SUSTAINABLE TOURISM Desert Ecosystems

Are located in regions that can receive an

annual rainfall less than 25 inches. They can
CHAPTER 3 TOURISM IMPACTS TO
occupy 17% of land in the planet and has
ENVIRONMENT
extreme temperature.
INTRODUCTION
Grasslands
The environment is one of the three dimensions
Are located in the tropical and temperate
of tourism.
regions. The main plants are grasses, plants and
As a tourism resource, the environment affects legumes that belong to the composite family. A
the quality of tourism experiences. lot of grazing animals inhabit the grasslands

Uncontrolled or unmanaged tourism Mountain ecosystems

development could lead to adverse impacts.
Provide diverse habitats for large number of
While tourism is relatively a clean industry, animals and plants.
tourism can cause significant environmental
Aquatic Ecosystems
damage when developed in attractive but
fragile environments. Marine Ecosystems

Ultimately, the industry has the potential to Covers about 71% of the earth's surface and
destroy itself by being oblivious to the 97% of the planets water.
environmental damage being caused by
Freshwater ecosystems
tourism,
Covers only 0.8% of the Earth's surface and
Sustainable tourism could enhance, conserve
contain 0.009% of the total water. Three basic
and rejuvenate the environment
kinds of freshwater lentic, lotic and wetlands.

THE CONCEPT OF ENVIRONMENT

- Since tourism could exist in most of these
The scope of the environment covers the ecosystems, ecosystems are also prone to
following aspects (Swarbrooke 1999) tourism induced impacts.

 Natural Environment - Ecosystems are interlinked; impacts on one

 Wildlife will be felt in the others
 Farms
- The environment plays a significant role in the
 Built Environment
tourism industry. Several tourism forms and
 Natural Resources
activities are nature related.
 Weather/Climate
 Natural Phenomena

2 major types of ecosystems Causes and Impacts of tourism

Terrestrial Ecosystems  The impact may be caused by :
 Tourist behavior
- These include desert, grasslands and mountain
 Construction
ecosystems
 The quality of infrastructure
Aquatic Ecosystems  dynamics between tourism supply and
demand
- They can either be marine or freshwater
 design of facilities and infrastructure
Terrestrial Ecosystems  Violation of tourism development
guidelines
Forest Ecosystems  Ineffective law enforcement
These are ecosystems in which there is an
abundance of flora and fauna in relatively small
space, or where the density of living organism is
quite high
Negative Impacts of Tourism on the This can be a public health hazard and also a
Environment wildlife threat.

Land Degration

Land Degration can be defined as the Noise Pollution. Includes roadway noise and
"temporary or permanent lowering of the aircraft noise. In tourism, noise pollution came
productive capacity of land. from transportation and in hotels it came from
the generator and air-conditioning.
It covers soil degradation, adverse human
impacts on water resources, deforestation, and This can also be a health hazard because it can
lowering the productive capacity of the land. lead to temporary hearing loss and also animals
might flee from their natural habitat

Visual Pollution. Is the temporary loss of visual

How can tourism contribute to land
appeal which is caused by billboards and
degradation
overhead power lines, trash and litter.
 Through urban sprawl caused by
Water Pollution. Is caused by discharging waste
migration to tourism centers.
water rom commercial sources into the water
 Commercial development of areas
surface.
adjacent to tourist attraction
 Uncontrolled migration CLIMATE CHANGE
 Over drafting
According to the UNEP, tourism is linked to
Causes climate change as many aspects of the industry
are accompanied by heavy carbon foot print.
Over drafting. Which ground water is extracted
beyond the equilibrium yield of the aquifer With increased leisure activity, tourism industry
will be contributing more to global greenhouse
Build -up of non- biodegradable trash, such as
gas emissions. Tourism is the 5th biggest
plastic bottles; loss of biodiversity through
contributor of carbon emissions.
overhunting.
WATER STRESS
Migration of caused by human intervention
Tourism contributes to natural resource
Wastes
depletion. It is caused by tourism- generated
Many times, this is due to careless behavior or pollution, unregulated tourism development,
utter disregard for the environment. and population growth during tourism high
seasons
Sometimes this is due to lack of facilities and
trash bins in parks, campsites, beach resorts, HABITAT FRAGMENTATION
and other areas frequented by tourist
Habitat fragmentation is frequently caused by
1. Biodegradable. humans, when native vegetation is cleared for
2. Solid waste. They turn to litter the purpose of human activities, this can result
3. Construction and demolition waste to:

Pollution Tourism- related impacts on coral reefs are

significant, but they are also compounded by
Air Pollution. Is caused by the release of the other impacts.
chemicals and particulates in the air. Tourism
contributes to the production of greenhouse Tourism impacts to the coral reefs
gasses (GHG) through exhaust from cars, buses,
Physical damage can be caused by:
and airplanes caused by tourist.
 Snorkeling and scuba diving
Example:
 Fishing
A single trans- Atlantic return flight emits the  Tourist using sunscreen
equivalent amount of carbon dioxide (730kg)  Resort development
produced by a household yearly in a country  Waste disposal
like Vietnam.  Souvenir

- Light pollution is the excessive, misdirected, or

obstructive artificial light. Light pollution from
tourism is caused by strong lights from airports,
seaports, hotels and entertainment.
Beach Encroachment and crowding Cultures affected by tourism development

This is an impact that is now observed in Cultural and heritage: artifacts, monuments,
Boracay, beach setbacks are now getting groups of building, and sites that have a
smaller and smaller due to the increase of symbolic, historic, artistic, aesthetic,
buildings in the area ethnological and anthropological and social
significance
Positive Impacts of Tourism on the Environment
Cultural landscapes, which have combined
 Environmental Quality and
natural and human works to express a long and
Infrastructure
intimate relationships between people and
 Tourism has the potential to improve
natural environment
quality in many ways.
 Tourism can provide developed land for Natural heritage: geological and physiographical
commercial ways formations and designated areas that constitute
the habit of threatened animal and plant
species that have values for science,
SPECIES GENERATION conservation or natural beauty

Infrastruction built for travel and tourism could Performance and celebration which include all
actually be designed to enhance or create expressions of live cultural events, such as
habitats for animals. theater, dance, opera, festivals, feast, fairs and
musical performances.

Visual arts such as paintings, drawings,

TOURISM IMPACTS ON CULTURE AND SOCIETY sculpture, crafts and photography as well as art
What is culture? galleries

A set of distinctive spiritual, material, Crafts or artisanal products, which have

intellectual and emotional features of society or utilitarian, aesthetic, artistic, creative, culturally
a social group, that encompasses, not only art attached, decorative, functional, traditional,
and literature, but lifestyles, ways of living religiously and socially symbolic and significance
together, value systems, traditions and beliefs.

INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE

Potential impacts of culture on the economic Practices, representations, expressions,
and social development of countries knowledge, skills- as well as the instruments,
Cultural assets can support sustainable local objects, artifacts, and cultural spaces associated
development, through their economic impact as therewith- that communities, groups and, some
cultural industries and their contribution to cases, individuals recognized as a part of their
social and cultural revitalization cultural heritage

Culture offers opportunities for various sectors

to participate in activities that contribute to What makes IHC Unique?
gender equality, self-esteem and social
awareness.  When a community recognize it as part
of their heritage.
 IHC manifest itself across all cultural
6 domains of the Tangible cultural heritage domains.
category  Serves as Identification

 Cultural and Natural Heritage Tourism plays a part in practically all stages of
 Performance and Celebration cultural cycle which are:
 Visual Arts and Crafts Creation; the originating and authoring of ideas
 Books and Press and content
 Audio- visual and interactive media
 Design and creative services Production; the reproducible cultural forms, as
well as the specialized tools, infrastructure, and
processes used in their realization.
Dissemination: the bringing of generally mass- EMPOWERMENT
produced cultural products to consumer and
Tourism can empower formerly disenfranchise
exhibitors.
stakeholders, such as the poor, women and
Exhibition/reception/transmission; Place of indigenous people.
consumption and to the provision of live and/or
Tourism can create demand for goods provided
unmediated cultural experiences to audiences
minimal training.
by granting or selling access to consume/
participate Negative Impacts of Tourism on Culture and
Society
Consumption/ participate; the activities of
audiences and participants in consuming Stunted Cultural Development
cultural products and taking part in cultural
activities and experience Tourism can cause native cultures to die
through:
Positive impacts of tourism on culture and
society Acculturation. The process of group and
individual changes in culture and behavior that
EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING OF RESIDENTS result from intercultural contact.
Tourism contributes to the emotional well- Commodification. Transforming something into
being of the residents. Residents develop an a product for commercial purposes, an item to
increase sense of emotional well- being when be bought and sold in the market
they are able to when they are able to meet
tourist from many countries in order to learn Homogenization. One in which the shared
more about culture meanings are similar and little variation in
beliefs exist; that is, the culture has one
Cultural Preservation dominant way of thinking and acting
Tourism also keep: Cultures are also diffused through
Demonstration effect
Tourism also keep culture alive by preserving
art forms, maintaining cultural identity and Commodification
transmitting beliefs and rituals to the next
generation. Commodification or commercialization is the
process where cultural elements are presented
Revitalize traditional arts and crafts. for the mass consumption of tourists.
Promotes understanding through cultural In most cases, the reinterpretation of culture is
exchange and friendships between residences. done by outsiders, such as tourists or tour
operators. These outsiders can take the liberty
Education
of choosing which part of local culture to
Travel experiences broaden our understanding showcase, based on their biases, understanding
of ourselves and of others. and aesthetic sense.

According to UNESCO, tourism plays a key part Moral decadence

of the process of building mutual understanding
The presence of the outsiders has been linked
and awareness of culture
to increase incidence of:
Better Quality of Life
o Prostitution
Tourism helps improve the quality of life in o crime
destinations when services are provided. o drug abuse
o alcoholism
Improvement in community life can be bought
by: Displacement

 Education Social Displacement is another unwanted

 Potable drinking water effects of tourism.
 sports facilities
Outside investors buy prime property from the
 cellular phone networks
locals, sometimes, they have to relocate
 electricity because they sold their land to investors
 Infrastructure
 entertainment
 shopping facilities
Community Stress Both the doxye's Irritation Index (Irridex) and
Butler's Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC) modle
Tourism creates inconvenience and stress due
suggest that people's perception of tourism
to crowding and congestion
impacts deteriorate with time.
When tourist comes in droves, the results are:

o Loss of access to public areas

o Traffic
o competition for parking

Tourism can also affect sociocultural

characteristics such as:

o Habits
o daily routines
o social lives
o beliefs
o values

Dependence

- Many tour operators fund humanitarian

projects and schools as part of their corporate
social responsibility

- Third world countries tend to rely on tours for

income generation and development, which
creates cyclical dependency on foreign cash
flow and mobilization,

Social division

- Migrants to tourist destinations are targets of

ill feelings by residents because they take away
jobs from locals

- The outcome is a stronger polarization among

the social classes.

Determinants of socio cultural impacts

Whether tourism produces positive or negative

outcomes is determined by host of factors.
These factors include:

o Balance between people's perceive Cultural affinity

benefits and cost It can be assumed that cultural affinity in
o cultural distance/ affinity between language, customs and religion between
tourist and locals Malaysians and Indonesians will result in
o The stage in the tourism product life smooth interaction but will produce minimal
cycle cultural impact between these two groups.
o place attachment
o social carrying capacity The larger the cultural difference, the further
the cultural difference between 2 people the
Perceive benefits and cost larger the impact and will have cultural
With respect to the perceive balance of benefits influence on each other
and costs, studies show that local people will Place attachment
tolerate the downside effects if they recognize
tourism's broader community benefits. This William and Lawson identified heavy tourism
tendency is known as the altruistic surplus concentration, length of residency in the
principle. community, and being native- born as being
associated to negative attitudes to tourism.
They also found economic dependence and individually or in small groups and demand
nearness of one's home to tourist center western style amenities.
tended to encourage positive attitudes to
Mass Tourist. They are large groups of middle
tourism.
class travelers who visit popular sites and also
Smith and Krannich found that the degree of demand western style amenities.
tourism dependence affects one's perception of
Charter Tourist. They arrive in large groups,
tourism impacts.
generating a large volume of business but often
Tourism saturated communities has a negative demanding impersonal and standardized
view on tourism service. The impact on the local region is great.
In order to accommodate these large numbers,
tour operators must often offer name tags and
Tourism realized communities enjoy the little to one to one interaction with visitors and
benefits of tourism but fear to become tourism locals.
saturated
- The ratio of tourist to residents also affects
Tourism hungry communities have a low level social interaction, the bigger the ration, the
of tourism development and desire to become greater the pressure exerted on the host
tourism realized community.

Social Carrying capacity

Another factor that affects the quality and

intensity of cultural impact is the type of tourist
that regularly visit the destination.

Eric Cohen divided tourist into 2:

Institutionalized. They experience the least

cultural immersion, most of them demand
western facilities due to the lack of time and
space.

Non- Institutionalized. Are people who are

Tourism Impacts on the Economy
adventurers and eat, sleep and live like local
people Direct, Indirect and Dynamic Impacts

Meanwhile Valene Smith classified travelers According to the United Kingdom overseas
into: Development Institute (2007), tourism
contributes to the economy along along 3
Explorers. These are participants- observers
pathways. For the World and Travel and
who travel alone or in very small groups. They
Tourism, tourism also produces induced effects.
do not require special tourist accommodations
or attractions and therefore offer little to threat DIRECT EFFECTS
to the local residents
Are produced when tourist spend for such as
Elite Travelers. They can afford to spend much commodities as accommodation,
to have unusual travel experiences. There are transportation, entertainment, and attractions.
only a few number of them. They demand some
Visitor exports. Refer to spending by
degree of comfort
international tourists in a country. Such
Off- Beat Tourist. They travel alone or in very spending is called an export because the tourist
small number. They avoid crowds, other tourist, are from another country and they spend on
and typical sightseeing. They adapt well to local local goods.
lifestyles and amenities and pose few problems
INDIRECT CONTRIBUTION
to local residents
This comes in the form in investments in
Unusual Tourist. They demand more amenities
tourism, government spending in tourism, and
and also look for unusual, adventurous or
the effects of purchase from suppliers
primitive experiences.
Induced effects are the collective spending by
Incipient Mass Tourist. They represent business
direct and indirect employees on food and
and vacation travelers. They usually travel
beverage, recreation, clothing, housing and
household goods.
DYNAMIC EFFECTS 9.8% of the world’s GDP in 2014
equivalent to $7.6 Trillion.
Refers to the long term macro- level effects
o Travel and Tourism employs nearly 277
such as general enhancement of skills within
million or 1 in 11 jobs in the planet.
the economy, provision of better social services
o Travel and Tourism also generates $1.4
and infrastructure.
trillion in visitor spending, $ 3.6 trillion
According to ODI's research, direct effects in in domestic spending, $814 billion in
terms of formal- sector jobs can range from capital investments in 2014.
10% to 80% of income of poor people. o The sector is growing at 3.6% per year,
faster than the wider economy in 2014.
As far as indirect effects are concerned, ODI
discovered that they tend to be the biggest TOURISM AND THE PHILIPPINE ECONOMY
where the linkages are strongest, such as in big
According to the Philippine tourism Satellite
rich diversified economies. Hummel in ODI
Account, as measure by the shared of tourism
(2007) outlined key findings from value chain
direct gross value added (TDGVA) to the gross
Analysis study:
domestic product.
o Revenues of semi- skilled and unskilled
7.8% - Contribution of tourism in the economy
workers constitute 27% of total tourist
was estimated in 2014
expenditure
o Up to half earnings of the poor come 32.6% - Contribution of the accommodation
from the food supply chain. services
o Income from craft is important in
15.3% - Contribution of tourism goods
minority groups
o Aside from the supply chain, most 15.2% - Contribution of transportation
benefits from tourism are concentrated
around capital cities, such as Luang 4.8 M - Employment generated by tourism
Prabang, Laos, the area of his study. 12.5% - Of the local employment
Multiplier effect refers to the number of times BENEFICIAL IMPACTS OF TOURISM ON THE
tourism income is re spent across sector within ECONOMY
the local economy. The higher the multiplier
effect, the bigger the impact on the local EMPLOYMENT
economy. Tourism generate jobs, with the most optimistic
Indirect effects boost the economic impact of estimate being one job created for every tourist
tourism by 50% to 90% in small, poor countries. received by the country. There are several jobs
Linkages have important poverty reducing available in the tourism industry.
potential such as food and craft industries, Employment is generated throughout the
Tourism Satellite Accounts tourism value chain (suppliers needed inputs for
tourism operations)
Measuring the economic contribution of
tourism is difficult because national accounting TAXES AND FEES
systems do not readily reflect the value of How does the government earn from Tourist?
tourism's share in the economy. There are several sources of tourism related
Tourism satellite accounts extract from national revenues for the government. These includes:
accounts the share of tourism from the o NSO fees
different sectors of the economy. By doing it so, o Passport fees
it permits the measurement of direct economic o Travel Tax
impact of tourism by the Gross Domestic o Documentation fee for travel tax
Product and other indicators, such as jobs, o airport terminal fee
investments and export earnings, as such, it o brgy, clearance fee
enables comparison with other economic o permit fees
sectors listed in the national accounts.
LIVELIHOOD GENERATION
Tourism and the Global Economy
Tourism provides economic opportunities for
o According to the World Travel and other industries.
Tourism Council, travel and tourism's
total contribution to world GDP was
Tourism can provide small businesses an o Human resources
opportunity to have an income and have a good o Seasonality
quality of life.
ECONOMIC DIVERSIFICATION
In the studies of economic impact of tourism in
 The size of the multiplier effect from
India, it was found out that micro enterprises,
tourism spending s dependent on how
homestead farmers, and sole traders have all
much money is retained in the host
benefited from becoming involved in the
economy.
tourism supply chain.
 The retention is determined whether
HOMETOWN’S SHARE OF TOURISM INCOME the inputs for tourism operations can
be procured within that economy
Tourism's economic impact is not restricted to
 A well- Diversified economy will be
the destination alone.
better able to provide such inputs,
Thetourists' places of origin and transit routes, compared to one that is
which include areas such as pit stops by underdeveloped or totally dependent
travelers, take sizeable chunk of travel and on tourism.
tourism related expenditure.  It follows that developed economies
will have a higher multiple from tourism
NEGATIVE IMPACT OF TOURISM ECONOMY expenditure because the money is
LEACKAGES retained longer and circulate more
times.
Leakages also happens when there is very loose  Underdeveloped economies will lose
or non- existent linkage in the tourist value much of the initial amount of income
chain. through leakages.
Tourist look for products and services that STRENGHT OF FORWARD AND BACKWARD
cannot be sourced locally LINKAGES
POOR QUALITY JOBS Another factor is the presence of organizers or
Tourism creates jobs, but some jobs suffer from tour operators that integrate all the tourism
low wages, unpaid overtime pay, lack of supplies into a tour. Without such entities, the
security, seasonality and discriminations, arrangement for travel, stay, and tours will have
to be done by the tourists themselves.
These are tolerated by the government because
of the high unemployment rate. These deters some travelers, and therefore the
revenue which could have been earned from
PRICE INCREASE the tour could not materialize.
Tourists represent additional demand for goods SEASONALITY
and services available in a destination.
Seasonality determines the extent of the
When tourist come too suddenly, the local enomic impact. All things being equal,
economy is not able to respond by augmenting destination which is open all year round stands
the supply of goods and services, this creates a to earn more money than which is open for just
situation of shortage which can result to price a few months.
increase.
 Seasonality is dictated by:
OPPORTUNITY COST  Climate
 School Openings
Another dark side to tourism is that investing in
 Vacation times
tourism development requires billions of pesos
 Occasions
for infrastructure alone, such as airports, roads
and terminals HUMAN RESOURCE
DETERMINANTS OF ECONOMIC IMPACTS The quality of human resource has a certain
effect on employment potential.
The extent and intensity of tourism's impact on
the economy hinge on a number of factors. The host destination can gain a lot in terms of
According to Messerli the factors that affect the all levels of impacts if the employees hired for
impact of tourism in the economy are: tourism are locals.
o Economic diversification
o Strength of backward and forward
linkages
CHAPTER 6 TOURISM IMPACT ASSESTMENT

Tourism development entails change. These 9. protected area laws

changes could be positive or negative, short 10. indigenous people's rights
term or permanent 11. gender and development provisions
12. Minimum wage laws
It is important that tourism planners and
13. Labor laws
developers are able to anticipate the likely
14. Environmental laws
impact of tourism in a designated area.
15. Tourism Policy acts
To do this, they would have to be equipped 16. Critical Habitat areas
with analytical frameworks for assessing 17. buffer zones
tourism impacts and be knowledgeable of the
TOURISM IMPACT ASSESTMENT TOOL
indicators that can be used as signpost for such
impacts The Triple bottom line approach (TBL) is one of
the main systems being used by businesses to
The Process of TOURISM IMPACT ASSESTMENT
assess the profits they are making through their
(TIA) entails reviewing and evaluating the
corporate sustainability solutions. The Triple
impact of tourism related activities on the
Bottom Line method asks you to see beyond
environment, culture and society
the traditional bottom line of business to the
IMPORTANCE OF TOURISM IMPACT profits that your business makes socially,
ASSESTMENT environmentally, and economically. Measuring
your business using the Triple Bottom Line is
Tourism Impact assessment is important for a one of the best markers of how sustainable
number of reasons: your business is, and how profitable it really is.
It forces planners and developers to foresee It incorporates the 3 Ps:
what could possible go wrong and take
precautions to prevent such unfortunate 1. Planet
consequences from happening. 2. People
3. Profit
2. It compels the parties involved in tourism
development to participate in consultive Tourism Carrying Capacity Assessment (TCCA) is
process to iron out kinks prior to the actual used to identify and implement limits to the
implementation of the project. number of visitors to specific destinations or
attractions.
3. By assessing potential impacts, planners and
developers would be able to identify actions Its limitation lies in the difficulty in quantifying
that could prevent or mitigate impacts capacities due to factors such as technology and
the type of tourist that come to a destination. If
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN TOURISM IMPACT the tourist are flexible, experienced and quality
ASSESTMENT conscious the carrying capacity value fluctuates
At the conceptualization stage of a tourism according to a destination's development,
project, it is imperative to consider several growth, and seasonality and acceptance levels.
factors. Failure to do so may result in: According to INS keep (1994) noted that the
 Legal suits maximum carrying capacity for a certain
 Financial loss destination will also vary depending on the
 Image problems intended use:

These factors include the following: Lunberg (2011) enumerated the various types
of carrying capacity assessments
1. Constitution and existing laws
2. Land use plans and spatial planning  Physical CC. Determines the level of
3. zoning laws, zones of tourism value physical impacts that are acceptable at
4. Regulations on tourism investment, a destination, which may be tangible
tourism enterprise zones, and tourism resources or just environmental
enterprise capacity, namely how many people that
5. Building codes (permits, standards for can be at the destination without
various types of structures) affecting the quality
6. Business registration requirements  Perceptual CC. Looks at the situation
7. Requirement for public consultation from the tourists point of view, related
8. Foreign equity laws to the quality of the destination
  Social or Sociocultural CC. The number  and activities required for a means of
of tourists above which the social and living
cultural changes caused by tourism are
It also analyzes and tourism impact on
no longer accepted by the destination’s
livelihood to cope with and recover stresses and
residents
shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities and
 Economic CC. The destinations
assets, while preserving the natural resource
possibility to cater for demand without
base.
crowding out other local economic
activities. PHILIPPINE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
 Political or Administrative CC. ASSESSMENT (EIA)
Concerned on how the local, political
and administrative bodies can cope Process that involves predicting and evaluating
with tourism and to what extent it is the likely impacts of a project on the
needed to put limits on tourism inflow environment during construction,
commissioning, operation and abandonment. It
The European Tourism Indicator System is an also includes designing appropriate,
assessment tool for: appropriate, preventive, and mitigating and
enhancement measures addressing these
 Monitoring
consequences to protect the environment and
 Managing
the community welfare.
 Enhancing tourism destination
sustainably

The system is comprised of a set of indicators, a

toolkit, and a data set. It is an instrument that
can be used by any destination without the
need for any specific training

the system consist of 27 core and 40 optional

indicators, which can be adopted on a voluntary
basis and utilized or integrated in whole or in
part into existing monitoring systems.

Boston Consulting Group (BGC) has developed

Sustainable Economic development Assessment
(SEDA), an approach which measures how well
the country is able to translate income into
overall well- being of its population. SEDA uses
a composite index made up of 10 dimensions of
social and economic development.

SEDA produces two numerical measures of

progress:

Wealth to wellbeing Coefficient (WWC).

Compares a country's current level of
development against the level of development
that would be expected given its GDP per
capital

Growth to wellbeing coefficient (GWC).

Compares a country's 5 year GDP growth to
improvements in wellbeing during the same
period.

Sustainable Livelihood Approach (SLA) analyzes

the impact of tourism development on a
community in terms of its contribution to

 building capabilities,
 assets (natural, economic, human,
social capital),