
temporal and spatial patterns of land use and land cover changes in Myanmar from 2017 to
2022. The study seeks to achieve the following specific objectives:

 To generate accurate and up-to-date LULC maps for Myanmar covering the study
period.
 To analyze and quantify the extent and nature of LULC changes in different regions
of Myanmar.
 To identify the key drivers and factors contributing to LULC changes in Myanmar.
 To assess the implications of LULC changes on ecosystem services, biodiversity, and
socio-economic aspects.
 To provide valuable information and insights to support sustainable land
management, conservation strategies, and urban planning in Myanmar.
1.3. Research Question
Our research aims to investigate the changes in land use and land cover across Myanmar over
the five-year period from 2017 to 2022. The research question seeks to understand the spatial
distribution and temporal trends of LULC changes and identify the factors driving these
changes. Additionally, the study aims to assess the potential impacts of these changes on the
environment, society, and economy, and how this information can inform sustainable land
management practices and policy decisions in Myanmar. Therefore, we addressed the
research questions as the following.

 What are the spatiotemporal patterns and drivers of Land Use and Land Cover
(LULC) changes in Myanmar from 2017 to 2022?
 What are the implications for sustainable land management and policy formulation?

1.4. Scope and Significance

The scope of the geospatial analysis of LULC changes in Myanmar from 2017 to 2022
encompasses a comprehensive study of the country's land use patterns and land cover
dynamics. The analysis will focus on the entire territory of Myanmar, considering its diverse
landscapes, including mountains, plains, deltas, and coastal regions. The study will utilize
advanced remote sensing techniques, geographic information systems (GIS), and spatial
analysis to process multi-temporal satellite imagery and assess LULC changes over the
specified period.

The research will cover a wide range of land cover types, including forests, agricultural lands,
wetlands, urban areas, water bodies, and other natural and human-made features. Temporally,
the study will analyze LULC changes over a period of five years, from 2017 to 2022, to
capture both short-term and long-term trends in land use transitions.

The scope will also involve identifying the key drivers and factors contributing to LULC
changes in Myanmar. These factors may include population growth, urbanization,
agricultural expansion, infrastructure development, policy changes, and natural events like
floods and wildfires. Moreover, the geospatial analysis of LULC changes in Myanmar holds
significant importance for several reasons:

Sustainable Development: The study will provide valuable insights into the spatial and
temporal patterns of land use changes, enabling evidence-based decision-making for
sustainable development. Understanding the impact of land use changes on ecosystems and
natural resources is crucial for fostering balanced economic growth and environmental
preservation.

Environmental Conservation: Myanmar is known for its rich biodiversity and unique
ecosystems. By assessing the implications of LULC changes on ecosystem services and
biodiversity, the research can contribute to conservation efforts and the protection of
endangered species and habitats.

Natural Resource Management: Efficient management of land resources is essential for

maintaining food security, water availability, and ecosystem resilience. The analysis will aid
in identifying areas prone to land degradation, deforestation, and habitat fragmentation,
guiding targeted interventions for resource management.

Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation: Land use changes can influence regional and
global climate patterns. By understanding these impacts, the research can inform climate
change mitigation and adaptation strategies, supporting Myanmar's commitment to
international climate agreements.

Urban Planning: With the country experiencing urbanization and infrastructure

development, the analysis will provide valuable information for urban planners to design
sustainable cities and manage urban sprawl effectively.

Policy Formulation: Policymakers can utilize the research findings to design and implement
land use policies and regulations that promote sustainable land management, conservation,
and equitable resource allocation.

Scientific Knowledge: The research will contribute to the scientific literature on land use and
land cover changes in Southeast Asia, adding to the understanding of regional environmental
dynamics and socio-economic influences.

In conclusion, the geospatial analysis of LULC changes in Myanmar from 2017 to 2022 has a
broad scope, encompassing a comprehensive study of the country's land use patterns. The
findings of this analysis will carry significant implications for sustainable development,
environmental conservation, and informed decision-making, benefiting Myanmar's
environmental, social, and economic well-being.
2. Geographical overview of Myanmar
Myanmar, officially known as the Republic of the Union of Myanmar, is a diverse and
enchanting country located in Southeast Asia. Bordered by India and Bangladesh to the west,
China to the northeast, Laos to the east, and Thailand to the southeast, Myanmar has a
strategic geographical position in the region. It is also flanked by the Bay of Bengal and the
Andaman Sea to the southwest, making it a country with access to the sea (Banki, 2020).

2.1. Geographic Extent

Covering an area of approximately 676,578 square kilometers (261,228 square miles),
Myanmar is the largest country in mainland Southeast Asia. Its geographical extent stretches
from about 9° N to 28° N latitude and from 92° E to 101° E longitude (Zaw, 2017).

2.2. Diverse Landscapes

Myanmar's topography is characterized by a diverse range of landscapes, each contributing to
the country's unique natural beauty. It can be broadly categorized into three main regions
(Zaw, 2017):

Northern Mountain Ranges: The northern part of Myanmar is dominated by the Shan
Plateau and the eastern extension of the Himalayan mountain range. This region is
characterized by rugged mountains, deep valleys, and high plateaus, including the famous
Inle Lake and the Shan Hills.

Central Plains: The central region of Myanmar consists of fertile plains, most notably the
Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy) River Basin. The Ayeyarwady River, one of the country's most
important waterways, flows through this region and supports agricultural activities.

Southern Coastal Areas: The southern part of Myanmar features a coastline along the Bay
of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. This region is marked by coastal plains, mangrove forests,
and beautiful beaches, including the Mergui Archipelago.

2.3. Major Rivers

Myanmar is blessed with a network of rivers, many of which are crucial for transportation,
agriculture, and trade. The Ayeyarwady River, the country's lifeline, flows from north to
south and is navigable for a considerable distance. Other significant rivers include the
Chindwin River, Sittoung River, and Thanlwin (Salween) River.
2.4. Biodiversity and Natural Resources
Myanmar is renowned for its rich biodiversity and vast natural resources. Its forests harbor a
diverse range of flora and fauna, making it one of the world's biodiversity hotspots. The
country is home to various species of mammals, birds, reptiles, and plants, some of which are
endemic and endangered (Rao, 2013).

2.5. Climate
Myanmar experiences a diverse range of climates due to its geographical diversity. The
coastal regions have a tropical monsoon climate with high temperatures and heavy rainfall
during the rainy season. The central plains have a semi-tropical climate with distinct wet and
dry seasons. The northern mountainous regions, on the other hand, have a temperate climate
with cooler temperatures.

2.6. Cultural Heritage

Apart from its natural beauty, Myanmar boasts a rich cultural heritage with a blend of various
ethnic groups and traditions. The country's history is shaped by ancient civilizations,
including the Pyu, Mon, and Bamar (Burman) cultures. Temples, pagodas, and historical sites
scattered across the country reflect its vibrant cultural tapestry.

In conclusion, Myanmar's geographical overview showcases its diverse landscapes, ranging

from mountains and plateaus to plains and coastal areas. Its abundant natural resources,
extensive river systems, and cultural heritage make it a country of great significance and
allure in Southeast Asia.

3. Historical Land Use Practices in Myanmar

Myanmar's history is steeped in ancient civilizations that practiced various land use
techniques, shaping the country's landscapes and contributing to its rich cultural heritage.
Throughout the centuries, the land use practices in Myanmar have been closely tied to
agricultural activities, reflecting the country's predominantly agrarian economy. The
historical land use practices can be divided into several key periods:

3.1. Ancient Civilizations

The early inhabitants of Myanmar, dating back to the Pyu, Mon, and Bamar (Burman)
cultures, engaged in traditional subsistence farming. These ancient civilizations practiced
shifting cultivation, also known as slash-and-burn agriculture. They cleared small patches of
land, cultivated crops until the soil fertility depleted, and then moved to new areas, allowing
the abandoned land to regenerate.

3.2. Bagan Empire

During the Bagan Empire (9th to 13th century), one of Myanmar's most significant historical
periods, advanced agricultural practices were adopted. The Bagan kings constructed a vast
irrigation system, including canals and reservoirs, to support agricultural activities. This
irrigation infrastructure allowed for year-round cultivation and boosted agricultural
productivity.

3.3. Konbaung Dynasty

The Konbaung Dynasty (1752-1885) saw the expansion of rice cultivation, particularly in the
central plains of Myanmar. Rice became the staple crop and a major economic commodity,
leading to the development of rice paddies and terraced fields. The dynasty also encouraged
teak logging for timber, which had a profound impact on the country's forests.

3.4. British Colonial Period

During British colonial rule (1885-1948), land tenure systems were introduced, altering
traditional land use practices. The British implemented land ownership policies that resulted
in large-scale commercial agriculture, including rubber plantations, teak plantations, and rice
estates. This led to changes in land use patterns and the displacement of local communities.

3.5. Post-Independence Era

After gaining independence in 1948, Myanmar experienced various land reforms to address
land ownership issues. The government introduced land redistribution programs to provide
land to landless farmers and promote equitable land distribution. However, challenges and
controversies surrounding land tenure and resource allocation persisted.

3.6. Contemporary Land Use Practices

In modern times, land use practices in Myanmar have evolved due to demographic changes,
urbanization, and economic development. Traditional agricultural practices continue in rural
areas, while urban centers experience rapid expansion and urban sprawl. Additionally, the
demand for commercial crops, such as oil palm and rubber, has led to further land
conversions.
3.7. Environmental Challenges
The historical land use practices, combined with contemporary factors, have put pressure on
Myanmar's natural resources and ecosystems. Deforestation, habitat degradation, soil erosion,
and loss of biodiversity are some of the environmental challenges stemming from land use
changes.

In conclusion, Myanmar's historical land use practices have been deeply influenced by its
ancient civilizations and subsequent periods of development and change. While traditional
subsistence farming played a crucial role in early societies, modern agricultural practices and
economic demands have shaped the country's land use patterns. Understanding the historical
context of land use in Myanmar is essential for addressing current environmental and socio-
economic challenges and planning sustainable land management strategies for the future.

4. Importance of Land Use, Land Cover (LULC) Analysis for Sustainable Development
Land use and land cover (LULC) analysis play a crucial role in achieving sustainable
development goals by providing valuable insights into the dynamic relationship between
human activities and the environment. As the global population continues to grow and
urbanization expands, the pressure on natural resources and ecosystems intensifies.
Understanding LULC changes is vital for making informed decisions, ensuring
environmental conservation, and promoting equitable and resilient development. Here are
some key reasons highlighting the importance of LULC analysis for sustainable
development:

4.1. Resource Management and Allocation

LULC analysis helps identify areas suitable for various land uses, such as agriculture,
forestry, urban development, and conservation. By understanding land suitability and
availability, sustainable resource management practices can be implemented. It enables
efficient allocation of land resources, ensuring food security, water availability, and
ecosystem preservation.

4.2. Environmental Conservation and Biodiversity Protection

Effective LULC analysis enables the identification of critical ecosystems, habitats, and
biodiversity hotspots. Conservation efforts can be targeted to protect these valuable natural
areas from encroachment and degradation. Sustainable land management practices can help
preserve biodiversity, safeguard endangered species, and maintain ecosystem services.
4.3. Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation
LULC analysis plays a significant role in understanding the impact of land use changes on
greenhouse gas emissions and climate patterns. Sustainable land use practices, such as
afforestation, reforestation, and wetland conservation, can contribute to climate change
mitigation. Additionally, analyzing LULC changes helps identify vulnerable areas and plan
adaptation strategies for climate-related challenges.

4.4. Disaster Risk Reduction and Resilience

By analyzing LULC patterns, areas prone to natural disasters, such as floods, landslides, and
wildfires, can be identified. This information is essential for disaster risk reduction planning,
land-use zoning, and infrastructure development. Sustainable land use practices can enhance
community resilience to natural hazards.

4.5. Urban Planning and Smart Growth

In urban areas, LULC analysis is vital for effective urban planning and smart growth. It helps
identify suitable locations for infrastructure development, green spaces, and residential areas.
Integrating LULC data into urban planning can lead to sustainable and livable cities with
reduced environmental impacts.

4.6. Water Resources Management

Understanding LULC changes can aid in water resources management, such as watershed
protection and water quality improvement. By analyzing land cover types in catchment areas,
authorities can implement conservation measures to maintain healthy water ecosystems and
secure clean water supply.

4.7. Policy Formulation and Decision-Making

Governments and policymakers use LULC analysis to formulate evidence-based policies and
regulations. Data-driven decision-making ensures that land use practices align with
sustainable development goals, balance economic growth with environmental conservation,
and safeguard the rights of local communities.

4.8. Monitoring Land Use Transitions

Continuous monitoring of LULC changes using remote sensing and geospatial analysis
provides timely information on land use transitions. Regular assessments enable early
detection of unsustainable practices, land degradation, or encroachments on protected areas,
allowing for timely interventions.
In conclusion, LULC analysis is a powerful tool for promoting sustainable development and
environmental conservation. It provides critical information to guide land use planning,
resource management, and policy formulation. By understanding the impact of human
activities on the environment, decision-makers can work towards achieving a balanced and
sustainable future for current and future generations.

5. Materials and methods

The study area encompasses the entire territory of Myanmar, covering an area of
approximately 676,578 square kilometers. Multi-temporal satellite imageries for the years
2017 and 2022 were acquired from the sensors of Landsat 8 and sentinel 2 from the United
States Geological Survey (USGS) and ESRI land cover which are capable of offering a wide
range of mapping features that can be integrated into almost any kind of organization with
appropriate spatial and temporal resolutions. The imageries covered all major land cover
types, including forests, agricultural lands, wetlands, urban areas, and water bodies. For the
geospatial study, ArcGIS was employed. The Anderson land cover classification technique
was used to categorize the pixels in the satellite images into several land cover types for
LULC classification scheme (Anderson, 1976). Then, the changes were analyzed by
producing two maps (2017 and 2022).

6. Results
The maps for 2017 and 2022 were produced by covering 8 classes including water, cropland,
snow/ice land, tree cover, built area, flooded vegetation area, rangeland and bare ground. In
2017, the majority of Myanmar is covered in tree (69%). Other major land cover types
include cropland (16%), rangeland (11%) and built-up areas (2%). The remaining 2% of the
land is covered in other land cover types, such as snow/ice, water, bare ground and flooded
vegetation (Fig. 1).
 Figure 1. Land use, land cover (LULC) in Myanmar for 2017

The LULC map for 2022 shows that there have been some changes in land cover in
Myanmar since 2017 (Fig. 2). The most notable change is the increase in the area of
rangeland. Rangeland has increased by about 3% since 2017, while the area of forests has
decreased by about 4%. This suggests that there has been some deforestation in Myanmar in
recent years. Other changes in land cover include a slight increase in the area of urban areas
and a decrease in the area of shrub lands.
 Figure 2. Land use, land cover (LULC) in Myanmar for 2022

The changes in land cover in Myanmar are likely due to a number of factors,
including population growth, economic development, and climate change. Population growth
is putting pressure on land resources, as more people need land for housing, agriculture, and
other activities. Economic development is also leading to changes in land use, as more land is
being converted to industrial and commercial uses. Climate change is also a factor, as it is
causing changes in rainfall patterns and increasing the risk of droughts and floods.
The changes in land cover in Myanmar have implications for the country's
environment and economy. The loss of forests can lead to a number of problems, including
soil erosion, water pollution, and climate change. The increase in cropland can lead to
problems such as water scarcity and agricultural pollution. The growth of urban areas can
lead to problems such as air pollution and traffic congestion.
It is important to monitor changes in land cover in Myanmar and to develop policies
to manage these changes in a sustainable way. These policies should aim to protect forests,
conserve water resources, and promote sustainable agriculture.
6.1. Bare ground change

Figure 3. Bare ground changes in Myanmar from 2017 to 2022

The graph in figure 3 shows the percentage of bare ground in Myanmar from 2017 to 2022.
This represents no increase over the five-year period. But during the five year period, there is
a slightly decrease in bare ground occurred in 2018, 2019 and 2020 with 0.2% (Fig. 3). The
rate of increase in bare ground has slowed since then, but it is still a cause for concern.
Changes in bare ground cover can contribute to soil erosion, reduced land
productivity, and increased susceptibility to desertification. As bare soil is exposed to wind
and water, erosion rates can rise, leading to loss of fertile topsoil and decreased agricultural
potential. Additionally, increased bare ground cover can disrupt local hydrological cycles,
negatively affecting water infiltration and retention, further amplifying soil degradation.
These impacts can have cascading effects on ecosystems, agriculture, and water resources,
posing challenges for sustainable land management.
6.2. Built area change

Figure 4. Built area changes in Myanmar from 2017 to 2022.

Figure 4 presents a hexagonal graph that depicts the percentage change in Myanmar's
constructed area between 2017 and 2022. The graph shows that the built area in Myanmar
steadily with 2%. There is no change of built area in Myanmar over the five year period (Fig.
4). But in the future, there will be increasing of built area in Myanmar with a number of
factors such as economic growth, urbanization, and population growth. However, it is
important to carefully consider the environmental and economic implications of this trend
before making any decisions about how to manage it for the future.
6.3. Cropland change

Figure 5. Crop land changes in Myanmar from 2017 to 2022.

A line graph representing the proportion of farmland changes in Myanmar from 2017 to 2022
is shown in Figure 5. The graph shows that the percentage of cropland in Myanmar was 16%
in 2017 and remained at 16% in 2022. There is a 1% increase in 2018 and then steady with
17% to 2021. This represents some changes with 1% over the five-year period. The slightly
decrease in cropland occurred between 2021 and 2022, when the percentage of cropland
decreased by 1% (Fig. 5). The rate of decrease in cropland has a slightly change between
2017 and 2022.
Losses of cropland cover can lead to food security challenges, as reduced agricultural
area may diminish the capacity to meet growing population demands. This can result in
higher dependency on imports and increased food prices. Additionally, decreased cropland
can exacerbate rural livelihood vulnerability, impacting farmers' incomes and livelihoods.
Soil degradation and loss of ecosystem services due to land conversion can further
compromise agricultural productivity and the resilience of local communities.
6.4. Flooded vegetation change

Figure 6. Flooded vegetation changes in Myanmar from 2017 to 2022.

In figure 6, a hexagonal graph depicts the percentage change in Myanmar's flooded

vegetation from 2017 to 2022. There is only flooded vegetation cover change in 2020 with
0.5%. The years of 2017, 2018, 2019, 2021 and 2022 are steady with 0.6% (Fig. 6). The rate
of decrease in flooded vegetation has slowed since then, but some factors should be
considered as concern.
The decline in flooded vegetation in Myanmar might be caused by a variety of
reasons. Deforestation, climate change, and increased agricultural production are a few of
them. More severe weather events like droughts and floods are being brought on by climate
change, and these occurrences can harm flooded plants. Due to trees' role in controlling water
levels and preventing flooding, deforestation is another significant factor in the decline in
vegetation that has been inundated. A contributing cause is the increase of agriculture, since
land clearing for crops and cattle can limit the amount of flooded vegetation.
Some environmental and financial issues may arise as a result of the decline in
flooded vegetation. Flooded vegetation is crucial for controlling water levels, avoiding
floods, and preserving wildlife habitat. These issues, which may negatively affect the
environment and the economy, may result from the loss of flooded vegetation.
6.5. Rangeland change

Figure 7. Rangeland changes in Myanmar from 2017 to 2022.

Figure 7 shows a graph that represents the percentage of rangeland changes in Myanmar from
2017 to 2022. The graph shows that the percentage of rangeland in Myanmar decreased from
11% in 2017 to 14% in 2022. This represents an increase of 3% over the five-year period.
The largest increase in rangeland occurred between 2017 and 2021, when the percentage of
rangeland increased by 7% (Fig. 7). The rate of increase in rangeland has declined since
2021.
The results of increased rangeland cover include enhanced forage availability for
livestock and potential carbon sequestration benefits. However, negative outcomes can
encompass biodiversity decline due to habitat alteration, increased soil erosion, and potential
conflicts with native ecosystems. Proper management is crucial to harness the benefits while
mitigating adverse impacts of expanded rangeland cover.
The loss of rangeland is a significant issue since it can result in a variety of
environmental and economic issues. A fall in biodiversity may result from the loss of
rangeland, which serves as a home for a variety of species. The loss of rangeland can result in
water shortages since it is crucial to the water cycle.
6.6. Snow/Ice cover change

Figure 8. Snow/Ice cover changes in Myanmar from 2017 to 2022.

The image in figure 8 sent shows a graph that represents the percentage of snow/ice cover
changes in Myanmar from 2017 to 2022. There is no change of snow/ice cover in 2017 and
2022 but there is a slightly increase in 2018 and 2019 with 0.1%. The largest decrease in
snow/ice cover occurred between 2017 and 2022, when the percentage of snow/ice cover
decreased by 0.1% (Fig. 8). Since then, the pace of loss of snow and ice cover has reduced,
but it is still of concern.
In Myanmar, the amount of snow and ice cover may be declining due to a variety of
circumstances. There are several of these, such as agricultural development, deforestation,
and climate change. The Earth's temperature is rising as a result of climate change, melting
snow and ice. As trees assist to control the Earth's temperature and prevent snow and ice from
melting, deforestation is a significant factor in the decline in snow and ice cover. Agriculture
is expanding, and this might affect the quantity of snow and ice that is there since farmers’
clear land for crops and cattle.
A lot of environmental and economic issues may arise as a result of the declining
snow and ice cover, which is a major issue. Water shortages may result from the removal of
snow and ice since they are vital components of the water cycle. A deterioration in
biodiversity may result from the removal of snow and ice, which also provide as habitat for a
variety of creatures.

6.7. Tree cover change

Figure 9. Tree cover changes in Myanmar from 2017 to 2022.

The picture in figure 9 that was supplied is a hexagonal graph showing the percentage
changes in Myanmar's tree cover from 2017 to 2022. The graph shows that the percentage of
tree cover in Myanmar decreased from 69% in 2017 to 65% in 2022. This represents a
decrease of 4% over the five-year period. The largest decrease in tree cover occurred between
2017 and 2021, when the percentage of tree cover decreased by 8% (Fig. 9). There are a
number of factors that could be contributing to the decrease in tree cover in Myanmar. These
include deforestation, agricultural expansion, and climate change.
Losses of tree cover result in decreased habitat for wildlife, reduced carbon
sequestration potential, and heightened vulnerability to soil erosion. The removal of trees
disrupts intricate ecosystems, impacting species diversity and ecological balance.
Additionally, deforestation contributes to climate change by releasing stored carbon into the
atmosphere and can lead to downstream effects like degraded water quality and altered
weather patterns.

Since it may lead to a number of environmental and economic problems, the loss of
tree cover is a serious problem. Therefore, trees should be conserved with a systematic plan
as they provide a number of benefits, including:

(a) Air quality: Trees help to clean the air by absorbing pollutants.
(b) Water quality: Trees help to improve water quality by filtering runoff and preventing
erosion.
(c) Biodiversity: Trees provide habitat for a variety of wildlife.
(d) Climate change: Trees help to mitigate climate change by absorbing carbon dioxide.

The loss of tree cover can lead to a number of problems, including:

(a) Air pollution: The loss of trees can lead to increased air pollution, which can have a
negative impact on human health.
(b) Water pollution: The loss of trees can lead to increased water pollution, which can
have a negative impact on aquatic ecosystems.
(c) Biodiversity loss: The loss of trees can lead to the loss of wildlife habitat, which can
have a negative impact on biodiversity.
(d) Climate change: The loss of trees can exacerbate climate change, as trees help to
mitigate climate change by absorbing carbon dioxide.
6.8. Water surface change

Figure 10. Water surface changes in Myanmar from 2017 to 2022.

The hexagonal graph in figure 10 shows the percentage change in Myanmar's water surface
from 2017 to 2022. There is no change of water surface in Myanmar over the five year
period. It is steady with 2% covering the whole country but it is still concerned with some
factors that can contribute to the decrease of water surface in Myanmar for the future.
These factors include climate change, deforestation, and agricultural expansion.
Climate change is causing the Earth's temperature to rise, which is leading to more
evaporation and less precipitation. Deforestation is also a major contributor to the decrease in
water surface, as trees help to regulate the Earth's temperature and prevent evaporation.
Agricultural expansion is also a factor, as farmers’ clear land for crops and livestock, which
can reduce the amount of water that is available.
A lot of environmental and economic problems may result from the decrease in water
surface, making it a major issue. Life depends on water, and its absence may cause famines,
droughts, and water shortages. Water is also crucial for agriculture, and its loss can result in
failed crops and a scarcity of food.
7. Discussion and conclusion
The land cover changes in Myanmar from 2017 to 2022 are a cause for concern. The country
has lost a significant amount of tree cover. These losses can have a number of negative
consequences for the environment and the economy. The loss of tree cover can lead to a
number of problems, including increased air pollution, decreased water quality, loss of
biodiversity and acceleration of climate change.
Moreover, increased rangeland cover beyond sustainable levels can lead to
biodiversity loss, soil degradation, and reduced ecosystem services. Overgrazing and
expansion of rangelands can disrupt native habitats, decrease plant diversity, and contribute
to soil erosion and compaction. This can further compromise water quality, carbon
sequestration, and the overall resilience of ecosystems, impacting both environmental health
and human livelihoods.
These are just some of the potential consequences of the land cover changes in
Myanmar. It is important to monitor these changes and to take steps to address them. The
land cover changes in Myanmar are a serious problem. These changes are caused by a
number of factors, including deforestation, agricultural expansion, and climate change. The
consequences of these changes can be far-reaching, and it is important to take steps to address
them. Therefore, some steps should be considered to address the problem of land cover
change such as planting trees, promoting sustainable agriculture, and developing climate
change adaptation measures. However, more needs to be done to prevent further losses of
forest cover and to adjust rangeland cover.
The international community can also play a role in helping Myanmar to address the
problem of land cover change. This includes providing financial assistance, technical
expertise, and capacity building. By working together, we can help to protect the environment
and the economy of Myanmar.
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